ttt i OE ie det irene: =? To 4 ad ALA NAR as abet (Aa rum Megas A Wp ancinahabagnh Lbidhsibalebpepad-+ip i ~ wath etry Venat © Gh ar panebny merry part “at whe a f bt od “0 mn wan Poy tend at, oo ei ele INI ey Sesame OEM IP HOHE HS Hate or , obo qth tate deg pen a oe a ee N w mM) y 7 . rer ones it bytictn OR “ele Wad od gee tins Le liny ahaa Kalo. fi pte hed nn le Dek atigaciietod» 4 +5 9 Bet ede! a <> Rehan VO Lere edited Bale dg ig Fnitetnnty eth Pete ia wiped eta t Fete ih HARVARD UNIVERSITY Ce LIBRARY MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY 636K LZ xc HAW & E- PAPERS & PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRO AL SOCIEEY OF TASMANIA. FOR THE YEARS 1903-1905. (ISSUED MARCH, 1906.) @asmania : PRINTED BY DAVIES BROTHERS LIMITED, MACQUARIE STREET HOBART. 1906. The responsibility of the Statements and Opinions given in the following Papers and Discussions rests with the individual Authors; the Society as a body merely places them on record. ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANTA. 0535 00———_ Patron: HIS MAJESTY THE KING. President : HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, K.C.M.G., COUNT DELLA CATENA. Dice- Presidents; , BR. M. JOHNSTON, ESQ, I.8.0., F.S.8. COLONEL W. V. LEGGE, R.A. THOMAS STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S. A. G. WEBSTER, ESQ. Council : * HON. G. H. BUTLER, M.R.C.S.E., M.L.C. * HIS LORDSHIP THE BISHOP OF TASMANIA. * R. M. JOHNSTON, ESQ,, I.8.0., F.S.S. * COL. W. V. LEGGE, R.A. HON. SIR ELLIOTT LEWIS, K.C.M.G. G. E. MOORE, M.H.A. BERNARD SHAW, LS.0., ESQ. PROF. NEIL SMITH, M.A. GREGORY SPROTT, M.D. T. STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S. RUSSELL YOUNG, ESQ. A. G. WEBSTER, ESQ. Hon. Photographer: J. W. BEATTIE. Secretary and Librarian: ALEXANDER MORTON. “ Members who next retire in rotation. t | Heys fi Stitt. outs AONHECOD Nee 2OveRMOR Fy AK CAL Aid a bili Natstet ONE OA sia TAG | ash | Madan Gne aa a « BB ORE es KORA ae a ‘AD. ARDS boc 80h MAT he (ORT Hea eM ol } Lae: Viatid wettest ahiee nea b begts eet: mst 4 * Ma LOO ts tae ERE Hes hehe : Halim ws aes . ’ , i ; J ye i Lili a TY Te Chi ta ks VP sae OF Bir ee ORG) ED. Stay ae ue att ani SIMARD BC) Trt her Kee ‘ate Rdg ALF “ a mi ns PA A: hh taal nied, taf ACLs Ate Rae sap Ay tt eke MP otras "9 ‘ .% rah eay 'S i . it GOOT, Had De BEA Pty TLS "a ‘a | ‘AEM NOM, 7 " F AIC eA haeaab WAH CHAM te ae ni i (ELV PROS 4A rRows vg 0 Se) EO SRR PR a oat, .) Pe DuvsoF ie mask: & arias M Sud gnigatadss holy APUT ARH AEG WASTAGE “OH yinlye, Be. NOI TGA RR lie Tinea : tai) ALN » ) erie t " / e is ~~ = 7 ¥ ‘ 7 CA iL} un , ; ie. a) - - i i, ra rs } Lay . Po us uy ; : * ory i Ay, bi Beit ay hae ey ip yee ee Wee i viedt LES aia a amsrateaae Royal Society of Casmania, Hobart, Casmania. Sfrose persons who are incfined fo benefit thre Society by Lleqacies aie recommended To adopt the following ¢ Form of Request. J qive ano bequeath unto the + Royal Society of Sasmmania ” the st of ¥ such feqacay fo be paid oul of such part of my personal estate, not specifically bequeathed as the farw permits fo be appropriated by wilt Lo such co pYrepore. gite ee. aa J (ia : it Ps r a ; ie Ar ‘ Faas ot Se a Re Gt mi s : ; > ay pa: eet ech eat at i it sy (ml ir A, os teed a -ciclhgn ana, “yi Sod emalip alan Cente pcagial ’ ee, He Py ete kee retire teil ety bd ah Carag’. oma rep twill gehen tae OF een et gs ’ i ws [ay Smo AE CS Reeth camera ae et 33 as Git oe toy ne Sy a < Se > “ee an : 3 ra . ry Rel re ND coo ie Sat 4 ages Bh a ; ae Fe see alee Lae on? wel: : tre 2 Restored tad ; Pie LFS Ae 7 ¢ 4 ea % = Bk ae ee se a, ASME AG Aa, . ; x PES e. Mya es ana ie ; Ras ee ye } v < } - ¢ a -” ~ é > . - ine Ih Rime Br thee fake Were Ee are 6oe Ohee sy f eed i : ‘ ’ ¥ 3 + ¥ ¥ . — a rezes yy: ara ~ , urs gre 8 >= Ye . pte so} vase Ppa Xi a 4 * o j ¢ ? . Vee. . Py. > b ¥ 4 peRE eee es ie tae is ae: LA eee eee aie ue # Fe ae ei "fs oe Stoyal Society of Fasmania. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, APRIL, 1903. OPENING MEETING OF THE 1903 SESSION. The members of the Royal Society of Tasmania held their opening meeting of the 1905 session on Tuesday evening, the 14th April, the President, His Excellency Sir A. E. Havelock,. G.C.8S.1., G.C.M.G., presiding. His Excellency was accom- _ panied by Lady Havelock, C.I., Captain Sheppard, R.A., Private Secretary, and Lady Havelock’s brother, Mr. W. E. Nor- ris. There was a large attendance of members and friends present, including His Lordship the Bishop of Tasmania and Mrs. Mercer, Mr. J. H. Barber, af Ceylon, who was a judicial officer there during the time that Sir Arthur Havelock was Governor; Sir Jno. Dodds, and the Rt. Rev. Dr. Delany, Bishop of Laranda. On arrival, Lady Havelock was presented with a handsome bouquet (with the Have- lock colours), as was also Mrs. Mercer. Correspondence. The Secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) the following letters :— “Cullenswood House, Cullenswood, 7th April, 1908. Dear Sir,—I much regret, that owing to my having to be present at the opening of the St. Mary’s produce show on Wednesday, the 15th inst., in my capacity as president, I shall not be able to come to the opening meeting of the So- ciety. I desire again to tender my thanks, as a member of Council, to His Excellency for the keen interest he has taken in the work of our Society, and to express the hope that His Excellency may see his way to continue that interest dur- ing the coming session. I would like to call attention to the very valuable acqui- sition to the Museum of the handsome and instructive series of coloured plates of Japanese fishes. They add consiter- ably to the educational value of the insti- tution, and will be especially interesting to visitors from the neighbouring States. I may mention that Mr. H. C. Kingsmill, Meteorological Observer, and myself made a trip in March to the Great Lake. The result of our work will, I trust, add considerably to our knowledge of the physiography of Tasmania. We took ex- haustive soundings of the Lake, and mea- sured. the inflow of the streams at the north end, we were there during two heavy falls of rain, and were enabled to observe the very large supply of water coming in from the ranges round Dry’s Bluff. This supply is constantly. renew- ed owing to the wet climate at the north end, the rainfall being three end a half read times what it is at the south end.’— I am, etc. (Signed) W. V. LEGGE, Mem- ber of the Council). Letters from Sir Adye Douglas, Mr. R. M. Johnston, the Hon. N. J. Brown, Mr. Russell Young, and the Hon. Dr. Butler, regretting, that, owing to their absence from Hobart, they were unable to attend, were read. THE ANNUAL ADDRESS. His Excellency then delivered the fol- lowing opening address :— Vice-presidents and Fellows of the Royal Society,—For the second time there devolves upon me the honourable and agreeable duty of presiding at the first meeting of the annual session of the Royal Society of Tasmania. On this occasion, as on that of the opening of the session of last year, the Council have decided that our formal proceedings shall be short, and that our meeting this evening sha]] take the pleasant form of a social reception, ra- ther than the more serious : haracter of a scientific conference. The agreeable recol- lection of last year’s first meeting will, I am confident, reconcile you ‘o this pro- gramme. Review of Last Session I think it fitting that I should pass in re- view, and I will do this as briefly as pos- sible, the work of the session of 1902. The Charter of the Royal Society lays down as its leading objects the investigation of the physieal character of Tasmania, an1 the illustration of its natural history and productions. The records of the sociecy show that a wide interpretation has been given to this enactment. One of my pre- decessors, when opening the session of 1887, in commenting on the extent of the range of the subjects dealt with by -ie so- ciety, remarked that its operations aad investigations had covered so vast an area as to include such diverse subjects as tne occultation of Jupiter and the Drainage of Hobart. The same distinguished, pre- sident, when addressing the society, for the last time, in 1892, spoke as follows: — “The attention which is now being given on all sides to social and economic sub- jects has left its mark upon the work of cur society for 1892; and the papers upon such subjects, and the discussions arising upon them, form a marked feature in this year’s proceedings. While on the one hand, I myself should be very sorry to see the Royal Society ofTasmania so far depart from the original intention cf its founders as to develop into more or less of a debating sociely on social and eco- nomic subjects, on the other, to exclude a discussion of such subjects, from a sci- entific standpoint, would, in my view, be the greatest mistake this society could make.” my humble opinion, this is as it should be. I believe the general views of the Council of the society on this point are in accord with mine; and the prac- tice of the society, from its earliest days, has given proof of its acceptance of those views. Our proceedings during the session of 1902 give a conspicuous example of this comprehensive scope of the operations of our society. PAPERS. We find that while in the 22 papers presented to us, matters of more strictly scientific interest, such as Geo- logy, Mineralogy, Astronomy, Bocany, Ichthyology, Conchology, and Entomology, were brought before us and discussed, sub- jects of a more practical business charac- ter, such as the capacity of Tasmania as a manufacturing centre, the comparative yalue of its timbers, the preservation of forests, and drainage and sewerage, receiv- ed a large measure of attention The paper which was read before us on the advan- fages possessed by Tasmania for manu- facturing industries brought into promi- nence and _é suggestive notice our vast available water power. The papers presented to us on Tasmanian timbers illustrated and emphasised the value and vastness of our yet imperfectly worked reserves of: timber. The papers on forestry which have been put before ws, and the discussions upon them, have contributed much expert knowledge on the subject, and also propo- sals of considerable practical importance for the organisation and working of a sys- tem of preservation and renewal of our forests. Our treatment of the pressing matter of drainage and sewerage has, I feel sure, helped to spread much informa- tion, and to remove many misconceptions on the subject. Under the heads I have mentioned the society has planted and nurtured a tree of knowledge, which has, we may flatter ourselves, already borne fruit, and which I am fain to believe will yet yield still richer crops. On the more specially scientific side of its work, the so- ciety has added considerably to its al- ready rich stores of intelligent research. I think we may regard with satisfaction the results of the session of 1902. KINDRED SOCIETIES. The early part of the last year was made memorable by the holding in Tasmania of the ninth meeting of the Australasian As- sociation for the Advancement of Science, and by a session of the Australasian Medi- cal Congress. These great scientific bodies il are allied in respect of aim and of method with our Royal Society. Their proceed- ings and achievements, followed by the busy and prolific programme of the Royal Society itself, made of the year 1902 a veritable jubilee of scientific festivity—l might almost say an orgy of science, The year 1903 may fall short of its predecessor in brilliant and striking events, but I feel sure it will not fail to leave a record of much work of interest, of value, and of usefulness. Varied and copious as have been the contributions to research of the society, during its life of sixty years, so inexhaustible is the scope of physical and natural science, in its multiform branches that there is no visible end to the task of its investigation and study. OBITUARY. During the past year, death has, to our deep regret, removed Mr. Mault, a mem- ber of our council—an accomplished mar and an earnest worker of the society. Mr. Mault’s piace on the council has been fill- ed by the appointment of the Bishop of Tasmania. TASMANIAN MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. At the opening meeting of the sessional year, the recent additions to the Museum and Art Gallery were declared open. And thus the commodious room in which we are now met has become available for the purposes of the Royal Society, and for the reception of its valuable library. These advantages are, I believe, much esteemed by the members of the society. One of our vice-presidents, Hon. Nicholas J. Brown, the speech which he made in welcoming me as President of the society, called at- tention to the desirability, in the anticipa- tion that Tasmania is destined to become an important manufacturing and distri- buting centre for Australia, of the organi- sation and equipment of a Technological Museum. I am happy ‘to be able to ob- serve that a beginning has been made to- wards the establishment of such a museum. (teneral Remarks, The operations of our Fisheries Commis- sion cannot fail to be of great interest to the Royal Society. Mr. A. G. Webster, one of our vice-presidents, who is also President of the Fisheries Board, returned last December from a visit to Europe and America, bringing with him nearly 500,000 ova of the American Quinnat sal- mon, the gift of the United States Fisheries Commission. It is gratifying to know ‘that this shipment of ova has been successful—nearly 400,000 young fry hav- ing been liberated, An honour has been conferred on the Royal Society by the Executive Council of the Australasian Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, in their selection of Colonel Legge and Mr. Twelvetrees, two members of the Royal Society, to be presi- dents, respectively, of the Biological and Geological sections of the Association, whose next meeting will be held at Dune- din in January, 1904. The munificent gift by Mr. Carnegie of the sum of £7,500 for the purposes of a Free Public Library in the city of Ho- bart, cannot fail to be a matter of interest and of rejoicing to the Royal Society. The choice of a site for the librarv is a sub- ject of anxious consideration. We all trust that an early decision will be made, and that the building of the new library will then be at once taken in hand. CENTENARY OF TASMANIA. On the 12th September, 1803, the first settlement of our Island State was planted by Lieutenant Bowen, of the Royal Navy. On the 14th October, 1848, the Royal So- ciety came into being, under the auspices of the then Governor, Sir J. EH. Eardley- Wilmot. Thus, during the present year, the centennial jubilee of Tasmania and the diamond jubilee of the Royal Society will all but synchronise. The hundred years of Tasmania’s life have seen her people grow into a healthy and vigorous com- munity, showing perhaps a less rapid rise and achieving perhaps a less brilliant posi- tion than her neighbours, but attaining a happy and healthy state of social and in- dustrial development. I believe that the Royal Society, working with the com- munity at large, along ‘parallel and sound lines of progress, has contributed in no small degree to this propitious end. May Tasmania and her Royal Society ever con- tinue to co-operate in the promotion of the welfare and enlightenment of the people of this favoured land. DISCUSSION. Mr. T. Stephens said he had prepared a small paper on a purely business subject, but the circumstances of the evening im- pelled him to ask His Excellency to ex- cuse him from reading it on that occasion. The Bishop of Tasmania said that his pleasant duty would commend itself to all present. It was to propose a vote of lil thanks to His Excellency for his presence and the address that had been delivered. He wished to felicitate the Society upon having His Excellency as president, as they had reason to be proud of the real interest Sir Arthur Havelock took in the Society. t was gratifying to think that Tasmania possessed such a Society. Their library was, indeed, a magnificent on». He desired to return thanks for having been elected a member of the Council, and he would do his best in the interests of the Society. With regard to the scope of the Society, if it was to be tied down to its original charter, the membership would be smallindeed. It was, therefore, essen- tial to give a wide interpretation to the charter. It was his opinion that they should be liberal in their interpreta- tion of the terms of the charter. One of the objects of the Society should be to ad- vance the interests of Tasmania. In Tas- mania there was everything that nature could endow the State with, and still there was only a handful of people here. He hoped that in the study of social and economic questions, consideration would also be given to the development of Tas- mania. Bishop Delany seconded the motion. He was delighted to hear such encouraging words as Bishop Mercer had used, and of his desire to. make the island gressive. When he first came to Tasmania, he had been siruck with the need of more progress’ being made, but in response to all inquiries on the subject, he was simply told “it could not be done.” (Laughter.) How- ever, he hoped that the time had now ar- rived when the State would progress, and the removal of inter-State barriers would surely conduce to that end. He thanked His Excellency for the address delivered, and hoped he would dong take an interest in the Society. The motion was carried by acclamation. On the motion of Mr. A. G. Webster, a hearty vote of welcome was accorded Mr. W. E. Norris and Mr. J. H. Barber. His Excellency returned thanks for the kind vote that had been accorded him. Light refreshments were then served in the trophy room, which was nicely fitted up for the occasion, a suite having been lent for the purpose by Messrs. T. White- sides and Son. The other rooms of the Museum and Art Gallery were also lighted up during the evening. iv ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY, 1908. The monthly evening meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania was held in the evening of the 12th May, 1903. The presi- dent, His Excellency Sir Arthur EH. Have- lock, G.C.S.I., presided. Apologies. The following telegram from Senator Macfarlane was read:—‘‘Launceston. Kindly express to your meeting co-night my regret engagement here prevents my presence to hear and discuss such import- ant paper as Tasmania’s manufacturing developments.” Sir Eliott Lewis and Mr. R. C. Patterson also sent apologies. Election of New Fellows. The following new members were eleci- ed Fellows of the Society: The Right Rev. Dr. Delany (Bishop of Laranda), Drs. A. J.J. Triado and E. J. Roberts, and Mr. A. G. K. Money. Royal Medals. The President read a letter from Lord Francis Knollys, Private Secretary to His Majesty the King, announcing that His Majesty had been pleased to present to the Royal Society a medal which was struck in commemoration of the Corona- tion. The medal was inspected by the members of the society. Also a medal com- memorating the vist of Mr. Chamberlain to South Africa, presented by Mr. A. But- terfield, jeweller. Exhibits. On the table was an interesting speci- men of slickenside ore, from South Lyell mine; also some of the fish referred to in the secretary’s notes. Papers. A geological excursion to Port Cygnet in connection with the Australasian As- sociation for the Advancement of Science, 1902. By W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.S. The author describes the visit of mem- bers of section C (geology) of the A.A.A.S. to Port Cygnet in January, 1902. The spe- cial object of the excursion was to examine the elzeolite syenite, tinguaite, and allied rocks of the alkali division, which have aroused interest in geological circles in Australia. The rocks occur as a zone traversing the country near Lovett in a N.E.—S.W. direction, and emerging on the shores of d’Entrecasteaux Channel at Oyster Cove. They are broken through by the mesozoic diabase, which is prolonged southwards from Mount Wellington, and in their turn they intrude into sedimen- tary strata of Permo-carboniferouws age. Their probable age is the close of the Permo-Carboniferous. At the regatta ground, Port Cygnet, a projecting head- land was found to consist of eleolite and alkali syenite, with dark differentiated margins of jacupirangite, essexite, and nephelinite. These marginal varieties are not separated from the main mass of syenite, but are produced by imperceptible variations, the result of differentiation of the magma. As affording illustrations of differentiation, the Port Cygnet area is destined to become classic. A type collec- tion of the rocks was forwarded to the great German master in petrology, Pro- fessor H. Rosenbusch, who has furnished, with his usual kindness, valuable identifi- cations of the rarer varieties. The por- phyries of Mount Livingstone were recog- nised by him as elgeolite syenite porphyry, and the basic differentiation products of the eleolitic magma of the regatta ground received from him their proper diagnoses, though he confesses that some of the varieties do not exacily correspond with any of the alkali rocks known to him. The presence of hauyne or nosean in the Mount Livingstone elgolite syenite porphyry is confirmed. In the mica sdlvsbergite south of the regatta ground Professor Rosen- busch detected a mineral of the pyroch- lore group, and he suggests that the sand of creeks flowing over the jacupirangite syenite at Regatta Point be examined for the interesting mineral, baddeleyite (dioxide of zirconium). These intrusive rocks carry pyrites, and along the lines of their contact with the sedimentary strata some silification has taken place. Some of the contact stone assays 5oz. to 6oz. of silver, and from idwt. to 2dwt. or edwt, gold per tan. The district has yieldes about 3,00007z. alluvial gold, most of which was won on the small flats near Lyming- ton. The variations which distinguish the Port Cygnet rocks from alkali rocks elsewhere may be appealed to in illustra- tion of the theory of petrological pro- vinces. Possibly new names may be re- quired for some of them. The study of the group is not complete, but at present the author arranges it as follows:— Family i.—Alkali Granite: not repre- sented. Family 2.—Alkali Syenite: Quartz augite Syenite. Alkali Syenite. Family 3.—Eleolite Syenite: Elsolite Syenite, Eleeolite syenite porphyry. Mica silvsbergits. Siélvsbergite porphyry. ‘Tin- guaite porphyry. Jacupirangixe, Family 4.—Hssexite: Essexite. Family 5.—Theralite: Mica-nephelinite. Family 6.—Ijolite: not represented. To complete the enumeration of alkali rocks in Tasmania, occurrences in other parts of the island are given, viz.:— Family 4.—HEssexite: (a) Trachydolerite at Table Cape and Circular Head; (b) Melilite basalt on Shannon Tier, Sandy Bay, and near Rokeby; (c) Limburgite near Burnie. Family 5.—Theralite: Shannon Tier. The author favours two primary divi- sions of eruptive rocks, viz., one compris- ing granites, syenites, diorite, gabbro, and the ultra basics, All these at times blend with each other, and give birth to pas- gage rocks between them. The other divi- sion consists of the alkali rocks. The lat- ser, though not so abundant as the for- mer, show a great aptitude for differen- tiation in the alkaline msgma, hence nu- merous variations from type forms and increasing additions to the nomenclature. The Tasmanian occurrences are conse- quently of distinct interest. Mr. &. M. Johnston explained the fea- tures and great importance of the paper to the mining and geological world. Nephelinite on TASMANIA FROM A MANUFACTUR- ING AND IMMIGRATION POINT OF VIEW, AND HER NATURAL ADVANTAGES. (A: O. Green.) When we read of twenty thousand im- migrants arriving in the north-west of Canada in a single month, it seems hard to acount for Bose:; How Ellis Dean, M.L.C.; and Mr. Percy Ash. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. “DUTIES OF LEISURE.” His Excellency the Governor delivered the following presidential address : — Mr. Chairman, Members of the Coun- cil, and Fellows of the Royal Society,— The honour of addressing this Society es its president ex-officio is, at the same time, amongst the most pleasant and the most arduous of the duties devolving on the Governor of this State; it has been for- cibly brought to my notice that the Royal Society of Tasmania is the senior Royal Society established in the Southern Hemi- sphere, and the vigour with which the point has been pressed has tempted me to examine if this be a mere coincidence, or the result of some relation of Cause and Effect. One of the reasons that suggests itself at once is, that the exception- ally healthy climate of this beautiful is- land produces a high average of bodily and mental vigour, and that opportunities for industrial prosperity have made the struggle to live much easier in Tasmania than elsewhere in the Southern continent. Where the struggle to live is less severe, the fruits of realised labour become secure at an early stage of colonisation, and a leisured class arises which may devote its spare time and energy to divers pursuits other than the quest of riches. The geo- graphical position of Tasmania, well out of the tropics, has allowed our people to escape the fate of others in fertile sub- tropical lands on both sides of the world, where life has become too easy, and the “dolee far niente’ has dragged down communities full of promise to nothing better than a sybaritic existence. Accident has also favoured Tasmania in adopting a lofty view of the opportunities of leisure —_the presence here, at the dawn of our social life, of that eminent pioneer of mo- dern scientific research, Sir John Frank- xli lin, perhaps contributed more than any other cause to induce men in whom brains, leisure, and eduéation were combined, not to keep their opportunities and talents hid. den “under a bushel.’ The example of Sir John Frank- lin has led Tasmanians to _ seek, bv scientific investigation, how to extract from mother earth, from the sky, and from the waters around us, ever- increasing returns of comfort, security, and enjoyment for present and future generations. Insularity is also an im- portant factor in the early utilisation of leisure for a good purpose; History, the best analyser of human nature, indicates that islanders hiave, as a rule, been in- tensely devoted to the land of their birth. As a consequence of being circum- scribed, islanders are more ready to be resourceful, and therefore to investigate. In the early history of the world’s civili- sation (as nowadays in the Pacific Islands, cr in Central Africa) there was no leisure, no capital, no-cultivation of science, hbe- eause individuals in primitive communi- ties have to woik so hard to live from hand to mouth that they cannot pause to investigate the causes of things. Leisure is not always reproduciive; in fact, it is usually an incentive to waste; neverthe- less, it will appear on refiection that without leisure the cultivation of science is impossible, and it is well that the man devoted to science as well as the humbl- est worker should realise this fact. The man who works with his hans dees not always grasp the assistance given to him by the man who works with his brains, and whose board and lodging is provided from previous acvumulations of the re- sults of manual labour. On the other hand, the man of scierve is inclined to be stoical, and the word ‘‘Leisure’’ on first reaching his ears often arouses his scorn raither than gratitude for that very leiswre which is tne immediate cause of his being at all possidle. It is only with- in recent history that any other perman- ent investment besides land has been called into existence. Before this period landowners were the only class able bo give some attention to science. The monks who lived in the great medieval monasteries may be regarded as a com- munity of land-owning bachelors; but the individual monks, who occasionally cultivated profane learning, ran risks of being misunderstwod, if they were either too assiduous or tco suezersful; in fact, the blunders of tne Inquisition offered but poor encouragement to those who, for instance, proved that the Sun does not go round the world. If anyone in Tasmania still believcs the word is flat, the Royal Society will, at the worst, hesi- tate to invite him to read a paper. It is remarkable that Literature, Poetry, and Art were raised to a high standard bv the leisured classes during centuries in which natural sciences were neglected; it might be expected that medicine would have commanded in early history all the attention that cowld be concentrated on it by wealth, and the anxiety to prolong life; nevertiheless, medicine was not treat- ed scientificaily, but by rule of thumb, and the sysvem of trial and error up to our own times. The discovery of the art of printing did not do much for natural sciences, until science had made printing commercially successful, and wmntil text books were brought within reach of the many. A great factor in modern pro- gress has been the development of ac- curacy in the mechanical arts. This has placed instruments of precision for weigh- ing, testing, and measuring in the hands of many investigators, and we should not be slow to recognise that the medieval monks were without these advantages, and without easy access to books of refer. ence. Modern clubs have been likened to the monasteries of the Middle Ages, but the parallel is not on ‘‘all fours,” because club men are not always bachelors, nor do they generally profess to devote *heir leisure to taat sc:entific investigation which is the bond of union among the members of these Royal Societies in Tas- mania and in other parts of the Empire. To these free, molern associations is com- mitted, for future ages, the pursuit and development of reproductive le sure, in the same way that the staving off of ignorance and confusion was a function for which the monasteries deserved credit in the dark ages. The “Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge’ is an ‘association of men interested in the advancement of mathematical and physi- cal culture.’ It is the oldest in Europe, and was founded in 1660. . The Royal Society of Tasmania. The Roval Society of Tasmania was founded in 1843, and its lead- ing objects are “to investigate the physical character of the island and to illustrate its natural h'story and pro- ductions.” The offi.ial designation adopt- ed in 1844 is “The Royal Society of Van Diamen’s Land for Horticulture, Botany, and the advancement of Science.” A hundred years ago a Society such as this would have been impossible in Tasmania. Five hundred years ago (and five hundred years is but a short period in the life of a nation) it was ‘hardly possible in Eng Jand. A thousand years ago, outside the monasteries, men of leisure and ability seldom knew how to read or write; the x li best of them, instead of cultivating science, devoted their energies to ‘“‘the Crusades,” the ‘Feudal Wars,” and the “Chase.” As civilisation progressed the building of castles and churches attract- ed the attention of the leisured classes. Later on the cultivation of the arts found an increasing number of patrons, but Poets, Painters, and Sculptors cannot en- joy the leisure necessary to pursue their art unless there pre-exists a class of men, - combining weath and leisure, prepared to patronise them. The evolution of the power of leisure, traceable in the social history of Hngland, is but a reproduction of the same development of human op- portunities in the prosperous period of ancient Greece and Rome, not to mention the more ancient gqivilisaticn of Egypt, Assyria, India, and China. But the pur- suit of pure science was rarely under- taken in ancient times by men of leisure. There is perhaps an exception in the well-known work of ‘‘Euclid,’” who ap- pears to have been an Alexandrian Greek. His work bears internal evidence that it was compiled as a feat of intellectual gymnastics rather than for any practical purpose. Many serious thinkers in class- ical times were distracted from giving at- tention to natural sciences by a fash‘on- able craving for metaphysical speculations and for philosophical discussions, which included abstract politics. Under these conditions the progress of the world was slow and intermittent, but under modern conditions, when leisure is so largely de- voted to science, the progress of the world has become rapid and continuous. And as abstract politics have been mentioned, we may pause to reflect that by politics the Greeks meant the art of administering municipal affairs. Cities, with a fringe of country, were the political units of the age, and they were occasionally federated together. Politics, both theoretical and practical, have always offered an opening for the energy of the leisured classes, this, to my mind, is quite as praise- worthy as the pursuit of natural science, but not so productive of material pros- perity for the masses of the people. Travel and exploration offered a splendid field for the energy of men of leisure, from the first journey of the Prodigal Son to the present day; now, however, it may be said that the discovery of the tantalising North and South Poles barely furnishes sufficient excitement for organ- ised expeditions in this range of intellec- tual adventure. But there still remains an apparently inexhaustible field for the reproductive employment of leisure—not- withstanding all that has been heretofore discovered therein, in the objects which this Royal Society has in view, viz., the study of nature; this is before us as fresh as éver, its vastness does not fade with familiarity, the more we learn of nature the better we realise our comparative ignorance, and appreciate the number and the importance of new ways to useful knowledge that are still untrodden. Tas- mania affords exceptional opportunities to the geologist, and I here venture t@ ex- press pleasurable astonishment at the monumental work on the geology of Tas- mania, compiled by Mr. Robert Macken- zie Johnston. When we realise that an officer of this State, in his important position, has found time — I can hardly call it leisure—to cultivate the science of geology with such original genius, and to: place practical results on record for the benefit of others in an attractive form, we verily have before us an eloquent ap- peal to all men with brains and leisure t) rise up and try to do likewise. I may remind you that the work done in 1904 by this Society in- cluded the following papers: — “In- sects and Diseases,’ by Dr. .J. S. C. Elkington; ‘‘Observations regarding some Economic Aspects of the Eisenbach Social Equality Programme,’ by R. M. Johnston, 1.8.0., F.S.S.; ‘Reservation of Crown Lands at Schouten and Freycinet Peninsula for the Preservation of Native Fauna and Flora,” by Mr. J. F. Mather ; “Notes on Japan,’ bv Dr. Hocken; ‘‘The Establishment of a Federal Meteorologi- cal Department,” by H. C. Kingsmill, M.A.: ‘‘Notes on Some Stone Knives of the Tasmanian Aboriginals,” by Colonel) Legge, R.A.; ‘Notes on the Discovery of Two Tasmanian Aboriginal Waddies at the Brown March,” by Alex. Morton ; ‘‘Kisenbach Social Equality ‘Theory,’ by C. B. Target; ‘““Notes on the Aboriginal Dancing Boards in Western Australia,” by W. D. Campbell. One evening dur- ing the session was devoted to entertain- ing His Royal Highness Duc d’ Abruzzi, Commander of H.I.4¥i.S. Liguria, and officers. A large number of Tasmanian views were shown by Mr, J. W. Beattie. Two or three evenings were taken up in discussing Mr. R. M. Johnston’s paper and Mr. H. C. Kingsmill’s paper. I have been asked to suggest some line of inquiry for which Tasmania appears to offer exceptional opportunities. As faras I can gather, no generally ac- cepted theory has yet been formulated to explain mechanically how gold and other precious metals came to be where they are found, and as su many different metais are found in Tasmania, it may be possible to arrive inductively at their genesis, and if a more satisfactory theory than that these metals came from below as gas can be propounded, it may be of practical importance in following known indica- tions of gold, or, so to speak, arguing down, from surface. The re-opening cf xliv abandoned mines will be encouraged, if confidence can be increased in the potentialities for deep workings. The sys- tematical exploration of tne crust of the earth also deserves better attention; bor- ing by the heavy steam-driven diamond drill is most important, so much so that here and elsewhere it has received State assistance; but I earnestly trust that the use of the diamond drill is in its infancy, and that its scope can be greatly extend- ed, e.g., by driving it electrically, or by diminishing the cost and weight of the machine, or by simplifying it so as to bring it more within the possibilities of handling it by unskilled labour. In conclusion, I may be allowed to express satisfaction at the in- terest shown by the ladies of Tas- mania in natural science. Although there are many other occupations generally requiring their attention, there is no rea- son why women endowed with scientific tastes should not be encouraged in devot- ing their leisure to research. In recent times a discoverer of radium has been a lady, and it may be mentioned that traces of this precious substance are re- ported in Australia. But for the fair daughters of Eve to devote their leisure to science is — and probably should be — an exception rather than the rule. In fact, the nrst instance recorded of misap- plication of leisure is when Eve, wasted with an apple and a serpent, precious op- portunities which will never recur. The ladies of Tasmania are, therefore, to be specially congratulated on the facilities nowadays offered by the Royal Society to employ their leisure otherwise. As to the apple, the men of Tasmania are protected from a repetition of that temptation by the phenomenal abundance of this beauti ful fruit; in fact, Tasmania is out-rival. ling Eve by offering apples of irresistible beauty, in and out of season, to the old Adams of the older world. The right to enjoy leisure involves corresponding duties; and active membership of this Royal Society is one of the duties of lei- sure which I venture to extol. His Excellency was loudly applauded at the conclusion of his paper. The Right Rev. Dr. Mercer, Bishop of Tasmania, said he could not well conceive a more appropriate bring- ing together of interesting matters than was contained in_ the_ excel- lent address they had just listened to. It implied a careful looking into their lives, and seeing whether they employed their leisure as they should do or not, and went on to make some excellent sug- gestions on the employment of leisure. He remembered reading of the leisure ob- tained by the Greek race of old. No doubt their marvellous works of Art and Poetry generally were evidences of a lei- sured class. But how was it brought into existerce P It flourished, as had been pointedly expressed, “on the dung-hill of slavery.” No doubt there must still be a leisured class if there was to be progress in Science, Art, and Literature. To make everybody perform a certain amount of work of a manual or kindred character every day would result in retro- gression rather than progression. No doubt progress was largely dependent on the existence of a leisured class, and he was thankful to say that there were good evidences of a leisured class in Tasmania —a leisured class of a right kind —and that it was growing. (Applause.) He was sure His Excellency would agree with him that there were two kinds of leisured classes — those who spent their time in idleness, and the putting away of time, and a leisured class who em- ployed their time and talents in self-cul- ture, and to the general progress of the race. It was leisure of the latter kind that they had in view that evening. Not for one moment would he lose sight of the fact that they must also have leisure for amusements, pure and simple, as “all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” That applied to all of us, from children up to dry-as-dust professors, who some- times became so immersed in their studies that when they met their fellow-citizens they had forgotten what they were like. He happened one day to be in conversa- tion with Lord Kelvin, who asked him, “What kind of logarithms do you see?”’— mentioning two very abstruse ones. He (the Bishop) did not use either, as he was not a mathematician. But men who be- came so severely immersed in their studies would talk thus, just as some of them would say, “‘Have you seen such and such a paragraph in ‘The Mercury’ this morn- ing?’”? This led him to say that he hoped the Royal Society would take up work and subjects of a more extended character, and as to which His Excellency had that evening set a good example. (Applause.) He (the speaker) was particularly anxious that the society should appeal to a larger number of people than in the past. If they confined themselves to purely scien- tific subjects, even though. it included geology and botany, two of the most fas- cinating of scientific subjects, they ap- pealed to too severe and narrow a circle, whereas if they now and then—he would not say always—had papers read of a general character, such as would interest a larger circle of people, he could not help thinking that it would be for the good of the society as well as for that of the community. We in Tasmania were too small a community to support as fully as might otherwise be the case a society that limited itself to rather stiff subjects. Whilst he said that, however, he by no Means meant that there was no place for scientific papers—most emphatically there was a place for them, and the publication of them in the records of the proceedings ot the Society constituted a valuable State asset—but occasionally such subjects of more general interest, such as His Excel- lency had so ably handled that evening, were caiculated to interest a larger circle of people, and to further the aims of the Society. (Applause.) He felt a keen in- terest in the Society and its welfare, and that it might do an increasingly large amount of “good in the community was his sole object in making these sugges- xlv tions. (Applause.) He now heartily and cordially moved that the thanks of that large and representative gathering be ac- corded to the President, His Excellency, for his thoughtful and stimulating presi- dential address. (Warm applause. ) Mr. Bernard Shaw seconded the motion, which was passed with acclamation. His Excellency thanked all present for the kind way in which they had passed the resolution. After the meeting, light refreshments were served in the large rooms of the Museum, the Art Gallery and other rooms being lighted. A very pleasant reunion of members and friends resulted. xlvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY, 1905. The monthly meeting of the Royal So- ciety of Tasmania was held at the Mu- seum on Tuesday, May 16. The president, His Excellency Sir Gerald Strickland, G.C.M.G., occupied the chair, and was accompanied by Lady Hdeline Strickland and suite. There was a good attendance, including Right Reverend Dr. Mercer, Bishop of Tasmania, the Bishop of Laranda, Sir Adye Douglas, Sir Elliott Lewis, and several visitors, who were introduced. Election. The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the society:—Captain de Hoghton, R.N., Alderman George Kerr (Mayor of Hobart), Mr. W. S. Dawson, A.M.I.C.E, (ngineer-in-Chief Metropoli- tan Drainage Board), Dr. Kendall, Messrs. John Dowbiggan Foster, Henry Marcellus Nicholls, Lomas Smith, and L. H. Mac- leod. Notes on Tasmanian Minerals. In the absence of the author, Mr. W. F. Petterd, Mr. A. Morton read his paper on “Tasmanian Minerals.” In his introduc- tory observations, Mr. Petterd wrote:— “The present contribution to the mineral- ogy of this State is of somewhat unusual interest, inasmuch as it describes for the first time an apparently new compound. which, although of no commercial value, is of some scientific interest. It is, in its way, a humble congener of the more im- posing crocoicite, for the occurrence of which in such magnificent developments this island has obtained a great repute among mineralogists in all parts of the world, but, like it, is simply of scientific - importance. The Lefroy meteorite, now mentioned for the first time, is, although of such remarkably small size, worthy cf special note, and its detection in the pros- pector’s dish adds another to the roman- tic discoveries of such objects from un- known space. The already long list of the different minerals recorded from time to time as being found in this State is still further augmented by the addition of no less than eighteen not heretofore published. Respecting these concise notes were given. Several of these, said the au- thor, were of some scientific interest, and two or three would be of industrial im- portance if they could be discovered in sufficient quantity. Notes on additional lecalities for a few others which are al- ready on record were given, with some re- marks on the peculiar features presented by some few others. He had to record his obligation to Mr. J. D. Millen, A.S.T.C., M.S.C.I., London, metallurgical chemist, for undertaking the analysis of Bellite and Hercynite. The following is the list of minerals of which particulars were given: — Barrandite, Bellite, Cloanthite, Ena- gile, Echerite, Genthite, Gibbsite, Helio- pbyllite,Hercynite, Hydromanganocalcite, Lefroy meteorite, Leucophanite, Mangan- ite, Minium, Niccolite, Pilotite, Plinthite, Pimelite, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Pyrostil- pinite, Quartz, Scorodite, Siciliophite, Smertite, Steargillite, Stephanite, Stibi- conite, Touramline, and Wurtzite. His Excellency said he felt that it was one of tae charm: and enjoymenis in being present to listen to the arguments and the thrusts and parries of discussion. Even that paper, short as it was, might give scope to some remarks. He was impress- ed himseif with the principle which drew to their attention the presence of rare or unknown minerals in Tasmania. Mr. Morton eulogised the work of Mr. Petterd in elaborating a list of the min- erals found in Tasmania, and said his work was recognised not only in Austral- asia, but throughout the world. Postponed. The reading of a paper by Mr. J. R. McClymecnt, M.A., on ‘‘Birds Observed by Crozet on his voyage’ was postponed until mext meeting. Paper by Mr. R. M. Johnston, I.8.0., F.S.S. Mr. R. M. Johnston read a paper on “A Proposed Psychometer Index Designed as an aid to the Better Determination of Common Fungoid Illusions, and of the Comparative Value of Mental Concepts.” The author said he was aware that his paper would probably give rise to great differences of opinion, and perhaps very virulent opposition to the view he had taken up. He, however, had come forward rather to show how to convey, with a simple diagram, an eye-picture which disclosed in a natural way the order of the diminishing value of judgment which was dependent upon the nature and con- dition of the person’s stage of observa- tion. Closely condensed, Mr. Johnston’s argument was that the order and equilib- rium of the mind are intimately con- nected with the vigour, fulness, and health of the organs of sense. Many persons, he said, committied mental suicide for the sensual delight of a useless moment- ary wonder. The insane, by disease, were forced to live always within a world of wonders such as those sought after, at times, by the ignorant. He had pre pared a classified “Psychometer Index” xlvil which to some might be useful in show- ing the treacherous nature of the ap- parent value of judgments based upon ob- servations of the crippled senses. He showed by this classified ‘‘psychometer index” that we may only hope for or- derly concepts, free from illusion, within narrow limits. Beyond this limit orderly conception diminished or lessened in value. It would seem, he said, that pas- sion distorts or gains ascendency over sane judgment in proportion to the degree of the diminishing power of the senses, until,-approaching the zero of the under- standing, the state coincides exactly with insanity. The insane state consisted of all kinds of unreasoning beliefs; but, unlike sane concepts, they were marked by a real pitiful intensity of conviction to which the sane mind could never hope or ever wish for within the logical order of the higher states of consciousness. Better be a dull, pulsating mass of pro- toplasm than to be adrift upon a stormy ocean of disordered concepts, when the rudder and helm of the senses had been rendered nugatory, or had been for ever destroyed. Let them beware, therefore, of the intensity of a conviction which was, in that way, related. Notwithstanding what had been stated in opposition to illusions of a fungoid character, he was far from being convineed that all illu- sions, as such, were harmful. He was inclined to think that a beneficial pur- pose was served by many of them, especi- ally of such as were born of the extraor- dinary strength of love, affection, sym- pathy, and the higher poetic fancy. The mother, for example, saw favourable qualities in her child which no other eye regarded, and, frequently, had no real ex- istence. Who, therefore, would wholly banish the mist of the affections? He, for one, would not if he could. A large group of illusions might fairly be classed under this order. All illusion, or partial illusion, which for the moment may be necessary to our comfort and well-being, spiritually, and not liable to introduce more remotely great evil consequences, he would be sorry to see wholly dispelled. He did not regard or class such as “‘fun- goid illusions.” Illusions which were harmful were regarded as ‘“‘fungoid” in his estimation. They had seen that it mighi bs possible to reach the zero of valuable concepts, and, indeed, of all consciousness, in two widely different di- rections. On the one hand, it might be gradually approached through varying stages of fictitious wonder, imagination, dream-illusion, insanity, and by the de- struction of one after the other of those wonderful organs of sense, which, though * “Thy wili be done.” of feeble range, are yet in the highest sense, God - given, Heaven - born. On ‘ the. other hand, by humble mien and fearless confidence, they might, through all the channels of widening sense, advance to still greater heights, wider horizons, which might be ordained that they should yet conquer. There were still almost infinite circles within the legitimate domain of natural saience, but beyond the limits of our pre- sent knowledge and range of powers. Yet, even now, from a thousand heights of sense, we could perceive that, however we might increase in subjective know- ledge — i.e., natural knowledge — the objective mystery which surrounded us, which we feel we can never penetrate, was but increased by every advancing step in natural knowledge. We feel that though new chords should continue to be struck on ‘“‘the harp of a thousand strings,’ the “everlasting arm” which was the cause of their harmonious vibrations could, itself, never be revealed to us save through that veil of the sensible in Wore ne we live, move, and have Ouse. pele. Do not, therefore, said Mr. Johnston, foolishly tremble under the illusion that all mystery shall be dissipated, or that the veil may be pierced, if we but open wider our dim eyes, or stretch out a little further our feeble hands. Their limits — not deter- mined by us — not written on tables of stone, and soon enough reached — were the truest and best guides. The created mysteries of distorted imagination and the crippied senses were but a poor ‘“‘mess of pottage’’ as compared with our glori- ous birthright of orderly natural know- ledge and feeling. If still — like wilful children — we will have a deeper mys- tery, let us, with the fullest possible equipment, attempt to penetrate from every portal of sense the cause of which they are themselves wondrous symbols. The effort to doso will convey an impres- sion which cannot be effaced. There after the appalled and humbled mind will gratefully shrink back within its own protecting luminous mist of the higher poetic ideal, and, with the chastened sub- mission of a child cry—‘‘It is enough.” “Nor swords of angels could reveal what they conceal.” Observations on the paper were offered by Bishop Mercer, the Bishop of Lar- anda, Dr. Gerard Smith. Prefessor Ritz, Mr. Russeli Young, and finally by His Exceilency. On the motion of Mr. A. G. Webster, a vote of thanks was accorded His Excel- lency for presiding. xlvill ABSTRACT AN INTERESTING EVENING. At the monthly meeting of the Royal Society on Tuesday evening, His Excel- lency Sir Gerald Strickland, president of the society, occupied the chair, sup- ported by members of the councail, and there was a fairly good attendance, es- pecially considering the wet and wintry state of the weather. New Members. Messrs. St. Micnael M. Podmore, F.R.G.S., F.Z.8., M.A. (Camb.), and W. Heyn were balloted for and elected cor- responding members, and Mr. C. W. Grant was unanimously elected a Fel- low of the Society. Birds of the Pacific. The secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) read a paper prepared by Mr. J. R. McCly- mont, M.A., entitlea “Notes on certain birds met with by Crozet, one ot the very early navigators.- The voyage of Marion du Fresne, with whom Crozet sailed as second in command ot the Mas- carin, was undertaken in orde rto restore to bis native island a Vahitian, whom De bougainville had taken to France, and also in order to discover on the way a continent or islands in the Southern Ocean from whicd useful products might be obtained. Crozet, who writes in a simple and unassuming Manner, express- ly disclaims a scientific knowledge of natural history. But his observations have an interest and importance of their own from an historical standpoint, be- cause they are those of one of the ais- coverers of Marion and the Crozet Islands, and of one of the first Huro- peans to land in New Zealand and in Tasmania. The narrative of Crozet is contained in a volume which is some- what scarce, but it has lately appeared in an English translation. Crozet’s ob- servations on birds begin on January 8, 1772—twelve days after he had sailed from the roadstead at the Cape of Good Hope. Terns are the first birds noted, and terns and gulls (Poules mauves) were seen frequently from the 8th until the 18th gay of January. The ships were then near Marion Island, and the discov- erers observed auks and divers for the first time. On January 24, Crozet land- ed on one of the islands of the oroup, which is now known as the _ Crozet Islands, naming it Ile de la Prise de Possession. The sea-birds, which were nesting on the island, continued to sit on their eggs or to feed their young undeterred by ‘the approach of the ex- plorers. Amongst these birds, Crozet enumerate ducks, divers, Cape fulmars, cormorants, and ‘“‘envergures.” The auks, or ‘“‘pingoins,” to use Crozet’s name, were doubtless penguins, which >makes OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE, 1905. are generally called ‘‘manchots,” al- though the name ‘‘pengouin manchots” also occurs. The divers, or plongeons, are supposed to have been diving pet- Trels; the Cape fulmar is called “le damier.’ ‘‘Hnvergure’? does not appear in dictionaries as the name of a bird. It signifies ‘‘length of ship’s yards,” ‘‘preadth of sail,’? and, by extension of meaning, “expanse of wings.’ It is, per- haps, the trivial name of an albatross, analagous to the Portuguese name ‘‘an- tennal.”” Ii we examine these data by the light of modern exploration we find that at least four penguins have been obtained in the region of the ocean con- tiguous to the Crozet Islands, or on the islands. These are Aptenodytes pata- gonica, Pygoscelis papua, Catarrhactes chrysocome, and C. chrysolophus, but of only one of these—C. chrysolophus—can the lecturer find that the eggs have been obtained on Crozet Island. The diving petrel, Pelecanoides exsul, is known to frequent the Crozet Islands, but its eggs appear to be undescribed. The Cape ful- mar (Daption capensis) is widely distri- buted over the Southern Ocean, but there are few records of its eggs being found, and these few relate to rgue- len Island. The white winged (Diomedea chionoptera) is the albatross, which these islands its nesting home. Cormorants cannot with certainty be in- cluded amongst the avian inhabitants of the Crozet Islands. Their nearest known place of resort 1s Kerguelen Island, be- tween 1,390 and 1,400 miles distant where Phalacrocorax verrucosus is resi- dent, and where its eggs have been ob- tained. Finally, a bird which was mis- taken for a white pigeon was probably a sheath-bill (Chionarchus crozettensis). From the presence of this bird, Crozet naively augured that a country produc- ing seeds adapted for the sustenance of the pigeons could not be far distant. The duration of Crozet’s sojourn in New Zea- land was about four months — from March 24 to July 14, 1772. He presents us with a‘goodly array of the names of birds which he saw in that country, but to seek equivalents for the wheateare, the wagtails, the starlings, and larks, the ousels and thrushes of his narrative would be unprofitable labour. One ex- ception may be made in respect of a black thrush with white tufts by which the tui (Prosthemadura nove Zealandia) is evidently meant. Crozet divides in a primitive way the New Zealand birds which he saw into birds of the forest, of the swamps, of the open country, and of the coast. In the forests were wood pigeons as large as chickens, in colour blue, with metallic reflections. The de scription, though scant, is sufficient. There is only one pigeon in New Zealand, and no remarkably pigeon-like bird not xlix a pigeon, so that we cannot err in be- lieving Hemiphaga nove Zealandiae to be the pigeon ‘“‘ramier’ of Crozet. The genus Hemiphaga is represented in Cele- bes and the Phillipine islands as well as in New Zealand. In the beginning of March, Crozet had become acquainted with a Tasmanian parrakeet with a white (or light-coloured) bill, the plum- age of which fesembled that of an “Ama- zon” parrot. The common Amazone par- rot (Chrysotis amazonica) is green, and bas an orange-red speculum and a blue forehead. It was . represented by D’Aubenton, and may be the parrot to which Crozet refers in the expression, “‘Perroquet des Amazones.” There is no Tasmanian psittacian, which greatly re sembles it; perhaps’ the blue-banded grass parrakeet (Neophema venusta) re- sembles it the most. In New Zealand two other parrots were observed—a very large parrot, in colour black (or dusky), diversified with red and blue, and a small lory, the plumage of which re sembled that of the lories of the Island of Gold. Red and blue enter into the plumage otf the red only of large New Zealand parrots. The red (Nester nota- bilis), however, is restricted at the pre- sent day to Stewart’s Island and _ the South Island, so that we must suppose either that a change has taken place in the distribution of this parrot since the time of Crozat’s visit to New Zealand, or that Crozet has erred in the descrip- tion of it. Im the latter case the bird intended to be described is probably the kaka (Nestor meridionalis). The smaller New Zealand Psittaci are not lories in the general acceptatiun of that name, but Platycercine of The genus Cyanor hamphus, a widely-distributed genus containing some fourteen species, of which New Zealand nas at least four. The best known is C. nove Zealandiz, a green parrakeet with a crimson sintiput. In the open country were the smaller passerine birds already mentioned, to which Crozet gives the names ox Euro- peans birds with which he was familiar. There was also a quail similar to the quail in France, but larger, Coturnix nove Zealandi#, which is now extinct. In the swamps wild duck and teal were abundant, and a blue hen, similar to the blue hens in Madagascar, India, and China. This blue hen is evidently the swamp hen (Porhyio melanotus), which inhabits Tasmania and the eastern part of Australia as well as New Zealand. The other blue hens to which Crozet likens it are probably porphyrio, which is found in Madagascar, poliocephalus and Indian, and edwardsi, an Indo-Chin- ese species. Ontheseashore were curlew, cormorants, and black and white egrets. The curlew may have been of the species Numenius cyanopus, which visit New Zealand in summer, and which remain in small numbers througn the winter. A pied egret is suggested by the phrase, ‘‘aigreties blanches et noires.’’ But there is no pied egret in New Zealand, and we are forced to suppose that the bird in uestion is the wiuite-headed stilt (ananiopus picatus), which has been found nesting in New. Zealand. A black bird with bright red bill, and feet of the size of an oyster-catcher, also frequented the beaches. Evidently this was. the sooty oyster-catcher (Hamatopus unicol- our), which is resident. Of birds which frequent the open sea as well as the coast, Crozet enumerates grey terns, white terns, “envergures,’ and gannets, with white bodies and dark wings. These birds, he adds, were of the kind called “Manche de velours” by sailors. The “Manche de velours” is the Cape gannet (Dysporus capensis), which has black primaries, as also has §. serrator of Aus- tralian and New Zealand seas. S. cyan- ops has both primaries and secondaries, dark in colour, and might, with greater propriety, be called a black-winged bird than §S. serrator. It is, however, not common in extra tropical areas. Species and Hybridisation. Mr. St. Michael M. Podmore, M.A., F.R.G.S., etc., a visitor from Hngiand, read a paper on hybridisation in rela- tion to animals and the definition of species, narrating the result of his own experiments and investigations. In Dar- win’s *Origin of Species” are these words:—‘“The only distinction between species and well-marked varieties is, that the latter are known or believed to be connected at the present day by inter- mediate gradations, whereas species were formerly thus connected.’ Again: —‘‘The power of remaining for a long time con- stant I look at as the essence of species.” In his subsequent letter to Osa Gray, Darwin wrote:—“I speculated whether a species very liable to repeated and to great changes of conditions might not ‘assume a fluctuating condition, ready to be adapted to either conditions.” Mr. Phillips, the paleontologist, arrived at the conclusion that a species represent ‘“‘any form which has ever had a specific name.’ This definition, though vague, the lecturer claimed as worthy of acceptance by students, though the words of Sir Wm. Dyer are, perhaps, more ex- planatory :—‘‘Species is a designation for a totality of individuals differing from all others by marks or characters, which ex- perience shows to be reasonably constitut- ed and trustworthy.” Personally, he (the lecturer) was of opinion that Darwin never did believe in the possibilitv of de fining species, and would have preferred the term ‘“‘fixed variety,”’ had Darwin not been confronted with the difficulty that varieties of a species are invariably pro- lific inter se, while the offspring of a crossed species, or hybrid, had invariably D proved, in his time, to be barren. It was not his (the lecturer’s) intention to enter into controversy on this point, but de sired to place information before the meet- ing of a unique character from his own experiments, observations, and study, in tne hope that these investigations and ex- periments might be continued, thus en- lightening the world further on the hmits or development of the creation system. Darwin did not believe in a “special crea- tion’? with defined and absolutely fixed species, nor can we, if, by their hybridisa- tion, fertile offspring are produced. Every deseriber of species has made continuity and transition in characters the test of variety, and discontinuity the test of a separate species. Darwin differed sharp- ly trom Huxley on the one hand, and Wal- lace on the other, as to the significance and history of sterility between species, and his conviction annears to have been at the same cause which induces varie- ties in a domesticated species removes the barrier of natural sterility between two different species, when crossed. He seem- el] to attribute a mysterious unknown power in domestication, and on these lines he (the lecturer) had carried througua an- other interestingly difficult experiment in hybridisation. Whatever may have been the origin of belief and ics resent accept- ance, the facts of recent experiments prove that species, recognised as fixed, have inter-bred, and healthy, fertile offspring have, in some cases, been the result. Young of wood pigeon hybrids, formerly believed to be impossible of production, he (Mr. Podmore) had had the honour of presenting, for the first time in the his- tory of zoology, to the scientific world. These prolific hybrids are now living in the western aviary of the London Zoologi- cal Gardens. During the past 15 years he had reclaimed domesticated and hybridised British wild doves. He then described his method of breeding hybrids. As to pigeons, “‘it is necessary to procure young wood pigeons before they are fledged. A bird reared from the nest at eight or nine days old will remain tame for life, if proper care and kindmess are used. Birds reared by placing wood pigeons’ eggs under domestic pigeons are always useless, as they become so wild that, in my case, I have been obliged to destroy them. The same is the result when birds are taken after the feathers have partially developed. They become fairly tame during the process of daily feeding and handling, but as soon as tney become independent they revert to tneir original wild type. To rear young birds a knowledge of pigeon ailments and re- quirements is necessary. The appear- ance of the plumage, clearness of the eye, end general activity of the wings and legs, are good guides. They not only re- quire freshly-prepared food daily, but, in addition to grain, lettuce, chopped meat, Hyde’s grit, sulphur, castor-oil, linseed, and chalk, as experience dictates. When the young can fly they should be trained to the sound of the voice. This can easily be done by uttering some familiar words or whistling during feeding time. I have also made use of certain movements of my hand to summon my birds, at first simply snapping the fingers or twisting the hand round in a circle. I have a male hybrid, about six years old, that still remembers and obeys such signs. As to feeding parents and young, plenty of room is necessary for breeding purposes, and each pair must be confined in a _ separate aviary. The age of the domestic male should be in excess of the female. Hemp seed, dari, and fresh lettuce should be given during mating time, but after incu- bation has commenced nemp seea should be omitted. When the young are hatched fresh lettuce is most important, together with sound grain, such as wheat and dari {no Indian corn). The aviary must be kept clean, grit sprinkled daily upon the ground, and clean water regularly sup- plied. If the nest-box has a foundation of soft, elastic material, the birds will probably be reared. In my own ease I put paper clippings to a depth of half an inch, and covered the top with straw and fine twigs. In a wild state the nest is composed of materials that give the weight and movements of the young. I found nearly all the young birds that have died suffered from internal com- plaints, brought about by the heavy pres- sure of their bodies upon the hard, un- resisting surface of the nest-box, I think, however, the wisest course would be to remove the young from the parents after the eighth day, and bring them up by hand. In selecting a mate, I com- menced with a pure-bred white Dragoon hen mated to a black Dragoon cock that had a few white feathers at the side of the neck. Aiter twelve months, one bird” was reared with a decided ring, like a dove. This proved to be a male.. I now bred with a large blue Carrier, whose plumage contained the greyish-blue feathers, and from his cross I procured the male parent of dove hybrids. During the year 1899 I became decidedly dis- heartened, having lost, from different pairs, no fewer than forty young birds, from causes what appeared to me at that time unaccountable. On August 2 I wrote to the press:—‘“Eleven days seem about the extent of life permitted to the young of this curious cross - breed- ing. The hen generally dies on the fifth day, and the cock on the eleventh.” It happened that just at the time when I was about to give up my experiment, suc- cess came. In September, 1899, I reared a ring dove hybrid that has proved one of the healthiest and hardiest of wwe pigeon family. He has twice crossed the aAtlan- tic, and survived the extremes of heat and cold during exhibition. This bird is now on view at the London Zoological Gar- dens. This ring-dove hybrid was mated to a blue homer when six months old, but it was not until 1902 that any eggs were fertile. During last year I bred three handsome birds from this cross— one proved to be a hen. The note of the ring-dove hybrids’ *young is unlike that of any known species, though its gestures when paying court to its mate resemble the British wild dove, Before leaving England the female bird had already laid her second clutch of eggs. In 1898 [ reared a healthy hybrid from the wi'd male stock dove and the wild wood pigeon. In hybridising the African turtle, I mated the female wild bird to a _ crossbred almond tumbler. Their offspring were ferisie inter se. The collared dove rear- ed healthy offspring with the magpie pigeon, and the blue rock produced fer- tile young with the wild stock dove hen. His Excellency said Mr. Podmore had laid very carefully before them, in a scientific — and, he would like to add, modest—manner the results of very im- portant experiments that he had carried out with the view of proving the ultimate tendency of the Darwinian theory. Mr. Podmore had also given them an insight into the very broad problems that under- laid the consequences of those experiments if they were proved, and while frankly accepting Mr. Podmore’s purely scientific attack upon what he aptly designated the ““creative system,” he thought there were some considerations which should be laid before the Society in detence of that crea- tive system. Mr. Podmore had pointed out that if there was no such a thing as species, and if every type was a vague transition from one variety to another, then, of course, the descent was very simple between the vague cell of pro- toplasm and the modern development of the genus homo. . Mr. Podmore, however, himself gave them strong openings against his own researches, by indicating doubts whether the experiments he him- ealf had carried out were, in fact, between especies, or merely between: varieties. If the experiments Mr. Podmore had carried ovt were merely as between varieties, his theory fell to the ground by the hypothe- sis upon which it was built. It was well known that among the lower forms of life crosses had been obtained, not merely be- tween what were recognised as species, but even between different genera, especi- ally as between the winged insects and the lower forms of life to be found in water. So there was nothing very new in the class of facts proved by Mr. Pod- more’s experiments, excepting that he had worked a stage higher, above the li region of botany and that of the lower animals, i.e., among birds. There, however, he was still far below the region or c1osseg among the higher animals. Where pre- vious crosses had been obtained, they had ceased to be fertile after a few genera- tions. Mr. Podmore was yet unable to te!l them the result of his varieties after a certain number of. generations. In con- clusion, it seemed to him (the speaker) that all these experiments which Mr. Pod- more had so ably, scientifically, and dis- interestedly carried out, analysed in the manner in whith men of eminent genius and scientific research, like Darwin, had already speculated for hundreds and thou- sands of years—still left us just exactly where we were 2,000 years ago. They had all failed, notwithstanding all re searches so far, to put even the thin end of the wedge into the creative system as we had been brought up to believe it. He ventured nevertheless to thank Mr. Pod- more for the additional proofs he had offered, as they showed, if anything, the weakness of the attack upon the strength of an impregnable fortress. Mr. Podmore disclaimed any in- tention of attacking the creative system, and thought he had clearly ex- plained that; he must have been mis- understood. His work tended in no way to upset the creative system; but every- bedy who had studied zoology understood the muddle and confusion of classifica- tions, and what was attempted was to try and prove what was especially fixed variety, so that there might be uniformity throughout the scientific world, and muddle cease. The great thing was to try to find truths recognising that, in doing 50. there was a power above us Who would reward us with new light. (Applause.) Mr. R. M. Johnston and Mr. A. O. Green warmly commended Mr. Pod- more’s paper and his work. Army Signalling. Major F. T. Hayter, R.A.A., D.A.A.G., gave an exceedingly interesting and in- structive address on army _ signalling, with the aid of diagrams explanatory of various methods of army organisation, and a fine lot of army apparatus belong- ing to the Defence Department, and of the very latest make and efficiency. He was assisted in his demonstrations by Master Gunner O’ Rourke, who is account- ed an exceedingly smart and efficient offi- cer at this kind of work (having been trained with the Royal Field Artillery) Major Hayter explained how the intelli- gence and other army departments are worked. Without accurate and speedy circulation of orders and information in an army during war there must be disaster. For instance, the Japanese in their advance on Mukden had half a mil- lion of men with a front extending about 100 miles. The whole of those 500,000 men must have operated on a con- certed plan; every section of that army had to be at the right place at the right time, and then do the right thing, to which end a system of telegraphing and army signalling must have been brought into requisition with great efficiency. The telegraph stood head and shoulders above everything where it could be used. it was largely called into requisition along the lines of communication. But tele- graphs and telephones needed to be guard- ed, which took a lot of men. Wireless telegraphy could not, at present, be used by the army in the field, because it re quired too much apparatus, and was, therefore, cumbersome. ‘Ihe Morse let- tering system was adopted in all army signalling, excepting in the semaphore system. He then demonstrated the Morse flag signalling, in which smaller flags are used for short distances, and larger ones for longer distancs. There are also two colours used, white for use on a dark ground, and blue for a light ground. The message is spelled out by a system of waving the flag (long and short waves and combinations) on the Morse alphabet plan. Diagrams were shown of the Morse dot and dash letter- ing, short waves of the flag representing dots, and long sweeping waves, dashes. In tolerably clear weather signalling can be carried on in this way over a distance of seven miles with the aid of telescopes. The semaphore flag signalling, which Ho- bart people daily observed in use between the warships and the shore auring the stay of the Australian squadron in the harbour. This system differs from the Morse one, in that each letter has a separate and distinct symbol by the use of two flags at once. It is a simpler, therefore more easily learnt, and a more rapid means of signalling messages; but it is only practical over short distances up to 800 to 1,000 yards, and it is very readily forgotten, the angles having to bs hi so accurate. The heliograph system was next explained, and the instrument ex- hibited, its working being made clear and extremely interesting. This signalling arrangement is carried on by mirrors on a tripod, reflecting the light of the sun in a series of flashes, on the Morse alpha- bet principle. By these means messages can be sent over distances up to 70 miles, provided, at the latter range, the apparatus -can be mounted high enough to compensate for the “dip” in the earth’s circumference. The atmosphere is a little bit dull for this instrument in Tasmania. In India it may be work- ed with much better results. The sig- nalling lamp, for night use, was shown at work on the Morse flashes principle, and is good for seven miles, according to the state of the atmosphere. This lamp is a recent invention of a very smart British army officer named Begbie. An- other more powerful lamp, but not so portable, Major Hayter explained, was the limelight lamp. It required more apnaratus, but it was very powerful. With this it is possible to signal over 15 miles in the night time. A signalling party belonging to Capt. A. C. Parker’s Engineer Corps gave @ demonstration in the working of a ter- minal signalling station in the field. His Excellency expressed his pleasure to notice that the scientific side of army training was being so well developed among the Commonwealth forces. Capt. Dormer, A.D.C., said Major Hayter and the Master Gunner had given them _ very interesting and correct demonsirations in army sig- nalling. Such signalling had now become of immense importance with armies operating on such a wide front. In the South African war it proved ex- tremely useful. (Applause.) The meeting then terminated with votes. of thanks to the readers of papers and to Major Hayter and his party. liii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY, 1905. The monthly meeting of the Royal So- ciety was held at the Museum on Monday evening, July 10, the President, His Hx- cellency Sir Gerald Strickland, K.C.M.G., presiding. Among those present were. —Bishop Mercer, Mr. A. G. Web- ster (chairman of the council), Sir Elliott Lewis, Hon. G. H. Butler, Sir Adye Doug- las, Messrs. G. BE. Moore, M.H.A., Russell Young, and several lady and gentleman members of the society. Mr. Morton, secretary, apologised for the absence of Mr. R. M. Johnston, 1.8.0. His Excellency said he had been invited —as president—to represent the feelings of the Royal Society in offering very hearty congratulations to Mr. Bernard Shaw on the occasion of His Majesty the King having conferred on him the recogni- tion of his long services by making him a member of the Imperial Service Order. In looking at the report of the honours con- ferred on the whole of Australia and Tas- mania on the last occasion, it had been a matter of satisfaction to him to observe that Tasmania had not been forgotten, but that she had received comparatively a fair share. Mr. Bernard Shaw’s services were remarkable as having commenced at the age of 17, so long ago as 1853, in which year he entered the Public Service of Tas- Inania as clerk in the office of the police magistrate, Swansea. The office was abol- ished by the introduction of local munici- pal government in 1869. He re-entered the service in 1866 as acting police magistrate, Devonport. He held successively the offices of Cierk Assistant, House of Assembly, police magistrate at George Town, Com- missioner for Mines, Secretary for Mines, Commissioner of Goldfields. Commissioner of Police and Sheriff, Police Magistrate and Commissioner Court of Reques.s, trus- tee of the Tasmanian Museum and Botan- ical Gardens, and a member of the Coun- cil of the Royal Society of Tasmania, also Commissioner of Fisheries of Tasmania. Mr.-Shaw retired from the service on Au- gust 28, 1904, and was granted a pension by special Act of Parliament. Mr. Bernard Shaw, I.8.0., thanked His Excellency for the kindly way in which he had referred to his services. It was very gratifying to receive such a token of appreciation and goodwi!l. (Applause.) His Excellency said that two important papers had been prepared for their consid- eration that evening, each of which con- tained ample matter for at least two sit- tings and for prolonged discussion. He thought the best way would be to have the two papers read first, and leave the dis- cussion of the paper on coal to a future meeting. Dr. Elkington’s paper might, perhaps, be discussed that evening. Mr. K. L. Murray, C.E., then read a somewhat technical paper on “Coal and a Coal Mine,” which was illustrated by spe- cimens from the Sandtly colliery and other coal mines, both in and outside of Tiasmania.The most valuable constituent of coal was fixed carbon, of which the Sand- fly colliery product contained satisfactory amount. It was generally acknowledged that semi-bituminous coals were the best. The two leading instances of this class of coal in the south were the Tasmanian Sandfly and the Victorian Jumbunna. The latter was recognised in Melbourne as the best obtainable. It sold at from 4s. to 6s. higher than any other coai, including the Newcastle coal. The Sandfly coal was similar in character to the Jumbunna eoal, and even the fossils were similar. The lecturer drew a comparison between bituminous anu semi-bituminous coal, and showed that the use of the latter would to a large extent do away with the smoke nuisance. The speaker then described the way in which coal was formed hunderds ef millions of years ago, when the earth was in a far different condition to what it was now, pointing out that nature never was in a hurry, and that for millions of years no use had been found for these coal mea- sures, till at last a creature was formed who discovered that coal would burn. Fos- sils were found in these measures which belonged to the mesozoic period from which they could gather some idea at what a distant period some of the coal had been formed. The difference in the density of coal was owing in a great measure to the different periods at which it was formed, some being very much earlier than others. Anthracite coal, for instance, was much denser than any other coal, of which he produced sam- ples that evening. It was the lowest in the Sandfly colliery, and was the oldest formed. In conclusion, he said that it had been proved that a field of very great im- portance and value existed over a wide area and under the same conditions near Hobart consisting of anthracite and semi- bituminous coal. (Applause.) His Excellency regretted that Mr. Murray could not be present that day month when his paper would be dis- cussed, but it was so important that it might command the attention of the society for a whole evening. He now ealled upon Dr. Elkington to read his paper. Dr. Elkington (Chief Medical Officer) then read an exhaustive paper on “Some Social and Economic Aspects of Public Health Work.” This was generally re- garded as the youngest daughter of medical science, but it had flourished among the ancient Jews. The Mosaic system of sanitary law impressed upon every individual the fact that he was his brother’s sanitary keeper, it forced him to conform to sanitary rules, and afford- ed an example of public health legislation which in many important respects was not surpassed anywhere in the world at the present day. In addition to formu- lating hygienic laws these ancient sani- tarians went in for large sanitary works. Jerusalem had an excellent water supply, a well administered system of removal of organic waste, and probably a destructor in the Valley of Hinnom. Nineveh in- stalled a drainage system many thou- sands of years ago. In the Kings Palace in Crete an excellent system of water carriage removal of excreta tad been quite recently found. Rome under- took gigantic and successful civic works of water supply and sewelage (much of which was still in use), formulated laws relating to nuisances, and enforced them through medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors. In the middle ages the absence of sanitary laws produced the plague and the Black Death, which were practicaily the same as the epi- demic which afflicted India and troubled Sydney and Brisbane. A quarter of the population of Europe was swept away in three years as the result of the plague in the middie ages. After detailing the terrible results of the plague at that period, the lecturer said that it finaily went away owing to a change in the trade routes from the Hast rather than to any change in the sanitary laws. Small-pox had committed tremendous ravages till it was curbed by the dis- coveries of Jenner. The progress of public sanitary legislation depended to some extent on the amount of public money available for the purpose. iach individual member of the State had a certain money value, provided he was a productive worker, and it should be a point of national economy to prolong his life, and to make the conditions such as would prevent him from falling ill and becoming a burden to his family or the State. Typhoid fever destroyed a num- ber of lives, and was yet a perfectly pre- ventible disease. ‘‘If it is preventible,” the King said on one occasion, “‘why not prevent it?’ The standard of a com- munity’s progress could be gauged by its sanitary administration, and ‘by the pro- portional fund allotted for the purpose. The attitude of the public towards sani- tary reform was an important facior, as on that would depend the amount that would be voted towards it. I't was of the utmost importance that the public should be educated on this subject. The lecturer then gave numerous instances where diseases had been prevented by sanitary measures. Coming to Tasmania, the lecturer said that during the 12 months ending on June 30 of the present year there had liv been notified in this State 193 cases of typhoid, 147 of scarlet fever, 160 of diphtheria, in addition to consumption, which was not a notifiable disease, but in 1904 there had been 114 deaths re- ported from it. Consumption and typhoid were among the easiest to deal with by organised efforts in the direction of pre- vention and limitation. They were typically preventible diseases, and there was no reason why they should not be dealt with in Tasmania as effectively and thoroughly as malaria had been dealt with in Klang. Our vital statistics. compared excellently with those of other States, but our returns of preventible disease pointed to the need for early and effective action if we were to retain our reputation as a sanitorium, not only for Australia, but for countries far beyond Australia. Public health was never likely to be- come 'a burden upon the community, but its neglect would always be one. At pre- sent its State administration in Tasmania cost 2.16 pence per head of the population per annum. He did not say that effective central sanitary administration could be got for 2.16 pence per head of the popula- tion, but he had no hesitation in stating that if the individual share were increas- ed to the portentous sum of sixpence per head per year, real efficiency could be with- in our reach. Ninepence per head per year would be absolute luxury, providing for sanatoria and other badly-needed_ struc- tural appurtenances, enabling the State to relieve and assist local bodies and their officers, and rendering any repetition of the Launceston affair of 1903, which cost the taxpayers nearly £20,000, to all in- tents and purposes impossible, so far as human endeavour could prevail. Victoria spent 4.2 pence per head per annum; New South Wales 5.8 pence; and New Zealand—a country which, like ourselves, had a special interest in the attraction of visitors—9.6 pence per head per annum. Even the daring ninepence would not, therefore, render Tasmania a dreadful example of acute sanitary taxation, par- ticularly when her special cirgumstances were taken into account. Similarly the burden imposed upon local taxation for public health purposes could never be very heavy. At present we had the spectacle of certain rural muni- cipalities without any local taxation whatever, although their combined annual rateable value was nearly £60,000. The cities and most of the larger and more progressive centres were showing an 1n- creasing tendency to recognise the benefits of applied sanitation, with satisfactory results, but the greater part of the State was barbaric in its primeval insanitation. The total annwal rateable value of the local government districts of the State amounted to about a million of money, and no reasona system of local sani- tary rating eked out by combination of adjoining districts for purposes of inspec- tion, etc., could be expected to hit the ratepayer at all heavily. It would thus be apparent that the country was in no danger of being ruined by wild sani- tarians, either now or in the future. On the cther hand, however, there was a good deal of evidence to show that continued apathy and neglect were likely to cost us @ great deal more, individually and collec- tively, than the most advanced system of central and local sanitary administration can ever cost. His Excellency said the paper just read was so important that he would suggest the advisability of making it the sole sub- ject of discussion at the next monthly meeting of the society. Bishop Mercer said it would help mat- ters if Dr. Elkington’s paper were placed before them in print before the next meeting. Perhaps the Government might print it for the society. A resolution was passed, asking the Go- vernment to print the paper, as sug- gested. His Excellency then called for ques- lv tions or remarks on Mr. Murray’s paper, but none being put, Mr. Murray said his original intention had been to speak as to the fuel values of coal generally, and the different ways of treating each one to get the most out of it. He mentioned an instance in which there were 14 different veins of coal, one above the other, with hundreds of feet of sandstone and shale in between. If one thought of the time required for 14 forests to grow, and for a deposition of sand- stone over all these different seams, it al- most took one’s breath away. In working the lowest of these seams the miner pass- ed in a few minutes from the bottom to the top; the period traversed representing millions of years. His Excellency moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Murray and to Dr. Elkington for the papers read. For literary skill, con- scientious ability, and for interest, it would be very difficult to find two papers of such merit. He thought the greatest compliment he could pay to the authors was not to draw any comparison between them. He asked the audience to thank them for the intellectual treat they had afforded their listeners. The applause which followed was most cordial, after which the proceedings ter- minated. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST. MONTHLY MEETING. At the monthly meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania last evening, Hs Excellency the Governor (Sir Geraid Strickland) presided; Lady Strickland, with Miss Drummond and _ suite, being also present, Public Health Work. The meeting first discussed Dr. EI- kington’s paper on “‘Some economic and social aspects of public health work.” Mr. Nat Oldham attended with his lan- tern, and with the aid of which illus- trated some insects which are transmit- ters of disease. His Excellency, in opening the discus- sion, said the paper proved very fascinat- ing to him, and he had gone over it at least four times. He had almost com- pletely failed to find points to criticise. It was written in an exceedingly bright and epigrammatic style well sustained throughout. (Hear, hear.) Dr. Elking- ton had been in contact with epidemics ot plague in India, and Tasmania was now fortunate in having the advantages of it, though our conditions here were very different. We had no problems arising from congested populations. It was just the contrary. Our population was sparse, and we lived in one of the most healthy parts of the world. Yet the public health, and the care and nur- ture of infantile life needed such an officer to guard them; also in aiding to increase the reputation of the State as a health resort, thereby attracting to Tasmania an ever-increasing number ct the most eligible people from other parts of the world and the Australian Com- monwealth. He doubted whether the system obtaining in Tasmania of tre- porting infectious diseases was as effici- ent as Dr. Elkington implied. The re- sult of his (His Excellency’s) observa- tions was that it was not, owing to diffi- culties, thoroughly efficient anywhere. Certainly, if it was so in Tasmania, it was very greatly to the credit of the Health Department, for, after all, it was the key of success in sanitary science, and the only hope for the abolition of the antiquated and often impossible quarantine laws. He ventured to disagree with Dr, Elkington as to the yellow fever being more likely to threaten the western seaboard, including Australia, and especially Tasmania and New Zea- land, by the opening of the Panama Canal, though he did not deny its im- possibility. And if it did reach our shores, he thought it would be success- fully stamped out with not very serious trouble. The danger of its reaching the lvi 1995. colder climates of Tasmania and New Zealand he thought was still more re- mote. Dr. Gerard Smith spoke in commenda- tion of the aid of local authorities in matters of public health; but it was very necessary that they should _ co- operate with the head of the State Public Health Department. He thought that the therapeutic side of the medical pro- fession was paying great attention to preventive medicine, Dr. Crouch commended the paper. Mr. Clemes spoke in sympathy with what the paper had said on the im- portance of preventive medicine. Mr. Russell Young said the intelligent way in which Dr. Elikington had brought the subject before the public quite justi- fied the action of the Government in ob- taining the services of such an able and independent medical gentleman to take in hand the control of tne general health of the community. (Applause.) He em- phasised the importance of the health of the people, and especially in Tasmania, which was becoming such a noted health and holiday resort. Mr. R. M. Johnston spoke of the noble purpose of the paper, and the great public service which Dr. Klkington discharged. Dr. Elkington’s directing skill in the in- terests of public health was of great value and importance. Infantile mortality stood lower in Tasmania than in the other States. Bishop Mercer wondered why it was that the large amount of insanitary en- vironment among Jewish communities in great cities did not so much affect their health as other people. He was told that they had longer bodies. (Laughter.) Perhaps Dr. Elkington could explain. The State should make some better regu- lations for the protection of health in mining districts. It was very striking the marvellous advantage the Japanese army derived from attending to sanitary matters. He wished to add his tribute of thanks to Dr. LEikington for having contributed such a valuable paper to the society and the State, and trusted it would do much lasting and far-reaching good. (Applause.) Dr. Elkington, in replying to the dis- cussion, said that notifications of fevers and contagious diseases were now received in the great majority of cases in Tas- mania. He joined issue with His Ex- cellency as to the danger of yellow fever reaching Australia through the Panama Canal, and quoted Manson, a great au- thority on the subject, to show there was a danger, and Manson was the greatest authority on tropical medicine. The lvii physical characteristics of the mosquito that conveyed yellow fever were such as to enable it, under given conditions, to be a potent and dangerous factor. It was the best of all sea travellers of the mos- quito family, and its distribution was well-nigh universal. A close connection of that mosquito existed in Tasmania, particularly on the East Coast, namely, the Stegomyia notoscripta, the other be- ing the Stegomyia fasciata. Certainly, Tasmania’s cold climate was a protection. As to what the Bishop of Tasmania had said in reference to the Jews, their su- perior health in congested and insanitary surroundings was due to the excellent domestic management of the Jewish wo- men. In many points they set an ex- ample to their sisters of other faiths. It was exceedingly rare to find their child- ren fed artificially; their cooking was good, and they were particularly keen in the observance of their religious duties and rites. As to the absence of sanita- tion in mining districts, he was painfully aware of it. It was almost wholly due to a lack of sanitary inspection and en- forcement. As to the care and feeding of infants, he hoped, with the aid of the Director of Education, to soon have prac- tical demonstrations given to girls in school on the subject. Referring to the work of local authorities, he acknow- ledged that the City Local Board of Health and its officer formed a shining example to local sanitary authorities in Tasmania. But local sanitary authori- ties were not invariably essential. In New Zealand they were retained, but were more or less of a phantom, for there the State took up practically all the work. A hearty vote of thanks was passed to Dr. Elkington for his paper amid ap- plause. The Housing Question. Bishop Mercer read a paper on “‘The Housing Question,” reviewing certain economic principles bearing thereon. Discussion on the paper was postponed till the next meeting. New Member. Mr. J. Adam was unanimously elected a Fellow of the society. Obsidian Buttous. Mr. Morton (the secretary) read a paper on ‘“‘Record of Obsidianites or Obsidan Buttons in Tasmania, prepared by Mr. W. H. Twelvetreees, F.G.S. The author said during recent years some more of these interesting, though still mysterious objects have been found in Tasmania, and it seems desirable to place the localities on record, as a knowledge of their dis- tribution and conditions of occurrence may assist in forming some idea of their age. Mr. Twelvetrees said the locality- list brought up to date stands as 22 speci- mens of Obsidian buttons found in Tas- mania. The writer further said: “ It might be as well to record the information obtained as to their occurrence before the particulars pass into oblivion. It seems to be clear, said Mr. Twelvetrees, that no evidence has come to light which would require us to assign to them a date so far back as early or middle tertiary. They have nowhere been found in gravel pro- tected by the middle tertiary basalt.”’ Mr. Twelvetrees said he had repeatedly made inquiry at Derby (Tasmania), but always with negative results. The proceedings then terminated. lvill ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER, The monthly meeting of the Royal So- ciety of Tasmania was held at the Tas- manian Museum on Tuesday evening, 12th inst. His Excellency Sir Geraid Strickland, who was accompanied by Lady Edeline Strickland, and_ attended by Captain Maclean Grithin, A.D.C., pre- sided. The Housing Problem. His Excellency introduced the discus- sion on a paper read by the BKishop of Tasmania at the previous meeting on the housing problem, and referred to the exhibition of model cottages for work- ing men recently held in London, The cottages contained four or five rooms, and were erected at a cost of about £150. Mr. R. M. Johnston said that the question was one of great importance, and it remained now to do something in a practical way to benefit workmen in the city who received a comparatively small wage. He had consulted some friends on the matter of arriving at some method of attempting an experi- ment of the nature indicated in this city. At the same time, he did not see how anything could be done for the im- provident poor. He thought that much might be achieved if a spot in proximity to Hobart could be found on which to erect experimental dwellings. Perhaps the municipality, with the authorisation of the ratepayers, might be able to uti- lise the slaughter-house site for that purpose. The matter was, of course, one tor a corporative body, and not for divi- ded individual efiort. For £5,000 two rows of ten cottages might be erected, and if the money were raised on favour- able terms the experiment should prove successful, and the cottages might be let for 4s. a week. That could all be done without exposing the city to any appre- clable risk; certainly not more than jd. on every £15 of annua: value of city pro- perty. The scheme should be taken up in a-whole-hearted manner, and every- thing was to be gained by inducing all the citizens to interest themselves in the project. There were evidences that the standard of comfort enjoved by the ma- jority of working men in Hobart was above that enjoyed by similar classes in almost all cities of the world. Not above 5 per cent. of the peopie in Hobart occu- pied houses of less than three rooms. If the cost of the scheme he had projected were spread over all the citizens, they would, individually, have little to bear, especially as the rent would be almost sutticient to defray tne interest on the capital required. Dr. Gerard Smith thought that the City Council per se was not the body to which they should look to initiate 1905. such an enterprise. He thought that the duties of the Corporation in these mat- ters should be of a supervisory character. Again, the municinaiity should only build for the purpose of getting rid of insanitary areas. Dr. Gerard Smith also thought that something should be done for the drunken and improvident; but in this instance, too, the work could be well entrusted to private enterprise. The same was true of the scheme suggest- ed by Mr. Johnston. The Bishop of Tasmania referred to the point raised by Dr. Gerard Smith as to who should bear the responsibility of providing housing for the working classes, and went on to say that he thought the duty rested with the whole community. He also thought that if the community was content to sit down and do nothing, whilst the army of industrial workers was paying a quarter of their weekly wage in rent, it would be lacking in its duty. The task should be undertaken in the manner suggested by Mr. Johnston, for then every member of the community would perform his part. ‘The question then arose, who should act for the com- munity? He agreed with Mr. Johnston that it would be the duty of the Corpo- ration to undertake tne work; but, pro- vided the community acted as a whole, he was not particular what bodv was en- trusted with the executive work in con- nection with the scheme. Dundasite. The Secretary (Mr. Alex, Morton) read a paper prepared by Mr. W. F. Petterd, entitled, ‘“‘A note on the occurrence in Wales of the mineral dundasite which was supposed heretofore to be peculiar to Tasmania.” In a catalogue of the minerals known to occur in this island, which was pub- lished in the proceedings of this socicty for the year 1896, I brought under the notice of mineralogists for the first time the occurrence of a mineral of remarkable chemical composition, to which was ap- plied the specific term of dundasite, and { have now the satisfaction of bringing under notice the recognition of the origi- nal diagnosis by the announcement of the detection of this interesting substance at the Welsh Foxdale mine, Trefrico, Car- ~ marthenshire, by Mr. H. F. Collins (the author of ‘‘The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver’’), and on which discovery a paper has been read before the Mineralogical Society on March 15 by Mr. G. T. Prior (‘““Nature,” April 18, 1905). Dundasite is a mineral substance of extremely unique and peculiar composition, and up to the time of its determination as occurring at the silver-lead mines of Dundas, was pre- viously unknown to mineralogical science, lix although such a vast amount of research work had been accomplished among the numerous secondary lead salts. Its de- tection was, therefore, of special interest, and it followed that its characteristic habit, coupled with its composition, neces- sitated that a specific name should be ap- plied to it. As it was considered to be restricted to the Adelaide Proprietary mine at the locality indicated on account of the local peculiarities necessary for its molecular growth, the term Dundasite was applied toit. Under what conditions and with what associations it has been found at its newly recorded locality is not as yet fully apparent, but the interesting fact remains that a new mineral originally discovered in this island has been ob- tained at a special locality in the old world. This in itself is worthy of record. I have now some additional information to offer as to its distribution at the mines at Dundas, and its detection at other localities on the West Coast. Its general habit of occurrence is in somewhat small rounded aggregates closely packed to- gether, which show white radiating tufts on separation. It is easily disintegrated into fine silky fibres after the manner of chrysotile. In many instances the in- dividual tuft has as a nucleus a minute crystal of the bright hyancinth-red col- oured crocoicite, which is again sometimes implanted on its surface, it often occurs coating the interior of vughs in the harder fefro-manganese gossan which is immedi- ately beneath the softer superificial lode capping, and in the zone above the un- altered primary sulphide minerals. At its original locality it is occasionally coated with an outer film of extreme tenuity, and of a bright green colour. This is probably a substance allied to pyromorphite, but as only an extremely minute quantity can be secured, this has not been satisfactorily determined. It is again sometimes stained on the exterior with a salt of copper to a pale bluish green, and more rarely discoloured by brown hydrated iron oxide. At the Hercules mine at Mount Read it has been found on rare occasions in a very pure condition, when it is immaculately white, implanted in isolated internally radiating tufts and small aggregates on cellular quartz; and yet more rarely on crystals of cerussite, closely associated with an- other rare lead mineral which has been named hydrocerussite. These groupings, although very attractive, are extremely fragile, and thus most difficult to preserve for the cabinet, but through the kindness of the late general manager, Mr. Sydney Thow, I was enabled to secure a specimen, both unusally large and very beautiful. This is doubtless the finest example which has so far been obtained, but needless to say it is simply of scientific interest. At the Florence mine at Zeehan the mineral under review occurs sparingly in gossany cavities, but much iron-stained, and at a few other mines it has occasionally been met with, but never in any appreciable quantity. Mr. R. M. Johnston thought that it was a matter for congratulation that Mr. Petterd’s discovery, which had been an- nounced to the society some time ago, had been confirmed by another discovery in Great Britain. Mr. Johnston also spoke of the services to science rendered by Mr. Petterd. Evolution of Language. The next paper was one read by Pro- fessor H. B. Kitz on the “Evolution of Words.” After some introductory re- marks, Mr. Ritz stated his thesis in the following terms: — The meaning of a primitive word is expressed by the musical pitch of the sounds of which it is com- posed; and (2) the changes which words. undergo in the course of time and under various circumstances are governed by the psychic life of the speakers expressed by variations of pitch and emphasis. The true origin of any word was, he said, the feeling evoked by the tnought it signifies. The feeling occasioned Sy any object differs according to circumstances, and its vocal expression reflects not only the gen- eric feeling,but its specific modification in a particular case; and it may appear as a voluntary exclamation or as conscious or unconscious imitative gesture of the vocal organs, but is always in accord with the feeling. Mr. Ritz exemplified this gene ral rule by pointing out the significance of pitch in laughter, and also of the ar- rangement of syllables bearing tonic ac- cents in rhythmic utterance. Musical pitch was also an expression of emphasis, the emphatic word being not only louder, but of a higher pitch than its neighbours. Thus, Mr. Ritz insisted, musical pitch is a prominent and important constituent of human speech. Not only is each part of a word of a specific pitch, but the succes- Sive parts are at concord or discord with each other; and, as in pure music, so in the applied music of human speech, the natural tendency is to avoid discord and effect concord. Consequently our phonetic alphabet must be a kind of musical scale in which every speech sound may find a place. After describing the mechanism of speech, Mr. Ritz dwelt on the psycho- logical character of the different musical keys, and pointed out that as a matter of common experience a different pitch of the same word corresponded with a different state of the speaker’s mind.. From an examination of a particular sound occurring in different words it might be possible to arrive at its mean- ing, and to determine the feeling which prompted its utterance. Dealing with the principles of the evolution of words, Mr. Ritz laid it down that the meaning of a primitive word is expressed by the musical pitch of the sounds of which it is composed, and passed on to the pro- position that the changes which words undergo in the course of time and under various circumstances are governed by the psychic life of the speakers, and are ex- pressed by variations of pitch and em- phasis. Mr. Ritz contended that in the case of any change in one part of a word, the musical pitch of the other parts was ot decisive importance. The conclusions arrived at were, briefly, that there exists in practice a musical scale of speech sounds which embraces all of them; that consonants are differentiated according to meaning and emphasis; that in the pro- cess of adaptation of the parts of the words to each other the direction of least effort is that of approximation to the pitch of the most prominent part; that the changes which words undergo in pass- ing from one yocabulary to another are the effects of the influence of the psycho- logical character of the people using the different vocabularies. Finally, Mr. Ritz stated that his theory supplied a rational basis for the study of phonetics as a part of ethnology and psychology. This paper will be discussed at the next meeting »>f the society. Colour Photography. Mr. A. D. Arundel, an English visitor, delivered a very interesting lecturette on “Colour Photography.’ There was, he said, at present no complete method of colour photography, though experiments in photographing through coal tar seemed ~ to promise some success. Having de- scribed the three-colour method originally discovered by Clark Maxwell some 40 years ago, and also the superposition method, which was illustrated by lime- light views, the lecturer had some photo- graphs taken by the latter method pro- jected on a screen, and although the con- ditions were unfavourable, the pictures were sufficient to show what progress had been made towards a solution of the pro- blem. His Excellency moved a vote of thanks to the contributors of papers, after which proceedings terminated. xi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER, 1905. of the the Royal Society Museum on Tues- His Excellency Gerald Strickland, K.C.M.G.) presided, and among __ those present were Lady Edeline Strickland, Miss Drummond, Capt. Griffith, A.D.C., Sir Elliott Lewis, K.C.M.G., Mr. A. G. Webster (chairman of the council), Dr. Elkington, Messrs. A, O. Green, Lomas Smith, and a number of ladies and gen- tlemen. The first business was the balloting for a new member, Dr. E. M. Owens being unanimously elected. A meeting was held at day, the 10th inst. the Governor (Sir Two Noteworthy Exhibits. The secretary (Mr. Alex, Morton) apolo- gised for the absence of Messrs. Russell Young, Bernard Shaw, I.8.0., Thos. Ste- phens, M.A., and Professor Neil-Smith, M.A., and drew attention to two very noteworthy exhibits. One wasa fine spert- men of a rainbow trout, weighing 43lb., which had been placed in Lake Dulver- ton, an inch in length on November 21, 1903. The rainbow trout (Salmo iredeus) was especially abundant in the mountain streams of California. Its size depended upon its surroundings, the volume and temperature of the water, and the amount of food it contained. In some of the cold mountain streams of Colorado their average weight was not more than 6o0z. or 80z., but in lakes in the same State, where the water was moderately warm in sum- mer, they reached 12lb. or 131b. The other exhibit was a specimen of wolframite (tungstate of iron), which had recently been found at Ben Lomond, and would probably prove to be one of the most valuable minerals ever discovered in Tas- mania. This mineral had recently _ be- come of considerable commercial import- ance for the production of tungstic acid, which was principally used to give great- er hardness to steel and aluminium, Rus- sia was about to spend twenty million sterling to rebuild her ships, and Krupp had sent out an expert to search for this vaiuable mineral, which was now largely used for the manufacture of war material. The Activity of Science. An important circular was read from Sir Norman Lockyer, president of the organising committee, stating that an as- sociation was being organised under the name of the British Science Guild, with the object of insisting upon the import- ance of applying scientific methods to every branch of the affairs of the nation. The accompanying memorandum stated that it had been a frequent subject of comment that the English people did not manifest that interest and belief in the powers of science, which were noticeable among the peoples of the Con- tinent or of America. In spite of the ef- forts of many years, the scientific spirit was still too rare, and was often lacking in some of those who were responsible for the proper conduct of many of the na- tiga’s activities. It was proposed, there- fore, to establish a British science guild, which would be entirely disconnected from party polities—(1) To bring together all those throughout the Empire inter- ested in science and scientific methods, in order, by joint action, to convince the people, by means of publications and mectings, of the necessity of applying the methods of science to all branches of human endeavour, and thus to further the progress and increase the welfare of the Empire; (2) to bring before the Go- vernment the scientific aspects of all mat- ters affecting the national welfare; (3) to promote and extend the application of scientific principles to industrial and general purposes; and (4) to promote scientific education by encouraging the support of universities and other institu- tions where the bounds of science were extended, or where new applications of science were devised. Another important circular was a pre- liminary announcement of an Australian Journal of Science which it was proposed to issue monthly, edited by Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., of the Sydney University, to commence next January. A Difficult Subject. The Chairman then called for a discus- sion on the Philological paper read at the last meeting by Professor Hermann Ritz, of the Tasmanian University. Mr. R. M. Johnston, Government Statis- tician, said that the subject was a very difficult one to follow, too difficult, indeed, for anyone to criticise who had not made it a special study. They felt very much indebted to the professor for having given them the results of his researches. While they might not, perhaps, follow him in all his conclusions, they appreciated the value of his labours. He specially agreed with the professor on one point, and that was that the need for expression must have preceded the expression itself. A New Range Finder. Mr. H. C. Kingsmill, M.A., then read a short paper, entitled “A New Range Finder.”” Although range-finding was commonly regarded as a military art, Ixii there were occasions when it was a use ful adjunct to the work of the- civilian explorer or surveyor. The requisites for the new method were a box sextant, a steel tape or surveyor’s chain, and a cou- ple of ranging rods with some arrows. An assistant to the surveyor was also re quired, whose work would be of a very simple nature. After illustrating his sub- ject by diagrams, Mr. Kingsmill! said the range could be obtained without calcula- tion by means of a table of reciprocals, such as was found in Molesworth’s ‘‘Book for Engineers.”” The instruments used were those with which a surveyor was supposed to be familiar, and they were easily carried. Though no trial had yet been made with a long range, a satisfac- tory result had been obtained at short ranges. For a rapid geological or topo- graphical sketch a sufficient degree of accuracy should be attainable. The Chairman asked if the new range- finder, which depended on two points of observation, could compete for practical work with instruments which required only one point. There was nothing so useful as the theodolite, especially when ‘combined with the calimeter, and he would like to know whether it would not be more rapid and reliab.e, although per- haps more expensive, and a more satis- factory instrument for obtaining ranges than the one proposed by Mr. Kingsmill. Mr. Kingsmill said that his method could not compare for accuracy with the ecalimeter and theodolite, but he would be sorry to carry the theodolite to places where he could easily carry the other. The idea had occurred to him, on hear- ing that Colonel Legge contemplated an expedition to the plateau on the top of Ben Lomond. The Co!one! intended to do the work with a plain table, and this new method had been designed to assist. Stereoscopic Photography. Mr. W. E, Masters, B.A., LL.B., next delivered a very lengthy and fluent ad- dress on “Stereoscopic Photography,” il- lustrated by numerous diagrams. The effect produced by viewing a_ picture through the stereoscope for the first time WwaS an appearance of reality, which cheated the senses with its seeming truth. Ordinarily, when viewing a photograph the same height and breadth only, dis- tance and solidity were suggested merely by the arrangement of high lights and shadows, but in the stereoscope we experi- enced a sense of relief or. solidity, the mind feeling its way into the depth of the picture. The effect was analogous to that produced by listening to a familiar voice through a telephone. We did not hear the speaker’s voice, but a mechan- ical reproduction of it, the instrument transmitting air waves in all essential respects the same as caused by the voice. So in the stereoscope the pictures caused undulations of the luminiferous ether which affected our ograns of sight, as the original scene depicted would do, saving, of course, the impressions of movement and colour, the illusion of reality in each case being verfect. It was known to the aucients that each eye received a distinct impression. BHuclid demonstrated this 2,000 years ago by means of geometrical figures, but it was not until 1838 that the first stereoscope, an instrument enabling the eyes tor unite two dissimijar views, was invented by Charles Wheatstone. In his instrument an arrangement of mirrors assisted the eyes in blending the pictures, but shortly efter his instrument was produced, Sir David Brewster devised one on a totaliy different principle, that of the refraction of the rays of light by semi-lenses, and this, with certain minor improvements, was the instrument at present used. At first, stereograms were drawn by hand, but with the discovery of the art of photography by Louis Daguerre, in 1838, the geometrical dasigns were replaced bv photographs. At the exhibition in 1861 95 per cent. of the photographie souvenirs were stereoscopic. The beautiful flash- light photograph was the latest develop- ment in the ort of stereoscopic photo- graphy. The pictures, which might be of any size, were taken from _ different eugles, and were printed in complemen- tary colours, and partlv super-imposed, being viewed through colour filters which screened off all colours, allowing each eye to see its appropriate picture only, the brain blending the two impressions. The views exhibited included scenes from England ond the Continent, and were re- markably beautiful; objects standing out in the foreground with startling reality. This system, observed Xir. Masters, was es yet in its infancy, and would prob- ably solve the problem of projecting stereoscopic views by means of the lime- light lantern. The Kromaz stereoscope, an instrument adopting the super-impos- ed print method of three colour photo- graphy, was exhibited for the first time in Hobart, a vase of flowers being depict- ed, standing out in bold relief in natural colours. At the conclusion of the address a discussion ensued, in which the Chair- man, Mr. Horatio Yeates, and Mr. Kings- mill took part,after which, on the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was tendered to Messrs. Kingsmill and Masters for their addresses, His Excel- lency warmly complimenting the latter on the able manner in which he had treated his subject. The Secretary announced that the last meeting of the season would be held on the second Tuesday in November, when Mr. R. M. Johnston would contribute a paper on “The ethical, economical, and practical aspects of old-age pensions,’ and Dr. Gerard Smith would exhibit some interesting photographs of Egyptian temples. }xill ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, TROPICAL AUSTRALIA AND OLD- AGE PENSIONS. His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerald Strickland, K.C.M.G., presided at the monthly meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania last evening. In apologising for his absence, Colonel Legge wrote, calling attention to the death of Captain Hutton, F.R.S.E., and suggesting that some steps should be taken to perpetuate his memory. Mr. R. M. Johnston feelingly referred to Captain Hutton’s death on his way back from a trip to England, and who, he said, was one of the most industrious and eminent of Australasian scientists. Captain Hutton was president of the Aus- tralasian Association of Science at its Hobart meeting. He moved,—‘‘That the news of Captain Hutton’s death be re- corded on the minutes with deep regret; that a letter of condolence be sent to Mrs. Hutton; and that kindred societies in Australia be communicated with, ad- vocating steps being taken to perpetuate his memory. Mr. A. G. Webster seconded the mo- tion, which was passed. Old-Age Pensions. Mr. R. M. Johnston reaa a paper on the subject of old-age pensions, apart from political aspects of the question, dealing with the ethical and economic aspects of it. He claimed that it was purely an economic question in relation to the State. The present breadwinners supported the rising generation, who would be the future breadwinners, and were therefore ethically, economically, and justly entitled to an old-age pension where required. He gave a mass of figures, showing how the proposal would work in relation to both the Common- wealth and Tasmania as one of the States. He estimated that about 1.38 per cent. of the population of Tasmania, of the oge of 65 years and upwards, would require the pension. He showed that there are at present in the Common- wealth of Australia a population (exclu- sive of aborigines) of 3,984,376 persons, of whom it is estimated that 159,375, or 4 per cent., are of the age of 65 years and over. By the seven years’ experience of New Zealand, it might be safely reckon- ed, under the conditions prescribed there for old-age pensions, that about 55,781 persons, or about 35 per cent. of the old- age group (65 years and over), would be- come pensioners. This, at the average pension of £17 per annum, would repre- sent a cost to the Commonwealth States NOVEMBER, 1905. of £948,177 per annum, and a tax of 4s. 9d. per head. The burden and effect of such a pension to each State on the basis of population was then given, that for Tasmania being estimated as follows: — Percentage of persons, 65 years and upé« wards, to the total population, 4.52; old- age pension cost, £42,858. Mr. Johnston then proceeded to show that the proposal was practicable and workable. New Zealand had indicated it where only 1.38 of the population had needed it, or 3 per cent. of the old-age group. Last year it cost the New Zealand Govern- ment £195,000. Mr. Ogiivy very warmly commended the paper, but time did not permit of dis cussing it. Tropical Australia. Dr. Elkington read an exceedingly 1n- teresting and instructive paper on ‘*Lropi- cal Australia—Is it fitted for a working white race?” He first answered the question, ‘“‘What is tropical Australia ?’’ It comprised rather more than one-third the entire Commonwealth territory. One- half of Queensland, 523,620 square miles of the northern territory of South Aus tralia, and the north-western divisions of West Australia are included, totalling in all some 1,145,000 square miles. Much yet remained to be opened up, but enough was known to justify bright anticipations of its commercial future. The mines of Chillagoe and Charters Towers testified to the existence of mineral wealth in the east, and mineral deposits are known to exist in the northern territory of South Australia, while the Kimberley districts have not yet been fairly investigated. The presence of so many streams pointed to an economic and profitable source of power for the development of mining and electric-metailurgical industries. The sugar industry of the eastern part of North Queensland formed a valuable ad- dition to the resources of that State, but it did not comprise more than a small part of the agricultural possibilities of tropical Australia. The country ranges from the Pacific to the Indian Oceans, included practically all ordinary varieties of tropical climate, and was dominated by the monsoonal winds. The greater part of it lies between 600ft. and 1,500ft. above sea level; but extensive plateaus exist, covering many hundreds of square miles, at an elev ation of over 1,500ft., and rang- ing in Arnheim Land to 3,000ft. and over. Elevation materially modified climate, and the breezy table-lands of eastern North Queensland at least afford, for many months of the year, as bracing an atmosphere as could be found anywhere in the world. Drought is a rare phenomena Ixiv in the monsoonal area, and _ the great northern rivers testify to the abundance and reguiarity of the annual revivifica- tion from this cause. These also afforded waterways for a considerable distance into the interior, and drained extensive areas of good pastoral country. Very large cattle runs have been taken up, and in the first six months of 1904, some £500,000 worth of cattle were exported from the northern territory alone. Where good pastoral land was plentiful in a well- watered country, it mav be reasonably concluded that good agricultural land was not absent. It was already known that the finest quality of cotton could be pro- duced in parts of tropical Australia; the cultivation of tobaceo, maize, dates, quinine, spices, opium, and other profit- able vegetable products, appeared to re- quire only the necessary population; also the breeding of goats for mohair and hides, raising of poultry, dairying for export, ete. Tropical Australia was by no means an earthly paradise, neither was it a fever-smitten jungle, as some would have them believe. It already sup- ported, in parts, a fairly considerable white population, who did not appear to be degenerating, despite the recklessness and ignorance so often displayed in rela- tion to personal health and habits. Cer- tain diseases exist, notably malaria, dysentery, and ankylostomiasis, but their incidence was mainly local, and the methods of prevention well known Their limitation and eventual extinction was mainly a question of money. Dealing with the objections raised to the occu- pation of tropical Australia by a working white race, Dr. Elkington made light of objections to tropical climates by the practice of tropical hygiene, the use of sanitary and preventive precautions, and the adoption of a suitable dietary. So much hinged upon domestic and per- sonal environment and habits. Impure water, improper food, and_ general neglect of the rules of health, will pro- duce much the same effects, whether the victim resides in Melbourne or Palmer- ston. Although there appeared to be no insuperable, or even serious, bar to the ultimate colonisation of tropical Austra- lia by a working white race, certain sanitary and other measures, which he indicated, involved much public organisa- tion and outlay, especially in the direc- tion of preventing and stamping out in- fectious diseases. Tropical Australia was no place for weaklings and degen- erates. Newcomers must be taught how to suitably live, suitable dwellings occu- pied, use of alcohol interdicted, and regu- lations made as to working hours, to suit the climate. He concluded—‘‘Before any definite move can be made, much more will require to be accurately known con- cerning the topographical, and other con- ditions of the country. From what can be gathered, however, the institution of an inquiry should be amply justified. In this age of land hunger, Australia can- not continue to act as the dog in the manger. Given sufficient industrial at- traction, population will soon be forth- coming, and there appears to be no good reason why that population should not be a white one. Should the initial difficul- ties appear too great, the altermative of a colourea population is always feasible; but I, for one, would regret to think that the national pluck and enterprise upon which we Australians are rather apt to pride ourselves is insufficient toenable difficulties to be faced which have been met and overcome elsewhere under less favourable conditions.” Mr. Moore, M.H.A., questioned whether Dr. Elkington had conclusively shown that in a tropical climate, as in India, white people could develop or maintain a vood physique and perform manual labour. Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Dr. Gerard Smith, with the aid of lan- tern slides manipulated by Mr. Nat Oldham, gave an exceedingly interesting and instructive address on architectural forms, and the different kinds of tem- ples. pyramids, etc., of ancient Egypt, with explanations of their ethnological significance. At the close of the meeting, Mr. A. G. Webster moved a vote of thanks to His Excellency for his constant attendance and presiding at the meetings of the ses- sion, which was passed amid hearty ap- plause. His Excellency assured them that it was a very great pleasure to him to thus meet the leaders of scientific thought in Tasmania. He suggested that the two able papers which had been read that evening should be discussed at the open- ing of the 1906 session. He also com- mended the energy, devotion, and ability of the secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) in organising the meetings. (Applause.) The proceedings then terminated. lxv LIST OF ADDITIONS The following is a list of the principal scientific works recently presented to the ‘library of the Royal Society of Tas- manila :— From the trustees of the British Museum : — Catalogue of the collection of birds’ eggs in the British Museum. Vol. I., Ratite, Carinate (‘Tinaminormes-Lari- formes). Vol. II. (Charadrisormes-Strigi- formes). Vol. Ill. (Psittaciformes-Pas- seriformes). Plates. 1901-03. By Eugene W. Oates. Hand - list of the genera species of birds. Vols. I., ILI., IV. By R. Bowlder Sharpe, 1899-1903. Catalogue of Agaristide, in and LER; ‘and Li.D. the Arctiade and the collection of the British Museum. Ditto, ditto, of the Noctuide. By Sir G. F. Hampson. Plates. 1901. Catalogue of the collec- tion of Palearctic butterflies, formed by the late John Henry Leech, and present- ed to the trustees of the British Museum by his mother, Mrs. Eliza Leech. By Rich. South, F.E.S8., 1902. Monograph of toe Culicide or mosqui- toes mainly compiled from the collec- tions received at the British Museum from various parts of the world in con- nection with the investigation into the causes of malaria. conducted by the Colonial Office and the Royal Society. Wale, Tt and J11.. Plates. 1901. By He V. Theobald, MAL: FES: First Report on Economic Zoology, by . V. Theobald, M.A. 1903. Aipatr itor: of the Botany of Cen Cook’s voyage round the world in H.M.S. Adventure in 1768-71. Parts I., II. Aus- tralian Plants. by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. D. Solander, 1901. Catalogue of the African plants, col- lected by Dr. F. Welwitsch, in 1853-61. Vol. II., part I1., ““Cryptogamia,’’ 1901. Catalogue of the Madreporian corals in the British Museum. Vol. IV The family Poritide. 1. The genus Goni- opora, by H. M. Bernard, M.A. Plates. 1903. Classified list of photographs of works of decorative art in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and other collections. Part 3, textile fabrics. and lace; part 4, silversmith’s work, jewellery, enamels, erystals, jade, etc., heraldry. Illus- trated. Catalogue of photograhps, consisting of historical and architectural subjects, and studies from Nature chiefly contributed by Sir J. Benjamin Stone, M.P TO THE LIBRARY. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalenaz in the British Museum. Wot) ive Plates. From the Smithsonian Institution, America :— Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1902. Proceedings of the U.S. National Mu- seum. Vols. 25, 26. 1903. : Department of the Interior, No. 65, operations at river stations, 1901. Part 1. east of the Mississippi Riv er, 66. Part 2. west ditto, ditto. No. 67, the motions of underground waters. No. 68, water storage in the Truckee Basin, California, Nevada. No. 69, water powers of the State of Maine. No. 70, geology and water resources of the Patrick and Goshen Hole Quadrangles, Wyoming, Ne- braska. Sewage pollution in the metro- politan area in New York city. and its efrect on inland water resources. Irriga- tion systems of Texas. Observations on the flow of rivers in the vicinity of New York city. Preliminary report on arte- sian basins in south-western Idaho and south-eastern Oregon. The water re- sources of Molokai. Hawaiian Islands. Normal and polluted water in north- eastern United States. Department of the Interior U.S. Geo- logical Survey:—Report of progress of stream measurements for the year 1900. Water resources of the State of Colorado. Water storage on Salt River, Arizona. From the Wagner Institute of Science, Philadelphia : — Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida. with special reference to the silex beds of Tampa. and the pliocene beds of the Calorsahatchie River, includ- ing, in many cases, a complete revision of the generic groups treated, and their American tertiary species. By W Dall. M.A. From the Lloyd Library, Ohio:— Bulletin of the Lloyd Library of bot- any, pharmacy, and materia medica, and mycological notes. From the Field Columbian Museum :— North American Plesiosaurs. Part 1. Plates. By S. W. Williston, M.D From the American Philosophical So- ciety :—Proceedings of the Society. Vol. XLII. No. 178. April and May, 1903: From the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences:—Cold Spring Harbour Monographs.—I. The Beach Flea, by Mabel E. Smallwood. II. The Collem- bola of Cold Spring Beach, with special reference to the measurements of the Poduride, by C. B. Davenport. Plate. 1903. aa FLA PAR is fan vi \ re ae io x ; ¥ Karey Py , a Sale ii aL PSU temp oy! Fi ay AP , pe wks ‘ . ieant th ov = oI ; ie aia: a ; brea esi aieneetht, sone of “SHORPEaeR 10.5 a eee . OTSEGO laa e Faeatais Are inital: ie te. a rey tnepbasbiiel ite. 4 th be Ae ay - eae Ma Me ALOR Rave HAT Ti) ay ok PU o- ie a ‘ . HOS ce 1, ” pit a he i OTN, Wala gett iii® VRS. 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Ban | ia 1% nv} ; j ‘\ a . tt, : > 1 } RGRer ie Mey) law baie Big: 3 4 aan es i beter t * ei } \ WOnotA ates f 4 tt Sactso i {1 ; rf fal ‘liymaylt uni} VP Fk ry al ade an Sil ie wieder ile ul a by 4 AY tied ied? 6) wwutiielas fae atocitLios Lavatont ili nye oes, eb TSO” tetany ee, nD : i pa me 4 : mk Sah aN . eeeers es ce 2 See LIST OF THE DESCRIBED COLEOPTERA OF TASMANTA. By ArtHur M. Lea. [Reprinted from Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement ot Science, 1902. | THE Coleoptera of Tasmania have never been considered as a whole since the time of Erichson, (*) and no list or catalogue of the species has ever been compiled. About 16,000 species have now been recorded from Australia and Tasmania, of which scarcely 400 have been described from Tasmania. A very imperfect knowledge of what species are confined to the island exists, as species supposed only to occur there, are constantly being found in Victoria and New South ales! and even sometimes in Western Aus- tralia and Queensland; on the other hand, Tasmanian collectors frequently obtain mainland species which have never been recorded from Tasmania. I have considered it advisable, therefore, to prepare a list of the species hitherto recorded from Tasmania, adding to the list such species as 1 have seen in Tasmanian col- lections, or have myself taken in Tasmania. In this list, the genera and families are placed as far as possible in the order in which they appear in Masters’ “ Catalogue of the Described Coleoptera of Australia ;’’ the species are placed alphabetically. All known synonyms have been omitted. In the list an asterisk (*) has been placed after those species which are known to occur on the mainland, whilst another (+), has been placed after those species which have been introduced. Deducting the introduced species (40) there remain 1000 species and varieties, of which 423 are so far, known only from Tasmania; and one being known only from New Zealand and Tasmania; but probably many of these will be found to occur on the mainland, especially as the beetles of the Australian Alps (and Mount Kosciusko ‘u particular) become better known. When the Coleoptera of Tasmania have been thoroughly worked out, it will probably be found that there are over 2000 species, whilst in the whole of the Australian States, there are probably at least 20.000 species. -CARABIDZ. Calosoma Schayeri, Er.* Lacordairia anchomenoides, Cast. Erichsoni, Cast. (#) Wiegmann’s Archives, 1842 b© COLEOPTERA. Cymindis Illawarre, Macl.* Xanthophea angustula, Chaud.* infuscata, Chaud.* Plagiotelum opalescens, Oll. Diabaticus Australis, Er. pauper, Blackb. Anomotarus olivaceus, Chaud.* Homethes elegans, Newm.* guttifer, Germ.* rotundatus, Blackb.* Dromius Yarre, Blackb.* Pentagonica vittipennis, Chaud.* Trigonothops lineata, Dej.* longiplaga, Chaud.* tridens, Newm. Sarothrocrepis benefica, Newm.* civica, Newm.* corticalis, Fab.* luctuosa, Newm.* Ectroma grave, Blackb. inquinita, Er. Philophleus eucalypti, var. Tasmanize, Blackb. Agonocheila bicincta, Blackb. binotata, White.* biguttata, Chaud.* corticalis, Chaud.* sinuosa, Chaud.* vittula, Chaud.* Scopodes boops, Er.* intermedius, Blackb. Tasmanicus, Bates. Silphomorpha decipiens, Westw.* Tasmanica, Cast. Adelotopus hemorrhoidalis, Er.* Tasmani, Blackb. Carenum politum, Westw.* Scaraphites insulanus, Sin. Macleayi, Westw.* rotundipennis, Dej.* Clivina heterogena, Putz.* lepida, Putz.* vagans, Putz.* Promecoderus Bassii, Cast. brunnicornis, Dej.* gibbosus, Gray. modestus, Cast. COLEOPTERA. Promecoderus ovicollis, Cast.* subdepressus, Guer. Tasmanicus, Cast. Percosoma carenoides, White. percoides, Cast. sulcipenne, Bates. Lychnus ater, Putz.* Gnathaphanus Adelaide, Cast.* Anisodactylus rotundicollis, Cast.* Diaphoromerus Australasie, Dej.* australis, Dej.* mestus, Dej.* quadricollis, Chaud.* rectangulus, Chaud.* Hypharpax inornatus, Germ.* latiusculus, Chaud.* Yhenarotes Tasmanicus, Bates. discoideus, Blackb.* Notophilus niger, Blackb.* parvus, Blackb.* Harpalus promptus, Er. verticalis, Er. vestigialis, Er. Drimostoma alpestre, Cast.* Oopterus Tasmanicus, Cast. Amblytelus curtus, Fab.* Pterostichus coracinus, Er. Catadromus Lacordairei, Boi.* Notonomus chalybeus, Dej.* politulus, Chaud. tubericauda, Bates. Rhabdotus Diemenensis, Cast. floridus, Bates. reflexus, Chaud. Rhytisternus cyathoderus, Chaud.* hopleurus, Chaud.* . miserus, Chaud.* Chlenioidius prolixus, Er.* Leptopodus subgagatinus, Cast.* Loxandrus gagatinus, Cast. Hormochilus monochrous, Chaud.* Simodontus elongatus, Chaud.* orthomoides, Chaud.* sexfoveatus, Chaud.* Dichrochile minuta, Cast.* punctipennis, Cast.* COLEOPTERA. Lestignathus cursor, Er. Simsoni, Bates. Cyclothorax ambiguus, Er.* Platynus marginellus, Er.” nigro-aeneus, Newm.* Colpodes australis, Er. dilatatus, Er. Trechus Diemenensis, Bates. Simsoni, Blackb. Tasmanie, Blackb. Trechodes gibbipennis, Blackb. Bembidium Hobarti, Blackb. Tachys captus, Blackb.* DyYTISCIDA. Pelobius Australasiz, Clark.* Sternopriscus Tasmanicus, Sharp. Antiporus interrogationis, Clark.* Macroporus Gardneri, Clark.* Howitti, Clark.* Necterosoma costipenne, Lea. penicillatum, Clark.* Schmeltzi, Sharp.* Wollastoni, Clark.* Antiporus femoralis, Boh.* Platynectes 1U-punctatus, Fab.* obscurus, Sharp. Tasmanize, Clark. Lancetes lanceolatus, Clark.* Rhantus pulverosus, Steph.*+ Copelatus nigritulus, Sharp.” simplex, Clark. Hyderodes Shuckhardi, Hope.* Chostonectes gigas, Hope.” Cybister tripunctatus, Oliv.* Homeeodytes insularis, Hope. Eretes australis, Er.* Hydaticus rvficollis, Fab. GYRINID&. Macrogyrus Howitti, Clark.” . obliquatus, Aubé.* HYypDROPHYLLID. Hydrobaticus australis, Blackb.* Cercyon dorsalis, Er. COLEOPTERA. STAPHYLINID. Falagria Fauveli, Sol.* pallipes, Oll.* Silusa melanogastra, Fv!.* Aleochara actz, Oll.* baliola, OU. hemorrhoidalis, Guer.* punctum, Fvl.* speculifera, Er.* Poylobus apicalis, Fvi.* cinctus, F'vl.* insecatus, Fvl.* Tasmanicus, Oll. Pelioptera astuta, Oll Calodera atypha, Oll. carissima, Oll. eritima, Oll.* inequalis, Fvl.* pachia, Oll. Simsoni, Oll. Homalota atyphella, Oll.* chariessa, Oll. coriaria, Kraatz.*} indefessa, Oll. pavens, Er.*+ psila, Oll. sordida, Marsh.*+ Leucocraspedum lugens, Blackb.* validum, Blackb.* Conosoma activum, Oll. australe, Er.* enixum, Ojl.* fumatum, Er. Tachyporus vigilans, Oll. Cryptommatus Jansoni, Matth. Tachynoderus hemorrhous, Fvi.* Heterothops picipennis, F'vl.* Quedius cuprinus, Fv1.* Diemensis, Blackb. hybridus, Grav.* ruficollis, Grav.* Sidneensis, F'vl.* Creophilus erythrocephalus, Fab.* var. lanio, Er.* Philonthus aeneus, Rossi.*+ discoideus, Grav.*+ COLEOPTERA. Philonthus longicornis, Steph.*+ nigritulus, Grav.*+ sordidus, Grav.*+ Cafius amblyterus, Oll. areolatus, F'vl.* laetabilis, Oll.* leus, Oll.* littoralis, Fvl.* pacificus, Er. sabulosus, v].* sericeus, Holme.*+ Xantholinus chloropterus, Er.* cyanopterus, Hr.* Leptacinus socius, Fvl.* Metoponcus enervus, Oll. Sunius guttula, Fvl.* Scymbalium simplarium, Fvl.* Pederus australis, Guer.* cingulatus, Macl.* Simsoni, Blackb. Pinophilus rufitarsis, fvl.* Oxytelus collaris, Er. discipennis, F'vl.* melas, F'vl.* semirufus, F'vl.* subaeneus, f'vl.* vulneratus, }'vl.* Wattsensis, Blackb. Trogophleus exiguus, Er.*+ punctatus, Fvl.* Amphichroum Adelaide, Blackb.* Homalium Morrisi, Blackb. philorhinoides, Fv1.* Tasmanicum, Blackb. PSELAPHIDA. Kupines aurora, Schfs. Eupinopsis perforata, Schfs. Ctenisophus morosus, Raffr. Schaufussia formosa, King.* Rytus punctatus, King.* Tychius Tasmanie, Schfs. Batrisus australis, Er. Bryaxis atriceps, Macl.* electrica, King.* hyalina, Schfs.* COLEOPTERA. Bryaxis laticlava, Schfs. melanocephala, Schfs. picta, Schfs. var. aethiops, Schfs. var. ebenifer, Schfs. var. frontalis Schfs. var. verticalis, Schfs. sobrina, Schfs. strigicollis, Westw.* talpa, Schfs. vitrea, Schfs. Articeros curvicornis, Westw.* SILPHIDA. Ptomaphila lachrymosa, Schreib.* Choleva antipodum, Blackb.* australis, Er.* Anisotoma Tasmanie, Oll. TRICHOPTERYGIDA. Ptilium Simsoni, Matth. ScAPHIDIDZ. Scaphidium 4 pustulatum, Oliv.* Scaphisoma novicum, Blackb.* HISTERIDZ. Apobletes errans, Mars. Platysoma leve, Mars. latisternum, Mars. Teretrius Walkeri, Lewis. Teretriosoma Melbournium, Mars.* Somerseti, Mars.* Acritus Tasmanie, Lewis. Saprinus australis, Boi.* laetus, Er.* Gnathoncus incisus, Er. PHALACRIDE. Litochrus brunneus, Er. Olibrus Victoriensis, Blackb.* Phalacrus corruscans, Payk.*+ NITIDULIDZ2. Brachypeplus basalis, Er.* blandus, Murray.* planus, Er.* COLEOPTERA. Carpophilus aterrimus, Macl.* frivolus, Murray.* hemipterus, Steph.*+ Stauroglossicus terminalis, Murray.” Ymosita colon, Linn.*+ Haptoncura Victoriensis, Blackb.* Circopes pilistriatus, Macl.* Ericmodes australis, Grouv.* Pria rubicunda, Macl.* TROGOSITID®. Egolia variegata, Er. Tenebriodes mauritanicus, Linn.*+ Leperina decorata, Er.* Phycosecis algarum, Pasc.* CoLYDID. Sparactus interruptus, Er.* pustulosus, Blackb. Ditoma pulchra Black.* serricollis, Pasc.* Meryx aequalis, Blackb.* rugosa, Latr.* Deretaphrus Bakewelli, Pasc.* granulipennis, Reitter.* Bothrideres taeniatus, Pasc.* vittatus, Newm.* Penthelispa fuliginosa, Er.* CuCUJID. Ancistria retusa, Fab.* Prostomis Atkinsoni, Wath.* cornutus, Wath.* Bessaphilus cephalotes, Wath. Ipsaphes maerosus, Pasc.* Platisus angusticollis, Reitter.* obscurus, Er.* Lemophleus bistriatus, Grouv.* Tasmanicus, Grouv. testaceus, Fab.*+ Dendrophagus australis, Er.* Hyliota australis, Er.* bicolor, Arrow.* lucia, Pasc.* militaris, Er.* COLEOPTERA. Y Cryptamorpha Olliffi, Blackb.* optata, Oll. triguttata, Wath.* Silvanus brevicornis, Er. Surinamensis, Linn.*+ unidentatus, Fab.*+ Myrabolia Grouvelliana, Reitter.* CRYPTOPHAGIDA. Cryptophagus gibbipennis, Blackb.* LATHRIDIIDA. Lathridius apicalis, Blackb.* costatipennis, Blackb.* costatus, Er.* nigromaculatus, Blackb.* nodifer, Westw.*+ satelles, Blackb.* semicostatus, Blackb.* Corticaria Adelaide, Blackb.* australis, Blackb.* MYCETOPHAGID®. Triphyllus intricatus, Blackb.* multiguttatus, Lea.* DERMESTID&. Dermestes cadaverinus, Fab.*+ lardarius, Linn.*+ vulpinus, Fab.*+ Megatoma morio, Er. tenuifasciata, Reitt. Cryptorrhopalum Erichsoni, Reitt.* Thaumaglossa concavifrons, Reitt. Trogoderma riguum, Kr. Anthrenus varius, Fab.*+ BYRRHIiD&. Microchaetes scoparius, Er.” Limnichus australis, Er. Aspidophorus humeralis, Blackb.* PARNID&. Elmis Tasmanicus, Blackb. COLEOPTERA. LUCANIDZ. Lamprima rutilans, Er.* Lissotus cancroides, Fab. curvicornis, Boi. forcipula, Westw. Launcestoni, Westw. latidens, Westw. obtusatus, Westw. opacus, Parry. subcrenatus, Westw. subtuberculatus, Westw. Hoplogonus Simsoni, Parry. Syndesus cornutus, Fab.* Ceratognathus niger, Westw.* Westwoodi, Thoms.* Mastochilus dilatatus, Dalm.* ScARABAHIDA. Onthophagus anisocerus, Er. auritus, Er.* australis, Guer.* evanidus, Har. fuliginosus, Er. mutatus, Har.* posticus, Er.* pronus, Er.* Proctophanes sculptus, Hope.* Phycochus graniceps, Broun. (occurs also in New Zealand). Aphodius erosus, Er. Howitti, Hope:* Tasmaniz, Hope. Ataenius Frenchi, Blackb.* mendax, Blackb.* Bolboceras Kirbyi, Westw.* proboscideus, Schreib.* Trox Australasie, Er.* Phyllotocus assimilis, Macl.* bimaculatus, Er. Lottoni, Boi. Macleayi, Fisch.* rufipennis, Boi.* Diphucephala colaspidoides, Gyll.* Mechidius corrosus, Wath. Xylonychus nigrescens, Blanch. piliger, Blanch. COLEOPTERA. Lt Liparetrus atratus, Burm. basalis, Blanch. concolor, Er. discipennis, Guer.* pruinosus, Burm. salebrosus, Macl.* ubiquitosus, Macl.* vestitus, Blanch. Automolus angustulus, Burm. Scitala geminata, Boi.* nigrolineata, Boi.* sericans, Hr. Colpocheila obesa, Boi.* Haplonycha scutalis, Blanch.* Heteronyx australis, Guer. dimidiatus, Er. diversipes, Blackb. fumatus, Er. glabratus, Er. jubatus, Blackb.* ° nigellus, Er. ovatus, Blanch.* precox, Er. striatipennis, Blanch. tempestivus, Er. unicolor, Blanch. Caulobius pubescens, Er. rufescens, Blanch. Telura vitticollis, Er.* Nepytis russula, Er. Rhizotrogus Tasmanicus, Burm. Anoplognathus suturalis, Bo1.* Saulostomus villosus. Wath.* Cheiroplatys maelius, Er. Pimelopus porcellus Er. Pseudopimelopus Lindi. Blackb.* Cryptodus anthracinus, Er. Tasmanius, Westw. Microvalgus Lapeyrousei, G. & P.* BUPRESTIDE. Cyria imperialis, Don.* Chalcophora albivittis, Hope.* Nascio carissima, Wath.* Parryi, Hope.* 12 COLEOPTERA. Melobasis gloriosa, L. & G.* hypocrita, Er. intricata, Blackb. monticola, Blackb.* nervosa, Boi.* prisca, Er. simplex, Germ.* splendida, Don.* Conognatha navarchis, Thoms. Stigmodera Australasie, L. & G.* Bremei, Hope.* erythromelas, ' Boi. insularis, Blackb. jubata, Blackb. Mitchelli, Hope.* ocelligera, L. & G. rufipennis, Kirby.* Thomsoni, Saund.* undulata, Don.* virginea, Er. Wilsoni, Saund.* Cisseis cupreicollis, Hope.* maculata, Lb. & G.* Neospades Westwoodi, L. & G. Discoderes Tasmanicus, Germ. Agrilus hypoleucus, L. & G.* TRIXAGIDA. Aulonothroscus elongatus. Bonv.* _ KUCNEMIDA. Pheenocerus subclavatus, Bonv. Galbodema Mannerheimi, Cast. ELATERIDA. Lacon caliginosus, Guer.* guttatus, Cand.” humilis, Er. pictipennis, Cand.* variabilis, Cand.* Victoriz, Cand.* Glyphochilus furvus, Er. lucidus, Er. Tasmanicus, Cand. — COLEOPTERA. 13 Monocrepidius Australasiz, Boi.* cerdo, Er.* Cordieri, L. & G.* coxalis, Cand. fabrilis, Er.* fuscicornis, Er. rutilicornis, Er. tabidus, Er. viduus, Cand. Elater perplexus, Cand.* Horistonotus humilis, Cand. Corymbites Tasmanicus, Cand. Chrosis trisulcata, Er. Crepidomenus decoratus, Er.* fulgidus, Er. teniatus, Er. Anilicus 4 guttatus, Hr. Acroniopus humilis, Er. infimus, Er. RHIPIDOCERIDA, Rhipidocera femoralis, Kirby.* DASCILLIDAZ. Helodes Atkinsoni, Wath. australis, Er. maculatus, Wath. Macrohelodes Tasmanicus, Blackb. MALACODERMIDA, Metriorrhynchus atratus, Fab.* erythropterus, Er.* hemorrhoidalis, Wath.* insignipennis, Blackb. marginatus, Er. rufipennis, Fab.* salebrosus, Wath.* "itieh alae discoideus, Er. Calopteron Goryi, Le G. Eros scutellaris, Kr. ooo nants nobilitatus, Er.* pulchellus, Macl.* tricolor, .Cast.* Selenurus tricolor, Gea Hypattalus abdominalis, Er. Dasytes fuscipennis, Hope.* 14 COLEORTERA. CLERIDZ. Cylidrus basalis, Macl.* centralis, Pasc.* : nigrinus, White.* Tillus hilaris, White. Opilo 6 notatus, Westw. var. pulcher, White. Thanasimus accinctus, Newm.* Natalis cribricollis, Spin.* porcata, Fab.* Aulicus corallipes, Chev. instabilis, Newm.* Tarsotenus zonatus, Blanch.* Eburiphora patricia, Klug. Eleale intricata, Klug. lanata, Chev. simplex, Newm.* speculum, Chev. Tasmaniez, Chev. Lemidia hilaris, Newm.* malthinus, Newm. nitens, Newm.* pictipes, Blackb.* pulchella, Blackb.* simulans, Blackb.* subenea, Gorh.* Tasmanie, White. Tenerus abbreviatus, White.* Pylus fatuus, Newm.* Paratillus carus, Newm.* Necrobia pinguis, Westw. ruficollis, Fab.*+ rufipes, De Geer.*+ LYMEXYLONIDA. Lymexylon australe, Er. Atractocerus Victoriensis, Blackb.* CUPESIDA. Cupes varians, Lea.* PTINIDZ. Ptinus exulans, Er.* fur, Linn.*+ tectus, Boield.*t Anobium domesticum, Linn.*+ paniceuim, Linn.* + COLEOPTERA. CIOIDz. Lyctus brunneus, Steph.*+ costatus, Blackb. Cis munitus, Blackb. BOSTRYCHIDZ. Xylodoleis obsipa, Germ.* Xylion cylindricus, Macl.* collaris, Er.* Xylopsocus gibbicollis, Macl.* elongatula, Maci.* Leai, Lesne. Xylopsocus gibbicollis, Macl.* TENEBRIONIDA. Cotulades fascicularis, Pasce. Docalis funerosa, Hope. Prionotus serricollis, Hope.* Edylius canescens, Champ. Scymena amphilia, Pasc.* Sphargeris physodes, Pasc.* Cestrinus aversus, Pasc.* obscurus, Er. punctatissimus, Pasc. trivialis, Er.* Ecripsis pubescens, Pasc. Dipsaconia australis, Hope.* Ulodes verrucosus, Er.* Caanthus gibbicollis, Champ. Latometus pubescens, Er. Elascus crassicornis, Pasc.* lunatus, Pasc.* Ganyme sapphira, Newm.* Ennebeus australis, Champ. ovalis. Wath. Ennebeopsis pruinosus, Champ. Lyphia Tasmanica, Champ. Platydema limacoides, Pasc.* tetraspilota, Hope.* Tribolium ferrugineum, Fab.*+ Paratoxicum iridescens, Champ. Uloma ovalis, Perr. Alphitobius mauritanicus, Luc.*+ Toxicum punctipenne, Pasc.* Pteroheleus Guerini, Breme. Reichei, Breme.* 16 COLEOPTERA. Saragus infelix, Pasc. laevicollis, Oliv.* peltatus, Er.* Promethis angulata, Er.* Menephilus colydioides, Er.* corvinus, Er.* humilis, Er. longipennis, Hope. ruficornis, Champ. Meneristes australis, Boi.* servulus, Pasc.* Tenebrio obscurus, Linn.*+} Tanylypa morio, Pasce. Decialma Erichsoni, Champ. Chartopteryx nitida, Er. Lepispilus sulcicollis, Bo1.* Titena alcyonea, Er.* columbina, Er.* Tasmanica, Champ. Melytra ovata, Pasc. Hymea succinifera, Pasc. Adelium abbreviatum, Boi. commodum, Pasc.* elongatum, Er. latum, Pasc.* licinoides, Kirby. neophyta, Pasc.* nodulosum, Champ. obesum, Pasc.* porcatum, Fab.* Tasmanicum, Champ. tenebrioides, Er. Seirotrana catenulata, Boi.* Brycopia tuberculifera, Champ. Dinoria celioides, Pasc.* picta, Pasc. , Coripera deplanata, Boi. Licinoma pallipes, Blackb.* Phennis fasciculata, Champ. Chalcopterus Howitti, Pasc.* iridicolor, Bless.* * CISTELIDA. Pseudocistela ovalis, Blackb.* Licymnius bicolor, Blackb.* Chromomea nigriceps, Champ. a as tv ASR COLEOPTERA. Le Nypsius zneopiceus, Champ. foveatus, Champ. Apellatus Tasmanicus, Champ. Allecula luctuosa, Champ. Homotrysis bicolor, Champ. Nocar latus, Blackb.* PyTHIDZ&. Lissodema hybridum, Er.* Notosalpingus ornatus, Blackb.* MELANDRYID&. Dirceea velutina, Champ. venusta, Champ. Talayra elongata, Macl.* Ctenoplectron agile, Champ.* Orchesia austrina, Champ.* Mystes planatus, Champ.* Trichosalpingus fumatus, Champ.* Lagrioida australis, Champ.* Scraptia australis, Champ. laticollis, Champ. punctatissima, Champ. LaGRIID&. Lagria grandis, Gyll.* XYLOPHILID#. Xylophilus impressicollis, Lea.* inconspicuus, Blackb.* pectinicornis, Champ. ANTHICIDZ, Tomoderus vinctus, Er. Anthicus australis, King.* brevicollis, King.* floralis, Linn.*+ glaber, King.* Mastersi, Macl.* rarus, King.* strictus, Er.* Tasmanicus, Champ. Formicomus Denisoni, King.* 18 COLEOPTERA. MoRDELLID. Mordella albosparsa, Genim.* bella, Wath.* communis, Wath.* felix, Wath.- fulvonotata, Champ.* graphiptera, Champ.* humeralis, Wath.* leucosticta, Germ.* parva, Champ. promiscua, Hr. pygmea, Champ ruficollis, Wath.* tristis, Lea.* trivialis, Wath.* Waterhousei, Champ.* Mordellistena jucunda, Champ.* RHIPIDOPHORIDA. Nephrites nitidus, Shuck. Rhipidius pectinicornis, Thunb.*+ CANTHARIDZ, Zonitis cyanipennis, Pasc.* tricolor, Le G.* Sitarida minor, Champ. Ci DEMERIDA., Copidita Macleayi, Champ.* nigronotata, Boh.* punctum, Macl.* Nacerdes melanura, Linn.*+ Asclera Atkinsoni, Wath.* sublineata, Wath.* Dohrnia miranda, Newm.* simplex, Champ. Pseudolychus cinctus, Guer.* hemorrhoidalis, Fab.* Techmessa ruficollis, Champ. CURCULIONIDA. Rhadinosomus Lacordairei var. Tasmanicus, Blackb. Prostomus scutellaris, Fab.* Euthyphasis acuta, Pasc. Maleuterpes spinipes, Blackb.* COLEOPTERA, Otiorhynchus scabrosus, Marsh.*+ sulcatus, Fab.*+ Merimnetes oblongus, Blanch. Leptops tribulus, Fab.* Amisallus nocdosus, Er.* Ethemaia sellata, Pasc.* Psalidura impressa, Boi. Talaurinus exasperatus, Er.* penicillatus, Macl. Sclerorrhinus bubalus, Oliv. tristis, Boi. Tetralophus sculpturatus, Wath.* Mandalotus crudus, Er. hoplostethus, Pasc. sterilis, Er. Steriphus solidus, Er. Perperus insularis, Boh.* languidus, Er. Methypora postica, Pasc.* Oxyops fasciata, Boi.* Pantoreites illuminatus, Lea. Syarbis alcyone, Lea. Gonipterus exaratus, Fahrs.* scutellatus, Gyll.* turbidus. Pasc Prophesia confusa, Pasc. Strongylorrhinus ochraceus, Sch.* Aromagis echinatus, Pasc.* Atelicus abruptus, Pace. atrophus, Pasc. guttatus, Pasc. incequalis, Wath.* Aterpus cultratus, Fab.* rubus, Boh Pelororrhinus margaritaceus, Er.* Rhinaria costata, Er.* granulosa, Fahrs.* perdix, Pasc.* transversa, Bo1.* Orthorhinus aethiops, Boi.* cylindirostris, Fab.* Klugi, Boh.* lepidotus, Er. Lixus Mastersi, Pasc.* Aoplocnemis phaleratus, Er.* rufipes, Boh.* Tasmanicus, Blackb. 20 COLEOPTERA. Anorthorhinus apicalis, Lea.* ’ pictipes, Blackb.* Desiantha maculata,Blackb.* vittata, Blackb.* Storeus monticola, Blackb.* Encosmia cornuta, Blackb. Misophrice parallela, Black.* variabilis, Blackb.* Cryptoplus perdix, Er. Rhaciodes bicaudatus, Boi.* dentifer, Boh.* granulifer, Chev.* multidentatus, Chev. Meriphus fullo, Er.* Eristus setosus, Blackb.* Myositta cirrifera, Pasc.* Belus bidentatus, Don.* bimaculatus, Pasc.* filum, Jekel.* Grayi, Jekel. irroratus, Jekel. rubicuncus, Lea.* Pachyura australis, Hope.* dermestiventris, Boi.* minima, Blackb.* Rhinotia hemoptera, Kirby.* Eurhynchus quadridens, Er. quadrinodosus, Er. Auletes melaleuce, Lea.* melanocephalus, Er. suturalis, Wath.* Diapelmus mendax, Er. Lemosaccus carinicollis, Lea.* ocularis, Pasc.* rufipennis, Lea.* subsig&evus, Boh. Platyurus brevicornis, Blanch. Haplonyx albofasciatus, Chev. fasciculatus, Bohem.* frontalis, Chev. Kirbyi, Fahrs.* mediocinctus, Chev. nigrirostris, Chev.* Spencei, Gyll.* vicinus, Chev.* Rhamphus acaciz, Lea.* COLEOPTERA. Pseudostoreus placitus, Lea.* Cyllorhamphus tuberosus, Er. Melanterius maculatus, Lea.* porcatus, Er.* Poropterus abstersus, Boh. antiquus, Boh. conifer, Er.* satyrus, Pasc. (Gen. Dub.). succisus, Er. zopherus, Lea. Microporopterus tumulosus, Pasc.* Acalles acerosus, Er. (Gen. Dub.). rubetra, Er. (Gen. Dub.). Euthyrrhinus meditabundus, Fab.* Ephrycus obliquus,, Pasc.* Isax gallinago, Pasc.* Achopera lachrymosa, Pasc.* Tychreus camelus, Pasc. Exithius capucinus, Fasc. cariosus, Er. morbillosus, Pasc. musculus, Pasc. Cryptorrhynchus antares, Er. (Gen. Dub.). infulatus, Er. (Gen. Dub.). sirius, Er. (Gen. Dub.). solidus, Er. (Gen. Dub.). Ampagia femoralis, Er. Tyrtzosus ustulatus, Pasc.* Aphela algarum, Pasc.* Pentarthrum nigrum, Woll. Pentamimus canaliculatus, Woll. Cossonus preustus, Redt.* Tasmanica myrmecophila, Lea. Rhyncolus polixus, Er. (Gen. Pub.). australis, Er (Gen. Dub.). ScoLyTID&. Cryphalus pilosellus, Er. Xyleborus truncatus, Er.* BRENTHID. Cyphagogus delicatus, Lea.* Cordus hospes, Germ.* 21 22 COLEOPTERA. ANTHRIBIDZ. Anthribus bispinus, Er. Tropideres albuginosus, Er. musivus, Er. BRUCHID. Bruchus rufimanus, Boh.*+ CERAMBYCID. Cnemoplites australis, Er. Toxeutes arcuatus, Fab.* Enneaphyllus eneipennis, Thoms. Pecilus metallicus, Newm.* Phacodes obscurus, Fab.* ersonatus, Er.* Phoracantha fallax, Pasc.* quinaria, Newm.* senio, Newm.* semipunctata, Fab.* synonyma, Newm.* Tryphocharia Mastersi, Pasc.* . superans, Pasc. Epithora dorsalis, Macl.* Allotisis unifasciata, Hope.* Coptocercus rubripes, Boi.* Sisyrium plagiatum, Gahan. Acyrusa Tasmanica, Gahan. Bethelium Blackburni, Gahan. signiferum, Newm.* Notoceresium impressiceps, Blackb. Callidiopis precox. Er.* scutellaris, Fab.* Phlyctaenodes fasciatus, Gahan. pustulatus, Hope. pustulosus, Newm.* tristis, Fab. Tessaromma sericans, Er.* undatum, Newm.* Gracilia pygmaea, Fab.*} Strongylurus ceresiodes, Pasc. scutellatus, Hope. Lygesis mendica, Pasc.* Uracanthus bivittatus, Newm.* pallens, Hope. Rhinopthalmus nasutus, Newm.* Tritocosmia paradoxa, Pasc.* COLEOPTERA. 23 Tropis oculifera, Newm. Pterostenus concolor, Macl.* suturalis, Oliv.* Syllitus microps, Blackb. rectus, Newm.* Macrones acicularis, Pasc.* exilis, Newm.* Enchoptera apicalis, Saund. Brachopsis concolor, Saund. Pseudocephalus arietinus, Newm. Zoedia divisa, Pasc.* triangularis, Pasc.* V-album, Bot. Earinus mimula, Pasc.* Mecynopus cothurnatus, Er. Hesthesis cingulata, Kirby.* Distichocera par, Newm.* Pytheus latebrosus, Newm.* Brachytria gulosa, Newm.* Omophena teniata, Pasc.* Ochyra coarctata, Pasc. Homemota Walkeri, Gahan. Amphirhoe decora, Newm.* Tragocerus Spencei, Hope.* Dorcadida biocularis, White. Walkeri, Gahan. Microtragus luctuosus, Shuck. Zygocera cenosa, Er.* lugubris, Pasc.* Probatodes piliger, Macl.* Ancita crocogaster, Bo1.* marginicollis, Boi.* sparsa, Pasc.* Rhytiphora Simsoni, Blackb. Acanthocinus plumula, Newm. Pentacosmia scoparia, Newm.* Tllena exilis, Er. CHRYSOMELID&. - Microdonacia incerta, Blackb.* Ditropidus lentulus, Chp.* ochropus, Er. ruficollis, Saund. rufipes, Saund. subeneus, Chp. Lachnabothra Saundersi, Baly.* COLEOPTERA, Cadmus australis, Bo1.* cognatus, Saund.* crucicollis, Boi.* dorsalis var. Ewingi, Saund.* ferrugineus, Fairm.* . pacificus, Suff.* rufescens, Saund.* strigillatus, Chp.* Tasmanicus, Saund. Cryptocephalus albilinea, Saund.* apicalis, Saund.* ater, Saund.* consors, Boi.* erosus, Saund.* hematodes, Boi.* Jacksoni, Guer.* rufescens, Saund.* subfasciatus, Saund.* var. melanocephalus, Saund.. vermicularis, Saund.* viridipennis, Saund.* viridis, Saund.* Loxopleurus Tasmanicus, Saund.* Noda Tasmanica, Jac. Agetinus jugularis, Hr. Tomyris elegantula, Laf. proxima, Er. viridula, Er. Phyliocharis cyanicornis, Fab.* Chalcolampra enea, Boi.* constricta, Er.* luteicornis, Er. pacifiea, Er. thoracica, Baly.* Calomela Curtisi, Kirby.* maculicollis. Boi.* Paropsis agricola, Chp. atomaria, Oliv.* aurea, Blackb. bimaculata, Oliv.* Calliope, Blackb. comma, Blackb. decolorata, Chp.* delicatula, Chp.* ferrugata, Chp. hamadryas, Stal.* var. flavitarsis, Chp. COLEOPTERA. 25 Paropsis hectica, Bo1.* hera, Stal. lachesis, Stal.* laesa, Germ.* lepida, Er. lignea, Er. lineata, Marsh.* lutea, Marsh.* morio, Fab.* nobilitata, Er. nucea, Er. obliterata, Er. obovata, Chp.* orphana. Er. papulenta, Chp. papulosa, Er. picea, Oliv.* porosa, Hr.* reticulata, Marsh.* rufipes, Fab.* rugosa, Chp.* serpiginosa, Er. Simsoni, Blackb. ® subcostata, Chp. subfasciata var. planior, Blackb. Tasmanica, Baly. trimaculata, Chap.* umbrosa, Chp.* varlicollis, Chp.* venusta, Er. Arsipoda bifrons, Er. Erichsoni, Baly. variegata, Wath. Graptodera corrusca, Er. Haltica australis, Blackb.* ignea, Blackb.* pagana, Blackb.* Chetocnema Erichsoni, Baly. Psylliodes chlorophana, Er. Ellopia pedestris, Er.* Monolepta alpina, Blackb.* nigricornis, Blackb.* subsuturalis, Blackb.* Kuryspa vittata, Baly.* Monochirus fimbriatus, Chp. COLEOPTERA. EROTYLIDZ. Thallis compta, Er.* femoralis, Blackb. janthina, Er.* vinula, Er.* Episcaphula australis, Boi.* ENDOMYCHID&, Daulis cimicoides, Er. CoccINELLID2. Leis conformis, Bo1.* Coccinella. transversalis, Fab.* Halyzia Mellyi, Muls.* Alesia frenata, Er.* Orcus Australasie. Boi.* bilunulatus, Boi.* Novius cardinalis. Muls Rhizobius alphabeticus, Lea.* Boucardi, Crotch.* calomeloides, Lea. discolor, Er.* hirtellus, Crotch.* Lindi, Blackb.* pulcher, Blackb.* tricolor, Lea. ventralis, Er.* virgatus, Lea. Scymnus flavifrons, Blackh * trilobus, Lea. vagans. Blac’': Pharus strangulatus FF: Bucolus obscurus, Lea. Serangium nigrum, Lea. Cycloscymnus minutus, Blackb.* Epilachna Tasmanica, Crotch 11 variolata, Boi. * Bs CORYLCP HID. Corylopbus fasciatus Er thoracicus, E: CONDITIONS UPON WHICH THE HEALTHY GROWTH OF THE POPULATION OF YOUNG COLONIES DEPEND. BY R. M. JOHNSTON, F.S8. (Read 14th July, 1903). It is a great pleasure to me to listen to” any paper written by Mr Green, for whatever subject engages his attention is sure to have been studied with more than ordinary care, and his conclusions are such that we must always entertain them with the greatest respect, even when we may have some difficulty in adopting them in their entirety. While dwelling upon the gceat future possibilities of this particu- larly favored portion of the Common- wealth as regards climate, soil, and other natural advantages, in all of which considerations I am heartily in accord with him, I was (as_ regards’ the immediate attractions to immigrants from less-favored centres of far distant, densely-populated countries) pleased to note his caution as to the class of immigrants that should be _ specially encouraged to make a home in our midst. He has carefully § shown that ‘it is not wise to indiscrimi- nately invite all sorts of people to come to Tasmania, or to any other parts of the world.” ‘* Experience gained in large communities may be of value, but before launching out in a new country itis absolutely essential to obtain a knowledge of local conditions.’ Among such conditions, as regards the intending settler upon the land, he mentions the necessity of paying special attention to the differences in soil and climate. He further very wisely observes that: ‘‘ It is undoubted that the prosperity of new countries must depend largely upon agri- culture, especially upon what are termed small industries—industries where profits are derived from the economical working of the soil, and which enables large families to live comfortably on small acreages. These conclusions of Mr Green are strongly borne out by facts and figures which have come under my own observation. While I am in perfect agreement with Mr Green in the belief that it is very desirable to encourage immigration, and that this favored little colony, although by far the smallest member of the Aus- tralian Commonwealth is capable of sus' taining in comfort a population of twelve times its present number, still great caution must be exercised as to the character and the numbers of immi- grants introduced at any one point of time, It is true the United States of America recelves yearly a stream of immigrants from the crowded centres of Europe of over 400,000, without much disturbance to the natural proportions of its various divisions of occupations. But even the 487,918 immigrants absorbed by her in the year 1901 only represents 0.64 per cent of her enormous population of 76 millions, aud only represents 14 per- sons added to every 100 square miles of her territory. It is of interest also at the present time to note the curious composition of this important yearly stream of immigrants absorbed by the United States The following table shows the origin of the 487,918 immigrants from European countries in the order of their relative importance as regards num- bers :— IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES (1901), Country of Origin. No. Per cent. Italy : 2) 435,996 27.37 Austria-Hungary... 113,390 23.24 Russia a 85,257 17.47 British Isles 45,564 9.34 Sweden, Norway, and Denmark 39,2384 8.04 Germany 21,651 4.44 Franee D, 150 0.65 Others 43,676 8.95 Total: 2; 487,918 100.00 Large as this stream appears, Its equiva- lent relative to our present population would only represent ar addition of 1182 immigrants yearly. The ability to absorb .« even this number without congestion of the local labor market would entirely de- pend upon the class of immigrant intro- duced. I agree with Mr Green in thinking that unless they were mainly drawn from the agricultural class, the fresh introduc- tion of this number of immigrants yearly to Tasmania would result in congestion of the local labor market. It is a common mistake, also, to imagine that a large population would necessarily improve the eondition of the existing breadwinners of Tasmania. It is too commonly overlooked that the individual breadwinner ef a eountry at the second, or agricultural stage of development, enjoys a much better standard of living than his brother workman in a densely-populated country with its fiercer struggle for existence. Density of population, also involving crowded cities and unhealthy occupations, would banish, too, the high standard of health which the people in these thinly-populated lands now enjoy. The greatness of either the aggregate wealth of a country, or the greatness of the aggregate population affords no infor- mation as to the individual wealth or material well-being of its people; and although in these young colonies of Australasia the rapidity with which they have increased their respective populations may be fairly taken as a good index of a corresponding improvement in the social and material well-being of the people generally, it does not follow that the greatness of a country’s aggregate popula- tion affords the slightest indication as to the standard of living or the materiai well- being of the individuals of which the ag- gregate is composed. The best index of the relative prosperity of the people of different countries, no matter what the aggregate number of the population may be, is the individual purehasing power as indicated by the average ‘‘cost of living” and the “ ratio of cost of food to earn- ings,’’ as in the following table, according to the eminent statistician Mulhall. The. figures for Australasia have been deter- mined by my distinguished friend, M Coghlan. a COST OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE IN RELATION TO EARNINGS AND EFFORT AS INDICATED BY THE AVERAGE DAY'S EARNINGS. oS Loe 9g + aH Sere cae vo as o . | Ze SS ssn} fe Bede Country. o., Bl oe wos | o 8 a S60 | 2812860 PM Mee ies > 0-2 er |3ee < am A Per | Days. £ 8s di Cent United Kingdom |14 4 9} 42.2 127 France ... sw ll2 42h ieee 142 Germany 10 18. 6) 40et 148 Russia 5 19 ) Thibe 156 Austria °... 717 4) 50.8 152 Italy 6 4 10 51.2 1538 Spain 8 9) ch aR2 154 Portugal... 7 8 O| 59.1 177 Sweden ... ..o( 9 18 tdi 136 Belgium... (12 3 1 48.4 130 United States 91%; T2as8 76 Canada ... 8. 200) Bhs 97 Australasia wld Lin WTS 112 The above table shows that the condi- tion of the colonies of Australasia com- pares very favorably with most of the countries for which particulars are given, It also shows that while the cost of food and drink is £15 15s 7d per head in Aus- tralasia against £14 4s 9d in the United Kingdom, the proportion of earnings re- quired to pay for this food and the equiva lent in days’ earnings are much less: that is the purchasing power of the average person in Australasia is greater. This favorable position it also maintains as compared witn ail countries, with the exception of the United States’ and Canada. Even*as compared with the latter, the condition of the average per- son is shown to be, if anything, superior, if we take also into consideration the quantity and quality of the food con- sumed as shown in the following sum- mary :— CONSUMPTION OF PARTICULAR KINDS FOOD PER INHABITANT (LBS). ie) zy Tea and Coffee—oz Butter and Cheese, : — qd a wu ~~ -) 6 2 Mm a are cs. -«- of8 109 ‘7a 380 “SE -19 United States... 870 150 53 170 162 20 Canada --- 400 90 45 600 72 22 Australasia ... 392 264 100 266 126 19 Tasmania . 472 245 85 495 113 16 CONDITIONS UPON WHICH PROGRESS IN YOUNG COLONIES DEPENDS. Although much depends upon the wisdom and energy of men in framing wise laws and promoting industries, the developmental progress of young colonies depends, inagreater measure than is gene- rally understood, upon the extent and the natural conditions of the lands open to colonising efforts. The whole fabric of the earlier stages of a colony depends entirely on the agricultural, pastoral, mineral, and other primary industries directly engaged in obtaining the raw or staple products essential to the life of man, viz., food, clothing, shelter, warmth, and other com- forts. Successful enterprise in these primary industries, again, depends largely upon the extent of the natural facilities offered in the various lands’ open for ~ selection to immigrants from other densely-populated centres. Among the principal factors which determine the progress of settlement in the earlier stages of a colony’s history are climate, suita- bility of soil for agricultural or pastoral parsuits, and nearness of producing centres to market or _ seaboard. At first the better lands or more naturally open or _ accessible areas attract the attention of settlers; but the rate;of settlement in each colony greatly diminishes as the poorer or less accessible areas are approached. Thusin 29 the earlier stages, the smaller areas open to settlers in Tasmania and Victoria show a much more rapid development, owing to their greater accessibility, more favorable climate, and, comparatively, more fertile soils attracting a larger pro- portion of the stream of enterprising im- migrants from European centres. The very much greater rate of settlement, however, is soon checked by the limited areas of the smaller colonies, and hence- forward the major stream of immigration gradually diverges to the less favorable climate and the second class pastoral lands of the larger colonies, as shown in the later more rapid development of the larger, naturally open, areas of New South Wales and Queensland. Broadly speaking, therefore, the development of a new colony passes, naturally, through three great successive predominating stages, partly overlapping, viz.: (1) The predominance of the pastoral stage. (2) The predotuinance of the agricultural stage. (3) The predominance of the manufacturing stage, as in Eng- land, Scotland, and Belgium. The last of these stages is a long way off so far as the Australasian Colonies are concerned, because density of population —involving a greater struggle for exist- ence among the laboring classes—is essential to the establishment of great manufacturing industries which can suc- cessfully and independently compete with other countries in the external or open markets of the world. But pastoral and agricultural interests alone cannot support many persons to the square mile of ° territory, and hence, in young colonies, the rate of development, so far as popula- tion is concerned, is usually less rapid when all the more available and accessible Jands have been encroached upon, and when the third or manufacturing stage is approached. The following table, prepared more recently, shows clearly in a general way the proportions of the different classes of breadwinners accordingly as the State or country has arrived at the second and third developmental stages—that is, the agricultural and manufacturing stages. Tasmania and New Zealand are chosen to illustrate the conditions of the second or agricultural stage, and England is chosen to illustrate the conditions of the third or manufacturing stage :— PROPORTION PERCENTAGE OF BREADWEINNERS EMPLOYED IN DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS (GAINFUL) ACCORDINGLY AS THE COUN TRIES COMPARED REPRESENT THE TWO GREAT STAGES OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOP- MENT. PERCENTAGE BREADWINNEBS. ae bok] Se ee : 3 Sas faa O> 6) D210 es we () se eo he ORO Witamren et fai eoegl See Ogg 1D be | AS =H oO/loj;a cs ea lo Ae olroatnan we ODO @ re BD 3 a, gS oO anil | + ' an - | os © 6 sa |o!lo 2885/8 222, /[slsis ua ° So Ooo+e a\l;o;o Te et | et et B/S |S Cas 5 rt |. 89, ‘eb To Tso! Letial = e Sie | os | : 3 “109 OnMnOOrlisIToIlN Bedl|a SxHro , D/S/S A°GRIlaon monvoolaA|so | A) ANN Ss Je) =) o ® 1 rel Bilfer | (ay 3 al ae + OS» oa Babys COsH i cH = EES nN Sadan ~jolx BN°TSG 10D KReOON TH] FT|: = Hey | co Ne Je) S ~ een me Sa ———— —eeeeeeeeeeeesSsseSeSsSSS feb) a : | | S$ 8); 110 MNOOCMW!'M 1:6 |» Bega] e S28OOn |S (S12 Ss SSO} wHeoon | a} qe §°A 1m Aas o;Ss!} (oy tT | — So «3 OG | Oo fy S& op) m ° ie *F ie e e . o cipst © Caepigae : ; : ‘a om 3 al ee nae ts, ee : a = ¥ | ie ee _ eb ee 2 2 — co 3 fittes rT el ls . y ot g sHOPas rae : Ene — Qy oH Py =| q 2, me a fe iS a| ce: 2 2 =m 2, ~ Sie oc 5S iS Fea Oy). | a 2 = ars % —_— ° o Qy SG ie. 8S - » O S) S@Ss5262 4 iy SOR Beas oa + Sonprdnneag a ° S628 9°3e8 = > Fs eS) no, 43 SHCA S os i l<4o eH << A 30 So far as countries at the second or agricultural stage are concerned, it is im- portant to bear in mind that the numbers engaged in the primary industries deter- mine very rigidly the number of persons that may be employed with advantage in any other form of occupation. At this stage, therefore, the latter may well be termed the dependent occupations. The proportions shown indicate that in Tas- mania the natural conditions are such that for every 10,000 persons employed in any occupation there must be 8795 of them engaged in one or other of the agri- cultural, mining, and other primary in- dustries. In other words, every 1000 persons engaged direetly in the primary industries in Tasmania makes it possible for 1634 persons, and no more, to find room for employment in some other useful occupation; aud that for every 10UU persons you can place as bread- winners upon the land, you can economically support an additional popu- lation of 6182 souls. It is largely due to the flooding of particular kinds of employment beyond the strict propor- tions which local wants demand that inconvenience or distress is felt in young as well as in old countries. The numbers which can find entry into the ‘‘depen- dent,”’ industrial, commercial, and pro- fessional divisions eannot, without un- healthy competition, be increased beyond the relative proportions which these divisions must bear to the primary pro- ducing industries of the particular coun- try; and these dominating industries in Australasia are agricultural, pastoral, snd mining. Employment in other divisions ean only follow substantial increases in the primary industries ; for manufacturing industries cannot alter their present proportions independently, as in England, until such time as they are able to suecess- fully manufacture for the external or world’s markets. This applies much more strongly to the smaller division represented by unskilled labor (not agri- cultural or primary), and to the com- mercial and professional classes. These certainly may only increase according to their more or less rigid economic proportions; and, as already stated, this again must be determined by a& previous increase in the funda- mental producing industries of the place. The principal producing industries of the place may increase irrespective of other local divisions, as their products— agricul- tural, pastoral, and mining—may find readily enough the necessary purchasers in foreign markets. Whatever influence therefore, may bar the progress of the dominating producing industries of the place must also bar occupations in all other divisions of services. So far as the State of Tasmania is concerned, I am of opinion that the rate of annual increase—viz., 1°64 per cent per annum—would be the most satisfactory base for forming an estimate of her population 100 years hence. Not- withstanding the favourable and ex- ceptional experience of the United States of America, which has increased its population at the very high annual rate of 2°70 per cent during the 100 years ending the year 1900, and notwithstanding that the Australasian colonies, as a whole, increased at the high annual rate of 6°57 per cent during the last century—I am of opinion it would be altogether improbable that either Tasmania or the other States of the Australian Commonwealth could maintain in the growth of popula- tion, a higher rate of annual increase during the whole course of the next 100 years—than that experienced by Tas- mania during the last decade, viz., 1°64 per cent per annum. The following are the main considerations which have guided me in arriving at conclusions on this sub- ject ;—The relatively more rapid rate of growth of population in young countries— especially in the earlier stages of settle- ment—is mainly due to the following in- fluences : (1) Theinflux of a continuous stream of immigrants producing, at first, toa small population, a much larger proportion of the annual increase than the ultimate major source of increase, viz., the annual rate of natural increase, or the excess of births over deaths. For example, to a population of say 200,600, an influx in one year of 20,000 immigrants would represent an annual increase of as much as 10 per cent., while the normal natural inerease would be above the average if it amounted to 2 per cent., representing only an increase of 4000. At a later stage when the population reached 10,000,000, an influx of 50,000 immigrants in one year would only represent one-half 31 per cent., while the natural increase of say 2 per cent. would add as much to its population in one year as 200,000. This is the true reason why such abnormal annual rates of increase occur in the earlier decades of the wonderful develop- ment of these Australasian colonies, and it explains why the high annual rate of increase of 11:27 per cent. in the decade ending in the year 1861 has egradually fallen until it reached the average of only 1:78 per cent. per annum during the decade ending in the year 1901. The following table further illustrates the fluctuating character of the earlier periods of high rates of increase due to influx of immigrants in young countries, as con- trasted with the more normal progress of the United Kingdom with its great density of population, in which the influence of migration on its annual rate of increase is so comparatively small that it may be altogether ignored :— ANNUAL RatTE oF INCREASE OF Poputa- TION DurING THE Last CENTURY IN OLD aND YounG Countries Com- PARED a 5 s 33 @ winddo omblod a Boll Dobe. oita ¢ -3 aR NE ance arr hres ® 'S re a Zz a =) i) =) Oo < i 1810-11 3°38 38:12 2°88 688 — 1820-21 1:59 290 2:88 11:94 —~ 1830-31 1°41 2°95 0-80 8:84 16:41 1840-41 1:08 2°85 6:39 10°28 6°55 1850-51 —=6.0°25." 3°11 ~~" 0.87, 7°39 ° 3:40 1860-61, "O63 :o 10 7.558 127. ooo 1870-71 O88 (2:07. 1:64 4:39 1T13 1880-81 1:02 2°73 1:75 3°60 1.38 1890 91 O79 280 41:12 3°34 92:36 1900-0f ° ‘O°75 .) S56 °° 06 “T78 “F64 NUMBER OF YEARS REQUIRED TO DOUBLE POPULATION. * 71°80 2662 28°64 10°89 16°35 + 92°79 85°71 65°71 39:29 42°61 * Average of the last century (years). + Average of the last decade (years), (2.) The preceding table clearly demon- strates not only that the annual rate of increase of population in the younger countries is rapidly approaching the normal rates of the older and more densely-populated centres of population, but also, as regards the latter, there is evidence of another cause in operation during the last decade, having the effect of still lowering the annual rate of increase of the population. From the beginning of the year 1881 the statistics of the United Kingdom and of the Australasian Colonies show, unmistakably, that a great change has taken place as regards the social conditions of the people, and specially affecting the birth-rate in these countries. My friend, Mr Coghlan, the distinguished statistician of New South Wales, has made a special study of this important matter. In his statistical account of ‘‘ The Seven Colonies of Aus- tralasia, 1901-1902 ” (pp. 502-503) he has made the following important observa: tions: ‘‘ It is a matter of common know- ledge that for some years past the birth- rate in Australasia has been declining, and so important is the subject—not only as regards the growth of population, but also as affecting general progress—that in 1899 the author made a special investiga- tion into the question of childbirth in Australia, but more particularly with reference to New South Wales. The con- clusions arrived at with respect to that State, however, may be held to obtain for all the others, seeing the conditions of living do not differ materially in any of them. During the course of the investi- gation it was found, first, that for all women the proportion of fecund marriages is decreasing; second, that among fecund women the birth-rate is much reduced as compared with what it was twenty years ago. It was also found that the decline has been persistent and regular since 1881, and this restriction of births in a young country like Australia, where immigration is discouraged, is a matter which must have far-reaching results although its economic effects are only beginning to be seen, and should claim the serious consideration of all thought- ful people.” It is true that the lowering of the birth-rate, at once, to some extent, operates in reducing the general death- rate also: but the serious decline in the rate of natural increase, as shown in the following summary, is a strong additional reason for caution in forming any estimate of the growth of population in these colonies during the next century :— 82 BIRTH-RATE, DEATH-RATE AND NATURAL RATE OF INCREASE IN EACH QUINQUENNIUM IN AUSTRALASIA, 1861-1900. AVERAGE RATE. Quin- Birth- Death- Natural quennium. rate. rate. Increase. 1861-65 41°92 16°75 25°17 1866-70 39°84 15°62 24°22 1871-75 3734 15°26 22°08 1876-80 36°38 15°04 21°34 1881-85 35-21 14:79 20°42 1886-90 34°45 13'95 _ 20°48 1891-95 ... 81°55 12°76 20°79 1896-1900... 27°31 12°20 15°11 I have thus given, as briefly as the nature of the subject permits, the reason- ing upon which, elsewhere, I have chosen to base my estimate of the growth of © population in this State upon the latest ’ rates of annual increase, rather than upon averages, which include the differing ~ conditions of the earlier periods, in- volving as they do the unreliable disturbing conditions and non-recur- ring abnormal proportional increases, due to influx of immigrants. It is even doubtful if the lower average rates of increase of the last decade can be maintained over so long a period as the next 100 years; but when we consider that the nearness of the United States of America, with her still vast areas of undeveloped lands open to the surplus population of Europe, her rapidly growing density of population, with the resulting congestion of her labor market, perhaps may favor a diversion of a very much larger proportion of European surplus labor to Australia within the next thirty or forty years. We have, therefore, good reason for the belief that the higher stages of development in the United States, in the coming century, may specially favor ' the progress of the Australasian group. An estimate prepared by me, based upon the experience of twenty-one great coun- tries, with a population of over 400 millions, demonstrates that the present civilisation requires the cultivation of 2.25 acres per head for food and raw products. The present area of the United States is reckoned at about 2291 million acres. Allowing a need of the estimated requirement of cultivated land, viz., 2.25 acres per head, for supply- ing the whole round of wants of each person, and that three-fourths of her total area are capable of cultivation; then if her population increases at her present rate of 1:96 per cent. per year, it would be so vast in 119 years (763 million persons) that the produce of every available acre would be wholly required for home con- sumption. The checks to population, however, may be expected to increase, and this limit may be placed further back ; but it is clear that the need to withdraw, more and more, her present enormous export of raw products from external markets will greatly operate in enhancing the value of the virgin soils of the more distant Australasia, and so give an additional spur to her development in the coming years. PROBABLE GROWTH OF POPULATION TASMANIA DURING THE NEXT CENTURY. Turning our attention now to the future, and assuming that the annual rate of growth of population during the last decade (1°64) will be maintained without any material change throughout the next 100 years, the following table has been prepared by me showing the estimated population in single years for the first ten, and thereafter in intervals of ten years. The population of the Commonwealth is IN 3d given for comparison at intervals of ten years. The annual rate assumed by me for the determination of the latter is taken at 1°73 per cent. ESTIMATED POPULATION DURING THE NEXT 100 yEaARs. Tasmania’s Year, Tasmania. Common- Per Cent. wealth. Proportion. 1902 177,077 3,883,822 4.56 1903 179,981 1904 182,933 1905 185,933 1906 188,982 1907 192,082 1908 195,282 1909 198,434 1910 201,688 4,455,037 4,53 1920 237,316 5,288,607 1930 279,288 6,278,144 1940 328,565 17,452,832 1950 886,609 8,847,310 4,37 1960 454,899 10,502,700 1970 535,256 12,467,800 1980 629,809 14,800,610 1990 741,069 17,570,000 2000 871,971 20,857,405 2001 886,278 21,218,208 2002 900,810 21,585,350 4,17 wanes ka. dihabid i tian 4O) chon, Sadi! sod Lacon tte iy aes erlaiy ih ataeee nee 6 tig ove Envi eenan hid o fac’ oA OR Niele t vate bhi nip MOV AT ETOS Cy ARR =H HON x ae hp Rha Tg da Vv vf 5 } cy? ised! iaiecr: a | 2th eset) beta memtlt Sanh we PN one | oir cy a RA : arr inke Gey Se LEASED) LNA VEE GOee ea neh! ae ih) a) CELE Rol ROG BY PRR EALT: SORE, 1 4 ‘ ov ‘ i ' ' ‘ ida 6) : ef 0 b cAD ty ‘ Gp? ard § tie tee j SME RE Tule ' f SG Es Made e Hh wi Hee te te OID Ef OHS TS) BA TACs) a a EOL r a 8 Th Stee ; Ath rag ¢) ] Y % a he ’ #3} r ate aa aes t t . is E)3i) ; Nas GE i A Ley ee tt +c Ho Spee GaSe ( : : I ey Tia: Tat a iit Cope i if ¥ ». 2 Cre, Vib Ye ‘ yh Gh cir ey erst } Gite) j bi OOO Va Te: OO BY Od | BO) RIS 2 OES ODOR im!) ' lee © uy 7 {iP ‘ Li Wa q OR Roo (ies RARE GLA, OOKE SON ay) * M i 7 : a 4) .2°3 100°1 Specific gravity 3.23; hardness, about 6. (G. Waller: Report on the iron and zinc-lead ore deposits of the Comstock District, lst February, 1903.) 68 TASMANIAN MINERALS. 14 Dvurrenite (Basie ferric phosphate.) Occurs as a thin incrustation of an olive to blackish- green colour on zinc-bearing gangue at the Bell’s Reward Mine, Heazlewood. 15 Emeportte (Chlorobromide of siver.) In minute but perfectly cubical crystals, which are occasionally octrahedrous. Occurs in a seam of gossan at the Magnet Silver Mine, Magnet. 16 Fevspar (Polysiicates of aluminium potassium, é&c.) The following note on this important group is kindly supplied by Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, Government Geologist : — / Orthoclase occurs in our granites, syenites, elvans, and quartz porphyries. The most common com combinations are (010), (110), (001). Carlsbad twins [twinning plane parallel to the orthopina- coid] (100) are frequently seen. The crystals are generally turbid from decomposition into kaolin, or muscovite. Replacement by pinite chlorite, &c., has occasionally taken place. Porphyritic crystals of an inch or two in length are common in the granite of the East and North-East Coasts. Sanidine—This_ pellucid monoclinic felspar is found in the alkali syenites and _ elaeolite syenite porphyries of Port Cygnet. It fre quent'y shews zonal structure. Plagioclase Felspars, albite, oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, bytownite, anorthite, form a continu- ous series, in which, according to Tschermak, albite and anorthite are opposite extremes. The intermediate felspars have been shewn by Schuster to be isomorphous mixtures of albite and anorthite. Albite occurs as replacement of the groundmass of porphyroids or keratophyres at Mount Read; in larger crystals in the actinolitised slates in the North Dundas District. Intergrown with ortho- clase, it forms microperthite; seen in granite at Anderson’s Creek and in alkali syenite at Port Cygnet. Labradorite is the felspar of our basalt.and dolerite (diabase). Labradorite-bytownite and bytown- ite-anorthite felspars characterise the gabbros at the Heazlewood, Bald Hill, &e. BY “W. F. PETTERD 69 Oligoclase, with its narrow twin lamellae, is the plagioclastic felspar of our granites. Andesine occurs in essexite at Port Cygnet. Microcline, though chemically identical with ortho clase, is triclinic in crystallisation. Basal sec- tions microscopically shew a characteristic cross- hatched twinning, due to the intersection nearly at right angles of the twin lameilae of two types (albiteand pericline). Seen in granite porphyry at St. Marys, and in granite elsewhere. 17 GaLEnNite (Sil phide of lead.) At the Magnet Silver Mine somewhat fine pseudo- morphs of this mineral, after sphalerite, have occa- sionally occurred. They are usually in irregular groupings, with drusy surface and glimmering lustre. 18 Gotuite (Hydrous sesquioride of iron.) Occurs sparingly, usually as a coating, at the last named locality. 19 Hisincerite (Hydrated ferric silicate.) In amorphous masses of an intensely black colour, with a conchoidal fracture. In lode matter exposed in the lower tunnel of the Com- stock Mine, Comstock District. (Mr. G. Waller, loc. cit.) 20 Hornsiende (Bisilicate of various protorides and per- oxides.) The common black amphibole, containing a’uminium, or paragasite, with the non-aluminous species tre molite and actimolite, have already been recorded (Catalogue of the “‘Mimerals of Tasmania, 1896’), but there are several others occurring here which have not so far been satisfactorily identified. At the Hampshire Hills a remarkably developed black amphibole occurs. It is in large crystals, which often reach several inches in length, and is closely asso- ciated with pyrophyllite and amethyst. In thin sec- tion under the microscope it is dark sombre green and yellowish-green according to the orientation. In- tensely pleochroict=) >> a. Extinction angle about 14°. Crystallisation irregularly prismatic and flaky, 70 TASMANIAN MINERALS. structure poicilitic, enclosing apatite, fluor. iron oxide, &c., and pierced with quartz grains; often surrounds felspar plates. Professor Rosenbusch, in a letter under date January 12, 1899, mentions this mineral as ‘a peculiar weakly bi-refringent mono- clinic amphibole, bluish-green in colour; a grey- green 6 brownish-green, ¢ bluish-green to blue, 2 E (the apparent optical axial angle) small, opitical character + and with strong dispersion of the axes. It recalls strongly the blue-green amphiboles of the crystalline schists in the Scora Vale, in the centre and north of Norway, and elsewhere.” The series of phonolitic rocks of Port Cygnet afford one and perhaps two species of soda amphibole, but their specific identification is attended with consider- able difficulty. Many of the rocks referred to have been microscopically examined by Professor Rosen- busch, and that well-known authority, m a com munication to Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, refers to one of the hornblendes as being barkevekitic. This is the prevailing form which is seen in rock sections from the locality indicated. It is myrtle green in colour by transmitted light, and in the absorptionh> ¢ > a. in this respect appertaining more to kataforite. but differing in the pleochroism. In the fractures and joints of the elaeolite syenite from the same place a black amphibole is occasionally developed, having much the general appearance of arfvedsonite. It is_ usually plentiful, occurring as long narrow thin laths and aggregates, sometimes reaching a trifle over 2 imches in length; they do not shew terminations, but have an irregular brittle structure. Fragments examined under the microscope shew the substance to be green by transmitted light. It is apparent that the soda hornblendes at Port Cygnet differ m some degree from those recorded from similar rocks in better known localities, and that they require further investigation before they can be satisfactorily deter- mined. 21 Histerixive (Sulphide of bismuth and antimony.) This mineral occurs massive at several of the North- East Dundas mines, where it is classed under the common designation of “ Fahl ore,” a term applied to several very distinct minerals with the general physical characters of tetrahedrite. BY W. F. PETTERD. 71) 22 Hyauite (Hydrated silica.) Occurs in cavities of a hard lode gangue in white te pale-green botryoidal masses. Locality: Bell’s Reward Mine, Heazlewood. 23 Hyprocerussite (Basic lead carbonate.) In one of the adits at the Hercules Mine, Mount Read, a white fluidal substance was observed in decomposed lode matter, which, on giving up its hygroscopic water, assumed a silvery-white appearance, and which under the microscope is resolved into very minute scales, but with little or no hexagonal structure. In all essential respects the substance agrees with this species as detailed in “Dana’s System of Miner- alogy,” page 299. 24 LEPIpOMELANE (Potassium mica rich in wron. ) Occurs in large sixsided tables, occasionally 1 inch in breadth. of a black colour, and highly ada- mantine. Transparent in very thin lamine, shewing a beautiful emerald green colour. The crystals for the species are remarkably fine, and well developed ; they are found aggregated together in association with a peculiar amphibole and quartz, and evidently form portion of a contact on the fringe of granite. Locality: Hampshire, near the old silver mine. 25 Puuiocorite (Magnestum mica with little iron.) “This mineral occurs on Section 5367-93m in horn stone, associated with very large bodies of magnetite and zinc-blende. It occurs in large hexagonal crystals, with a very perfect micaceouscleavage. The colour is light green, varying sometimes ‘to greyish- brown.” (Mr. G. Waller, loc. cit.) 26 Pyrarcyrite. (S7ver sulph-antimonite.) Ruby silver ore has recently occurred at several mines, notably at the Magnet, where it is not by any means rare in patches and blebs in close association with galenite. The mineral is sometimes surrounded by frondose and granular native silver, and the com bination, need'ess to say, adds materially to the silver assay value of the ore. At the Mount Stewart Mine it occurs sparingly, and in small vughs little nests of micro-rhombohedral crystals have been TASMANIAN MINERALS. detected, which are probably this mineral. At the Mount Farrell Mine it has been noticed embedded in galena; also at the Confidence Mine. near Waratah, and at the Hercules Mine, Mount Read, it has been seen in micro-crystals attached to filaments of native silver. Reported to have been found at the Oonah and British-Zeehan mines at Zeehan. The light ruby silver ore (proustite) is sometimes associated with the pyrargyrite; the latter appears to be the more often noticed, but the exact determina- tion of the species has not been made in the majority of occurrences. 27 ResrormMeLite (Hydrous sdicate of aluminium and iron.) As at its original locality, Restormel Mine, Cornwall, this substance occurs as a coating on psilomelane and other manganiferous material. It is white to pale-greyish blue, sometimes almost a clear blue. The incrustation is invariably thin, but quite noticeable and distinct. Locality: The Comet Mine, Dundas. 28 Sitver (Vative.) Some extremely fine examples of this native metal have recently occurred in the carbonate lode at the Her- cules Mine, Mount Read. The mineral assumes most attractive nests and layers of extremely fine wire-like filaments, often with fern-like expansions, commonly implanted on a glistening, pure white, fibrous cerus- site. The occurrence is by far the finest of its kind hitherto found in this State. 29 Turcite (Hydrous sesquioride of iron.) An iron ore with the general aspect of fibrous horn- stone, with a red streak. Hardness= 5, 6. Locality: Blythe River. 30 XanrHosipEeRITE (Hydrous sesquioride of iron.) Found as an incrustation, often in silky needles of a bright red colour, but sometimes in the powdery form. Occurs in the lode on gossan and other gangue. Locality: Magnet Mine, Magnet. NOTE ON JACUPIRANGITE IN TASMANTA. By W. H. Twetvetrzss, F.G.S. (Read September 14th, 1903.) Tue wonderful aptitude of the a'kaline magmas for differ- entiation is strikingly exhibited by the nepheline rocks at Port Cygnet. The promontory at the Regatta Ground south of the jetty consists of a central spur of elaeolite syenite, varying into alkali syenite, a light coloured alkaline erup- tive of the character called leucocratic by Brégger, or salic in the new American terminology. The margins, especially the southern one, consist of the dark elaeolite-pyroxene rock known as jacupirangite. This locality name was given by Derby in 1891 to rocks in Brazil occurring as differentiation products in association with elaeolite syenite, usually lami- nated in habit and intersected by small dykes of the latter rock. The nepheline-pyroxene varieties pass into magnetite pyroxene varieties and the latter into nearly pure titaniferous iron. This ore is found in Alno (Sweden) connected with elaeolite syenite. Megascopically, the Port Cygnet jacupirangite is a dark, medium-grained rock, speckled with elaeolite, and glistening with small] brilliant crystals of augite. Under a magnifying glass a little iron pyrites is visible. The colour of the rock grows lighter as it merges into elaeolite syenite. The specific gravity is 2.89. Microscopically, the respective quantities of augite and elaeolite present do not differ much. The augite is green, slightly pleochroic, c : ¢ 35°. The elaeolite is in large hypidiomorphic plates. Sphene in fair quantity in wedge-shaped crystals. Melanite garnet, which is charac- teristic of all the Port Cygnet eruptives. is not absent from this, and is occasionally rather plentiful. Apatite is present in the forms of prisms and grains. Magnetite is scattered grains. or three would be of industrial importance if they could be discovered in sufficient quantity. Notes on additional localities for a few others which are already on record are given, with some remarks on peculiar features presented by some few others. I have to record my obligation to Mr. J. D. Millen, A.8.T.C., M.8.C.I., Lond., metallurgical chemist, for so generously undertaking the analysis of Bellite and Her- cynite, for without this work, especially difficult as regards the first mentioned, my task would have lost its most important features. 1 Barranpite.—(Hydrous aluminium and iron phos- phate.) Occurs as brown dull amorphous masses of small size, associated with vivianite, Lyndhurst, North- East Coast. 2 BELLITE.—(Chromo-arsenate of lead.) This extremely interesting and, it may be said, attractive new substance usually occurs in delicate tufts aggregated together, and velvet-like coated. surfaces thickly lining and clustering in drusy 76 NOTES ON TASMANIAN MINERALS. cavities in somewhat soft iron-manganese gossan. The coated surfaces are often met with of reason- able size, and have been obtained covering several square inches of the gossan, more especially where vughs and fractures occur. More rarely bunches of galena are wholly or partially covered by the substance. It is often in ‘crypto-crystalline incrustations, occasionally pulverulent, and more rarely in bunches of hexagonal crystals of almost microscopic dimensions. The largest crystals so far observed were but three millimeters in length, but the outline was sharp and very distinct. The crystals are of adamantine lustre, and a remarkably bright red to crimson colour. Minute acicular patches of crystals are common, and under the lens are perfectly distinct, and thus afford very fine microscopic objects of consider- able attractiveness. The bright crimson colour of the general mass is very characteristic, and by this feature it is noticeable by the most casual observer, even when not directly interested in mineralogy. It sometimes occurs in aggregates of extremely minute needles, much like velvet, of a distinct and bright yellow to orange colour, and in this form it also occasionally coats some- what large surfaces. Chromiferous cerussite and more rarely crocoisite and mimetite are inti- mately associated with it. Although so notice able, the coating of the substance is usually of such extreme thinness that it was only with the greatest difficulty and by using the utmost care that enough was secured to make a complete analysis. This was undertaken by Mr. J. D. Millen, A.S.T.C., M.S.C.I., Lond., metallurgical chemist to the Mt. Bischoff T. M. Co. The following is the result :— . Pb) Ons, =) 6GE+680 per cent: Cr. Oo = 22°61 + yee te © Praar——ite We NS Fi Py Oj ==) 0°045 3, Assy’? Oye a= 251 6"549 MA AD Oe rece AOL ve Cl a= AO"S1D * Ss 0, =" ¥0:054 <4 Ag = trace Si O08 = reer. 45 99-159 BY W. F. PETTERD. 77 Moisture not determined. The hardness is 2°5; specific gravity approximately 5°5. Streak, pale yellow. Crystallographic system hexagonal. Before the blowpipe on coal it readily affords a bead of metallic lead with arsenical coating and odour. Imparts to salt of phosphorus bead in OF and RF a fine green, thus absolutely masking the reaction of V, O,; in the OF with this reagent. In the wet the reaction of V, O, was only obtained with difficulty, following the method of Ohly (analysis of the rare metals). The powdered substance was mixed with sodium carbonate, then fused, and after the addition of potassium nitrate lixiviated with water, filtered, and the clear solution boiled with ammonium carbonate. Acidified with hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen sulphide passed through the filtrate, the precipitate gave arsenic and_ green solution. The filtrate with concentrated ammonium of equal volume and treated with hydrogen sulphide gave a black precipitate which on filtering the solution left a cherry-red solution=vanadium. This new mineral species has been named in compliment to my old and respected friend, Mr. W. R. Bell, the veteran prospector, whose exertion has done much to advance the mining industry of this State, and who moreover has always taken a great interest in its mineralogy and geology. Locality—The upper workings of the Magnet Silver Mine, Magnet. 3 CroantTuHiteE.—(Nickel diarsenide.) A greyish white isometric nickel ore, remarkable for readily altering or sweating on the surface, when specimens are in a moist atmosphere, to the hydrated arsenate, which on giving off its excess of hygroscopic moisture apparently becomes annabergite. It occurs in limited quantity with other nickel minerals in the lower levels of the Long Tunnel Mine, Rocky River. 4. ENercite.—(Copper sulpharsenate.) Occurs in limited quantity with other ores of copper. North Lyell Mine, Mt. Lyell. 5 Excuerite.—(Basic calcium aluminium and iron silicate.) 78 NOTES ON TASMANIAN MINERALS. This variety of epidote appears to be somewhat abundant on the margin of the Upper Emu River, opposite the north-west shoulder of Valentine’s Peak. The crystals are at times quite half an inch in length, but are commonly broken and decomposed. Flakes of molybdenite sometimes occur disseminated in the masses of the substances. 6 Gentuite.—(Hydrous basic nickel and magnesium silicate.) Found sparingly on Pentlandite, near Trial Harbour. 7 Gipesite.—(Aluminium hydrate.) Forms a thin seam on what is apparently the wall of a copper-bearing lode. Clarke and Sice’s Copper Mine, Blythe River. 8 HetiopHyiiite.—(Arsenate of lead with chlorine.) In small crusts lining druses with crystalline glim- mering and wax-like surfaces. Comet Mine, Dundas. 9 HeErRcyniTE.—(lron aluminate.) Occurs as fairly large lumps in tin drift. It is amorphous, dull, of a bluish black colour and fine granular. Analysis by Mr. J. D. Millen. Bey Oe t= 4G 01 Ca. OS ‘005 Si Ova *0892 Ca O = *086 Cr, QO; = “049 AI. 2 O) 4a 41 69 99°37 Sp. gravity, 3°765. Hardness, 3°9. Locality, Moorina. (J. Rundle.) 10 Hypromancanoca.cite.—(Hydrous carbonate of cal- cium and manganese.) Occurs as a soft pink substance which readily absorbs moisture, and is thus easily reduced to powder. Heazlewood Silver Mine, Whyte River. 11 Iron.—(Lefroy meteorite.) A small meteoric siderite was obtained by a pro- spector in testing a dish of alluvial drift for BY W. F. PETTERD. 79 gold in 1904. Its weight is 3°328 grains. Specific gravity, 7°847. It has the characteristic pittings and crust of such objects, and is beyond doubt of meteoric origin. Locality, Lefroy. 12 Levcopuanite.—(Silicate of calcium sodium glau- cina with fluorine.) It would appear that this mineral, which has been hitherto overlooked, is fairly abundant at or in the vicinity of the Shepherd and Murphy Tuin- Bismuth Mine, Bell Mount, Middlesex. lies closely associated with pyrite, both copper and iron, in the examples which have come into my hands. It crystallises in the orthorhombic system, with a constant hemihedral habit, and twinning is an occasional feature. The crystals are, as a rule, well-developed in clusters on the margin of a spheroid amorphous mass of the substance. They commonly average a centimetre in length, and are consequently recognised with extreme ease. The general mass presents a fairly uniform colour of a somewhat peculiar shade of olive green, with a _ vitreous lustre and glimmering reflection. The crystals are usually of a rather darker shade. A pronounced character of this mineral is that wiien heated it becomes highly phosphorescent with a distinct bright light, in which respect it resembles chlorophane. It is about 4 in hardness, with a white streak. To the petrologist this is a find of unusual interest, as the mineral is considered peculiar to the elcolite-syenites of Southern Norway, the classic locality for this remarkable series of rocks; and this has hitherto appeared to be its only recorded association. The indenti- fication thus tends to show a wider distribution in this island of igneous rocks related to the varied complex so pronounced at Port Cygnet, and which have been fully described from time to time in the proceedings of this Society. 13 Mancanite.—(Hydrous manganese sesquioride.) In small bunches of well-formed crystals. Hamp- shire Silver Mine, Hampshire Hills. 14 Minium.—(Lead plumbate.) Obtained as small encrusting patches of the usual bright red colour in the superficial workings of the Long Tunnel Mine, Castray River. 80 NOTES ON TASMANIAN MINERALS. 15 Niccoxite.—(Nickel Arsenide.) This ore has been obtained in small quantity near Trial Harbour, West Coast. 16 Prvorite—(Hydrated silicate of aluminium and Manganese.) An altered variety of actinolite, known as “rock cork.” It occurs in felted fibrous masses of a pale grey to almost white, in considerable quantity cast. of the ‘Red Face” at the Mt. Bischoff Tin Mine, Mt. Bischoff. 17 Purrarre.—(Hydrous aluminium silicate.) An amorphous clay-like substance of a brown colour, with conchoidal fracture. Near Falmouth, East Coast. 18 Pimevite.—(Hydrated magnesium and mekel silicate. ) As an incrustation Beraced to other nickel minerals. Near Trial Harbour, West Coast. 19 Proustite.—(Sidver sulpharsenite.) At the Oonah Mine, Zeehan, this mineral, which is commonly known as “ruby silver,’ has been obtained in bunches of minute perfectly-formed rhombohedral crystals of remarkably bright red colour. They are implanted on cavernous masses of pyrites, and are readily detected by the con- trast of colour. Under the low power of the microscope they form most attractive objects, the crystals being extremely sharp and distinct. They rarely exceed two to three millimetres in length. Minute crystals have also been noticed at the Magnet Mine. 20 Pyrarcyrite.—(Siver sulphantimonite.) At the Magnet Silver Mine this mineral has recently been obtained in small but perfectly- formed characteristic rhombohedral crystals nestled in cavities in the lode gangue associated with galena and blende in the southern working of the mine. They are dull black in colour, due to tarnish, but readily give the bright red streak as well as the conchoidal fracture when broken. The mineral in its compact and investing forms is not by any means rare, but the crystals are extremely so; in fact they appear to be first detected in this state. BY W. F. PETTERD. roll | 21 PyrostTivpinite.—(Silver sulphantimonite.) A rare ore of silver (containing 59.44 per cent. of ag) known as “‘fire-blende.”’ It crystallises in the monoclinic system and is sometimes tabular, but its common habit is in imperfectly terminated sheaves or irregular bunches—like stylbite—but of almost microscopic dimensions. It is of a hyacinth-red colour, but is generally tarnished to an almost black discolouration. When free from discolouration it has an adamantine lustre and decided red streak. In minute vughs it may be detected in association with nests of small quartz crystals. When coating cleavages in its extremely silicious gangue it soon arrests attention by its peculiar habit of occurrence in radiating and irregular bunches, by which feature it may be known from proustite, although both have the same bright colour. Before the blow-pipe it fuses easily, giving off white antimonial fumes, and with soda affords a bead of silver. It occurs in limited quantity, but quite enough to make an appreciable difference in tle bulk silver assays. Locality, the Long Tunnel Mine, Heazle- wood. Associated with this is another silver mineral of an orange yellow colour with yellow streak. It affects a frondose habit, and is found in exceedingly limited quantity as aggregates in the cleavages of the gangue. It may be xanthoconite (a silver sulpharsenate, crystallis- ing in the rhombohedral system), but the quantity is too small to make reasonably certain of. its exact identification. 22 Quarrz.—(Silcon dioxrde.) Mr. D. A. Porter, of Tamworth, N.S.W., has recently drawn my attention to an interesting occurrence of this mineral in a specimen associated with freibergite. Many of the extremely minute crystals attached thereto are “left handed’ and others “right handed,’ and many of these show besides the “W” and “Y” trapezoids the rhombic face “S.” This habit has not been detected in larger crystals from the same locality. The Her- cules Mine, Mt. Read. 23 Scoropite.—(Hydrous ferric iron arsenate.) This mineral was obtained by Mr. W. R. Bell in clusters of beautifully formed orthorhombic 82 NOTES ON TASMANIAN MINERALS. crystals of remarkably high lustre. They were of small size, pale green in colour, and almost translucent. 24 SricriopHire.—(Silicified serpentine.) 29 26 27 28 29 30 This peculiar altered substance is extremely vari- able in colour, and occasionally almost opalescent. Near the Long Tunnel Mine, Castray River. SmectitE.—(Hydrous basic aluminium silicate.) Obtained in patches of extreme softness almost gelatinous, but soon becomes somewhat harder. It has a metallic, almost silvery sheen. It separates into folice of extreme tenuity. North Lyell Mine, Mt. Lyell. STEARGILLITE.—(/ydrous basic aluminium silicate.) A pale yellow to almost white substance with strongly conchoidal fracture, and __ slightly opalescent and smooth surface. Derby. STEPHANITE.—(Silver sulphantimonite.) Brittle silver ore. It is black and dull in general appearance, with a black streak. Found in thin irregular patches, implanted on a silicious gangue with “fire blende.”” Long Tunnel Mine, Castray River. StiprcoLite.—(Hydrous antimony dioxide.) In limited quantity as a pale yellow pulverulent mass. British Zeehan Silver Lead Mine, Zeehan. TouRMALINE.—(Boron aluminium iron silicate.) The variety zeuxite, which is rich in iron and of an intensely dark green colour, occurs in remark- ably large felted masses at the Castray River. Wortzite.—(Hexagonal zinc sulphide.) A rare zinc mineral differing in crystallisation from sphalerite. It is hemimorphic in habit, and by that character it may be recognised when in crystals. Usually it occurs in columnar masses. Hercules Mine, Mt. Read, and Magnet Silver Mine, Magnet. PROPOSED PSYCHOMETER INDEX DESIGNED AS AN AID TO THE BETTER DETERMINATION OF COMMON FUNGOID ILLUSIONS AND OF THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF MENTAL CONCEPTS. BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.8.0., F.S.S. INTRODUCTORY, In a subject of the nature indicated as above, itis desirable to avoid the very common mistake of at once launching into the mazes of a complicated argument while employing terms which are either ill-defined, or are apt to receive different interpretations from different per- sons. The whole value of an argument often depends upon the exact definition of one or two important terms, and where such terms are loosely applied and but vaguely understood, the outcome of discussion, so conducted, must result in confusion of judgment. The point around which the present argument hinges is the word illusion. By illusion is meant any error of sense, perception, memory, or representation, or of judgment ba:ed upon these which counterfeits reality. In one particular sense it is ad- mitted that the objective aspect of all subjective concepts is illusory; but, in this sense, concepis, for thé limited pur- pose of this arguument, are not regarded as ‘‘fungoid.”” For the purposes of the present argument it is sufficient to con- fine ourselves to the commonsense appre- ciation of phenomena, and to what are commonly regarded as realities of common sense. Thus limited we may define all counterfeits of realities as illusions of commonsense, By reality is meant the opposite of counterfeit—e.g., the pictorial representa- tion of the features of a person, scene, or thing is a counterfeit when not regarded as a symbol of the thingrepresented. Art has reached a high limit when it produces illusion. But the art of the modeller, sculptor, mechanic, or necromancer can only succeed under restricted conditions as regards healthily constituted minds, armed with the full complement of the ordinary sensiferous organs. Those who lack, or who are deprived of one or more of the essential normal senses, can never be certain of freedom from illusion. It is by the sister or auxiliary senses that we continually—perhaps uncon- sclously—correct our impressions, or take ‘our bearings,” so to speak. Deprive anyone of these natural auxiliary aids, or even weaken or render any of them artificially inoperative, and lo! the individual mind is a ready prey to all the illusions and disorders of sense and imagination. Thesenses, however imperfect in the normal condition, are wonderful checks upon esch other. Combined, they are the props of true knowledge and understand- ing. The most simple impressions are liable to be illusory if the particular sense concerned be weakened by disease or over- work. Render inoperative, or weaken at such atime the sister senses, and the strong commonsense appreciation of the real differences between orderly waking or primary concepts, and imagination, memory, dream, illusion, breaks down, or disappears altogether. In fact the con- ditions under which the insane are bound are then most closely realised. Let those whose inexperience may have led them hitherto to trifle with the full va'ue of the natural guardians of our reason beware of this consequence when they would erect the illusions of the crippled senses into equality with the evidence of the com- bined senses when free and unconditioned and at their best. Although in a waking state, and under ordinary circumstances, we may have within ourselves a tolerably clear and un- mistakable standard of what is real and unreal, yet at times, and with relation to particular concepts, there may be pro- duced a very gradual and subtle blending of the two. Especially is this result apt to arise when the region of fancy is in its most active state. THE REGION OF FANCY. There is something most mysterious and perplexing in the concepts of fancy. They flit before our minds in myriad shapes, moods and colors, without sum- mons; change their humors as in a kaleidoscope before we can well define them ; and finally vanish, but to appear again and again, under favorable circum- stances, as at first. Many suppose that the world of fancy, automatic introspec- tion, or imagination (clearly distinguished by the conscious mind in health, from what, for want of a better description, we may call ‘ external perception ’’) is only fully disclosed to ovr minds during sleep or in delirium. Butthis suppositiou is traceable to inattention or inexperience. The retrospect of memory, the poet’s trance, and the air castles built by the waking dreamer gazing upon the bur- nished cloud or glowing ember, although allied creations lack the vivid tone de- velopment of those creatures and scenes of fancy which startle us in the horrors of nightmare, or elate us in our more exalted moods during sleep. But the waking state has also an undercurrent of fancy which in every respectis analagous to our concepts during sleep. ; 84 i) UNDERCURRENTS OF FANCY EXPERIENCED DURING WAKING STATE. During our active waking state, when the external world has its meximum effect, the senses are continually drinking in fresh concepts at their various portals, each sense interpreting its varied impres- sions with that order and consistency which distinguishes the character of external impressions or fresh concepts. The reception of these primary concepts. characterised by their greater intensity, eclipses the softer reflex echoes of the imagination just as the stars are blotted from our vision by the approach of the radiant sun. The reflective imagination is not necessarily reduced to absolute in- activity, but rather it is that to the imaginative listener the louder speaking voices eclipse the more feeble. The ghosts of the waking state are clearly analogous to the horrid nightmare demons of sleep. Such horrid dreams may be produced artificially by wilful interference with the breathing of the un- conscious sleeper. (See ‘‘ Illusions,” by James Sully, p. 146—International series.) Thus, disturb the breathing of the unconscious sleeper by plac- ing a heavy fold of the bedclothes over the mouth and partly the nostrils. By degress his face flushes, the skin exudes a sweat, the limbs are aimlessly jerked about ss if in distress, and at last it is sO Oppressive as to awake the uncon- scious object of our experiment, who immediately proceeds to relate that he has awoke from a frightful dream, where- in he vividly felt he was being suffocated by some monster of horrid shape who sat upon his chest and grasped his throat with angry claws. But intense fear during the waking state may at times, with superstitious minds, produce somewhat corresponding distorted concepts. The young and timid whose minds have been saturated with the weird legends of the Scottish High- lands, are at times specially subject to the influence of such disturbing illusions when obliged to travel alone in the silence of the night through dismal glades of sighing pines and peopled by repute by ghostly shades. To such it is possible that the indistinct outline of a dead stump faintly shining by moonlight, the phosphorescent fungus, or even a curi- ously shaped nodding furze bush, to their half-averted but spell-bound gaze, may be distorted into forms as unreal and horrid as those due to indigestion or other interference with the necessary vital functions during sleep. The imagination it would seem has the power under expectancy, fear, or extreme pleasure, to order and magnify generic reflex groupings of images which agree with the simple state of fear, pleasure, anxiety, and suchlike; but ithas not the power to be specifically accurate or consistent, and thus it would seem to be the blind groping of a dim generic grasp, not of specific value like the con: sciousness of the undisturbed waking state at its best. : Let any one in a quiet mood, as he is musing before the evening fire, purposely close the eyes, and, tu increase the effect, place the palmof the hand lightly over them to exclude, as far as possible, the still active effects of external impressions. He will then find the images of Fancy bursting apparently upon the view of ‘sense in that strangely vivid, changing, incoherent evolving and melting away character; and yet, withal, giving an illusory sort of impression that there is a reality and a natural sequence in the shapes, forms, colors, and pictures, which rapidly displace each other as he gazes, These gleams which we are permitted to be the spectators of are not or are but feebly under the control of the conscious will. The writer has frequently tested this fact by personal experiment. On the last occasion he did so his own thoughts were to a large extent impressed with the scenery of the Huon road through which he had travelled that day. Although he purposely tried to work into the unbidden scenes and images which floated before his mental vision, the form of a wattle tree ia blossom, he found he was unable to order its inclusion in many wooded scenes that unbidden would vividly evolve to his conscious sense. One remarkable scene seemed to thrust itself unbidden, again and again, viz.:—a small rocky promon- tory crowned with a group of the graceful she-oaks so common on the margin of the estuary of the Derwent (Casuarina quadrivalvis.) In the shel- tered bay beneath this rocky cliff scene where he felt he was situated he could see distinctly the wave-ripples, and reflections of the sun’s rays, together with a strange bright patch of sunshine which seemed to brilliantly light up the sea atits base. He tried to force a change by the attention of the memory to the romantic Huon scenes, but he found he could but slightly vary the sea cliff scene already described, the patch of light still forming ove of its distinctive features. On other occasions he had no difficulty of picturing the wattle tree in blossom, but in every case he felt he was as much @ spectator as one feels in sleep amidst the scenes of dream- land. It is quite possible, therefore, that the proverbial moods of some people—the grave and the gay—may, to a larger ex- tert than we are aware of, be colored by this unsuspected undercurrent of fancy during our waking moments. My chief object in drawing particular attention to the region of Fancy is to show that under peculiar circumstances it is conceivable that its hidden reflex activities may surge up among the primary concepts of the senses, and thus be the origin of sense illusions evenin the minds of those who are otherwise of a sound, healthy constitution. It is quite clear that these undercurrents of Fancy are distinct from ordinary concepts of memory, although it is not improbable that memory and fancy concepts are intimately related, and may powerfully act and react upon each other. The curious way in which a memory—say of a name which we at the moment in vain try to recall—bursts in unbidden soon after upon a foreign train of thought, is very remark- able, and itis therefore quite possible that through the hidden agency of active undercurrents of Fancy the dormant memory may be awakened. Illusions, as regards simple concepts, are comparatively rare among sane per- sons, where all the senses are free or unconditioned and healthy. External or primary sensations of forms, colors, sounds, touch, motion, and such like, are for the most part readily distinguished from simulations of realities, even in some cases of partially impaired sense organs. There are numberless circumstances, however, which readily tend to produce illusion in the minds of persons untrained and inexperienced. For example, persons strongly tend to believe in a second shouter, while, for the first time, they listen to a remarkable voice —echo. Similarly the untutored must also be strongly impressed at first with the illusory reality of reflected sight objects. Who, again, has not felt the powerful tactile illusion of duality in unity by crossing the finger tips—preferably the second and third—while with eyes shut pressing the surface of a round object, such asa marble or the tip of the nose; or the converse of this — unity in duality— in the pressure upon tho skin of the body by the two adjacent points of a pair of compasses ? If in such cases the particular senses were not aided by the more extended ex- perience of others, and by free com- parisons and repeated trials in conjunction with the sister or complementary senses, we should all be subject to illusions to a much greater extent than we at present conceive. Where, on the other hand, the senses are not merely unaided, but are crippled by conditions which are unfavorable for the reception of clearly-defined and un- disturbed concepts, we may be certain, that as sure as the lowly organised fungi attack and destroy the more highly organised animal and vegetable forms whose vigor has abated, or whose tissues are diseased, so sure is it that fungoid illusions will batten upon and distort the judgment of all those whose hidden springs are poisoned at the source by conditions unfavorable to the formation of strong healthy primary sens con- cepts. COMMON FUNGOID ILLUSIONS. The references to what have been termed ‘*‘ Common Fungoid Illusions ” in this argument, are restricted to a few common types, and do not pretend to comprehensiveness. One or two types have been chosen which are particularly characteristic of our own race and age. It would be less difficult to bring conviction to most people with regard to the preva- lence of gross illusions among lower races of men, or among people of a bygone age; for itis proverbial that errors of this kind are likely to be more correctly appre- ciated from the standpoint of an observer untrammelled by local influences. If we refer, therefore, to the illusions of the existing lower races of men, or to those of ancient times in regard to demonology, witshcraft, astrology, epilepsy, lunacy jhe shape of the earth and its position in the solar system, and such like, it is merely to show that the natural fruit of ignorance is illusion of some kind or another. Illusions are sometimes mimetic, and like all organisms of a mimetic character, they are difficult to distinguish from the surrounding conditions from which they take their shape and color. There are many current illusions, there- fore, which are only superficially different from those of older times. They may be clothed in a pseudo scisnce garb, in mimicry of the -prevailing spirit of this age; but, fundamentally, they, on ex- amination, will be found to present the well-known features of the fungoid illusions, which in all ages have been known to prey upon weakness and ignorance. THE ILLUSIONS OF IDEA SYMBOLS. The first examples under this division refer to those ‘“‘fungoid illusions” so closely associated with all forms of the outward expressions of the ideas; espe- cially those related to the sound-symbols of articulated words, and those related to the form, sight, or touch symbols of all kinds of writing. Simple pictorial representations being more natural are less liable to be illusory, Perhaps no age has been subject to this form of illusion 80 muchas the present, and paradoxical as it may appear, there is good reason to believe that many of the so-called ‘‘ educated classes” are likely to be as great slaves to the myriad illusions arising therefrom as are to be found among the illiterate. What we know, think, and feel, and through what chains of previous know- ledge we havo arrived at our present con- dition can only be disclosed partially to others by meansof idea symbols. Out- wardly we can observe aman laugh, cry, speak, sing, gesticulate, but even though we could enter and penetrate to the re- motest molecule of his brain we could not by all our perceptive organs of sense discern his accual feelings or thoughts. If in ourselves there were not an orderly and consistent connection in the ordinary casual relation between certain * mee similar groups of such external symbolic sounds, forms, gesticulations, and expres- sions with our own concepts, thoughts, and feelings, we could not hope to under- stand others, or be understood by them. Laughter in another, e.g., might really in itself mean grief, did not such outward symbolic expression correspond with a similar causal relation between our own constant forms of outward expression and our inner real feeling which we have learned to designate by the word symbol —laughter. (See Lange’s History of Materialism, Vol. II., 316.) To the inexperieced this analysis may seem trivial, but it is really necessary ; for it will be dis- closed presently how closed all forms of illusion by the intervention of word symbols, may, through mistaken inter- pretation, result in much unnecessary strife and confusion. For it logically follows that -if any idea-symbol be used by anyone in an abnormal way, whether in ignorance, at random, or as a wilful misrepresentation, he is likely to produce a wrong conception in the minds of those who are in the habit of using the idea-symbol correctly. ILLUSIONS RELATED TO WORD SYMBOLS. The form, color, intensity, and specific significance of actual ideas can never be closely approximated by the agency of words between persons whose capacities differ, or whose mental culture may happen to be at different stages of development. Every cultivated person knows from experience that particular words or phrases related to complex ideas—although at first used familiarly in a general sense— come by closer study and wider culture to stand for a much broader, deeper, and clearer conception than that afforded by the insignificant seed idea which at the first stage was associated with the par- ticular word symbol in this person’s mind. It is at this stage where confusion is apt to arise in controversy between good, earnest men. Philosophers, too, find in this region their favorite battle ground. But as regards the latter, so long as dis- tinctions remain unclassified, it is perhaps well that a wisely conducted conflict should be maintained; for it is in such conflict that we come to expand the new idea, and to form the needful expression. The ignorant person, as well as the superficial word glutton, so _ largely produced by our gramaphonic systems of education, only catch remotely the order of genus of the cultured thinker’s idea. To the class referred to—the Species, or the fully developed light and shade of the cultured person’s idea is more or less eccncealed in penumbral darkness. The illusions which arise out of these differing conditions, however, are often very disastrous; for to these may chiefly be attributed the reason why the prophets of each succeeding age have been'stoned, crucified, maligned, or other- wise maltreated. The fungoid illusions which batten upon forms of expression have been the cause of muchevil. That the evils arising out of word illusion is not exaggerated may be easily proved. Let anyone attempt to get a clear grasp of the ideas of any two persons of average education with respect to the real nature and particular meaning of the following group of idea symbols as used by the learned, viz.:— Anthropomorphism, Atheist, Christian, Communist, Deist, Darwinian, Deter- minism, Evolutionist, Hypnotism, Pa- ganism. Pantheism, Realism, Sceptic, Socialism, Teleologist, Spiritualist, Ag- nostic, Mind, Force, Matter, Spirit, Soul, Body, Ego, Non-Ego, Religion, Moral sense, Will, and suchlike. These terms cover a very wide field. They are in common use in some sense by the learned and unlearned; by the learned of opposing schools of thought; but as there are comparatively few who take the honest trouble, or have the mental capacity to understand in their fullness the historyand complex ideas underlying these words or symbols, it follows that they must be fertile sources of illusion; and the fruit of such illusion, where strong feelings are concerned, have been, and ever will be, confusion, bitter- ness, and strife. The proof of this is manifested by the frequency ofthe use of terms ending in/st ; not so much as an expression of the appropriate underlying thought or feeling, asof a dim notion of a quality involving reproach and deprecia- tion. Clearly to all such the particular term is illusory ; and the application, so far as intention is concerned, is likely to be as false and unjust as when at Antioch, the fierce opponents of the followers of Jesus Christ, coined the term of reproach ‘‘ Christian,” now fortunately transmuted into one glorious to humanity. As a further illustration of the common illusions related to word-symbols, let us examine the illusory conceptions so frequently held by many persons with regard to the use of the terms Matter and Mind. The illusion to such persons 1s, that we know directly a substance of matter as distinct from mind. And again further it is conceived by such persons that matter, in itself, is dead, inert, distinct from, and less mysteriously con- stituted than that part of mental pheno- mena to which they restrict the term mind. This is a common fungoid illusion. The cultured thinker knows and can demonstrate logically thatthe substance of matter is a hypothesis of the mind to account for certain of the mental concepts chiefly related to direct primary im- pressions of sight, touch, and muscular effort. It can be demonstrated to minds sufficiently developed to receive such de- monstration that all our concepts— whether relating to form, color, space, time, resistance. opacity, transparency, smeli, heat, cold, hunger, thirst, weari- ness, Memory, menial introspection, self, not self; in a word, all sensations are mental. In the words of an able ex- positor (Huxley) immediate knowledge is confined to states of consciousness, or, in other words, to the phenomena of mind. Kuowlsadge of the physical world, or of one’s own body, and of objects external to it, is a system of beliefs, or judgments, based on the sensations. The term ‘self’? is applied not only to the series of mental phenomena, which constitute the ego, but to the fragment of the physical world, which is their constant concomitant. The corporeal self, there- fore, is part of the zon-ego, and is objective in relation to the ego as subject. Elsewhere the same able expositor states clearly, ‘‘that if we possessed no sensations but those of smell we should be unable to conceive a material sub- stance. We might have a conception of time, but could have none of extension, or resistance, or of motion; and without the three latter conceptions, no idea of matter could be formed.” It may be conceived, therefore, that the only knowledge we consciously possess, directly or indirectly, is purely mental. One portion we call external perception; other parts (including feeling, judgment, memory, dream, delirium, illusion—all parts of one whole) purely subjective, and equally mysterious. The mind tends to infer, ejectively, its impressions, as symbolic of a mysterious objective, some- thing externalto it. That is all. The AXolian harp, ifendowed with the sense of hearing only, and so limited to the range of its own chord sounds, would conceive its own chord, objectively, as external to itself. It would tend to seek external to itself the exact origin and idea of its own specific sounds. It could not dream, as the objective cause of its own subjective chord sounds, the gentle vibrating breeze, except in the manner of some Aiolian harp sound. THE COMMON ILLUSION THAT MEN OF CUL- TURE AND SCIENCE HAVE A SPECIAL TENDENCY TO BE SCEPTICAL AS REGARDS TRUTH. This may be regarded as a type of the many fungoid illusions which naturally arise in the prejudiced and antagonistic minds of the slothful and ignorant. Lovers of ease favor conceptions which involve no trouble of mind. To hold the mind in suspense when in doubt, and when immediate action is not imperative; to sift the grain of wheat from the asso- ciated chaff; to qualify the observation with the ascertained knowleage of one’s personal equation of error; to seek truth with a single eye in scorn of cowardly fears regarding possible consequences to one’s self; to suffer misunderstood the mental pain of transi- tion of thought due to the unequal growth and change of the intellect aad one’s personal clinging ideals and sympathies, are matters which are no more than the sound of words to the indolent mind, whose faith, too often, is a mere accident of time and place. The indolent mind is irritated by complexity, and insists upon the enjoyment of simplicity, even though it should be artificially created by the mutilation of valuable complex truths. It is not here maintained that the earnest enquiring mind is not advantaged at times to desire when wearied a some- what similar refuge. But to the latter it is consciously sought, and is the well- earned repose after the strain of mental toil. In their case it is the natural half- sleep following upon mental activities wherein at times the great and beautiful generic truths of poesy and parable have their birth. It need not be pointed out, however, that there are many indolent of mind amongst us, while the group of earnest and thorough thinkers are few. It is not surprising, therefore, that the aims and methods of the scientific worker should so frequently be misunder- stood and misrepresented. Of course it is not meant that the opponents of scientific work and methods of investigation are so unjust as to sup- pose that the alleged tendency to scepticism, on the part of the men of science, woald be blameable in matters which are false or which appear to be so; for in such case there would be no room for discussion. To oppose even the appesrance of falsehood or vice is a healthy attitude, and can only be considered objectionable by those minds antagonistic to truth and virtue. As a matter of fact, the charge as regards scientific observers is manifestly absurd. Science is simply carefully proved knowledge. True men of science are those who are ever actuaily engaged in wresting the fruits of knowledge from the vast unexplored regions of nature, and ‘whose highest reward is the feeling that, by their labors and discoveries, they have conquered some part of the region of chaos, doubt and obscurity, to the great benefit of their kind. The railway train in rapid motion may cause the illusion that the increased resisting current of air is in itself moving more swiftly than when the same train is at rest. In like manner inexperienced minds see only in the active forward advance of scientific investigation, the sifting, weigh- ing, and measuring processes, and often labor urder the illusion that because in this pioneer work the workers are obliged to reject large quantities of truth husks, the latter process—and not the acquire- ment of the fewer and less conspicuous truth grains—is the particular object of their remarkable activities. Their posi- tive advance, and greater neod to dis- criminate and to reject, being & mere con- sequence of their relatively greater love for the acquisition of more truth or know- cm ledge. Relative to the indolent they appear to reject more—nay, blunder more —butit is altogether due to the fact that their love for knowledge is more active. Those who can endure an imperfect mix- ture, or do not love purity, need not reject much dross; but it is hard that the refiner should be blamed for the unavoidable accumulations of the conserving and re- fining processes. iLLUSIONS DUE TO INEXPERIENCE OR DEFECTIVE EQUIPMENT ON THE PART OF THE ACTIVE OBSERVER. Thoughtful men are well aware of the danger of being over-sure about matters which many able men have arrived at profoundly opposite conclusions. The thoughtless have no such dread. And yet, though all our observations are so apt to be faulty if not properly directed, few think that for exact observation in any special branch of knowledge, special aptitude, and a long, careful training in the instruments of observation are abso- lutely necessary. For example :—Look what long years of patient training of the muscles of the hand, ear, and eye, is necessary before the musician can render with skill and feeling the masterpieces of a Mendelssohn or a Schumann. The skilled botanist may be called upon at any time to distinguish a new plant, and to describe its characters. But in order to do this satisfactorily he must be prepared to show in what respect it is related, and in what respect it differs from, say, about 85,000 flowering plants already scientifi- cally described and classified. When we learn also that prior to the propar study of botany and zoology, the student, by laborious training in mor- phology and physiology, must equip himself for the special work, we can have some notion of the pains taken by men of science that observations, in the line of their studies are not marred by lack of skill or of previous training. Nay, so necessary is it that all scientific observa- tion should be carried out with the greatest rigor and exactness, that the greatest pioneers in scientific investigation have been the foremost in the discovery of more perfectinstrumental aids designed to further extend the range and neutralise the errors of our senses, and in this way secure that precision which modern science demands of its followers. It takes the great expositor and thinker, Lange, over 1000 closely printed pages of matter, to unfold to us a mere abstract of the history and meaning of the schools of materialism and [idealism. Bastian, with numerous carefully executed figures, tries to convey to us in 700 pages of descriptive matter a summary of his own observations regarding the structure and functions of the brain. Hitzig, Ferrier, and other skilled specialists, had long and profoundly studied the functions and physiology of the sensorial apparatus of the brain in all its bearings, and their combined testimonies have been of the greatest service to us in dissipating many of the older and cruder conceptions of phrenology and _ physiology, and in explaining many of the more mysterious problems of mind and body. One important lesson has been given to us in regard to observation, which has an important bearing upon the subject of this argument, viz., that not only as re- gards eyesight and for astronomical ob- servations merely do we require to pro- vide ourselves with a carefully determined ‘* personal equation of error,” but every other sense should be similarily guarded as they ace all subject to varying degrees of error under certain conditions. From what has already been stated it is obvious that should any untrained person think he can properly understand the ‘mysteries of new and complex phenomena, without first studying carefully the laws which make phenomena at all possible to him, together with the ascertained conditions of sensorial error, he will undoubtedly and unconsciously land himself in the Cimmerian darkness of illusions, kindred to the ancient witchcraft or its twin sister, spiritualism, now so often guised in modern pseudo-science dress. To the cultured thinker all phenomena are purely mental and subjective, and as such are equally mysterious. To the average spiritualist only a small portion of phenomena, and that the most disordered and unreliable part seems to be regarded as possessing any wonder or mystery. The most orderly, valuable, and equally mysterious part of subjective phenomena—orderly primary concepts— is despised by the spiritualist for the vulgar reason that such orderly mani- festations are as common as the green 90 grass; and yet the profoundest thinkers see in the lowliest organism so common by the wayside a mystery greater than that of human folly, whose epidemics have so often puzzled the moralist and psychologist. Whilst dissecting the living tissues of the common triglochin and other weeds of our ditches under the microscope, = have often beea impressed by the beauties of structure which are shut off from the feebler powers of the unaided eyesight. I have watched the mysterious life of the cellin the humble yeast plant and desmid, and I have seen the living building processes grow into form and beauty before my wondering sense, and a feeling of awe has frequently filled my mind, as form after form seemed to come mysteriously into existence before my eyes, and to frame themselves upon a structure of wondrous design and beauty. Each living ‘‘ brick” in itself being guided and determined in its course as if by the immediate agency of a hidden Almighty finger. Most naturalists have been similarly impressed while contemplating the silent building forces of organic aature. They are thus frequently reminded of the mystery underlying the more familiar and perhaps uninteresting externals of common objects. They are also so accustomed to witness mysterious design and movements for which they can give no explanation that they are not so apt to be led into illusion by the appearance of phenomena, which, for the time being, may seem ex- traordinary and unexplicable to the crippled or unaided senses. Nor are they so apt to be overwhelmed by mere novelty or rarity because the momentary wonder seems as inexplicable as the origin of all mental phenomena to the cultured thinker. The average form of spiritualism would appear to be a corrupt or degraded form of the poetry of Materialism, al- though it affects to despise that system of philosophy. Itis far from my mind to treat with levity the ordinary crudities so commonly manitested at the many spiritualistic seances which I have had the opportunity of witnessing. One grave objection to the value of the testimony of such seances is, that wher. ever any phenomena have been observed which appeared to be inexplicable, they were always manifssted under conditions where at least some of the complementary senses, if not all, were at a disadvantage. Tt has already been stated that the senses are particularly liable to all forms of illusions, at times, even where they are free and unconditioned. It has also been shown that the only difference between the waking concepts, draams, subjective delusions, and such like isin the invariable strength, and unmistakable order, con- sistence, and harmony of the primary concepts, as compared with the feebler, inconsistent, shifting, kaleidoscopic phenomena of fancy, ghost delusioa dream, and other illusions of the diseased brain. The only way to distinguish any form of illusion would be to dispel the conditions unfavorable to the canifesta- tions of healthy concepts. Oae significant circumstanca which may enable strong healthy minds to free themselves from the degrading errors of spiritualism is to discern that the con- ditions favorable to illusion and fraud are ever the conditions under which typical spiritualistic phenomena are manifested. Lord Lindsay and others—by moonlight —fancied that they saw the law of gravita- tion opposed by some new force, in the devitation of Mr Home. But that men, in a sane state of mind, should accept the idoa offaand that they had discovered a new force when all the senses were so absurdly handicapped (for ordinary pur- poses of observation even), and that they were trammelled by the disadvantage of best position for verification, shows, for the time being, they were not aware of the great liability to illusion under such conditions. . To have contemplated even the possi- bility of discovering a new force under such crippled conditions shows that their minds, like those of ordinary madmen, were for the time being constituted to favor illusionary conceptions. It ought to be strongly impressed that there is no well marked line between the sane and the insane, and scarcely any where illusion is concerned, apart from its permanency. There are;many remarkable points of agreement between some of the concepts of spiritualists and those of the hopelessly insane. 1. In both the concepts are frequontly ow normal, in contradiction to common sense, and without any apparent purpose or reason. The intensity of the conviction, nevertheless, in both seems to be greater than the ordinary convictions of common sense. 2. They manifest themselves under conditions where the common organs of sense are partly or wholly crippled. 3. In bothelasses they are manifested frequently under physical excitement or strong emotion. 4, In both they are frequently mani- fested by people who have, or who appear to have, a well-known epileptic tendency, frequently resulting in bodily prostration. 5. The moral sense of many such inter- mittently affected epileptics—the trance rmedium—seems to be very low, and their testimony worthless, It is asignificant circumstance observed by Dr. Maudsley, and other experts, that in the incipient stages of epilepsy, the destruction of the moral sense seems to precede the more violent physical accom- paniments of this dread calamity. 6. In both classes referred to extreme excitability is frequently exhibited; their imegination and originality remarkable, and often of a poetic order. But, unlike the normal stages of sanity, they are ex- tremely irritated when the reality of their illusory concepts are called in question. It would seem as if all the creative and other powers of the mind were diverted from critical and other proper uses, and devoted to the creation of wonderful theories, whose sole object is to buttress or build up the loved illusion. The explanation of spiritualism is not to be found in the typical phenomena, but in the thorough study of the deeply rooted causes, mental and physical, in men’s natures, of which the phenomena which so impresses them are a fairly reliable index. ‘Tell me a person’s wonder, and I may fairly infer whether the intelligence of the person ia of the order of a madman, a savage, a child, or a Newton. Wonder is purely a relative state, and varies with the stage of intelligence. Higher intelligence is like a kingdom of a higher order of useful vigorous plants, whose advance into a wilderness absorbs and takes the place of a less useful and a more lowly order. The mystery which caused the deep agitation of Newton’s mind as influence which binds the Pleiades, gradually dawned upon his wondering soul, is a very different one from that which fascin. ates the gaze of the ignorant trick- worshipper. To penetrate the interior of a world in motion ; to trace as far as possible the orderly laws which determines its course, and tocontemplate the mystery of the cause of its original impulses are matters which fie within the field of wonder of the higher intelligence. To be callous to the inner life of everything, to see a wonder only in novelty, rarity, or ia the unusual exterior are sure indices of a lower stage of intelligence. CONCLUSION. The order and equilibrium of the mind are intimately connected with the vigour, fulness, and health of the organs of sense. Many persons commit mental suicide for the sensual delight of a useless momentary wonder. The insane, by disease, are forced to live always within a world of wonders such as those sought after, at times, by the ignorant. I have prepared a classified ‘‘ Psycho- meter Index’ which to some may be use- ful in showing the treacherous nature of the apparent value of judgments based upon observations of the crippled senses. I have shown by this classified ‘‘ Psycho- meter Index” that we may only hope for orderly concepts, free from illusion, with- in narrow limits. Beyond this limit orderly conception diminishes or lessens in value. It would seem that passion distorts or gains ascendancy over sane judgment in proportion to the degree of the diminishing power of the senses, uns til, approaching the zero of the under- standing, the state coincides exactly with insanity. The insane state consists of all kinds of unreasoning beliefs; but, unlike sane concepts, they are marked by a real pitiful intensity of conviction to which the sane mind can never hope, or ever wish for, within the logical order of the higher states of consciousness. Better be a dull, pulsating mass of protoplasm than to be adrift upon a stormy ocean of disordered concepts, when the rudder and helm of 10 the senses have been rendered nugatory, or have been for ever destroyed. Let us beware, therefore, of the intensity of a conviction which is, in this way, related. Notwithstandiasg what has been stated in opposition to illusions of a fungoid character, I am far from being convinced that all illusions, as such, are harmful. Iam inclined to think that a benefical purpose is served by many of them, especially of such as are born of the extraordinary strength of love, affection, sympathy, and the higher poetic fancy. The mother, for example, sees favourable qualities in her child which no other eye regards, and, frequently, have no real existence. Who, therefore, would wholly banish the mist of the affections ? I, for one, would not ifI could. A large group of illusions might fairly be classed under this order. All illusion, or partial illusion, which for the moment may be necessary to our comfort and well-being, spiritually, and not liable to introduce more remotely great evil consequences, I would be sorry to see wholly dispelled. I do not regard or class such as ‘' Fungoid Illusions.” Illusions which are harmful are alone regarded as ‘‘ fungoid ” in my estimation. We have seen that it may be possible to reach the zero of valuable concepts, and, indeed, of all consciousness, in two widely different directions. On the one hand, it may be gradually approached through varying stages of fictitious won- der, imagination, dream-illusion, insanity, and by the destruction of one after the other of those wonderful organs of sense which, though of feeble range, are yet, in the highest sense, God-given, Heaven- born. On the other hand, by humble mien and fearless confidence, we may, through all the channels of widening sense. ad- vance to still greater heights, wider hori- zons, which may be ordained that we should yet conquer. There are still al- most infinite circles within the legitimate domain of natural science, but beyond the limits of our present knowledge and range of powers. Yet, even now, froma thousand heights of sense, we can perceive that, however we may increase in subjective knowledge —i.e., natural knowledge—the objective mystery which surrounds us, which we feel we can never penetrate, is but in- creased by every advancing step in natural knowledge. We feel that though new chords should continue to be struck on “the harp of a thousand strings,” the “ Kverlasting Arm ’”’ which is the cause of their harmonious vibrations can, itself, never be revealed to us save through that veil of the sensible in which ‘ we live, move, and have our being.” Do not, therefore, foolishly tremble under the illusion that all mystery shall be dissipated, or that the veil may be pierced, if we but open wider our dim eyes, or stretch out a little further our feeble hands. Their limits—not deter- mined by us—not written on tables of stone, and soon enough reached—are the truest and best guides. The created mysteries of distorted imagination and the crippled senses are but a poor “‘ mess of pottage”’ as compared with our glorious birthright of orderly natural knowledge and feeling. If still—like wilful children—we wil/ have a deeper mystery, let us, with the fullest possible equipment, attempt to penetrate from every portal of sense the cAUSE of which they are themselves wondrous symbols. The effort to do so will convey an impression which cannot be effaced. Thereafter the appalled and humbled mind will gratefully shrink back within its own protecting luminous mist of the higher poetic ideal, and, with the chastened submission of a child-ery— “Tt isenough.” ‘* Thy will be done.” Nor swords of angels could reveal what they conceal. PROPOSED PsycHoMETER INDEX DESIGNED AS AN AID TO THE BETTER DETER- MINATION OF THE COMPARATIVE VALUE oF MEntTaL Concepts. Table specially prepared with the object of showing approximately the Relative Value of Observations and Related Conclusions or Judgments, as Deter- mined by the Nature of the Testimony and other Conditions under which the Original and other Observations have been made :— Order of Value of Testimony. Direct. Indirect. (1) (2) (8) 4) (A) PHENOMENA OF THE WAKING STaTE— (A) Mind not diseased and little or not affected by the disorders arising out of passion, prejudice, or ignorance. Key to Classification. * Common Phenomena :— Condition a a “hhad, 34 a b sts 5 6 7 8 ¥ ¢ eR Ur ese i d aiieiS oA, 15 ie 3 e a6 | B18, 19.90 ‘ f .. 21°92 28 24 59 9g eee 25 a -F =o ** Hxtraordinary Phenomena :— Condition a sa) BN AQT 2S. 2g i b we BO. SL Bars c ¢ ... 84 86 86 37 — d .. 38 89 40 41 e e oe 42 483 .44 465 rT A 46 47 48 49 ” g x0 —- — — (B) Mind not diseased, but more or less subject to the disorders arising out of passion, prejudice, or ignorance. * Wonderful or Miraculous Phenomena, including the Ghost, Vision, or Illusion stage:— Condition a oo. BE 52 563 54 ie b «> oO” B56 57 “56 Fr Cc 2 OO 60 GE G2 ‘s d «2, Ga, G4 65 GG es é 2 6G GG Go Fo Uf tks Te eee + g - 1 — — — (c) Mind diseased, and subject, more or less, to all its disorders. Condition :— * Hallucination, milder form... 76 77 78 79 “= Dementia 80 81 82 88 (B) PHENoMBNA OF SLEEP— (A) Peaceful or pleasur- able visions 84 85 86 87 (8) Painful or horrible visions 88 89 90 91 (c) Profound slumber... 92 — — — EIXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN CLASSIFIED TABLE. Subdivisions of order of value of testi« mony :— (1) Indicates tetimony directly ap- pealing to senses, feeling, or consciousness. Memory of former experiences aiding the judgment. (2) Indicates testimony directly ap- pealing to the senses, feeling, or consciousness, Memory of former experiences not an aid to judgment. (3) Indicates experiences more or less remote. Testimony de- pendant upon observer’s memory mainly. (4) Indicates that testimony is wholly dependant upon the observation of others—not per: sonal observation. Conditions abcde fg qualifying the value of the subordinate stages of obser- vation : a Indicates stage of the scientific method. All sense organs avail- able for verification, together with the advantages of health, perfect organisation, best posi- tion, special training, and full equipment of tested instrumental aids. b Indicates the common sense stage. The same asa stage, but lacking the advantage of special training, best position, and the absence of tested instrumental aids. (Crippled sense stages more or less liable to illusion.) ce Indicates the d stage, but lacking the co-operation of one ef the least valuable of the complemen- tary sense aids. d Indicates the 0 stage, but lacking the co-operation of two of the least valuable of the comple- mentary sense- aids. e Indicates the b stage; but lacking the co-operation of three of the least valuable of the comple- mentary sense-aids, f Indicatesthe b stage, but lacking the co-operation of four of the least valuable of the comple- mentary sense-aids. g Indicates that all the sense organs are rendered nugatory so far as direct obz rvation is concerned ; memory of former experiences alone available to qualify the testimony of others upon whom the crippled mind and senses are now wholly dependant. Column numbers under order of value of testimony :— The numbers under each one of the four columns indicate, in the order of downward sequence, the relative qualitative (not quantitative) value of the par- ticular stage of observation, or of the zonclusion or judgment based thereupon. 95 THE ETHICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. By R. M. JOHNSTON, 1.8.0., F.8.8. (Read November 22, 1905.) INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. The whole question of making State provision for the maintenance and support of all helpless and infirm persons who have survived the age of 65 years is too often, in con- troversy, clouded by the frequent use of the abstract term “State,” as if it represented, in itself, a real, distinct, and independent entity. The provision for the maintenance and support of all dependents of the community in any one year — whether children, helpless invalids, improvident persons, or the aged infirm —- is purely an economic question, and depends, not upon an ideal State, but directly and entirely upon the products and services created or supplied by the inde- pendent active breadwinners of the community for the time being. Nay, more; every function of the State, as such, which absorbs time and labour, directly or indirectly, by means of general taxation, is wholly maintained by the usefully and intelligently directed services of the active breadwinners of the community for the time being. It will be observed that much stress is laid upon the phrase, “the active breadwinners of the community for the time being,” for it will be made apparent hereafter that the whole argument in favour of Old Age Pensions, both from an ethical and economic point of view, rests upon the fact that the active independent breadwinner of to-day has been a dependent infant and school-child in his earler years, and he may yet in his old age become one of the helpless and infirm dependents upon the younger genera- tion of breadwinners whom he, in his prime manhood, and during their helpless stage of infancy and childhood, di- rectly or indirectly through State agency, sheltered, edu cated, and maintained. 96 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. THE COMPOSITION OF A NORMAL POPULATION. A normal population in a civilised State at the present time consists of :— 1. Independent breadwinners. 2. Semi-independent wives and other relatives en- gaged in the domestic duties of the household. 3. Dependent children, and helpless and infirm rela- tives. 4, Friendless and helpless poor, young and old, main- tained by breadwinners through the medium of State taxation. The following abstract, taken from the analysis of “Occupations of the People” in Tasmania at the last census, affords a clearer notion of the character and relative num- ber of these important groups per 10,000 of the popula- tion :— Composition and Relative Proportion of the Four Great Divisions of the People. (Per 10,000 persons.) (A.) INDEPENDENT BREADWINNERS. (a) Rendering personal and immaterial services for express salary, com- mission, or wages :— Protessional services... .. spire 290 Domestic SERVICES... jen. . one 5 aww asae 460 — 750 (b) Rendering material services for equivalent value in salary, commis- sion, or wages :— Distributors of materials... ... ... 716 Modifiers of materials ... ....... 1,088 Primary producers of materials... 1,617 Other independent services ... 90 - 3,011 Total independent breadwinners 4,261 (B.) SEMI-INDEPENDENT GROUP. Wives and others engaged in do- mestic duties of the household, but not receiving an express equivalent in a monetary form 1,946 BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.8.0., F.S.S. 97 (C.) DEPENDENTS. (a) Maintained directly by bread- winner :— Children under 15 years of age 3,650 Aged and infirm eet 65 years BM OVER: cipinc ca ogi esa eee 35 Helpless relatives 65 years and ETS is 2. pets 7 Ditto ditto, under 65 years Bee eb 10 — 3,702 (b) Maintained indirectly by bread- winners through the medium of State taxation :— Paupers and others 65 cae and Onety-. y. 29 Ditto ditto under 65 years PAB: 62 —— 91 Total Pee ae eae bread- winners ... ... ped Nepal ote Aiptcal*petsoNsac sce Mine ee. 2s oat 10,000 From the preceding tabular analysis it will be seen that there are only about 42 persons in every 100 who can be regarded as making independent provision at any time for their own maintenance by means of direct industrial ser- vices having an express monetary exchange value in the eyes of the economist. The members of the houshold who perform the necessary domestic duties, although not receiving any express re- muneration from a monetary point of view, may be also re- garded as self-supporting, as they, by their services within the family, give a value equivalent to breadwinner, al- though not in a money form. It will be seen that every 42 breadwinners maintain, on the average, 36 dependent children under the age of 15 years, who have up to this age been recipients of the pro- ducts created by the labour of breadwinners in the aggre- gate for the support of the whole population, and who, at this stage, had never contributed anything towards the burden of the State’s maintenance. In addition, these 42 breadwinners, directly or in- directly, support the equivalent of 0.71 helpless dependent persons over the age of 65 years, and 0.72 dependents under this age, the greater part of whom had been breadwinners, and who for 25 years at least had not only maintained themselves by their own industry, but had on the average taken their fair share — during their own prime and active 98 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. stage of independence — in the maintenance and support of 38 helpless young and aged dependents. It will be seen, therefore, that while the young and helpless forming 36.57 per cent. of the population have only an ethical claim upon parents and the State for care and maintenance, and education ; the deserving aged breadwinners who are past work, aged 65 and over — and only forming 1.28 per cent. of the population, and about 38.73 per cent. of the group 65 years of age and over — have both an ethical and economic right of claim to be honourably provided for by the present active breadwinners of the State generally, in return for the services rendered by such of the survivors . of those breadwinners who supported, maintained, and ‘educated the present generation of breadwinners during their helpless earlier stage of childhood. Let us, for closer comprehension of this aspect of the sub- ject, take for illustration the following case of a bread- winners who marries at the age of 23; has 8 children at the age of 55. Each child has been maintained and educated up to the age of 15 years. The age of the bread- winner at the birth of each child is assumed at the age of 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 35, 37, and 41 respectively. The chief breadwinner becomes a charge upon his eight children at the age of 65 years until his death at the 76th year of hisage. The ages of the supporting breadwinner's children at parent’s 65th year of age, and at his death at the 76th year are as follows :— Ist child. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. 8th. Age at Parent’s 65th year .. 41 39 37 35 32 30 28 28 Age at Parent’s 76th year ... 52 50 48 46 43 41 39 34 Debt of Children to ode Share vot Chil: Parent Breadwinner ; = at the Father’s 65th Can pected nite Balance of Debt 5 “| still Due to Parent. year of age for 15 fix, pee a f , . years of infirmity years’ maintenance due to old age. and education. ig £ £ 1st child ei 416°15 35°95 380°20 Salen eile ie 388°48 33°56 354-92 ir gl ont 362°65 31°32 331°33 Tg CA 338 62 99°25 309°37 Bilt Ley hew hie 305°34 26°37 27897 Oe Paria: 284-96 24-62 260°34 Rn ce stain ice 266°09 92-98 24311 Sth ‘rey. ae ia. 294-04 19°36 20468 TotalS8children| —2,586°33 923-41 2,362°92 Per cent. to original debt of child my 100° 8°63 91°37 BY R. M. JOHNSTON, 158.0., F.S.S. 99 These figures are of the greatest significance, from the ethical and economic point of view, in the support they give to the cause of old age pensions. It indicates clearly that there is no economic or ethical claim so firmly based upon justice and equity, for demanding some reasonable share of the existing available consumable wealth of the State. The economic debt claim alone, due by the eight children to the one surviving parent who has become infirm and helpless at the age of 65 years, is calculated actuarily to amount to a capital sum of £2,586, equivalent on the average to a contribution of £323.6 per child. The average after “life expectation” of a person aged 65 years may be estimated on the basis of life assurance experience to be llyears. It follows, therefore, on equitable grounds that the surviving parent might fairly claim, if it were at all practicable (1.e., if the eight children, now all breadwinners, possessed sufficient means), an annuity or pension of £287.3 for the remainder of the parent's life, equivalent to a con- tribution annually for 11 years of £35.9 per child. But while the justice and equity of the claim of such a parent is thus more than fully established from an ethical point of view, it would altogether depend upon the financial means of the eight members of his family whether such a claim could possibly be satisfied or actualised in practice. The world’s experience hitherto is sufficient to show that the full claim — even of surviving aged parents who require aid by means of a pension or allowance — could not be realised in practice for several reasons, the more important of which are the following :— (1) Some aged persons 65 and over have few children ornone. Some or all children of such aged parents :— (2) Are too poor themselves to fulfil parental obliga- tions. (3) Are too selfish and unwilling to do so. (4) Die or disappear before the parent arrives at the old age limit of 65 years. (5) All persons 65 and over who are infirm and help- less, and who are not supported by living children or friendly relatives, are now indirectly provided for by non-relative breadwinners through the medium of State taxation. The only way to overcome the obvious difficulties con- nected with any scheme, whose object is the honourable maintenance and support of all helpless and infirm bread- 100 ASPECTS CF OLD AGE PENSIONS. winners who survive their 65th year, would le for active breadwinners as a whole (the State) to adopt the wise and providential policy of pooling all the risks and benefits as in the skilfully devised actuarial provisions of the various fire, life, and marine insurance, and assurance orgamnisa- tions, as also our important friendly societies now managed with such marvellous success in all civilised countries. PRESENT AVERAGE CONTRIBUTIONS BY EACH BREADWINNER PER YEAR TOWARDS MAIN- TENANCE OF DEPENDENT OR HELPLESS NON-BREADWINNERS. , FOR HUMANE PROVISION. Estimated Contribution Per Breadwinner. £4) eA Maintenance and support of all children under 15 years ‘of age, say,;L14 each..<'f:4 ov a¢ eh eee Education of children in State schools ... ... ... 1.) Ge Maintenance of hospitals and charities ... ... ... QO 14) i Total, humane, provision...) :; /....3/-.4 "lou aa PROPOSED BENEFITS (OLD AGE PENSIONS) TO AGED AND INFIRM BREADWINNERS. Equivalent Amount Per Breadwinner Per Year. The surviving breadwinners at 65 years and over who, through old age and infirmity, may be unable to support or adequately support themselves, to be entitled to and assured of an income, pension, or equivalent provision, which, together with any private source of income, shall not exceed £52 per annum for the remainder of life, but failing any private source of income, shall not fall short of a sum of £18 per annum. A further condition for securing such pension is that the claimant must have led an hon- ourable life and must have resided in the State as an independent breadwinner or semi-breadwinner for a period of not less than 20 years... 4 di Bae .. in) hala BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0.. F.8.S. 101 The practical experience of New Zealand proves that a provision of this kind would not include more than 1.38 per cent. of the total population; 3.35 per cent. of all breadwinners, and about 35 per cent. of all persons of the age of 65 years and over. The average amount of actual pension for each pensioner would be about £17 per head, and its present capital value for the remaining expectation of life at 65 would, at 34 per cent., represent a capital value et £153. Let us now get at the average effect of the debt of the group of children under 15 years for maintenance and sup- port as due to the parents represented by the group of breadwinners between the age of 25 and 65 years. The children represent 35.40 per cent. of the total population, and the breadwinners between the age of 25 and 65 years represent 24.54 per cent. It means that every 100 bread- winners of the group, on the average, maintain 144 help- less children (or, as 1 to 1.44) for 15 years. The annual support for 15 years of such children would cost each bread- winner of the group, with interest at 34 per cent., a capital amount equivalent to £389, which, if then treated as a debt unpaid improved at compound interest for 25 years longer, i.e., until the breadwinner attains the age of 65 years, would represent the debt of youth to age, as equivalent to a capital sum of £918. On the other hand, let us see how far it would be pos- sible for the children (when they attain the age of the in- dependent breadwinner at the 21st year) to repay to age its indebtedness to the latter, as measured by an assumed contribution to Old Age Pensions, if restricted to £17 per head of such aged and infirm persons who would probably come under its provisions. This would mean that 46 per cent. of the population for 44 years would contribute jointly their fair share to the support and maintenance of 3.30 per cent. of the population, which is a close estimate of all the aged infirm persons who can come under the qualified conditions which determine the aged infirm 65 years and over entitled to the assumed Old Age Pension of £17 per head per year. The final result would be that to discharge this limited provision for old age pension would only demand an annual contribution of £1 4s. 9d. from each breadwinner for 44 years, and which in that time would accumulate to a sum of £125, thus leaving an unredeemed balance of obligation of £793, or 86.39 per cent. still remaining to the credit claim of old age as against youth; or, more significantly, to the unredeemable credit balance of old age as against the existing bread- winners, or, looking at the latter from an abstract point of view—the State ! 102 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. On the whole, therefore, it has been reasonably demon- strated that the claims of honourable and helpless old age to a State pension are indubitably established as rightful on both ethical and economic grounds. THE PRACTICABILITY OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. The absence in the existing individualistic State social organisations (with few exceptions) of any provision, save dishonouring pauperism, for the industrious and respectable breadwinners of the past, who from age and poverty have become helpless and infirm, is a lasting reproach, and requires immediate remedial attention if it is to suecessfully withstand the rapidly growing forces which advocate the adoption of the Fabian and other extreme forms of Socialism. Nearly all the advanced leaders of drastic socialistic schemes, such as the advocates of the “Eisenach Pro- gramme,’ proudly proclaim that they recognise the ethical and economic right of helpless old age, as well as of helpless children to an honourable share of the currently produced necessaries and comforts of life, not as a humiliating pauper dole, but as a primary rightful claim. The alleged impracticability of making such provision on the lines of existing individualistic State Socialism may be dismissed in view of the success which has attended the introduction of provision for old age pensions in Germany, Denmark, New South Wales, Victoria, and New Zealand ; and notably so in the latter. The New Zealand experience is extremely encouraging. The Old Age Pensions Act, in that wonderfully progressive - State, came into force on the first day of November, 1898, and has now been successfully administered for seven years. The breadth of its experience, and the ability shown in the administration of the Old Age Pension Act form an ad- mirable object-lesson to other countries. An enthusiastic admirer* of the New Zealand scheme of old age pensions *Mr. Frederick Rogers, ‘‘ Old Age Pensions ” ‘f Pro. and Con. Series.” (Isbister and Co. Ltd., London, 1903.) BY R. M. JOHNSTON, 1.8.0., F.SS. 103 makes the following observation thereupon :—“Looking at the Old Age Pensions Act in New Zealand, and the suc- cess that has up to the present attended its administration, it is impossible not to see — even though the colony is small compared with our own country — that the idea of a nation pensioning its old citizens is practicable and workable.” ... “The New Zealanders made their experiment with a simplicity and courage which startled old-fashioned polli- ticians, but which has justified itself by results. The preamble to the Act affirms that ‘it is equitable that ae- serving persons, who, during the prime of life helped to bear the public burdens of the colony by the payment of taxes, by their labour and skill, should receive from the colony a pension in their old age.’” .... “New Zealand found itself with its aged men and women who were past work, and who — for whatever reason — were without the means of subsistence.” .... “Separating the criminal from the honest man, the wife deserter, and the drunkard from the decent citizen, they found it in a national system of pensions.” .... “A claimant for a pension must have been a citizen of the colony for twenty-five years, must not have suffered during that time for any offence ‘dishonouring him in the public estimation,’ must not, if a husband, have de- serted his wife, if a wife, have deserted her husband, must not have an income of more than £52 pounds a year, or accumulated property of more than £270 and upwards, and must be of good moral character, and within five years of claiming the pension must have led a sober and reputable hife.”’ Such safeguards as are here stated entirely remove all the objections based upon the so-called universal schemes of old age pensions, and which formed the chief stumbling block to the adoption of the English Select Committee's scheme (Mr. Chaplin’s, 1900), and adversely reported upon afterwards by a Departmental Committee consisting of Sir E. W. Hamilton, K.C.B., E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B., S. B. Provis, Esq., C.B., and Noel Humphreys, Esq. The following tabular results of the working of the old age pension schemes in New South Wales, Victoria, and New Zealand will afford to those interested a better grasp of their scope and character :— 104 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. OLD AGE PENSIONS IN NEW SOUTH WALGS, VICTORIA, AND NEW ZEALAND. (Based upon Latest Official Publications.) N.S. Vic- NEW WALES.| TORIA. ZEALAND. 1903. 1904. 1902. | 1904-5. Total Population... ue No.| 1,422,803} 1,207,808) 820,217} 875,539 Population, 65 years and over No. 48,802} 66,429) 33,465] 34,990 Percentage 65 years and over to total Population ... per cent.| 3°43 5°50 4°08 4.08 Number 65 years and over actually in receipt of Pension ... No. 19,596 12,622} 14,167) 11,812 Percentage ditto to total Popula- tion per cent.| 1°38 1°05 1°73 1°38 Péientabs ditto to all ages 65 yearsandover... percent | 40°15 19°01 42°11 | 33°76 Amonnt of Pensions actually nae to Persons 65 years and over... £) 468,3853*| 200,436] 210,411) 195,475 Ditto per Pensioner fe «£2318. 0] 15.17 714 17 O16 11 0 Ditto per head of Population £| 0 6 7| 0 3A4/0 5 20 4 6 Ditto per head of all at ages 65 and over £; 91111) 3 0 4,6 5 9 Sil 9g Maximum Pension allowed | “per! year— To one Person ... £/ 26 0 O| 2016 O18 O O18 O O To each of Married Couple... £19 10 0) 2016 O18 0 O18 0 0 Maximum Income allowed, includ- ing Pension— To one Person ... £/ 52 0 0] 26 0 0152 0 0152 0 O To each of Married Couple .. £/ 39°'O 0 26 0 039 O 089 O @ Length of Residence in State to, qualify for Pension ...No. years 25 20 25 25 *Partly estimated. t Since this paper was read, an amending Act has been passed in New Zealand. The new provisions are:--(1) An increase of pension from £18 to £26. (2) An increase from £52 to £60 of the amount of income required to disqualify. (3) An increase of joint income required to disqualify (with pension added) from £78 to £90. (4) An equal division ot property between husband and wife. (5) An increase of the deduction from property in certain cases from £50 to £150. THE REAL MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. The satisfaction of the wants of man is the mainspring of all his activities. Wants are interminable. Some satisfactions affect his very existence from day to day, while others only concern in greater or lesser degree his comfort or happiness. But whatever eccentricities may be ex- hibited by isolated individuals at times, it is unmistakable that the intensity of the struggle for the satisfaction of BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0. F.S.S. 105 wants in all communities is determined by the nature of the wants; and invariably the greater intensity of the struggle, beginning with the most essential, is in the follow- ae ‘order. — 1. The satisfaction of wants essential to life, viz.— food, shelter, and rest. 2. The satisfaction of wants essential to comfort. 3. The satisfaction of luxurious wants. Man -— whether millionaire as regards nominal claim upon capital wealth, or beggar without any nominal claim —may exist without the enjoyment of luxurious satisfac- tions. He may be deprived of all satisfactions saving the first group, and still maintain a more or less extended life struggle with patient fortitude; but if the satisfaction of the primary wants of the first group — food, shelter, and rest—be ever so little curtailed below a certain minimum, he, whether capitalist or pauper, will speedily perish miserably. Man lives by actual current or annual productions in- tended for consumption alone — consumable wealth — and not upon fixed capital or animate or inanimate instru- ments of production, or their nominal claim values, whether annual or capital; and when we discover that services cur- rently rendered, whether by instrument, skilled mind, or hand, constitute the base of what forms the real purchas- ing power or claim over ‘consumable wealth’ currently available, we are able to more clearly perceive that the distribution of that form of wealth which comprises the immediately necessary products upon which subsistence depends, is determined — not as fallaciously assumed by the proportion of claim which each man holds of the Statis- tician’s wealth — 1.e., the fixed non-personally consumable instruments of production, which the nominal owner no more consumes than the servants who control them, but —strictly by the express measure which current services of various degrees of exchange value have enabled each worker or useful service to constitute a claim upon the current available aggregate products of such services whose values are contained and incorporated in the current production of consumable wealth. The great stumbling block to many who have attempted to deal with the question of old age pensions has been the failure to realise that the essentials for the support, maintenance, and the life of the individual units of the State in any one year, do not consist of, or depend upon the previous accumulations of the com- pounded interest of sinking funds, money, or nominal in vestments, or savings. The province of monetary invest- 106 ASSECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. ments, or other forms of claim, lie wholly within the arti- ficial domain of what may be termed “Banking Economics,’ and although the latter domain is absolutely essential to the existing form of State Socialism in building up, measur- ing, distributing, or determining the various forms of in- dividual claims upon or titles to the economist’s nominal “wealth of exchange’—the distribution of it by any pro- cess, neither in itself forms part, nor can it augment or diminish the needful store of real “consumable wealth” (mostly perishable or wasted if not used within the year of production) produced by labour, instruments of pro- duction, and Nature’s free gifts, of any one year, upon which alone all persons depend for the real essentials of life, health, comfort, and well-being. Nominal capital, or other claim or title to economists’ “wealth of exchange” (i.e., money, promissory notes, mort- gages, stocks, title deeds of property, capital invested in instruments of production, and such like), however skilfully and mathematically summed up by accretions of interest forborne, and however great, can never be put in force in excess of the actual volume of “consumable wealth” (real wealth) which has been produced or is available for con- sumption in any one year, nor can such claims immediately, by any process of finance, create, augment, or diminish any portion of the year’s products. All such artificial claims are of necessity limited in application, to the measurement and allocation of title or claim to whatever consumable wealth may be absolutely necessary to the claimant, and available at the moment of presentation of claim. The well-being of any community in any one year is, therefore, determined, not by the nominal capital or annual values of its instruments of production, but by the volume and character of the created products of the year available to all claimants for consumption. To realise this most important distinction more closely in a practical way, let us examine the well-being of a country by its “Standard of Living,” i.e., its average wealth yearly consumed and enjoyed. Let us, for illustration, take the experience at the pre- sent day of the estimated average “‘Standard of Living” of the people of the Commonwealth of Australia, and its character as shown in the following summary :— BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.8.0., F.S.S. 107 TABLE SHOWING CHARACTER OF THE Forms or WEALTH (CONSUMABLE WEALTH) ACTUALLY PRODUCED AND Con- SUMED IN EACH YEAR IN AUSTRALIA, TOGETHER WITH ITS EQUIVALENCE IN THE Hours oF HumAN LABOUR ABSORBED ANNUALLY IN ITS PRODUCTION PER H#Eap. | Equiv’lence,; Per Cost. in Hours | cent. HUMAN CONSUMPTION. of Labour. |to Total =| ——————| Per Per Year.| Per Day.| Per Man. | cent. £ sd d. Food and Clothing ... 19 9 3) 12°80 1,011 42°13 Rent, Fuel, and Light St Si 6°09 481 | 20°05 Spirits and Tebacco .. ml a ai: NN be 2°68 212 8°84 Religion, Education, Chari- ties, etc. “a bys es SoS dl 2°24 7S 7°37 Art and Amusements 2) Pe Peaas 0°75 58 2°45 Medicines and Medical At- tendance Ae a a ih s “70 56 2935 Other Services... 016 0 53 42 1°74 Total Human Consumption.| 39 4 6) 25°79 2,038 84°93 Man’s auxiliary instruments actually engaged in pro- duction ne ue ete Orden te 4°58 | 362 15°07 PAG AG SOCST rc) eee 100°00 The total amount of real wealth annually consumed in the Commonwealth of Australia by the whole population is estimated at present to be about £185,340,000, or £108 9s. 8d. per breadwinner, or £46 3s. 9d. per head of the total population, including non-effective dependents. The capital value of property (a) is land, houses, live stock, furniture, machinery, shipping, railway plant, gold and bullion, personal effects, and all other instruments of production, transport and manufacture, is estimated at present to amount to £980,000,000. It forms no part, however, of the £185,340,000 of the real wealth of products and services annually consumed and enjoyed by the people any more than the estimated capital value of the effective producing energies of man’s labour and skill (b), which may be reckoned to amount to a sum of at least £2,937,700,000. The combined effective capital value of (a) property, and (b) man’s effective labour and skill, services engaged in the production of real or consumable wealth, is estimated at £3,917,700,000. All the capital value of claims which the combined agents of production can put in force in any one year therefore cannot exceed the value of consumable wealth produced within the same period, viz., £185,340,000, 108 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. representing about 4.73 per cent. of the total capital claim. If we now set down the fair proportion which the two classes of producing agencies (a) and (v) can lay claim to the annual consumable wealth produced and available, it would stand as follows :— APPROXIMATE PROPORTION OF CONSUMABLE WEALTH oF AUS- TRALIA DISTRIBUTED ON THE BASIS OF THE AMOUNT OF RELATIVE CLAIM OF THE ACTUAL EFFECTIVE FORCES OF THE PropucING AGENCIES ENGAGED. | peace Value|Annual Share| Per Centage. : of Producing | of Products, |———|——~—— Mode of Claim. Agencies and} Consumable To Instruments. Wealth. Capital. Total. bd & | £ p. cent.| p, ‘p. cent. (a)Capitalinvested|Rental, Interest, in Property and| Tribute, Taxes, Instruments of| ete. Production .. 980,000,000 46,360,090) 4°73 25°00 (b) Capital Value of| Commission, Eftective Labo’r Wages, and|Skill of Man Salary, etc. engaged in the work of produc- tion 6 5 2,937,700,000 138,980,000} 4°73 75°00 Total 28 Ae £3,917,700,000} £185,340,000| 4°73 | 100° i From this analysis, which is sufficiently comprehensive, it would appear that ordinary labourers are simply poor capitalists, and that employers and wealthy people are rich capitalists: that both forms of capital are necessary to the production of the current necessaries of life; and that both — whether as interest, rental, or tribute, or as commission, wages, or salary — derive their share of these necessaries of life by their combined action. In this view of the case it is no more true or false that commission, wages, and salary are derived from the abstract idea, capital, than that rental, interest, tribute, and taxes are derived from capital. The object of all this reasoning is to show that if the citizens of any State impose any new function — such as provision for old age pensions — upon the State Adminis- tration which may be deemed necessary to the life and well-being of its members, it creates for the State adminis- trators a real right of claim upon whatever consumable wealth is available, commensurate with the cost of the function so imposed. The mode of claim by the State, which would correspond with that of capitalists’ interest, rental, wages, or salary, would be that of taxation. BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0., F.S.S. 109 Two chief arguments of all objections to old age pensions are:—(1) That it adds additional cost to the country, and (2) that it would destroy the existing habit of thrift. Pad inl 5 DIFFICULTIES ARISING OUT OF AN ALLEGED ADDITION TO THE COST OF THE COUNTRY. The introduction of old age pensions for the reasons given in the previous pages would entail no fresh or additional cost to the country, or to breadwinners or taxpayers in the aggregate. It would only distribute the existing pro- vision for support and maintenance in a less humiliating form, in a less costly manner, and in a more equitable and effective way. It would relieve to some extent the un- equal direct burden now imposed upon the willing, kind, and conscientious; and impose, indirectly by taxation, a little more burden upon the selfish and unwilling who at present to a large extent evade directly their rightful share of burden. By the present haphazard provision it often happens that the forward, hypocritical, and undeserving poor get more than their fair share, while the unobtrusive, shrinking, but deserving poor, get little or nothing. 2. THE ALLEGEMENT WHICH ASSUMES THAT OLD AGE PENSIONS WOULD HAVE THE EFFECT OF TENDING TO DESTROY THE EXISTING HABIT OF THRIFT. Thrift is a word that may mean many things. In a re- ply to this objection, Mr. Frederick Rogers observes :—‘To many (thrift) it appears simply to mean the saving-up of money, but that virtue (?) is not likely to flourish among people who have no money to save. Mr. Charles Booth showed in his evidence before the Commission on the Aged Poor that two-fifths of the adult population of Eng- land and Wales consist of agricultural labourers, unskilled town workers, and women wage-earners, and that these classes account for 80 per cent. of the paupers of our own country, and that two out of every three who live to old age have come to the Poor Law for assistance. Sir Robert Giffen told the Labour Commission that there are one million and three-quarters of adult men in the United Kingdom earning a pound a week or less. There are no 110 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. figures to show how many millions of women there are living on half that sum.” Mr. Rogers goes on to add :— “It is a cruel mockery to talk about thrift to classes like these.” .... “The problem of how to treat the deserving poor was the subject of a special committee’s report to the Stockton Guardians.” .... “Mr. Andrews, in moving the adoption of the report, stated that of the 783 persons in the workhouse over 64 years of age, 370, or 47.88 per cent., were deserving poor who had been well-behaved and self-supporting. The cause of 370 persons entering the workhouse was the smallness of the wages they had re- ceived, not drink.” “Thrift is in the last result of making the best” .... “that can be got out of existing circumstances.” .... °It has often happened that the duties lying nearest to hand have rendered it impossible for the man or woman to make provision for their old age, as they have been the keeping of aged parents for a long period of life. But no theory of thrift could ever excuse a human being for neglecting his or her duties to their family for the sake of providing .... for an old age that he is not sure he will ever live to.” ... ‘It would be a form of human selfishness that would win for its practiser the wholesome contempt of their fel- lows of society.” Mr. Rogers concludes with the statement .... that “common-sense indicates that a young man is not likely to refuse to make provision for the mishaps and mis- fortunes of his younger years, because he is likely to get a pension from the State when he is old.” THE EFFECT OF THE ADOPTION OF OLD AGE PENSIONS ON THE LINES OF NEW ZEALAND IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. There are at present in the Commonwealth of Australia a population (exclusive of aborigines) of 3,984,376 persons, of which it is estimated that 159,375, or 4 per cent., are of the age of 65 and over. By the seven years’ experience of New Zealand it may be safely reckoned, under the con- ditions prescribed for old age pensions, that about 55,781 persons, or about 35 per cent. of the old age group, 65 and over, would become pensioners. This, at the average pension of £17 per pensioner, would represent a cost to the State of £948,177 per annum, and a | tax of 4s. 9d. per head. BY R. M. JOHNSTON, L.S.0., F.S.S. 111 The burden and effect of such a provision to each State on the basis of population would be somewhat as follows :— PROPORTION OF TAX BURDEN FOR EACH STATE ON ACCOUNT OF OLD AGE PENSIONS. Less aa eae . Existing | BURDEN. of Total Old Age| State | st. | Provision | a —— Popula- (if any) tion. Gre ater Increase.| Decrease. £ & £ ££ N.S. Wales ...| 36°58 346,843 468,353 — 121,510 Victoria... A Wes V's) 288,056 200,436 87,620 — Queensland poe Teed lt 124,116 nil, 124,116 — S. Australia a4 9°35 88,655 nid, 88,655 — W. Australia ... 6°08 57,649 nil, 57,649 — Tasmania =a 4°52 42,858 nil. 42,858 — Commonwealth 100 948,177 668,789 400,898 | 121,510 279,383 Only to one of the two States that now make provision for old age pensions for ages 65 and over (N.S. Wales) would the adoption of the New Zealand scheme be of advantage to the local State Treasury or local State. To enable the Commonwealth to bear the burden of old age pensions for Australia as a whole, it would have to raise an additional revenue by taxation of at least £948,177. CONCLUSION. However fair and desirable it may, therefore, be that the Commonwealth of Australia should adopt the scheme of old age pensions, and notwithstanding that the citizens them- selves as a whole would have their State and direct per- sonal burden lessened in proportion, as to the extra indirect taxation required from them by the Commonwealth, the real practical difficulties which would arise, and would have to be overcome, would be the fiscal one. It would mean a complete revisal of Customs and Excise tariff, and this would involve much personal differences of opinion among our Australian Statesmen. It would be both unjust, as well as impossible, to try to raise, by direct taxation, so large a sum of revenue. The burden should fall broadly and as lightly as possible on all existing persons who may in their own old age have to claim a right to a pen- sion. In no other way could the broad mass of citizen breadwinners contribute to enable them to establish such 112 ASPECTS OF OLD AGE PENSIONS, a claim than by the easy, flexible, and indirect method of extra duties on consumable goods through vhe machinery of Customs and Excise. Should the latter policy be adopted, I have no fear but that the noble object of honourable provision for well-de- serving old age breadwinners who have become pecuniarily disabled in life’s battle, will soon become an accomplished fact. 113 “INSECTS AND DISEASE.” By J. §. C. ELKINGTON, M.D., D.P.H, Chief Health Officer of Tasmania, (Read 9th May, 1904.) Dr. Elkington said :—The subject upon which I have been asked to address you this evening is one which has, within the past six years, produced a profound alter- ation in several branches of science. Here in Tasmania we are fortunately free from those scourges of humanity which are as yet known to depend wholly for their spread upon the agency of insect life, but even with us the problem is not wholly one of outside interest, as I will endeavor to show you in relation to typhoid fever. In this case, however, the method of con- veyance is purely a mechanical one, due to particles of infected matter clinging to the legs and bodies of flies, and subse- quently deposited upon food material, whence it is taken into the alimentary canal of the victim. It is advisable, therefore, to clearly distinguish between the two methods in which insects play a part in spreading disease amongst human beings, whether— (a) As carrying agents pure and simple, the infecting agent undergoing no change and not being dependent on the insect in any way. bud SU (b) As hosts, intermediate or. definitive, the infective organism being dependent upon the insect and undergoing an extra- corporeal phase of development in its tissues. The first. group is of distinct import- ance from the sanitarian’s point of view, in that it teaches us to guard against a real danger in times of prevalence of certain infectious diseases, but the second one far outweighs it. Into this second group fall some of the chief scourges of mankind, in tropical regions at any rate, and of these the greatest is malaria. Next to tuberculosis, malaria is probably the greatest cause of death and of ill-health with which mankind has to contend. Some of you have, no doubt, visited or lived in places where maalaria, oreven Yellow fever, have claimed their yearly toll of lives and health, have seen the long white-washed wards and wide verandabs of an Indian Cantonment Hospital filled with pasty-faced fever- stricken soldiers, and have heard day after day the drone of the regimental bands along the dusty white roads to the ceme- tery. To that supreme critic of all our actions, the ‘‘man in the street,” the proof of the conveyance of malaria by the agency of certain species of mosquitoes was merely an interesting piece of knowledge, but to those who know what the disease in question really means, it was a fact of startling importance, presaging the ap- proach of effective means of checking an enemy which in the year 1897 alone laid 75,821 British soldiers by the heels in hospital out of a total strength of 178,000 odd in all India. I need hardly remind you how nobly the promise of that great discovery has been fulfilled, how ‘the white man's grave”’ of former years hag become the white mans sanatorium, and how it is now possible for the march of Anglo-Saxon civilisation to progress in places where even six years back a new- comer could count his reasonable expecta- tion of life on the fingers of one hand. Tropical medicine has assumed such great proportions that it practically forms the pivot upon which turns the whole guestion of European colonisation in the tropics, and, practically speaking, tropical medicine is very largely based upon the spread of disease by insects. There, free- dom from malaria practically means freedom from ill-health. The London and Liverpool schools have received noble recognition from Mr Chamberlain, and from hard-headed business men who can see into the future. Many a Peter the Hermit is leading a crusade against dis- ease with knowledge, and often with funds supplied in this way, enabling the British race to get on a step further with colonisa- tion. America has taken up the work with especially striking results in relation to Yellow fever, and a handful of workers succeeded in clearing Havana of this fell disease in ninety days—after it had had an uninterrupted reign for 140 years. The discoveries which have been ‘made are, [ think, but a foretaste of those°which are to come, but their histories, with the patient record of constant toil over minute details, of the sacrifice of leisure and re- creation, and even in some eases of the lives of the, workers for the furtherment of knowledge, form, to my mind, one of the noblast romanees ever written. The work of Manson, Ross, McCallum, Reid, and ‘others have revolutionised the methods of research into human disease, and there is little doubt that ‘we are on the verge of further great discoveries in which the lower forms of life will be found to play an essential part in disease affecting man- kind. But this may appear to be some- thing of a digression from the practical treatment of my subject. I trust, how- ever, that I have shown you to some small extent the importance of the results obtained, and the‘ possibilities which they open up. I will now endeavor, with the aid’ of a few lantern slides, to indicate in some‘ measure the: manner in which thése ‘discoveries have, been made, the difficul: ties against’ which the workers had to ‘contend, and the method in which they ‘are practically applied. | The classical example is, of course, sup- plied by malaria, or paludism, as it is often termed. AsI need hardly point out, both these terms indicate the association with the presence of marshes, swamps, and other wet-soiled localities, which has been for centuries noted in connection with the disease, malaria meaning merely ‘bad air,” and paludism the condition induced by marshes. Now, about the middle of last century, certain observers noted the presence of certain brown and black granules in. gréat numbers in the blood and organs of malarial patients, and in 1880, . Dr, lLaveran, a French military surgeon in Algeria, made the discovery that the black granules, which are known as melanin, were prodaced by the action of immense numbers of tiny parasites. living in the red blood cor- puscles.’ This was a very notable dis- covery, as it naturally caused enquiry into the manner in which the parasites got into the blood corpuscles, and once there how they produced the fever. It was found that they could not be grown on artificial media, even from blood which swarmed with them, and other discoveries soon made it clear that they represented a distinct form — of animal life, and not avegetable one, like the . bacteria: for instance. Some five years later another discovery was made, namely, that these parasites breed in the blood, and that the attachs of fever coin- cide with the breaking up of the cluster of spores so formed. It was also found that three varieties at least of the or- ganisms infect men, and that yet others were to be obtained from the blood of birds, bats, cattle, monkeys, and other animals. (A picture:was then shown of one form of malarial organism as it appears under the microscope inthe various stages of development, which are traceable in the blood so long as it retains its vitality after removal.) Under the microscope, the strange octopus-like creature, which represents the last stage of development in blood specimens, would attract your attention even more than in the lantern pictures, since its arms are in vigorous motion from the time they shoot. out from ‘the surface. If kept moist. and warm another strange phenomenon occurs. One or more of these arms will be seen to sepa- 113 rate itself from the body and to shoot vigorously away. So vigorously, and with such apparent intention does it do so, that it often sets the surrounding corpuscles bobbing like a row of corks in a tideway. For years a discussion raged over this phenomenon. Why did the organism throw out these arms only after leaving the body ? The octopus-like creature, or male gamete, was never seen in blood immediately after its removal, but de- veloped from certain of the parasites, but not all, in a short time when kept warm and moist. If not kept warm and moist it did not develop. Moreover, why was it that only some of the amceloid organisms threw out arms and not all? And why did one or more of the arms when thrown out cast loose from the rest and dart away ? Upon these and similar facts Dr. Manson, then of Hong Kong, formulated in 1894 that fine piece of inductive reasoning which will always be associated with his name. Earlier observers had from time to time made suggestions of a similar nature, but it was reserved for Manson to formulate from the known facts a true scientific hypothesis. Being & parasite, he argued, the malarial organism must, like most other parasites, live for part of its existence outside the human body in another host. The octopus-like male gamete does not come into existence until after leaving the body, and while in the body the parasite is incapable of liberating itself by its own efforts. No traces of the parasite could be found in any of the discharges of the patient. It was _ there- fore probable ~ that it was re- moved from the body by some blood eating creature. Manson had previously performed some brilliant researches into the conveyance of certain other blood parasites by mosquitoes, and he was led to the conclusion that some distinct kind of mosquito was the probable agent, and that the male gamete formed the first stage of the extra corporeal development of the parasite in its new host. I need scarcely remind you that in all its main points Manson's hypothesis has been proved correct. Then Captain (now Major) Ross, of the Indian Medical Service, took up the work of investigating the development in the mosquito. It must be remembered 2) that he* began with practically no knew- ledge of the classification, structure, or habits of mosquitoes, since at that date (1895) comparatively little was known even to dipterologists, and that most of his work was done in an up-counotry Indian station far from the equipment and facilities of a modern laboratory. For two and a-half years he worked on, dis- secting and examining, cell by cell, hundreds of mosquitoes without result, and attempting feeding experiments in vain. It is natural that after such an ex- tended series of negative results he was beginning to suspect a flaw in Maneon’s theory. Then came light. A peculiar species of mosquito, which he had once before noticed in avery malarious locality as possessing dappled wings and laying boat-shaped eggs, was fed upon the blood of a malarial patient, and on dissecting it he found, for the first time, in its tissues granules of that coal black subs‘ance which I mentioned as being called mela- nin, and as characteristic of malarial fever, and in its stomach walls certain oval cells. These discoveries practically solved the problem. The dappled winged mosquito with boat shaped eggs belonged to the genus Anopheles, and the oval cells in the stomach wall were the developing parasites of remittent malarial fever. The rest was comparatively easy once these facts were known. The plague scare amongst the natives made it necessary for Ross to pursue his researches into the development of the organism in the mosquito by means of a closely similar organism conveyed by a Culex to birds, since blood feeding experi- ments from human beings became practi- cally impossible, but he had solved the two great problems in the way of the triumph- ant proof of Manson’s hypothesis, and that hypothesis was proved to be soundly founded. He had, moreover, distinguished the true malefactor—the Anopheles mosquito—from the innocent Culex, and his previous difficulties were to some ex- tent explained by the silent retiring and unobtrusive habits of the former genus. The differences between Culex and Anopheles are clear enough nowadays, but it is proverbially easy to be wise after the event. We must always rememter Ross in his up-country bungalow working on without recognising this shy and un- obtrusive genus from the myriads of Culices 116 The differences ave well exeniplified in. the lantern slides, which I wiil now show. you, and they extend through the insects’ lives from beginning toend. In the first place they may be readily enough distinguished by the attitude assumed in resting. Anopheles seems always to be endeavoring to stand on its head, while Culex rests parallel with the surface in a hunched up position. This, of course, is a rough test, but after a little while one becomes very expert in distinguishing the two in a_ locality where Anopheles are present. I+ may state that I do not know that any species of Anopheles existing in Tasmania, al- though one species has been recently described as existing in Victoria. I have not come across a member of the genus in a large number of mosquitoes lately examined in Tasmania. All species of Anopheles are not capable of conveying malaria, a fact which explains the presence of this genus in non-malarial localities where cases are from time to time introduced. The female, by the way, is usually the blood-sucker amongst mosquitoes, a meal of blood being stated to be essential fcr the fertilisation of the eggs. The male, except in the stegomyia and a few others, is an innocent creature, preferring a vegetable diet of fruit juices, if indeed he does feed at all, and not, like his partner, varying it with animal food extracted in a voracious and annoying manner. Both male and female are here shown, but, taking the latter first, you will note the length of the palpi—as long or longer than the proboscis. This is in itself, in the female, a mark of the genus. The wings are spotted in both specimens—another fair but not infallible guide-mark to the Anopheles. Turn- ing to the maie, you will note that the palpi are also long, but they are always long in the male, whether of Anopheles or Culex. These, however, are clubbed at the ends, and in this particular species are plumose at the ends. The dis- tinguishing marks of the male in this case, as in others, are the large plumose antenne—regular whiskers, as befits the sex. The adult insects can thus be dis: tinguished, but for complete identification this is not enough. Various markings of the legs and palpi, and the arrangement of the wing and body scales, are used to identify species. The shape of the eggs is different in the two genera, those’of the Anopheles possessing a distinct boat shape, while Culex eggs are blunter for the most part. They are laid in masses of from 200 to 400. These eggs develop in the course of from 12 hours to several daysinto larve, which are known to every boy as the “‘wigelers,” found in every tank and pool in fairly warm weather. Here we note another difference in the genera, the Anopheles lying parallel with the surface owing to the absence of the long breathing tube, which enables Culex to hang down from the surface—the direct opposite of the position assumed by the adult insects, as you will recollect. The arrangement of the hairs upon the different segments enables species to be determined. In a week for Culices or more for Anopheles— the time varies considerably in these pro- cesses for different. species and under different conditions—the active wiggling larva after develops into a pupa, which again differs in the two genera, and after a varying period of from two to 10 or more days the pupa case splits down the back, the adult insect emerges, and after balancing itself on the empty case for a while in order to-dry its wings, flies away to propagate its kind in turn. To sum up the points which I- have endeavored to briefly indicate we have the following facts to consider wherever malaria is to be dealt with. There is firstly a blood parasite, which is the cause of the disease, and next come particular species of a particular genus of mosquito, whose tissues afford the only place wherein this parasite can complete its life cycle. Malaria can be conveyed from man to man by inject- ing blood in which the organism is, but this need not be considered in practice. Therefore, in tackling the ques- tion of stamping out malaria we naturally attack the mosquito. The ° adult insect may be guarded against by mos- quito curtains and other measures to prevent its biting—a particularly useful one by the way consists in wearing two pairs of socks after dark, a thick pair underneath and a thin pair on top, since more people are perhaps: infected at the dining table than in almost any’ other way, the Anopheles loving the dark lurking-places under that cheerful board. It may also’ be killed by fumigation with sulphur or pyrethrum _powder. This, however, is an incomplete way, and since the Anopheles breeds by preference in small puddles and shal- low stretches of weedy swamp or slowly moving water free from small fish, its de- struction is rather an engineering than a medical question. Much may be done by pouring kerosene and paraffin on the surface in the proportion of about a tablespoonful to every square yard of surface, so as to form a thin film, which clogs the air tubes of the larve and pup, and also kills the adult female while depositing eggs. This remedy will be found efficient by those of you who are worried by the local Culices, which evince a bloodthirsty disposition in New- town, at any rate. Culices are especially fond of small collections of water in pots and tanks—the saucer of a flowerpot on a window sill may provide sufficient mos- quitoes to make the inmates’ life a misery, while an ordinary 400 gallon tank will stock a neighborhood. The moral of which, as Captain Cuttle is recorded to have remarked, lies in the application thereof. I need not say more than that the notoriously malarious localities of Sierra Leone and Freetown, formerly known as the ‘“white man’s grave” in West Africa, have, comparatively speaking, been turned into health resorts within two vears of organised effort against mosquitoes, and that at lsmailia, in Egypt, a previously notoriously malarial town, the average number of cases has been reduced from 2000 to 200 per annum by one season’s work. Practically, there were no fresh cases of malaria once the work was got going, and it is now possible to sleep there n safety without a mosquito net, probably for the first timein the history of the town. Probably everyone here to-night has been af one time or another subjected, un- asked, to the gastronomic attentions of a female mosquito, and the method in which she performs the operation after a pre- liminary song may be a more or less in- teresting memory on the next occasion you commit culicide. (The lecturer here de- scribed with a lantern diagram the manner in which the mosquito feeds). So far we have considered the cor- poreal life of the malarial organism, that is, the part of its life-cycle which is passed in the blood of man, with — a | the single exception of that octopus-like male gamete which, as I pointed out, only developes after leaving the human body. Turning now to the second, or extra-corpo- real stage of its life history—i.e., that stage which, as we now know, is passed in the mosquito—we find that there are really two forms of cell developed amongst the organisms, one the octopus-like male gamete, the other a _ spherical cell. Now, it is only when the Anopheles takes in blood containing parasites at, or about this particular stage of development, that it becomes infected with malaria, and capable of conveying it to fresh human beings, a fact which accentuates the im- portance of protecting malarial patients by means of mosquito nets wherever possible. Having taken in the blood, however, by means of the complicated sucking apparatus, which I have de- scribed, the gametes develop into the sexual form, and the true function of the male’s loose arm becomes evident since it joins with a spherical cell formed by another gamete, and impregnates it. It was the female gamete which it was in search of when it cast loose. Then the fer- tilised cell or zygote attaches itself to the stomach wall of the mosquito, bores its way torough, grows greatly in size,and pro- ceeds to divide into a great number of tiny cells. It becomes a cyst, which finally bursts and sets free the tiny structures within, which have meanwhile developed, and these, set free in the body cavity, settle in great part in the veneno- salivary gland at the base of the pro- boscis, as tiny thread-like bodies, termed zygotoblasts or sporozoits. The gland in which they lie is that which secretes the irritating substance of which we all know the effects in con- nection with a mosquito bite, and ia the case of an infected Anopheles, they are injected with this secretion along the proboscis. The process for their de- velopment in the mosquito takes about 12 days from the date of the meal of infected blood, before the thread-like bodies appear in the gland. After injection, along with the secretiun, the sporozoits infect the blood corpuscles, grow rapidly, and break up into spores which in time infect fresh corpuscles, until a huge swarm of para- sites, with a life cycle of either 48 or 72 hours is produced in the blood. The breaking-up of each swarm sets free 118 the fever-producing substances which produce the symptoms of malaria. I have given but a rough outline of the process, but it will serve to show the main points of this complicated life- history. It will be seen, however, that the process of infection by Anopheles is not a simple mechanical transference of blood from infected to healthy people, that human cases can only infect the Anopheles at a particular stage in the history of the parasite in their blood, and, particularly, that an Anopheles which does not bear in its poison gland the thread-like spores of malaria representing the last stage of the extra corporeal cycle of the organism passed wishin its body is as harmless as an empty gun. It will be readily understood that the work of Ross and his colleagues in other parts of the world gave a huge impetus to the study of insect-borne diseases, and it has borne noble fruit. The connection of Yellow fever with Havana is almost proverbial,and the average deaths from that disease alone were over 800 in each year. It has been estimated that some 36,000 persons died of it from 1853 to 1900, and in addition the island of Cuba and ad- joining parts of Brazil acted as an endemic focus, whence, at various times, the disease spread to many parts of the world, including Spain, Africa, and even England. In 1897, there were 6000 deaths from it in Cuba. In Rio from 1868-1897, 41,726 deaths. The Southern States of America have also experienced dreadful visitations from it. ‘ Yellow Jack’ was a dreaded name throughout South America, the West Indies, and the Southern United States. With the open- ing of the Panama Canal and the conse- quent shortening of the voyage from these localities to Australia and the Far East, itis very probable that Yellow fever will some day be introduced to this side of the world. Three or four years ago, Aus- tralian sanitarians regarded this possi- bility with awe and foreboding; to-day they look upon it certainly as a serious problem, but as one which would give comparatively little trouble compared to the introduction of a few cases of small- pox. I will endeavor to explain how this remarkable change in views has come about. In 1900, after the occupation of Cuba by the American forces, a commission of four medical men was appointed to investigate the alarming prevalence of Yellow fever there, and to devise, if pos- sible, means for combating it, A great deal of work had been done by various observers in seeking for the cause of it ; but nothing was accurately known, and the early work of the commission, devoted to the examination of the blood and tissues of patients, only served to disprove previous theories, and not to discover anything new. Absolutely nothing was apparent in the blood or elsewhere as a result of the most careful bacteriological research. Tho next step was to enquire into its pro- pagation. Now, one attack of |Yellow fever safeguards the patient against a second one, producing a condition of im- muxity, as it iscalled. It had been noted that patients could be safely nursed by non-immune nurses, and that patients discharged after an attack did not cause fresh outbreaks of disease in those non- immune persons they came in contact with. It was obviously, therefore, not contagious, nor did the infection persist in a virulent form in the discharges. The next matter was to settle the disputed question of the infectivity of clothing and bedding which had been in contact with patients. To this end, a small hut was erected, very deficient in ventilation, and specially constructed so as to maintain a hot moist atmosphere within it. The windows and doors—please note this— were carefully screened with fine wire gauze, of small enough gauge to prevent the entry of mosquitoes. Into this house were piled sheets, blankets, mattresses, pillows, and clothing of all description from the Yellow fever hospitals, and amongt them, in the beds and covered with the bedding of patients, who had just died of Yellow fever, even wearing the clothing taken from the bodies, and stained with the blood and “ black vomit” discharge, seven young non-immune Americans, including members of the commission, slept two or three at a time for a total period of sixty-three nights in all. Not a single one of these non-im- mune men developed the disease. This effectually proved that clothing and bed- ding alone were incapable of conveyiog the disease, however grossly they were contaminated. 119 The next step was to enquire into the question of insect transmission. A com- mon domestic mosquito of Cuba is the Stegomyia fasciata, a strikingly marked insect of voracious habits, and suspicion had already attached itself to it. Both sexes of it suck blood, and itis probably the most widely distributed of all mos- quitoes, being found practically all through the tropical world, and also in many sub-tropical localities. Twelve plucky young Americans, two of whom had taken part in the experiments with clothing previously described, volunteered as subjects. Allthese were living under exactly the same conditions as scores of other non-immune residents of the camp, and the two I have mentioned had been free for 30 days from their self-imposed imprisonment in the infected clothes hut. All were deliberately subjected to the bites of specimens of this mosquito, which had beeu previously allowed to bite early cases of Yellow fever. After periods of from three and a-half to six days from being bitten, ail except two developed true attacks of Yellow fever. One experiment in the batch was of especial interest. A newly -- erected building was divided into two parts by fine-wire screens. In one part were let loose 15 infected mosquitoes, and in the other half, separated only by a wire screen, two non-immune men lived and slept. The volunteer subject entered the part in which were the mosquitoes on three occasions of about twenty minutes each, and was freely bitten on each occasion. On the fourth day after his visit he developed a severe attack of Yellow fever, while the two men in the part on the othez side of the gauze screen continued for 18 nights to sleep in and breathe the common atmosphere of the room without any ill effect. This was pretty fair evidence even for the scientific mind that the mosquitoes were the con- veyors of the disease, and subsequent ex- periments proved this to be so beyond all doubt. , The organism which is the actual cause of Yellow fever has not been discovered, probably because it is so minute as to escape the highest powers of the microscope. This is the more likely since, as in the case of malaria, the injection of blood from an acute case will produce the disease in a 7 non-immune subject, but, unlike malaria, the blood remains similarly infective after it has been passed through the finest Berk- feld filter, thus proving the extreme minuteness of the organism, since such a filter will stop the smallest of known bac- teria. Thatit 1s not a bacteria, but an organism more of the type of the malarial organism is very probable from the fact that the infection cannot be obtained by the mosquito from the blood, except in the first three days of illness, and the mosquito does not become capable of in- fecting fresh persons until 12 days or more after it has fed upon a case at this par- ticular stage. The fact that an outbreak of Yellow fever took a%fortnight or so to light up after the introduction of a case into a locality had long been noticed, and this explained the reason thereof. Having obtained these facts, battle against Yellow fever assumed a new aspect. Huge sums _ had been spent during previous years in indiscriminate disinfecting of articles which had been in contact with Yel- low fever patients—quite harmless as we now know—and in other expensive measures, absolutely without avail. The campaign was now begun by a wholesale destruction of mosquitoes and their breeding places in swamps and puddles, and by the careful screening of Yellow fever patients for the three first dangerous days, from mosquito bite in order to prevent the loading up of fresh winged carriers of disease. Quarantine of cases was given up—it had been en- forced for many years without avail,— and the only quarantine order was that of the mosquito net. The result was amazing. In ninety days from the com- mencement of operations Havana was freed from Yellow fever for the first time in 140 years. Repeated introductions from without, where the measures were not in force and where Yellow fever was raging unchecked, as it had done for decades past at that season, were promptly stamped out, and the fact was realised that although every effort known to sanitary science had been put forth without avail up to March, 1901, the change effected in the measures by the recognition of the mosquito as the carrying agent had enabled the au- thorities to obtain in 13 weeks a result which had defied the efforts of the 120 more than ten times as many years. Epidemics of Yellow fever, thanks to those able and heroic American doctors, are a thing of the past in civilised coun- tries, and the name of Dr. Lazear, who contracted the disease and died of it dur- ing the enquiry, another of the numerous martyrs whom science has claimed, will always occupy an honored place in the scroll of hygienic fame. IT will not do more than give the outlines of certain other work which has been car- ried out in this direction. The recent investigations which have been made into Sleeping sickness — that strange disease which overwhelms its victims with an increasing languor and somnolence until they perish of an apparent failure of all the faculties—has received a good deal of notice in the press. The researches of Dr. Castellani, Dr. Bruce, and others, go to show that the conveying agent in this caseis the Tsetse fly, previously well known for the fatal effects of its bite on horses and cattle, but only lately known to be connected with disease in human beings. The mortality from Sleeping sickness in certain parts of Africa has been alarming, and whole districts have been decimated by its ravages. Thecausative agent appears to be a form of organism known as a try- panosome, or, as it should be more cor- retly termed, a herpetomonas, which lives in the blood and fluids of the victim. Further work yet requires to be done, but little doubt remains that the curious and fatal disease which almost invariably kills its victim, and which has been known asa scourge of Western Africa for over 100 years, has been brought within the grasp of science, and will be dealt with as effectually as malaria and Yellow fever are being dealt with. Whether the organ- ism undergoes a part of its life history within the Tsetse fly’s body is not yet definitely settled by actual observation, but it seems probable that it does so. The presence of plague in Australia ren- dersits causation and spread a matter of perhaps more acute interest than the exotic diseases with which I have been dealing, The causative agent is, of course, a well- known bacillus, but the means whereby it is habitually conveyed to human beings to infect them have been widely discussed amongst scientific men, and there is a growing tendency on the part of those who 8 have to deal with this disease to regard more and more suspiciously a certain insect which already possesses an evil reputation in domestic sanitation; I allude to the flea. A good deal of work has been done on these insects of late years, and it may surprise you to learn that more than 180 distinct species of flea have been classified, and that new ones are coming into knowledge month after month. Remarkable differences are found in their structure and habits, but in the particular connection with which we have to consider them to- night, one genus attains prominence— the true pulices of which the type is the human flea. Now, in considering the histories of plague outbreaks in different parts of the world, one is at once struck by a curious fact, namely, that while preceding or simultaneous outbreaks of the disease amongst rats and other small rodents, have formed a marked feature of plague epidemics in the East, nothing of the kind has attracted the attention of the chroniclers of the European outbreaks of the middle ages, and of the great plague of London in 1665. The phenomenon is striking enough to attract the attention of any ordinary observer where it occurs, and a significant allusion to it is to be found in the First Book of Samuel. Other and even more definite allusions occur scattered through Eastern literature from a very early date, so that it appears to have attracted attention, and could scarcely have escaped the acute chroniclers who have left us such a vivid picture of medieval and seventeenth century plague. Tt is needless to remind you that the same phenemenon occurs in Australia and in South Africa at the present day. The domestic rats of the East, of Australia, and South Africa are very similar to those of Europe, and all readily contract plague when infected experimentally. But on examination of their parasites a curious fact was noticed in that the common rat fleas of Australia, of India, and of South Africa are widely different insects from the common rat flea of Europe, both in structure and habits. They are very closely allied to the human flea, so closely, in fact, that their relative identi- fication is a matter of extreme difficulty, without previous acquaintance with the genus, and the Indian and Australian 4 varieties, will,on occasion, act as para- sites to man, and will bite vigorously. The common European rat flea, or cera- tophyllus fasciatus,on the otnerhand, differs in importaut structural respects, and can, only with great difficulty,be induced to feed ‘on man. JDoes it not appear to be something more than a _ coincidence that where we find a ratflea closely allied to the human flea, there we have plague amongst rats as well as man, whereas in places where the ratflea varies widely from the human flea the occurrence of epidemic rat-plague is, at any rate, not an important phenomenon. The theory was for long held that the plague baccilus lives and multiplies in the earth, but out of innumerable at- tempts at its recovery from the earth- floors of plague-infected Eastern hovels, not a single success has resulted under natural conditions. As in the case of Yellow fever, it has been stated to have been spread by infected clothing. It pro- bably is so spread, but in some other way than the mere bacillary infection of such clothing, for the plague bacillus has never been recovered from infected clothing, un- less in cases of gross experimental con- tamination. Plague is particularly a disease of locality, and especially tends to infect those who sleepin such a locality, sparing those who move actively about during their visits and sleep or rest else- where. It chooses dark, squalid, vermin- haunted vicinities, and avoids to a great extent airy, well-lit places. The experience of plague hospitals is a curious one, for whilst, in ancient days, even a short visit to a pest-house was attended with great danger, it is rare for an attendant in a modern plague-hospital to be attacked. That the disease itself has not varied from ancient times we know from contemporary records, but whilst the modern hospital is especially built with a view to cleanli- ness, light and airiness, the ancient hos- pitals seem to have combined all the hygienic offences of its day. To sum up we have certain facts which seem to point in a particular direction. Plague does not, apparently, thrive in the soil, nor is it known to enter the body with tne food, in human cases at least. In the ordinary form—excluding plague pneumonia—it enters by the skin, and in the bubonic form it certainly enters in the lymphatic area drained by the first affected gland, Water plays no part in its dissemination. Meteorological fac- tors have no influence except in one significant iadirect instance—that in India the plague mortality is noticed to rise materially after a cold night, or a heavy fall of dew, and especially after rains during the dry season, whereby people are driven into their homes instead of sleeping outside as usual. Clothing is apparently capable of conveying the disease ; but the bacillusis not recover- able from clothing. And lastly, a marked association of the rat with plague. out- breaks has been noticed since remote periods in parts of the world where the rat flea closely resembles the human flea, and no such association where the rat flea shows, at any rate at the present day, ice structural differences from the human ea. This circumstantial evidencs appears to incriminate the insect, but circum- stantial evidence is not enough. Dr. Simond, in 1897, had proved that by infecting into a mouse broth in which fleas had been emulsified, after having fed on a plague-stricken animal, plague could be produced in that mouse. This experiment was _ success- fully repeated on several occasions by my- self and others, and the results obtained were sufficiently encouraging to induee further work. Fleas of certain species were fed on plague-infected animals, and after varying periods of starvation were allowed to bite healthy rats under condi- tions which excluded any probability of the disease being contracted otherwise than by flea-bite. These rats died of un- deniable plague, and it was found that the flea could convey plague in this. way up to at least three days after a meal of infected blood. There is no reason why it should not do so for very much longer. It was found that in one case, at least, this con- veyance from rat to rat was effected by a human flea. In other cases the rat-pulex was used. A further experiment was performed in which plague was conveyed from a human being to two rats by means of fleas. This latter experiment was of especial significance, since, on subse- quent examination, it was found that while three of the insects used for the purpose were the pulex palladus of rats, one was a pulex irritans, or human flea. By cutting the insects in sections after a IN meal of infected blood, and examining them under a microscope, large numbers of bacilli indistinguishable from plague bacilli in their microscopical characteris- tics, were found in a peculiar organ form: ing a part of the cesophagus ; while in fleas, which had beeu fed on healthy blood, no such bacilli were found. The work which I have alluded to was performed in India certainly with all the facilities of one of the biggest bacterio- logical laboraties in the world, but without much assistance from special literature on the subject, for the very good reason that none existed to indicate the technical difficulties to be overcome. As you may readily imagine, these were considerable, for to secure such an active and minute creature as the flea in such a manner as to allow it to feed, and yet to ensure that it should not get away after its dangerous meal of plague infected blood, was an operation of no little difficulty, and also of some danger, both to the experimenter and to his neighbors. After a good deal of trial, the device was hit upon of confinisg them in a glass tube—an ordinary test tube was used—and covering the open end with a cap of fine gauze, through the meshes of which the flea could protrude its proboscis, but could not escape. This difficulty overcome, it was necessary to find some distinguishing marks by which to identify the species used. This was affected after a time, and the few species employed were readily enough identified. The habitual spread of plague by fleas of the type I have shown you is not to be taken as a universally accepted fact, but strong evidence exists that this will eventually prove to be, at any rate, an important factor in epidemics. You may recollect an allusion made to the work of Dr., now Sir, Patrick Manson, in relation to certain blood worms, which are fairly common amongst human beings in the tropics. No less than five different kinds of these worms are known, and one in particular, the filaria nocturna, so called because it is only found in the blood during sleeping hours, is of par- ticular interest, in that it causes a good deal of illness by blocking up the deli- cate lymphatic ducts, and is almost cer- tainly in this way the cause of that strange disease elephantiasis. Filariae occur amongst other tropical and 10 subtropical places in Queensland and Northern Australia to about the lati- tude of Brisbane, and the manner in which the filaria noctutna completes its life cycle is of interest. The parent female worm is some 4in long, and lives in some part of the lymphatic system, in company with the male, which is slenderer and smaller. There she produces a great number of embryos, which make their way into the blood, and live during the day ia the vessels of the internal organs. About 5, or 6 p.m., in infected persons who do their sleeping at night, they begin to appear in gradually increasing numbers in the peri- pheral circulation, or vessels in the ex- tremities and at the surface, increasing till about midnight, and then decreasing, until about 8 or 9 in the morning they have all disappeared from the peripheral blood for the day. It is a curious fact that in infected persons, who do their sleeping during the day. and remain awake at night, the embryos reverse the time of their appearance, and turn up during the day in the peripheral vessels, disappearing at night. Hach embryois about 1:80in long, and is contained in a loose sheath or sack somewhat longer than itself. They are very active organ- isms, and wriggle about strongly, but the sheath keeps them from changing their position much; in other words, they are not locomotory. The function of the sheath is to keep them from using the strong boring apparatus which they have on their heads, and so escap- ing from the blood vessels. AsI have said, they appear in the surface blood veasels at night as a rule, and this is obviously for the convenience of the con- veying mosquito, which principally feeds at night, and into whose stomach some of the embryos are taken with the meal of blood. The ordinary mosquito so act- ing isa species of Culex, and in its stomach the blood becomes much thicker by co- agulation. The embryo within the sheath is thus able to get a purchase on the sheath, and eventually to ram its way out through one end by. butting vigor- ously while the sheath is stuck fast in the thickened blood. Of course, while the blcod was fluid in the human host's vessels, it couldnot do this because the sheath could only be bumped along by its efforts from within and would not split. $23 Once loose it bores through the stomach wall of the mosquito, gets into the muscles, and changes its form very considerably. Finally, after some 16 days, it appears in the head and pro- boscis, not in the poison glands as did the sporozoites of malaria, but coiled up under the pharynx and in that part of the proboscis known as the labium. They can remain here for an indefinite period awaiting the chance to pass into the tissues of a warm-blooded vertebrate when the mosquito takes its next meal of blood. Apparently they can discriminate, for no amount of feeding of the insect on banavas or other fruit (upon which it ordinarily subsists, will cause them to come out. When, however, the insect sticks its proboscis into a human being the filariae find their way through a weak spot which exists in the labium where the labellae splay out, and pass along the track of the proboscis into the tissues of the victim. The filariae apparently endeavor to emerge in pairs, male and female, and upon establishing themselves in the tissues of their new host, they set up housekeeping, and begin again the process of which we know the results under the name of the filariasis, be it elephantiasis or any of the other peculiar conditions by which we recognise the blocking of the lymphatic channels by their offspring. I trust that I have been able to give some indication of the very promi- nent part played by certain insects in certain exotic diseases, but there is little doubt that they also assist in disseminating others which are with us already. The ordinary house fly is ubiquitous in its habits and unpleasant in his history and associations. That it is capable of conveying on its feet and body the germs of disease under experimental conditions has been demon- strated and that it frequently dees so in nature is freely admitted. In a moreen- lightened age the housewife will regard flies with the same horror and disgust as she vow regards bugs and fleas, and most thinking folk will even now cordial) y agree with her in theory if notin 1] practice. From the time in which it is engendered in a heap of manure to the fateful hour in which it commits suicide in the milk jug, or perishes in the sticky recesses of the summer butter pat, the life of the average fly is passed amidst more than questionable surroundings. Its ubiquity renders the whereabouts of its last alighting place a subject for uncanny speculation when it settles on an article of food, and I have little doubt that domestic flies, so-called, are responsible for a fair proportion of cases of communi- cable disease, especially perhaps of typhoid fever. Its possibilities, however, do not end there; exanthematous diseases, especial!y perhaps smallpox, may be readily conceived as spread by this means. I confess in fact to a doubt as to whether the real cause of the aeria! convection of smallpox is not partly or wholly due to insect life. Many points in the available evidence upon it appear to render such a hypothesis tenable, and fy-proof door and windows coverings should certainly form a part of the furnishing of isolation hos- pitals for this disease. The possibilities of this line of research are, however, boundless, and in time to come the labors of the biologist and naturalist will become of more and more importance from the standpoint of human disease. The extension of research in connection with cancer in the lower animals has resulted in its discovery in @ large number of creatures, including even fish. Similar results have been obtained with the tubercle bacillus, whose range appears to be practically universal. The diseases of which I have spoken to-night do not by any means include all those in respect of which insects are known, or suspected, to play an important or essen- tial part, but they will serve as illustra- tions of the pioneering work which has been, and is daily being done by many in- vestigators in different parts of the world for the benefit of humanity and the advancement of civilisation. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides. ly } we Stee ’ A? ) are ‘ ed Pea ares ij ay PACs Ae Ji nici ni arity okt ator Balanrg ons: ako Oreo te rae a int bxtabriegdia Whiaiie ateucoy # todw mb ied lates aps oltie odd af aoder Uh mely ant fies ode at Bhi aikt, tan -eddiod elie at ee aeeboos: wa0rde web iene’ head hl gE oyaraya arkt Wh mi, wonihoowaes sidatoitead pry anes wi ta ndnnd atari ole erabres eitopidd “Mettihdriee int /4ajd ea onal ani Hyt th $OKi aldara tug ree wate Ae aordoe cotta Pea Sats tira’ iti ave: b haa bestia pidtuniqas: of Ballad om saill ait otal “ip? ae) Poke | ea le avhtogina ng Pilaioogac

° lor) ==. = wen SP a) Se SSS =O .aA, SEs ————_— De min On Spi) tO - 1M Orr vee OD es imal Zn 8 = oS be 5 @ a o AiS6e5 8 AY | 7 |e \. eee bay; ay : ° 3 | ~ = ue ins} a Yo) HOO CO > 2 2 Fat Orion ™ B-NN r=] ta) eet =H ONnrs O 8 cc aS a i ie eee ee ea ds hn i4 es On Sle the present hour. Recent estimates of the measure oi energy exerted each year in the production' distribution, and necessary modification of consumable wealth—the satisfactions of man, by capitalist’s steam power machines alone—are approximately equivalent to the maximum energy of abvut 1500 million persons, of whom it is estimated that there are only 600 million bread- winners. We may be perfectly safe in assuming that the energy exerted by all classes of capitalists’ auxiliary machines, including those already in the possession of the State as such, to be equal to the maxi- mum energy of 1200 million breadwinnera, ?.e., equal to twice the physical force of all living breadwinners of the globe. In the Commonwealth of Austra'‘ia at present the number of breadwinners under £150 income per year number about 1,709,000 persons. These, for purposes of illustra- tion, may be safely taken as the wage- earner group. The breadwinners £150 income per year and over, numbered 135,000; and this group, for rough pur- poses of comparison, may be taken to re- present the capitalist group. Now, if the capitalists’ energy machines engaged in the production of consumable wealth be taken to represent no more than twice all the available force of man, their equivalent in the Australian Commonwealth would be represented by about 3,418,000 bread- winners, thus :— Value of Physical Energy exerted by the various agencies en- gaged in the production of Consumable Wealth :— Relative 429 16 Per A — Breadwinners Cent. under £150 1,574,000 ... 80°70 B—Capitalists and others over £150 135,000 ... 2°63 C—Capitalists’ energy machines 3,418,000 ... 66°67 Total energy em- ployed in the production of consumable wealth a wit Joba 1, OOO, «5. L00°00 From this table we perceive that if we ignore the claims of intellect and ability, and restrict our attention to the mere physical forces devoted to the production of consumable and other forms of wealth, the wage-earner’s contribution only amounts to 30°70 per cent. of the whole of the necessary energy required to pro- duce that volume of consumable wealth which would yield each class and _ indi- vidual that standard of living and com- fort to which they have been accustomed. Now, if it can be shown the wage- earner group (under £150) receives a larger proportion of the consumable wealth in each year than the proportion of physical energy contributed by such in its production, it most effectually dis- poses of the sentimental complaint so frequently put forward by the Fabian school of writers, viz., ‘‘ the Jower ten millions, whose toil is the active factor that produces all wealth, not of the upper ten thousand, who in some mysterious way manage to get rich upon that toil.” This inaccurate statement can easily be refuted in a very simple manner by ascertaining what proportion of consum- able wealth, per year, is appropriated or absorbed by the three principal agencies engaged in its production. The best and surest means to gauge what measure of reward comes to each separate group is to determine what proportion of the total annual income is appropriated by each group respectively. This has been very closely determined by the writer so far as Australia is con- cerned, and is shown in the following table relating to distribution of the national in- come for the year 1903 :— Share of National Income appropriated or absorbed by the various agencies em- ployed ia the Production of Consumable Wealth. +3 ‘So 5 6 | o< 23 o . aw © |S BA aa wlS 3 +a tk of a rico * =o ! nok = | jo yy aS ro) o le Ay pol Po Ps 5-6 is?) g . oa|s ac fon) Yen) Be: a. wee ota 4 _ ’ ae a | | u 6) eS ne ees, ; Os BE oO = ot o|/o = ea 2 NQ DIS om * 236 oM . | we pce = SSy_aaaq a) S25 ° 9 = as2nas S57 25 ss s/e 2 Nes ons | oS S = Soaeage|] = | SS gsfeha; 3 Asa ¢sS Hs 2 ° OO. Pj] oO g2eeu-| 4 +2 $|3 S35 BE 20 < = = Sake S SOn Ss 14,8 S aay FS agi GSO SS oO a) So Ge) SS.22) [Es ae) a) TS) a ae ——— > oT. er Ore = | eo ey te — oo ais pa SiS fa) fan) 2.9 he Be oso S/S qaame 5 ar. +20 OO] & > pe o> ~-o nina qaa28 a5 oe ls i.) = Bet et a Bs a | par ta ed = L deaths > pial sae > o Gi j24 5503 E a 34 oO = sq a0 —_ 3 < - -S4QO : 4 ae oa i —< a0 Q SS aye a S5n@2o Oo S) Sq2n's A =: a -e rs BSS: fo) ro TS 27H ws Sndm= > Poe Se a0 yy sm Oo RA 136 A careful study of this table shows that, so far from the capitalist class being enriched at the expense of the wage- earner, the very opposite is the truth; for instead of a reward being allotted in proportion to his share of physical energy contributed, it has been increased fully 100 per cent.; physical energy expended being only 30°70 per cent., while his share of rewards represents 67°26 per cent. This improvement of his position is solely due to the fact that the more economic physical agent engaged in production only absorbs 1980 per cent. of the consumable wealth, while its share of the necessary energy engaged in production amounts to 66°67 per cent., or two-thirds, at least, of all physical forces (human or other) engaged in the pro- duction of the year’s necessary wants and satisfactions. It is true the private capitalist receives, relatively, a larger in tividual share of the capitalist’s own machine production; but it is impossible for him to personally absorb more than about three times the amount of the average breadwinner. The higher the percentage of energy, contributed, use- fully, by the capitalist’s machines in- volves, of necessity, a c rresponding greater bonus reward to the ordinary breadwinner, while the proportion going to the capitalist, as such, must by a like necessity, remain almost stationary in comparison. It cannot be too strongly asserted, therefore, that the greatly increased reward of the Jaborer of the present day in civilised countries is mainly due to the increasing command which during the last century man has obtained over the forees of Nature. Steam, electricity, and the ever-increas- ing improvements in labor-saving machi- nery has multiplied the effective force of man’s mere muscular power in the pro- duction, transport, and manufacture of necessaries and satisfactions, three to four, and, in some cases, many hundred- fold. In proportion as these auxiliaries have increased as aids in the production of any one necessary service or commo- dity, the amount of physical human labor engaged has decreased individually, while the real reward of labor has on the average increased by about 50 per cent. Nothing can be more conclusive than that it is to 17 the consequent liberation of the proportion of labor, formerly necessary to produce the barest primary essentials of life, that we are indebted now for the vast category of new comforts and satisfaction, the attain- ment of which was utterly impossible to the mass of human beings, when the production of food alone—the great primary industry—absorbed nearly the whole of man’s muscular efforts and his time. EXISTING DISTRIBUTION OF SHARE OF PRO- DUCTS AND SERVICES REGARDED FROM THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST POINT OF VIEW. Having thus attempted to clear away some of the confusion so frequently intro- duced in discussions bearing upon wealth and its distribution under the existing democratic individualistic or wage system form of modern society, we come now to eonsider how far the distribution of con- sumable wealth (i.e., the annual aggre- gate of products and services) departs from the ideals of division or appropria- - tioa desired by the leaders of the com- munistic or collectivist form of socialism. Itis difficult to trace any clearly de- fined positive programme among the average persons who espouse the adoption of any of the forms of communist socialism, or collectivism, as it is now frequently termed. We may here dismiss from our view the more extremely visionary, or impossible, forms of com- munistic ideals, and restrict our attention to the first of the two most notable sec- tions, viz., the ‘‘ Kisenach ” and ** Gotha programmes. The one, the ‘‘ EKisenach’ programme of 1869—according to the learned authority, Dr. Schaftle—de- manded on the basis of national owner- ship of all the means of production that each workman should have secured to him » ‘the full product of his labor” in the counter-value which accrues to him. This was the collectivism of an accurate apportionment of income and enjoyment according to work performed. But as early as 1875, in the ‘‘ Gotha” pro- gramme, there came to the front the col- lectivism: of apportionment according to need, on the basis of an equal and universal obligation to work, that is to say, pure collectivism: for this demand was literally formulated for ‘‘ universal obligation to work, and the equal right of all to the satisfaction of their reasonable needs!” SBoth of the ideals have been ably demonstrated by Dr. Schaftle to be Utopian, and impos- sible of achievement, as amongst other things they altogether fail to cover the circumstances requiring provision for the unity of the family with its sacred ties ; the care of the young, the aged, the sick or crippled who are unable to work, and requiring also adequate provision for dealing with the idle, the dissolute and criminal, who have no desire to perform work of any social value. UTOPIAN SCHEMES OF SOCIALISTS. Itis not a matter of surprise that the mass of struggling wage-earners should so readily sympathise with any vague Utopian scheme of the Socialist, which, however faulty, holds out some promise or plan for dealing more effectually with the difficulties which affect them most nearly, viz., security of employment ; protection from over competition ; shorter hours labor, with more adequate remuneration ; redistribution of wealth ; old age pensions, etc., etc. But itis needless to point out that before redistribution on the basis of equality, of the aggregate of all forms of wealth in exchange, can be considered, it must be clear that this wealth consists of such forms as might effectually satisfy all the primary wants and comforts of human beings. That existing wealth in exchange. even if equally distributed, would fulfil this most desirable end, is a pure assumption. Tt has already been shown that a great part of the existing nominal wealth in ex- change largely appropriated by the private capitalists—consists of the mere foo/s and instruments of production, and that the real wealth, appropriated as consumable wealth or primary satisfactions, is already more widely and evenly distributed than is generally supposed. Even under the most thorough Socialistic scheme this form of wealth would be far less gener- ally distributed than at present ; for, ac- cording to such a scheme, it would be wholly reserved in the hands of the Ex- ecutive Government. It is utterly misleading to reckon upon the existing wealth of capitalists instruments of pro- duction as a source of raising the quota of the real consumable and primary satisfactions. The only distribution possible in this respect would be the 131 18 empty idea of part ownership. It is the increase to necessary current productions designed for actual consumption—material satisfactions—which alone can raise the average standard of primary satisfac- tions, and so dispose of material want, or poverty and distress. The ques- tion therefore arises :—Suppose that such a scheme were practicable, would the producing energies of men be greater and more effective than under the Scheme of Competition, Liberty, Right of Inheritance, Property Right, or Individualism, as it is called? Tobe more effective in one essential it must utterly fail in the other. The workers must be trained and allocated to specific occupations in strict conformity to the amount and nature of the Jabor actually required to produce the primary satis- factions and comforts desired. Training for every specific occupation requires con- siderable time ; but for the occupations of skill a large amount of time must be con- sumed in acquiring the necessary training, irrespective of questions with|regard to the unequal distribution of capacity. Now on the basis of equality it may be easy to divide products; that, according to actual needs is simple enough, in- volving no insuperable difficulty. But what about the allocation to different employments ? How can the easy, the refined, and the skilled occupations be allocated on any scheme of equality ? The majority must, as heretofore, sweat at the hard and dirty forms of labor. But what power, or what plan can be devised which will enable. any elective executive to doom once and for ever the majority of learners and workers to the hard and irk- some occupations, and to fix the minority in the refined, the easy, and skilled ser- vices ? Suppose it were for a time instituted how long would the unfortunate majority be content to submit to their lot before an_ irresistible cry for 7e distribution of occupations arose; and if it arose, where is the force stronger than the majority of freemen to prevent the breakdown of the social organisation necessary to produce the supply of pri- mary satisfactions according to individual needs? What compensation can be given to the masses toiling in the more wearisome occupations? Extra allow- ance of satisfactions cannot be thought of, fer that would destroy the coveted ideal of equality in the distribution of satisfactions according to needs. Shorter hours can- not be allowed without trenching upon equality of leisure. The unequal distribution of natural capacity, and the time necessary to ac- quire knowledge of more than one tech- nical branch of skilled employment, make it impossible to share in turn for a time all possible forms of labor. In short, the practical difficulty standing in the way of equality in the allocation of employments appear to be insuperable, and would most certainly, if there were no other objection, destroy any social organisation on a large scale which had been courageous enough to attempt it. Reference to simple com- munities—as in America—following agri- cultural pursuits mainly, and not of themselves fulfilling for them- selves the whole round of human wants, are utterly misleading. Such _ small communities are composed of a peculiar select class, who voluntarily bind them- selves to a more or less ascetic life, and all such partial attempts tend to perish from lack of internal vitality. With a large mixed body of men embracing all occupations and endowed with ordinary passions and desires, the results would be chaotic and disastrous in the extreme. One effect, terrible to contemplate, would seem to be inevitable, viz., that the indiscriminate distribution of products among all men would tend to destroy the major source of savings at present so largely devoted to the creation and main- tenance of the powerful and cestly auxiliary aids to human labor, which would be jealously regarded as a grievous tax burden. The slight individual gain per head in material satisfactions at the oatset would only be of a very temporary character, for it would soon be lost by the new impulse given to the improvident to rapidly increase their numbers. HOW THE CONSUMABLE WEALTH OF PRO- DUCTION IS DISTRIBUTED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND IN THE CUuMMON- WEALTH OF AUSTRALIA BY THE INDI- VIDUALISTIG AND ONLY PRACTICAL METHOD OF DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISM. The difficult problem connected with all ideals as to the realisation of the best form of social organisation, whether individualistic or communistic, should not be examined without a clear idea of what 132 19 is and what promises to be conserved of that which we hold most dearly under the democratic system of practical Socialism under which we now exist. It would be impossible to deal with this most important consideration ade- quately within the limits possible in a brief address of this nature, but if it be possible to show that the actualfruits of production are—notwithstanding the large monopoly of the auxiliary instru- ments of production in the hands of pri- vate capitalists—now more widely and evenly distributed than is generally sup- posed, I shall have done something to aid those who have not always the time to study closely the great socialistic ten- dency of the present day. I begin this aspect of the question with the following assertions :— (1) That no matter what may be the monopoly of the Fixed Instruments of Production, whether in the hands of private capitalists, or, as in some cases— State railways, roads, and a large propor- tion of the lands—under the control of the State, the reward absorbed by capitalist and pure wage-earner alike cannot by any means exceed the actual effectual yield of commodities and services of any one year. (2) That if the whole of the fixed machinery of production were now trans- ferred to the State it is doubtful if the yield of products in the aggregate for dis- tribution, whether of commodities or service, . would be increased; for the reason that the control and efficient main- tenance of the necessary instruments of production would be wholly excluded from individual consumption. and the cost of the creation of new instruments, and maintaining the existing machinery, would have to be taxed o: abstracted from the gross yield of the year. (8) That if we desire to avail ourselves of the advantages hitherto gained by society as a whole from _ intelligent, directing, and inventive skill, from special aptitude, from special technical training, and other rarely distributed: qualities engaged in various forms of production, we must, as at present, be prepared to bestow, from the general fund of products and services, some measure of special inducement to centinue these advan- tageous efforts on behalf of society as a whole. 133 If we fail to do so there will certainly be introduced a tendency to lower the quality and effectiveness of all human effort engaged in the necessary work of production, and, in time, would result in a lower average level of production than is now enjosed by the average of the lowest level of the existing social organi- sation. With these general observations in view let us examine, as closely as we are able, the actual measure of production available for distribution in the Australian Commonwealth in the year 1903, and the mode and measure in which it has been distributed among the various classes of breadwinners—rich and poor, capitalist and wage-earner : For the Commonwealth of Australia for the year 1903 there were actually en- gaged in the work of production and other requisite social services of a personal kind :— (1) Auxiliary fixed instruments, etc., haying economically an effective capital value of £912 millions and an annual values of £45.60 millions. (2) Skilled industrial chiefs: techni- cally trained professional men, artisans, etc.. and common labor, embracing 1,709,000 breadwinners, representing the total population, whose capital value in the work of production is estimated at £8706 millions, with an annual produc- tive value of £185'34 millions. Raw labor, minus directing mind and trained technical skill, may be considered as on a plane with the useful effective force of the myriad physical forces incor- porated at the present day in the various auxiliary instruments the fruit of many inventive minds, so far as they are con- cerned as offective agents towards the necessary aggregate of production. But it must be borne in mind that those im- portant auxiliary instruments, alone, at least contribute fully two-thirds of all mere physical force or energy towards the necessary production and services of society. When, on the basis of average labor time energy, on the Karl Marx theory of distribution, it is asked: Does the average human _ instrument of physical labor receive anything like his fair share of the year’s production of commodities and services? the reply according to statistics of distribution is hat not only does the aciual laborer of 20 the year, as such, receive his fair reward for his proportion of physical effort expended in the work of production, but owing to the natural limitations to powers of consumption of both capitalists and the auxiliary instruments owned by them, the reward of labor, as a whole, in pro- portion to mere physical effort expended, is enhanced by more than 100 per cent. It is manifest, notwithstanding these considerations, that the total productions and services of the the Australian Com- monwealth in the year 1903, representing in money £158,340,000, have not beea equally distributed. Upon the whole the aggregate of £185,340,000 represents a sum of 6s 1ld per breadwinner, and wae approximately appropriated as fol- ows :— DISTRIBUTION OF CONSUMABLE WEALTH. THE PRODUCI1S OF THE YEAR 1908 IN AUSTRALIA. (ToTaAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES £185,340,000. PR BREADWINNER PER WORKING DAY, 6s 11D.) hee o S a0 | | | Si two mOMon ~ B no) - . =a Son| dt noone Je) a = — Le = ~ As ‘ 5 Oa ea) a ee rc es Wa ee = . ww on uw A Sod SSS a a Ay 2 mS hOWNHet | co] = © ore) = a 3 3 | | Siac Ss Se ata) team Sslsssss 5 be So (ae [) SSeS ; mM ° oj Se IN MH 6 or) RR ba Ong Slow = =) ica] 4 FO: OD i oe) = = S — = = | | oO POSLS & : F, | SESS 5 | — RRAR SO SS sse ss 2190: s SRSSS so RARHKR Incomes under £] No. of Per Bread- Bread- winners Per winers. Working Day. s. d Less absorbed by products, etc., in the creation of and maintenance of necessary auxiliary instru- ments of pro- ducts, with an estimate physical effective force of 3,418,000 bread. winners... «. 3,418 000 Le) Total average level of products and services ab- sorbed by actual breadwinners ... 5 11 From these figures it will be seen that if the whole of the products and services available for consumption or use were distributed equally, without regard to the skill or effectiveness of the individual breadwinner, all persons receiving more than 5s 11d per working day would, by communists, be regarded as robbers of a privileged class, and those receiving less as belonging to the exploited or un- privileged majority. These classes, 80 far as groups are concerned, would absorb under or over the level of equality (5s 11d per working day) as follow :— \Per Working Day. Above {| Below Level of|Level of Equal. | Equal. | potas) 7G) ee Incomes under £100: — | 1 8 - £100 to £1555 14; — = £125 to £150) 38 1); — 5 £150 to £200) 4 5 — ‘3 £200 to £400) 11 1 — iy £400 and over) 107 4 —_ It would appear, therefore, if equality of reward should come to be regarded as the ideal of the people of the Common- wealth of Australia, that the skilled artisans and others as a oody would have to pay into the pool quite as large an 134 21 amount in the aggregate as the richer capitalist, to give the lowest group £100 per year the necessary 1s 8d per working day to raise it to the uniform level of equality of reward, viz., 5s 11d per working. These conclusions, also illustrated by accompanying tables and diagrams, show that wealth available for consumption and enjoyment is more equitably distributed than is generally supposed, and whatever may be its existing inequalities and de- fects, it is immeasurably superior to any scheme of communism or collectivism that has ever been attempted or formulated. The programme of the Trades Unions, and the more intelligent of the Labor Party in the United Kingdom and Aus- tralia, are antagonistic to all the extreme communistic ideals of socialists. They, of course, advocate an extension of the idea of State ownership of the more important branches of industry, but it is upon in- dividualist lines strictly not communistic. Liberty, responsibility, skill, effective labor and reward, in accordance with ability, has ever been the ideals of the best representatives of labor in England and in these colonies. APPENDIX, ANNUAL INCOME OF ALL BREADWINNERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. The following tabular illustrations have been carefully prepared, based upon the most reliable official statistics, w-th the object of showing approximately the annual value and distribution of all wealth produced, designed for consumption and for the satisfactions of the people. Also showing, approximately, the result to each class of breadwinners, on the assumption that it would be practicable to Pool, and divide the incomes or equivalent products of all breadwinners equally according to the EIseNACH PROGRAMME OF SOCIAL EQuaLity, after deducting the necessary materials (estimated at 15 per cent. of annual products) to provide the govern- ment of the social State, with means to create and maintain the existing inanimate and other auxiliary instruments of pro- duction necessary to keep up the required standard of comforts and satisfactions :— 18 SSS | eae GEE LEI 11 ele) 00'es 6ES LC OOT 602'T | OF COG 198 22 rik a ‘uoTpNpoIg syuouNIysuy AreYIxXn y | JO vOURUO]OIVPY PUB UOL}ZeIID BSOT ,, oe | 19 00 OOT OPS GST ‘OOT 60L'T sa te “18207, t 118‘L & IT acme} | O88 FE GIT 0% shag ae ee IIAO PUL YKOYPF . 91E 9 0 LI 08°65 OLZ8I 10F 69 ng "OOF + O0CF G 696 F r OL CO'P B2G 2 TG OF ee oe OES ( OF 1 PLL 9 Oe (5) Bug OPE OL O¢'P EL es A = aOGLS hy Gals t 6066 € L £2'9 | L6G COL. “ " G6lF repan pus COL 096 SI 8 FP Crag LLL GOL 98°1G 66E 1 oh tps a ““OOLS Japug ‘Pp F ‘pis $ jood 0} ssorq| ‘ood woaz urey| .. yunomY || * SANOONT "ABg 19g pes i9g ied prey 19g a ——lp——_ ~-|-_-_ i --— | —_ e—\qc-- ‘SSVID ‘Aqyenba FO oMMBIZ0Ig YoRuessiny . gmloouy ‘SIOUULM PBI 2m) UO paINnqIxIq pue payloog JI esutoouT "(pet 8.000 «) “VITVULSOV WO AL LVEAMNOWWOOD nt i ( OOGLEF'IT » @ 00-8 OOS LF I IL 0 00 ST 00S'29% ‘uotjponporg Jo syuemmNAysuy f18 -1[ixn y JO souRUszOIRPY pus UOTyeVIID | ey} Ul paqsosqe ‘590 ‘syonpo.g ssary I 9 OOT 000'0¢2'T .OOT OFF ST See re, 18904, 9 681 ss 891 8 col €1.66 006°60¢ 26 6 691 a “S) Be pee OOS & 8 a BE 88 OL €L PG-EL OOT'LEG 6G €60 1 ak OOFF ‘e , OGIF 6 € at Lgg $9 IL 8 GPO O0Z CLL PEP 008. za OCLs * Gals T 6G My CPS 68 ae /4 06 L 006 G8L P09 PILT a CG1F Jopan pue (OT ¢ cht 0 & CGO'1ES T CAG 1L-EP 000 G92 9L-C8 696 GI oer OIF ~" “se dopuyy) 5) 9 a Sp) 48 A 2 0 ema B4 > SANOONT [00g 04 ssor7q|"[COg Woz uley) .. yunOoWYW “ep “yao ‘yuaQ 19g | ». s;unowy ‘yue0 J90g « ‘ON ‘Aeq 10g prey 19g Jad pray 19g a es mm fa a | al a SSVIQ “Aqienby Jo ommevisorg yovuasiny ‘amOoUT "R190 UIM pRolg eq} UO poeyNqiysiq pne pefoog FI suoouT ‘(peqimg 8000) « NOGONIM GULIno a } : ke i e* irae £ a wey hes 4 ‘ F : facil” ? ‘ = Sed ~~ pt yl t% ; fy b ‘ os ar Pes “od ? 2 we ; ‘ > , ce - oat rs , j if | en a ¥ Petia i ‘ ill aie : +s : (ph ‘ Pac i . - ' : f ~~ fare : ¢ rine E : Sa J i ; ‘ , = Lt | Pees |'s | Bn eet { ae Na = ps es |. ie . on by Cs b. = ri - : } 4 | ve a be o ae ae —— = qe he ey, ee Lt < j 2 . / —_— Sth 4 La * x »/ Py i, ts 3 e * . rs ~ ¢ * tt 829: ha 19? ee a oe 6. ge. Me - Notes ¢ ona Fossil Tree at Barnes’ Bay. (Abstract) _ an Ty = Mo ae es a 16. Pe ww S 8s 10 Shay 2 Pr Ecsite Aaariae” Ree ue He we iw aoa His E Excellency Sir A. E. Havelock, G. . tah | + Rainfall and Water Supply of the. Great Lake ... A H. C. Kingsmill, M.A. and Col. W. V. Legge, R.A, "The Debinial System, as” Denies to Weights, “eel ging and Money iis aa The Bishop of SG eat (Right Bee ‘Dr. Mereer) The Glacial Beds at Port Cygnet. Sra ae 1 gernage Say EK. G. Hogg, M. A. Notes: on ‘she Rouad Flora and a yon Fish, discovered at Tinder Box Bay i ve eh ee si Soitie Remarks on the Spirifer natuanigl Notes on the Reidle Bay Conglomerates, Maria Island. sere!) a eed ee R. M. Johnston, 1.8.0. N otes on some. Tasmanian Fungi. (Abstract) LL. Rodway. eo SR gee LS.O. net Peninsula. — Ne eaueien J. F. Mather. xli—xvi | Japan: ts Pcanke and Industries. ( Som minniested) xxxiii—xxxv_ Dr. Hocken. Sites. on Stone Knives of the Tasmanian Aborigines, ; found at Cullenwood Estate... ee Colonel W. V. Legge, It. A. “| Notes: on some Recent Discovered Tasmanian Abor jeinal Waddies. (Abstract) mn aay ; Alex. Morton. Notes on the S stchiatael Dancing Boards of Webt, “hush, (Title). W. D. Campbell, A.K.C., L. S., de. Presidential Address, 1905 ... em . res His Excellency. Sir Gerald sinckiand: K. C. M.G.. oe , a SARS MeClymont, M.A. ‘Spesie and Hybridisation, _ (Abstract). St Michael Podmore, M. ef “Amy Signalling. (Abstract, Communicated) : Major Hayter, R. A. sd se “Coal and a Coal Manes (Abstract)... lee EAL. Marmy, Ci Pe 2 Some Social the eonenee Aspects of Publie HealthWork EK, at Elkington, M.D., Chief Medical Officer. - Record of Obsidianites or Onsxdvan Buttons Se in «Tasmanian. (Abstract) - roar pee ss. WW. on sich ke P. Gs. ta ow i apes. Notes on Certain Birds met with by. Crozet. TA errs | 38, he * af eink ty vet ai Sate yk ce : 4 ‘eee ; R Con + aT f ) n . | AB ae asi “22, A Note on wie Beintveties in Wales: of the M ral ) dasite, which was supposed heretofore to be. pe in ‘Tasmania BI Soe aoe 6th cg Wh Ee Petterd, OM. HAN Evolution of Words. (Abstract) . ae Ar ie, ee , iy Stereoscopic Photography. (Abstract)... ie ch Pre picel Australia—Is_ it fitted for a Working. White . Tasmania from : a Manufacturing oe Legere in Point of 39. 40. ANe New Bee Finder. (Abstract). Bel en ‘i fa | Geological Excursion to Port Cyphet ces ath eis) ( Rev. js bay ot Ritz, M.A... Colour "Photography. (Abstract, Communicated) — f PAS D, sorta vat i a ‘Kingsmill, M. Dee W. E. Masters, B.A., LL. B. Race 2? (Abstract) SiH abs Hie (ead { Bed, Bikington, M. D. Cee) Ancient Egyptian Architecture. LApiaaee Nek ; ‘Dr. Gerard Smith, List of ee dedeuiecd Coleoptera : of Tasmania, pie A.M. Lea, F. I.S. | Coriditions upon ‘awhiol the Healthy Growth © of the ey js Fopuabon of Young. Colonies Depend ARG Papal eee ear J Re M. Johnston, 18.0. | Agronomy in Relation to Science AE ray, _ Rev. E. 0. Thompson, y List of, Flowering Plants collected at Kettering re RM. Johnston, 1.8.0. 4 Ayre MW. H. ‘Twelvetrees, BGS: 4 View Paes at Ans ; fd ane EN ne s ef As 0. ‘Groen, Ae te Notes on Tasmanian Minerals... eta! WF. Petterd, ‘CLM: A Ss. N ote on * ‘J acupirangite ” in Tasmania. i re W.. H:: “Twelvetrees, F. G. ‘S:] Naite on some Additional Minerals recently detormaet : with New Localities for Species known to. occur. in Tasmania Siaitacthns es 0 ark ay 3 Ww. F. ‘Petterd, ‘c M. ZS. Reavis ee i Index Designed as an Aid to the Better Determination of ces Common Fungoid Illusions... tes | IXP R. M. Johnston, I. s. 0. Par The Ethical, Economical, and La Aspects of Old Hee Pensions i oa OY ears Aa cent R. M. J shinaton 1.8.0. ye Some Relations of Insects to Human Dinesde ach: . E. J. Klkington, M.D. Ts ae Observations Regarding some. Economic “Aspen Ree) Eisenach Social Equality Programme. - COA NBN he A Rk. M. J Sis eae fe 8. 0. " - _ , oe Rae ee 7 } » yas ‘ 2 ag Be is ae eer are Oe on, : hd Ss to ee j ! i ; a » i , 2 yr a f ‘ " / ‘ * . W : \ ' \ j = Ps y Os Sgayaye eee eet earners sO) Oy BR yO Cees Geel oy nyt Stare MO) ANBWEVO Ls 4h Sl ee, os) Se Ray yee Oh Se Ged . sete lam ee Pet ee eee Oe ae, epee eee J . eens Meme jaa Falpes iim omy Va ae pons marca st eee ee FO hey Gegqe mk ermine * Eitan ata Sihdintaert ts, aster malian, els ind bus oe on aol Wadena ima aid Lethe awe pein. cidihn palin pedsecinian bein edewes _—- at Seaver es 2 Lape :