In this Review, the authors describe standards informing the development and use of polygenic scores and illustrate their application to advance the clinical translation of polygenic scores to precision prostate cancer screening.

This Review focuses on the clinical effects and translational potential of digital twin applications in uro-oncology, highlights challenges and discusses future directions for implementing digital twins to achieve personalized uro-oncological diagnostics and treatment.

Large language models have been rapidly adopted in general and clinically; they could also be incorporated into medical education. Results of a recent study suggest that a combination of traditional learning methods and large language model use could improve learning outcomes for medical students.

Priapism — an abnormal prolonged penile erection that persists in the absence of any sexual stimulation — can be subcategorized into three types: ischaemic (low-flow or veno-occlusive), non-ischaemic (high-flow or arterial) and stuttering, also known as recurrent ischaemic, priapism. The mechanisms underlying stuttering priapism are complex and involve dysregulation of the nitric oxide signalling pathway, Rho–Rho kinase pathway, adenosine, opiorphins, oxidative stress and androgens, and treatment can target these pathways, or be surgical in approach. In this Review, the authors discuss the pathology of the different types of priapism and provide an update on the different therapeutic options available.