Q1) a) Explain Good and Poor Design. List Benefits of Good Design.

[5 Marks]

1. What is Good Design?

A good design in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is one that is user-centered, meaning it is

designed to suit the cognitive, physical, and emotional needs of the users. It allows the user to
interact with a system easily, accurately, and efficiently.

✦ Features of Good Design:

• Clarity: The interface clearly communicates the options and actions.

• Consistency: Similar operations are performed in similar ways.

• Feedback: Immediate feedback is provided for user actions.

• Affordance: Controls suggest their usage (e.g., buttons look clickable).

• Error prevention: The system prevents user errors or helps correct them.

• Accessibility: Usable by people with various abilities.

Example of Good Design:

Google's search engine interface is a good example — clean, simple, with a prominent search bar and
minimal distractions. Even a first-time user can perform a search without instructions.

2. What is Poor Design?

A poor design ignores how people think and behave. It is inconsistent, confusing, non-intuitive, and
can make even simple tasks frustrating. It often fails to provide feedback or support for error
correction.

✦ Characteristics of Poor Design:

• Unclear navigation: Difficult to know how to proceed.

• Poor feedback: System does not respond to user actions.

• Lack of affordance: Buttons, links, or controls are not obvious.

• Unintuitive layout: Important actions are hard to locate.

• Inconsistent interface: Similar tasks are performed in different ways.

Example of Poor Design:

An online form that clears all data when one field is entered incorrectly, without showing what went
wrong, is a poor design.

3. Benefits of Good Design:

Benefit Explanation

User Satisfaction Users feel confident and satisfied when using a well-designed interface.

Increased Efficiency Tasks are completed faster with fewer errors.

Ease of Learning New users can learn to use the system quickly without training.

Well-designed interfaces prevent mistakes and guide users toward correct

Error Reduction
actions.

Cost Savings Reduces the need for helpdesk support, user training, and maintenance.

Accessibility Supports users with visual, physical, or cognitive impairments.

Better User
A pleasant design encourages continued use of the system or product.
Retention

Q1) b) Explain I/O Channels? [5 Marks]

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), Input/Output (I/O) channels are the sensory and response
mechanisms that humans use to interact with a computer system. These channels are based on
human perception and motor abilities, and understanding them is crucial for designing effective
interfaces.

1. Input Channels (Human → Computer)

These are the ways humans send information to the computer, primarily through physical
interaction or sensory perception.

a) Visual Input

• The most dominant channel.

• Involves reading text, identifying images, scanning layouts, or tracking cursor/pointer.

• Users rely on this for fast recognition of icons, menus, notifications, etc.

b) Auditory Input

• Involves interpreting sound or spoken commands.

• Examples: Using voice commands in systems like Alexa or Google Assistant.

• Useful for hands-free interaction, or when visual focus is elsewhere.

c) Tactile/Kinesthetic Input

• Includes touch, gestures, and movement.

• Examples:

o Touchscreens: taps, swipes.

o Gesture control: waving hands, motion sensing in gaming.

 o Haptic typing: physical keyboard feedback.

• Vital for mobile and immersive applications (e.g., VR, AR).

2. Output Channels (Computer → Human)

These channels allow the computer to send information back to the human, making communication
two-way.

a) Visual Output

• Primary method for conveying information (text, icons, graphics, layout).

• Includes color changes, blinking lights, dashboards, graphs, etc.

• Must be organized and readable to avoid cognitive overload.

b) Auditory Output

• Used to communicate events, alerts, confirmations, or voice instructions.

• Example: “You have a new message” via text-to-speech.

• Enhances multitasking (e.g., driving while receiving voice GPS directions).

c) Haptic Output

• Relies on vibrations or force feedback.

• Example: Mobile phone vibrating for calls/notifications.

• Adds confirmation and realism (as in game controllers or wearable tech).

3. Significance of I/O Channels in HCI

• Designers must consider user limitations, such as visual impairment, hearing loss, or motor
disabilities.

• Using multimodal interaction (e.g., combining visual + auditory feedback) enhances

accessibility.

• A well-balanced use of I/O channels ensures:

o Faster task performance.

o Lower error rates.

o Improved user satisfaction.

o Higher engagement and usability.

Real-Life Examples

• ATM Machines:
→ Visual instructions + audio prompts + tactile keypad.

• Mobile Phones:
→ Touch (input), screen display (visual), vibration (haptic), and ringtone (audio).
 • Smart Assistants (Alexa, Siri):
→ Voice input and spoken output (auditory channels).

Q1) c) What is Reasoning? Explain any two types of Reasoning. [5 Marks]

What is Reasoning?

Reasoning is the mental process through which humans or intelligent agents derive conclusions,
make decisions, solve problems, or predict outcomes based on given facts, knowledge, or evidence.

In simple terms, reasoning helps to connect known facts (premises) to arrive at new information or
conclusions. It plays a central role in:

• Human thinking,

• Artificial Intelligence (AI),

• Problem solving,

• Human-Computer Interaction (HCI).

Reasoning is not just about recalling information, but about using logic to make sense of situations
and arrive at new insights.

Importance of Reasoning in HCI and AI:

• Helps in understanding human decision-making patterns.

• Used in intelligent systems like chatbots, decision-making agents, and expert systems.

• Enables systems to behave rationally under different conditions.

• Supports planning, diagnosis, learning, prediction, and interpretation of user input.

Types of Reasoning (Two Explained in Detail)

1. Deductive Reasoning

Definition:

Deductive reasoning is a logical process where the conclusion is drawn from general principles or
known facts. If the premises are true, the conclusion is guaranteed to be true.

Nature:

• Works in a Top-Down manner.

• It moves from general rules → specific conclusions.

• The conclusion is logically certain.

Example:

• Premise 1: All students in the class have a laptop.

• Premise 2: Ravi is a student in the class.

 • Conclusion: Therefore, Ravi has a laptop.

Use in HCI & AI:

• Rule-based expert systems: "If-Then" logic.

• Formal logic reasoning in Prolog.

• Automated planning where actions follow strict conditions.

Advantage:

• Highly reliable and consistent results when based on correct premises.

Limitation:

• Cannot generate new knowledge if the rule is not already known.

• Not flexible in uncertain situations.

2. Inductive Reasoning

Definition:

Inductive reasoning is the process of observing specific instances and making general conclusions
from them. The result is likely or probable, but not guaranteed.

Nature:

• Works in a Bottom-Up approach.

• Moves from specific examples → general conclusions.

• Conclusion is probabilistic, not certain.

Example:

• Observation 1: The first five people I met in Pune spoke Marathi.

• Observation 2: Most shop signs in Pune are in Marathi.

• Conclusion: People in Pune generally speak Marathi.

Use in HCI & AI:

• Used in machine learning algorithms.

• User behavior prediction systems.

• Voice recognition systems adapting to different accents.

Advantage:

• Flexible and learns from real-world data.

• Useful when predefined rules are not available.

Limitation:

• Conclusions can be wrong if the observed data is limited or biased.

 Q2) a) Explain Human Memory. [5 Marks]

What is Human Memory?

Human memory is the mental system that helps us to store, organize, and recall information. It is
essential for all human activities — like learning, speaking, problem-solving, and using devices.
In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), memory plays a major role because it affects how users
interact with systems: how they remember commands, icons, menus, layouts, etc.

Good system design works with the limitations of human memory, not against them.

Why Human Memory Matters in HCI:

• Helps users learn and remember how to use software.

• Affects how quickly users recall functions (like Ctrl+S for saving).

• If memory is overloaded, users make errors or feel frustrated.

• Good design reduces memory load using visual cues, repetition, and structure.

Structure of Human Memory

Human memory is divided into three main types:

1. Sensory Memory

This is the initial stage of memory. It briefly stores information from our senses (sight, sound, touch)
— usually for less than 1 second.

• It works automatically and filters out most useless data.

• If attention is given, the data moves to short-term memory.

Types of Sensory Memory:

• Iconic Memory: Stores visual input (e.g., blinking icon).

• Echoic Memory: Stores sounds (e.g., alert tone).

• Haptic Memory: Stores touch sensations (e.g., phone vibration).

Example: When a flash message disappears, but we still remember what it said.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory

This holds small amounts of information temporarily for immediate use.

It is active and used while thinking, reading, or solving problems.
Main Characteristics:

• Capacity: 7 ± 2 items. Example: Remembering a 6-digit OTP.

• Duration: 20 to 30 seconds without rehearsal.

• Usage: For tasks like mental math, reading a sentence, or entering a password.

• Limitations: Easily disrupted. New information can overwrite old info.

Design Tip: Reduce memory load by showing options instead of making users remember them.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores information for long durations, even for a lifetime.

It stores:

• Knowledge

• Personal experiences

• Motor skills (e.g., typing)

Main Characteristics:

• Capacity: Huge (practically unlimited).

• Duration: Very long – even permanent.

• Reliability: Slower access than STM, but deeper storage.

• Structure: Information is stored in interconnected networks (associative).

Types of Long-Term Memory:

1. Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.

Example: Your first time using a laptop.

2. Semantic Memory: General knowledge.

Example: Knowing Ctrl+C = Copy.

3. Procedural Memory: Skills and tasks.

Example: Typing without looking.

Q2) b) Explain: Emotion, Individual Difference. [5 Marks]

1. Emotion in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

What is Emotion?

Emotion is a complex psychological state that includes three parts:

1. A subjective feeling (e.g., happy, anxious, angry)

2. A physiological response (e.g., faster heartbeat, sweaty palms)

3. A behavioral response (e.g., facial expression, tone of voice)

 Role of Emotion in HCI

In Human-Computer Interaction, emotions directly impact the user experience (UX).

When users interact with any interface — a website, software, mobile app, or ATM — their
emotional reactions influence:

• Usability perception

• Error tolerance

• Task completion

• Overall satisfaction

Examples of Emotional Impact:

Situation Emotion Result

Confusing UI layout Frustration User leaves the website

Pleasant animation Joy User stays longer and explores

Unresponsive system Anger User avoids using the system again

Emotional Design Principles:

To create emotionally positive user experiences, designers use:

• Aesthetic design (colors, spacing, animations)

• Tone of language (friendly, casual)

• Feedback messages (e.g., "Well done!" vs. "Error 502")

• Surprise & delight features (small animations, success sounds)

Benefits of Emotion-Aware Design:

• Makes the user feel comfortable and confident

• Encourages learning and exploration

• Builds trust in the system

• Improves brand loyalty

2. Individual Differences in HCI

What are Individual Differences?

Individual differences refer to the variations among users in terms of their:

• Cognitive abilities

• Physical abilities

• Experience with technology

 • Learning styles

• Preferences

• Culture and language

No two users are the same. Hence, interfaces must be designed inclusively.

Key Factors of Individual Differences:

1. Age Differences

o Young users may adapt faster but are more impatient.

o Elderly users may face difficulty with speed, precision, or memory-based tasks.

2. Technical Experience

o Beginners need guided interfaces with tooltips and walkthroughs.

o Experts prefer faster access using shortcuts, customization, and compact views.

3. Language & Cultural Background

o Icons, text, gestures may have different meanings across cultures.

o For example, red color can mean error in one culture and celebration in another.

4. Physical Abilities

o Some users may have visual impairments (e.g., color blindness, low vision).

o Others may have mobility issues (e.g., difficulty using mouse or keyboard).

o Solution: Use screen readers, keyboard-only navigation, larger clickable areas.

5. Cognitive Abilities

o Users with memory or attention limitations need simple, uncluttered UIs.

o Use of consistent layouts and step-by-step flows helps them navigate smoothly.

Example in Real-world Application:

• A government website might serve both senior citizens and tech-savvy youth.
→ It should offer a simple mode and an advanced mode.

• A reading app may allow font size and contrast adjustments for visually impaired users.

Why Respecting Individual Differences Matters:

• It promotes usability for all users, not just a specific group

• Ensures accessibility — a legal requirement in many countries

• Leads to higher satisfaction and task success rate

 Q2) c) What is Interactivity? Explain the context of Interaction. [5 Marks]

What is Interactivity?

Interactivity refers to the degree of communication and response between the user and a computer
system.

It describes how users give input to a system (e.g., click, type, swipe) and how the system responds
(e.g., displaying a result, showing feedback, changing the screen). A highly interactive system actively
engages the user and makes the interface feel responsive, natural, and intelligent.

Characteristics of Interactivity:

1. Two-way communication

o User gives input → System responds

o System updates state based on user actions

2. Continuous Feedback

o The system provides immediate feedback (visual, auditory, or haptic).

o Example: Button changes color when hovered over or clicked.

3. Control and Flexibility

o Users can control their path and pace while interacting.

o Example: User can undo, redo, or skip steps.

4. Responsiveness

o The system must react quickly to user input to maintain flow and trust.

o Example: A slow-loading button reduces interactivity quality.

Examples of Interactivity:

Interaction Style Example

Mouse click Selecting a menu option

Touchscreen swipe Scrolling through photos

Voice command Asking a voice assistant for weather

Haptic response Vibration feedback when tapping a button

Context of Interaction in HCI

The context of interaction refers to the environment, situation, and user-related factors in which
the interaction happens. It includes everything that influences how the user interacts with the
system and how the system should behave.
Understanding the context helps in designing interfaces that are relevant, efficient, and user-
friendly.

Types of Context in Interaction:

1. User Context

o Refers to who the user is.

o Includes user's age, experience, preferences, abilities, mood.

o Example: A child using an app needs larger buttons and simpler words.

2. Physical Context

o Refers to where the interaction is happening.

o Includes location, lighting, noise, mobility.

o Example: A mobile app used while walking should have fewer distractions and large
touch areas.

3. Social Context

o Refers to whether the user is alone or with others.

o Example: In public, users may prefer minimal sound or screen brightness.

4. Device Context

o Refers to the type of hardware used (desktop, mobile, smart TV, kiosk).

o Each device has different screen size, input methods, and power limitations.

5. Task Context

o Refers to what the user is trying to accomplish.

o Example: Booking a ticket requires focus, so the UI must minimize distractions.

Why Context Matters:

Designers need to adapt the interface based on context to:

• Improve usability and efficiency

• Reduce user errors

• Enhance user satisfaction

• Make the system inclusive and accessible

Q1) a) Define Human-Computer Interface. State its Importance. [5 Marks]

Definition of Human-Computer Interface (HCI):

Human-Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the platform or medium through which a user interacts
with a computer system.
It includes both hardware (e.g., keyboard, mouse, touchscreen) and software components (e.g.,
menus, icons, windows, GUIs) that allow users to give input and receive output from the system.
The main goal of HCI is to design systems that are easy to use, efficient, and user-friendly, allowing
users to operate them without deep technical knowledge.

Importance of Human-Computer Interface:

• Enhances Usability:
HCI ensures that the system is user-friendly, reducing confusion and simplifying task
performance. This minimizes the need for user training.

• Improves User Satisfaction:

A simple and intuitive interface increases the user’s comfort and satisfaction, encouraging
frequent and continued usage.

• Minimizes User Errors:

A well-designed interface helps avoid mistakes by providing clear instructions, feedback, and
constraints on invalid inputs.

• Boosts Efficiency and Productivity:

Efficient interfaces reduce the time required to perform tasks, improving speed and output,
especially in professional environments.

• Supports Accessibility:
HCI enables systems to be usable by people with disabilities through features like voice
commands, screen readers, or high-contrast modes.

• Facilitates Learning:
New users can learn how to operate a system quickly through intuitive design, reducing
dependency on manuals or instructions.

• Bridges Human and Machine Communication:

HCI translates human actions into system commands and system responses into
understandable feedback for users.

Example:
When using a mobile phone, tapping an icon to open an app, swiping through screens, or using voice
assistants are all examples of HCI elements that make interaction simple and natural.

Q3) a) What are Interaction Styles? Explain any two. [5 Marks]

1. What are Interaction Styles?

Interaction styles in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) refer to the different ways in which users
can communicate or interact with a computer system. These styles define how input is given and
how output is received.

Each style has its own:

• Usability level

• Learning curve
 • Suitability for different user types and applications

Choosing the right interaction style is essential for creating a smooth and effective user experience.

✦ Common Interaction Styles:

• Command-line Interface

• Menu-based Interface

• Form-based Interface

• Direct Manipulation (GUI)

• Natural Language Interface

• Gesture-based or Voice-based Interface

2. Two Interaction Styles Explained:

A) Command-Line Interface (CLI)

Definition:
A style where the user types text-based commands into a terminal or prompt to communicate with
the system.

Features:

• Requires knowledge of commands and syntax.

• Very powerful for experienced users (e.g., programmers, system admins).

• Fast and efficient when mastered.

Advantages:

• Precise control over the system.

• Low system resource usage.

• Supports automation with scripting.

Disadvantages:

• Difficult for beginners.

• High memorization load.

• No visual cues.

Example:
Typing cd Documents or dir in the Windows Command Prompt.

B) Menu-Based Interface

Definition:
A style where users interact with the system by selecting options from a list of menus.

Features:
 • Options are clearly listed and organized.

• Reduces the need for memorization.

• Good for novice users.

Advantages:

• Easy to learn and use.

• Prevents input errors.

• Guided structure makes task completion easier.

Disadvantages:

• Limited flexibility.

• Can be slow for frequent tasks.

• Deep menu levels can confuse users.

Example:
Using File → Save As... in Microsoft Word or clicking on Settings in a mobile app.

Q3) b) Explain the Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design. [5 Marks]

What are Schneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules?

Ben Schneiderman’s eight golden rules are foundational principles in Human-Computer Interaction
(HCI). They help designers create systems that are intuitive, efficient, and user-friendly. These rules
improve user experience by guiding how the interface should behave in response to user actions.

✦ Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design:

1. Strive for Consistency

• Consistency in visual elements, terminology, and user actions helps users build familiarity
with the system.

• If similar actions always behave the same way, users don’t have to re-learn interactions for
each screen or task.

Example:
Microsoft Office maintains the same ribbon interface in Word, Excel, and PowerPoint—making it
easier for users to switch between applications.

2. Enable Frequent Users to Use Shortcuts

• Experienced users prefer faster ways to interact with the system.

• Interfaces should provide keyboard shortcuts, abbreviations, function keys, or gestures to

speed up repeated tasks.

• These shortcuts reduce the time required for frequent actions.

 Example:
In Adobe Photoshop, users can press Ctrl+Z to undo or set custom shortcuts to perform tasks
quickly.

3. Offer Informative Feedback

• Every user action (click, input, command) should receive a relevant and timely response
from the system.

• The feedback should reflect the importance of the action—simple for minor actions,
detailed for major ones.

Example:
When a product is added to a shopping cart, a small pop-up or sound notification confirms the
action and shows the updated cart.

4. Design Dialogs to Yield Closure

• Users feel confident when tasks have a clear beginning, progress, and completion.

• The system should confirm when a task has ended successfully so users aren’t left guessing.

Example:
After submitting a form online, users receive a “Thank you” or “Submission Successful” message
that confirms the process is complete.

5. Offer Error Prevention and Simple Error Handling

• Preventing mistakes is better than correcting them.

• When errors occur, messages should be clear, polite, and provide recovery steps (not
technical jargon).

• Help users recover easily without losing their progress.

Example:
When composing an email without a subject, the system shows a warning pop-up before sending it,
preventing a possible mistake.

6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions

• Letting users undo and redo actions encourages them to explore and try out options without
fear.

• It reduces anxiety because users know they can backtrack if something goes wrong.

Example:
In MS Word, users can press Ctrl+Z to undo or Ctrl+Y to redo—helping correct mistakes quickly.

7. Support Internal Locus of Control

• Users feel empowered when they control what the system does, rather than the system
acting unexpectedly.
 • The interface should respond predictably to user actions and avoid forcing them into fixed
steps.

Example:
In video games, players directly control character actions. The system responds instantly, reinforcing
the feeling of control.

8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load

• The human brain can only hold a limited amount of information at a time (typically 7±2
items).

• Interfaces should minimize the need to remember things from one screen to the next.

• Use drop-downs, autofill, visible options, and reminders to reduce memory strain.

Example:
Online forms with auto-fill suggestions help users avoid retyping the same data repeatedly.

Q3) c) Explain the Different Guidelines for Organizing the Display. [5 Marks]

What is Display Organization in HCI?

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), display organization refers to the structured arrangement of

information, controls, and visuals on the user interface. The goal is to make the screen clear,
readable, and easy to navigate so that users can perform tasks quickly and accurately.

Poor display organization leads to confusion, slow task performance, and user frustration.

✦ Guidelines for Organizing the Display:

1. Use a Clear and Logical Layout

• Place elements in a natural sequence that matches user expectations.

• Align labels with inputs and group related items together.

Example:
Forms should follow top-to-bottom, left-to-right reading flow.

2. Group Related Information Visually

• Use boxes, spacing, color, or borders to cluster related items.

• Reduces mental effort and supports quick understanding.

Example:
In a shopping app, product name, image, and price are grouped together visually.

3. Maintain Visual Consistency

• Fonts, colors, icons, and button styles should be consistent throughout the interface.

• Consistency makes the system more predictable and professional.

 Example:
All headings use the same font and size, and all clickable buttons use the same color.

4. Use White Space Effectively

• Don't clutter the screen with too much information.

• Use white space to separate elements and give the display a cleaner look.

Example:
Well-spaced menu items reduce accidental clicks and help scanning.

5. Prioritize Information Hierarchically

• Display important content more prominently using font size, bold text, or placement.

• Helps users locate essential information quickly.

Example:
In a dashboard, total sales figures appear larger and at the top

6. Support Easy Navigation and Scanning

• Use headings, bullets, and icons to break content into readable chunks.

• Users often scan rather than read, so help them find what they need fast.

Example:
Navigation bars or menus should use clear labels like “Home,” “Profile,” “Settings.”

7. Ensure Readability and Legibility

• Use readable fonts, proper contrast between text and background, and adequate font size.

• Avoid using fancy or hard-to-read styles.

Example:
Black text on a white background is more readable than yellow text on a white background.

8. Minimize User Memory Load

• Keep necessary options visible instead of making users remember commands or paths.

• Display relevant instructions and feedback where needed.

Example:
Dropdowns show available choices instead of making users type options.

Q4) a) What are Different Human Consideration Factors in a Design? [5 Marks]

Introduction:

When designing interactive systems, it is essential to understand how humans perceive, process, and
interact with information. A design that ignores human limitations can cause confusion, errors, and
user dissatisfaction.
Hence, user interface design must consider human psychological, physiological, and behavioral
factors to ensure usability, efficiency, and safety.

✦ Detailed Human Consideration Factors in Design:

1. Cognitive Abilities

• Refers to mental processes like perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving.

• Users can forget complex instructions or feel overwhelmed by too much information.

• Design should reduce cognitive load and guide users with clear, step-by-step navigation.

Design Practices:

• Use simple instructions and familiar terms.

• Avoid long sequences of actions.

• Use tooltips, progress indicators, and help options.

Example:
Instead of asking users to remember formats, date fields provide calendar pickers.

2. Perceptual Abilities

• Humans rely heavily on vision, hearing, and touch to interact with systems.

• Interfaces must be visually accessible, with proper contrast, font size, audio clarity, and
visual hierarchy.

• Important elements must stand out clearly.

Design Practices:

• Avoid tiny fonts or low-contrast colors.

• Highlight errors or warnings using color and icons.

• Provide subtitles or transcripts for audio.

Example:
Red border around a form field signals an error clearly, guiding the user.

3. Physical Capabilities and Limitations

• Not all users have the same motor skills, speed, dexterity, or range of movement.

• Designers must account for touchscreen users, elderly users, and users with disabilities.

Design Practices:

• Avoid tiny buttons or fast timers.

• Provide keyboard alternatives for mouse actions.

• Ensure interface works with assistive tools like screen readers.

 Example:
Accessibility features like "Zoom" and "Voice Control" on smartphones help users with disabilities.

4. Memory Limitations

• Human short-term memory can hold around 7 ± 2 items at once (Miller’s Law).

• Systems should not demand users to remember multiple steps, complex paths, or exact
commands.

Design Practices:

• Use visible menus instead of hidden commands.

• Use auto-fill, suggestions, and history.

• Keep recently used items easily accessible.

Example:
Search boxes remember recent queries so users don’t retype them.

5. Attention Span and Focus

• Human attention is selective and short-lived.

• Interfaces must guide focus and avoid overloading with unnecessary elements.

Design Practices:

• Use white space to reduce visual clutter.

• Make primary actions prominent.

• Avoid sudden pop-ups or distractions.

Example:
A “Checkout” button is large and isolated on an e-commerce site to draw attention.

6. Learning and Skill Level

• Users range from beginners to experts.

• Interfaces must support gradual learning while also allowing efficiency for experienced
users.

Design Practices:

• Provide onboarding or tutorials for new users.

• Offer shortcuts and customization for experienced users.

Example:
Software like Excel provides help tips for new users and macros for advanced users.

7. Cultural and Language Differences

• People from different backgrounds interpret colors, icons, gestures, and phrases differently.
 • Interfaces should be culturally neutral and support localization.

Design Practices:

• Avoid culturally specific symbols (e.g., hand gestures).

• Support multiple languages and local date/time formats.

Example:
A globe icon for “language selection” is more neutral than using flags.

8. Emotional Response

• A user’s feelings and mood while using a system affect satisfaction.

• Emotionally pleasant designs reduce frustration and stress.

Design Practices:

• Use friendly and encouraging error messages.

• Apply calming color schemes and smooth transitions.

Example:
“Yay! Your order is placed ” feels better than just “Order submitted.”

Q4) b) Explain the Different Techniques for Getting the User’s Attention. [5 Marks]

When designing interactive systems, it is essential to guide the user’s focus to important parts of the
interface. These techniques help users notice errors, updates, alerts, or available actions, improving
usability and reducing confusion.

Below are the main techniques used to attract the user's attention:

1. Use of Color and Contrast

• Colors can highlight important elements like warnings, active buttons, or selected items.

• Bright or contrasting colors draw the eye more quickly than dull or neutral shades.

Example:
A red border around a field with an error helps users locate it instantly.

Design Tip:
Use colors consistently (e.g., red for errors, green for success).

2. Use of Size and Position

• Larger elements appear more important and are noticed first.

• Placing important content in visually dominant positions (e.g., top-center or near action
buttons) improves visibility.

Example:
A large “Submit” button at the bottom of a form attracts the user’s eye.
 Design Tip:
Follow F-pattern or Z-pattern layouts, which match natural eye-scanning behavior.

3. Use of Motion or Animation

• Movement naturally captures human attention.

• Blinking icons, sliding banners, or loading animations can be used to guide the user’s focus.

Example:
A spinning loader shows that a process is running and prevents user confusion.

Design Tip:
Use motion sparingly to avoid distraction or annoyance.

4. Use of Sound and Audio Signals

• Sounds are useful for alerts, confirmations, or warnings, especially when users are not
looking at the screen.

Example:
A beep sound when an incorrect key is pressed in an ATM.

Design Tip:
Use non-irritating and distinctive sounds, and allow users to mute them if needed.

5. Use of White Space and Isolation

• Keeping some elements separate from others using blank space helps them stand out.

• This method reduces visual clutter and enhances focus on critical items.

Example:
A promotional banner is placed with lots of white space around it so users notice it easily.

Design Tip:
Do not overcrowd the interface — less is more.

6. Use of Icons and Graphics

• Visual symbols convey meaning instantly and are easier to recognize than text.

• They help catch attention and clarify the purpose of actions.

Example:
A trash can icon immediately signals delete action.

Design Tip:
Use clear, meaningful icons with labels if needed.

7. Temporal Effects (Timing)

• Displaying temporary messages or animations for a few seconds ensures the user sees them
without needing manual dismissal.
 Example:
A green message saying “Message Sent” disappears after 3 seconds.

Design Tip:
Give the user enough time to read but don’t require them to click “OK” unless necessary.

Q4) c) Explain Important Human Characteristics in Design. [5 Marks]

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), the success of any system heavily depends on how well the
human characteristics are considered in the interface and system design. These characteristics
influence how users perceive, process, and interact with a system.

Designers must understand human physical, cognitive, and psychological traits to create usable,
efficient, and satisfying systems.

Important Human Characteristics in Design:

1. Perception

• Refers to how users receive information through senses—primarily vision, hearing, and
touch.

• Designers must consider:

o Text size and color contrast (visual clarity)

o Sound cues (audio alerts)

o Haptic feedback (vibration in mobile devices)

Example: High-contrast text is easier to read, especially for users with poor eyesight.

2. Cognitive Ability

• Includes memory, learning, problem-solving, attention, and decision-making skills.

• Limitations:

o Users can only remember limited information at once (7±2 items).

o Systems should avoid overloading the user’s short-term memory.

Design Tip: Use menus, drop-downs, tooltips to reduce memory load.

3. Physical Characteristics

• Encompasses user body size, strength, mobility, and motor control.

• Design must support:

o Comfortable keyboard/mouse use

o Accessible button size (for touchscreens)

o Easy reach of controls

Example: Mobile apps use large, finger-friendly buttons.

4. Experience and Skill Level

• Users vary from novices to experts.

• Interface should:

o Be easy for beginners (guides, tooltips)

o Offer shortcuts for experienced users

Example: Microsoft Word offers both ribbon menus and keyboard shortcuts.

5. Attention Span

• Human attention is limited and easily distracted.

• Interfaces should:

o Minimize unnecessary information

o Use visual hierarchy to guide focus

o Avoid frequent interruptions or pop-ups

Design Tip: Highlight critical elements (buttons, alerts) clearly without clutter.

6. Learning and Adaptability

• Humans learn through experience, repetition, and feedback.

• A good interface supports learning by:

o Providing clear feedback

o Using consistent actions across screens

o Including help and tutorials

Example: A progress bar teaches users what to expect during installation.

7. Emotional and Psychological State

• Frustration, stress, or satisfaction influence user performance.

• Design must:

o Be friendly, responsive, and error-forgiving

o Offer positive feedback and easy recovery from mistakes

Example: Undo options and clear error messages reduce anxiety.

8. Cultural and Language Differences

• Users may come from diverse cultural backgrounds and speak different languages.

• Design should:
 o Use universal icons

o Support multiple languages

o Avoid culturally specific symbols that may confuse others

Example: A “thumbs up” icon may be positive in some cultures but offensive in others.

Q4) b) Explain Good and Bad Interface Design with an Example. [5 Marks]

What is Interface Design?

Interface design refers to the layout and interaction features that allow users to communicate with
a system (software, website, app, ATM, etc.). The quality of this design determines how easily and
effectively users can achieve their goals.

Good Interface Design

A good interface makes the user’s experience smooth, intuitive, and satisfying. It follows the
principles of usability, accessibility, clarity, and feedback.

Characteristics of Good Interface:

1. Consistency

o Uses similar design elements across pages.

o Predictable navigation and screen layouts.

2. Ease of Navigation

o Menus are well-structured, with clear categories.

o Users can easily find what they are looking for.

3. Clear Feedback

o System responds to every user action.

o Confirms button clicks, form submissions, etc.

4. Error Prevention and Recovery

o Prevents mistakes and gives clear recovery options.

o Undo, redo, and meaningful error messages.

5. Minimalism and Aesthetics

o Only relevant information is displayed.

o No clutter or distractions.

6. Accessibility and Adaptability

o Interface is usable by people with disabilities.

o Works well across different devices and screen sizes.

 Example of Good Interface: Google Search Page

• Simple and clean layout.

• Focused on main action: searching.

• Provides real-time suggestions while typing.

• Loads fast and works across all devices.

• Gives proper feedback (e.g., “Did you mean…?”).

• Results are well organized and easy to navigate.

Result: User finds what they need quickly and without frustration.

Bad Interface Design

A bad interface confuses, frustrates, or misleads the user. It lacks basic usability principles and
results in errors, inefficiency, and dissatisfaction.

Characteristics of Bad Interface:

1. Inconsistent Design

o Different screens use different styles and commands.

o Users cannot predict what will happen next.

2. Poor Layout and Clutter

o Overcrowded screen with too much text or too many options.

o No clear distinction between primary and secondary tasks.

3. No Feedback

o User is unsure whether their action (like clicking a button) was successful.

o No loading indicators or confirmations.

4. Lack of Error Handling

o Cryptic or technical error messages.

o No guidance on how to fix mistakes.

5. Non-intuitive Controls

o Unfamiliar icons or terminology.

o Buttons placed in illogical positions.

6. Accessibility Ignored

o Text is too small, or colors are hard to distinguish.

o Not usable with screen readers or keyboards.

Example of Bad Interface: Old ATM Machines

 • Unlabeled or poorly labeled function buttons.

• Confusing menus with no back option.

• No warning or delay indicator before card is taken back.

• Inconsistent response times (no idea if the system is working).

• Error messages like “Transaction Failed” without any reason.

Result: Users often make mistakes, feel confused, or leave the system frustrated.

Q4) c) List and Explain the Elements of WIMP. [5 Marks]

Definition of WIMP:

WIMP is a traditional model for Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). The term stands for:

• W: Windows

• I: Icons

• M: Menus

• P: Pointer

It was introduced in the 1980s and became the foundation for operating systems like Windows,
macOS, and Linux GUI environments. It provides a visual, interactive, and user-friendly interface,
replacing text-based command-line systems.

1. Windows

• Definition: A window is a framed, rectangular portion of the screen used to display content
or an application.

• Purpose: It allows multitasking—users can work on multiple documents or applications

simultaneously.

• Functionality:

o Can be moved, resized, minimized, maximized, or closed.

o Supports overlapping (stacked on each other), tiling, or cascading.

o Each window may contain menus, toolbars, scrollbars, and the main content area.

• Example: In MS Excel, each spreadsheet opens in a separate window. You can have one
window for sales and another for charts.

2. Icons

• Definition: An icon is a small graphic image that represents an object, tool, file, folder,
function, or command.

• Purpose: Icons are visual shortcuts that allow quick access and recognition of functions.
• Types of Icons:

o Object icons – files, folders, recycle bin

o Tool icons – cut, copy, paste, zoom, etc.

o Status icons – Wi-Fi, battery, notifications

• Design Consideration:

o Must be intuitive, visually clear, and often labelled for clarity.

• Example: A printer icon in the toolbar quickly initiates a print command.

3. Menus

• Definition: A menu is a list of commands or options that the user can select to perform
actions.

• Purpose: Menus organize commands and reduce clutter by hiding advanced features until
needed.

• Types:

o Drop-down menus – appear from a menu bar.

o Pop-up menus – appear on right-click (contextual).

o Pull-right (cascading) menus – submenus that branch from a main menu.

• Features:

o Frequently used options are placed higher.

o Keyboard shortcuts are often shown alongside menu items.

• Example: Clicking on the “File” menu in Word gives options like New, Open, Save, Print.

4. Pointer

• Definition: A pointer is the on-screen symbol (usually an arrow or cursor) controlled by a

mouse, trackpad, or touchscreen.

• Purpose: It allows users to interact with the GUI elements by pointing, selecting, clicking,
dragging, or dropping.

• Behaviors:

o Changes shape based on context (e.g., I-beam over text, hourglass for wait).

o Allows direct manipulation of icons, windows, and menus.

o Facilitates drag-and-drop, resizing, and highlighting.

• Example: In a drawing tool, the pointer may turn into a paintbrush or shape tool for direct
interaction.
Q2) a) What is Ergonomics? Describe the arrangement of controls and displays, the physical
environment. [5 Marks]

Definition of Ergonomics:

Ergonomics is the science of designing the user interface and physical workspace to fit human
capabilities and limitations.
It focuses on improving efficiency, safety, comfort, and usability during human interaction with
machines or systems.

Ergonomics is also called Human Factors Engineering.

Why is Ergonomics Important?

• Prevents strain and injuries (e.g., back pain, eye strain).

• Enhances user comfort, performance, and satisfaction.

• Reduces errors, fatigue, and mental workload.

• Ensures the system fits the user, not the other way around.

1. Arrangement of Controls and Displays:

Proper placement and organization of controls (input devices) and displays (output devices) is crucial
in ergonomic design.

a) Controls (Input elements):

These include buttons, keyboards, levers, touchscreens, etc.

• Should be easily reachable without strain.

• Frequently used controls must be placed in the primary field of reach.

• Controls must have appropriate size, spacing, and resistance.

• Labels should be clear, visible, and easy to understand.

• Example: In a car dashboard, the steering wheel and gear shift are within comfortable reach.

b) Displays (Output elements):

These include screens, meters, indicators, notifications, etc.

• Should be located in the user's direct line of sight.

• Use color-coding, grouping, and consistent symbols.

• Display important data prominently (e.g., fuel indicator, error messages).

• Minimize information overload by prioritizing essential content.

• Example: A flight cockpit groups engine displays separately from navigation screens.

2. Physical Environment:

The physical setting in which a system or interface is used greatly affects the user’s comfort and
effectiveness.
a) Lighting:

• Should be sufficient, non-glare, and well-distributed.

• Avoid strong backlighting or screen reflections.

• Example: Adjustable task lights at computer desks.

b) Seating and Posture:

• Chairs must support the lower back with adjustable height.

• Desks should allow proper arm and wrist positioning.

• Leg space and footrests must be provided where necessary.

c) Noise:

• Should be minimized, especially in control rooms or office spaces.

• Use sound-absorbing materials in walls or ceilings.

d) Temperature and Ventilation:

• Maintain comfortable room temperature.

• Proper air flow and ventilation improve focus and reduce fatigue.

e) Space and Layout:

• Ensure enough movement space.

• Avoid clutter around controls and displays.

• Group related elements together for better focus.

Q2) b) Write a short note on Text Entry Devices. [5 Marks]

Definition of Text Entry Devices:

Text Entry Devices are hardware or software input systems used by users to enter alphabetic,
numeric, symbolic, or command-based textual data into a computer system. These devices form a
core component of human-computer interaction (HCI) and directly affect efficiency, accuracy, and
user comfort.

They must be:

• Ergonomically designed to prevent fatigue.

• Responsive and accurate for fast input.

• Accessible to users with disabilities or different language preferences.

Types of Text Entry Devices:

1. Physical Keyboard

• Most widely used text input device.

 • Contains keys arranged in specific layouts:

o QWERTY – Standard for English typing.

o DVORAK, AZERTY – Alternative, ergonomic layouts.

• Includes:

o Alphanumeric keys

o Modifier keys (Shift, Ctrl, Alt)

o Function keys (F1–F12)

o Navigation keys (arrows, Home, End)

• Ergonomic versions reduce strain on fingers and wrists.

• Mechanical vs membrane types differ in tactile feedback.

Use case: Office typing, programming, content creation.

2. On-Screen Virtual Keyboard (Touchscreen Devices)

• Displayed on screens of mobiles, tablets, kiosks.

• Operated by touch or stylus.

• Support additional features:

o Auto-correct

o Word prediction

o Swipe typing (gesture typing)

Pros:

• Portable and space-saving.

• Language-switching is easy.

Cons:

• Slower for long typing sessions.

• Causes finger fatigue.

3. Stylus or Digital Pen Input

• Handwriting is done directly on touch screens.

• Uses handwriting recognition software to convert strokes into text.

• Used in:

o Digital note-taking

o Signing documents

o Annotating PDFs or forms

Common in: Tablets (iPad, Galaxy Tab), graphic tablets (Wacom).

Benefit: Natural input for users more comfortable with writing.

4. Speech-to-Text (Voice Recognition Input)

• User speaks into a microphone.

• Software translates spoken words into typed text.

• Requires:

o Microphone

o Noise cancellation

o Clear pronunciation

Popular tools: Google Voice Typing, Apple's Siri, Windows Speech Recognition.

Best for:

• Hands-free environments

• Users with physical disabilities

• Real-time transcription

Limitations:

• Errors due to accents or background noise.

• Punctuation needs to be spoken (“comma”, “full stop”).

5. Chord Keyboards

• Unique devices where multiple keys are pressed together (like chords on a piano) to
generate characters.

• Only a few keys used; combinations produce entire character sets.

• Compact, used in:

o Wearable tech

o Aviation or military where space is limited

Advantage: Very fast typing once mastered.

Limitation: Difficult to learn.

6. Braille Input Devices

• Designed for visually impaired users.

• Consists of 6 or 8 buttons representing Braille dot patterns.

• Typed combinations generate corresponding letters or words.

Use case: Screen readers, accessible computing devices.

 Factors Affecting Choice of Text Entry Device:

• Speed and accuracy required

• User’s physical ability

• Environment (office, mobile, noisy place)

• Device type (desktop, mobile, wearable)

• Language or script requirements

c) List the various interaction style. Explain any one in details. [5] repeated

Q3) a) What is Miller’s Law? Give an Example. [5 Marks]

Definition of Miller’s Law:

Miller’s Law, proposed by George A. Miller (1956), is a cognitive psychology principle related to
human short-term memory capacity.

It states:

“The average number of discrete items a person can hold in their working memory is about seven,
plus or minus two (i.e., 5 to 9 items).”

This rule is foundational in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) as it guides how much information a
user can handle at one time without becoming mentally overloaded.

Importance in HCI:

Miller’s Law is important for designing user interfaces in a way that aligns with human cognitive
limitations.
Interfaces that ignore this principle may present too much information at once, overwhelming the
user and causing frustration or errors.

Concept of Chunking:

To make information more manageable, it is grouped into "chunks".

A chunk is a unit of information that the brain treats as a single item.

Chunking allows more information to be processed effectively, despite memory limitations.

Example: Instead of remembering 10 digits like 9876543210, we chunk it as 987-654-3210 (3 parts),

making it easier to recall.

Implications for Interface Design:

1. Avoid Cognitive Overload:

Interfaces should show only necessary items at a time to prevent overwhelming the user.

2. Group Related Information:

Menu items, settings, or form fields should be grouped into logical categories or sections.
 3. Use Progressive Disclosure:
Show additional details only when requested.
Example: Expanding menus, drop-downs, and accordions.

4. Limit Items on Screen:

Try to show no more than 5 to 9 options at once, especially in critical decision areas like
navigation menus or forms.

Examples:

1. Smartphone Interfaces:

• Home Screen Organization:

Apps are grouped into folders like "Social", "Productivity", etc. Only key apps are shown by
default.
→ Reduces clutter and respects memory limits.

• Grouped Notifications:
Instead of showing 20 different alerts, they are grouped by app or type (e.g., “5 new
messages from WhatsApp”).
→ Reduces user’s mental load.

2. E-Commerce Websites:

• Product Categorization:
Products are split into main and sub-categories, like:

o Electronics → Phones, Laptops, Accessories

→ Helps users focus only on the relevant set.

• Use of Filters:
Instead of showing 500 products, users can filter by price, brand, rating, etc.
→ Limits visible options, improving decision-making.

b) List the eight Golden rules of interface. Explain any 2 in details. [5]rep

Q4) c) How does User’s Knowledge and Experience help in Human Considerations in the Design of
Business Systems? [5 Marks]

Introduction:

When designing Business Systems, understanding the user’s knowledge and experience is crucial.
These human factors influence how efficiently users can learn, use, and adapt to the system. If the
design aligns with user familiarity, it reduces errors and improves productivity.

How User’s Knowledge Helps in Design:

1. Promotes Familiarity in Interface:

o If users already understand basic operations (e.g., copy-paste, drag-drop), the

interface can build upon these concepts.
 o Example: Using familiar symbols like for delete, for folders in business
software.

2. Improves Learning Curve:

o Experienced users can learn new features quickly if the design leverages their
existing mental models.

o Example: Employees familiar with Excel will learn spreadsheet-based systems faster.

3. Supports Efficient Navigation:

o Knowledgeable users prefer shortcuts, command bars, and batch operations.

o The system can include advanced modes for experienced users.

4. Minimizes Errors:

o Designs aligned with user expertise help prevent common mistakes.

o Example: Disabling irrelevant options for certain user roles (like junior staff) based on
expected knowledge.

5. Encourages User Confidence:

o Users feel more comfortable and confident when the system respects their prior
experience.

o This leads to greater system acceptance and fewer training requirements.

How User’s Experience Helps in Design:

1. Design Tailored to Skill Level:

o Systems should differentiate between novice, intermediate, and expert users.

o Novices need guidance (tooltips, wizards), while experts need speed (keyboard
shortcuts, macros).

2. Helps in Workflow Optimization:

o Experienced users provide input about real-world task flows.

o Designers can use this feedback to make the system more realistic and efficient.

3. Improves Error Handling:

o Experienced users are often better at identifying and handling system problems.

o Systems can include custom alerts or advanced diagnostic features for them.

4. Customizability:

o Users with experience expect systems to allow custom layouts, saved preferences,
or macros.

o Helps increase efficiency in repetitive business tasks.

5. Supports Training and Onboarding:

 o Experienced users can train new users, if the system supports standard procedures
and knowledge-sharing tools.

Real-Life Example:

In a Banking Business System:

• Senior tellers may prefer keyboard shortcuts to complete transactions quickly.

• Newer employees benefit from guided forms and step-by-step dialogs.

• The system must support both levels of expertise without overwhelming either.

Q4) a) Explain the Information Processing and Memory as Human Characteristics in Design. [5
Marks]

Human capabilities like information processing and memory play a vital role in Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI). Designers must understand how users perceive, process, and store information in
order to create effective, user-friendly systems.

1. Information Processing

Information processing refers to the mental activities users perform when interacting with a system,
such as perceiving, interpreting, deciding, and responding.

Key Points:

• Input → Processing → Output

Just like a computer, a human user receives input (visual, auditory), processes it (thinking),
and generates an output (action).

• Stages in Human Information Processing:

1. Perception – Receiving signals (visual, auditory, touch)

2. Cognition – Understanding, reasoning, and decision-making

3. Action – Executing a response (like clicking a button)

Design Implications:

• Present information clearly and in logical order

• Avoid overwhelming users with too much data at once

• Use visuals, audio cues, and feedback to aid understanding

• Ensure sufficient time for decision-making (e.g., confirm dialogs)

Example:

An ATM gives step-by-step guidance with visual prompts and clear buttons so users can process each
step before proceeding.

2. Memory
Memory refers to the user’s ability to store and recall information, which is essential for learning
and using a system effectively.

Types of Human Memory:

Memory Type Description Design Example

Retains info from senses for a very short Flashing notifications catch
Sensory Memory
time (~1 sec) attention

Short-Term Memory Holds 5–9 chunks for a few seconds Menu items should be grouped
(STM) (Miller’s Law) logically

Long-Term Memory Stores facts, skills, and experiences Consistent layout helps
(LTM) permanently memorization

Design Implications:

• Do not force users to remember complex steps

• Use recognition over recall (e.g., drop-down menus)

• Apply icons and labels to support memorability

• Provide help and tooltips to assist STM

Example:

In Gmail, icons like a trash bin or paperclip are visual cues that help users recognize actions without
recalling their function every time.

Q4) b) Describe with an example, the response of poor design from users. [5 Marks]

A poor interface design can negatively affect user experience, leading to confusion, errors,
dissatisfaction, and even task failure. When users interact with poorly designed systems, their
natural responses reflect frustration and inefficiency.

User Responses to Poor Design:

1. Frustration and Irritation

• Users feel annoyed when the interface is cluttered, confusing, or slow.

• They may leave the system or abandon the task entirely.

2. Frequent Errors

• Poor layout or ambiguous buttons cause users to make mistakes.

• Lack of error prevention or poor feedback increases error rate.

3. Increased Cognitive Load

• Too much information or too many choices overload the user’s memory.

• The user has to remember too much instead of recognizing patterns.

4. Decreased Productivity

• Tasks take longer to complete due to inefficient design.

• Users struggle to find features or understand functionality.

5. Loss of Trust

• Repeated failure or confusion makes users lose trust in the system.

• They may avoid using the system in the future.

Example:

Example: A poorly designed ticket booking website

Problem:

• Complex navigation, with too many nested menus.

• Unclear labels like “Proceed” instead of “Book Ticket”.

• No confirmation after booking.

• Colors used are inconsistent (e.g., red for confirmation instead of green).

• Small font and unresponsive layout on mobile.

User Response:

• User feels confused at each step and uncertain if the booking was successful.

• May double book due to lack of confirmation.

• Becomes frustrated and avoids using the website in the future.

• May switch to a competitor with a better UI.

Here is a complete, exam-focused answer based on the content you shared, written in a way
suitable for 5 marks (SPPU HCI exam):

Q4 c) Explain the stages of “Human Action Cycle”. [5 Marks]

The Human Action Cycle, also known as Norman's Seven Stages of Action, is a conceptual model
that describes the cognitive steps users go through when interacting with a system.

This model is divided into two main phases and seven stages, helping designers understand user
goals, actions, and feedback processing.

1. Execution Phase (User performs actions to achieve the goal):

• Stage 1: Forming the Goal

• The user decides what they want to do.

 • Example: A user wants to send an email to a colleague.

• Stage 2: Forming the Intention

• The user translates the goal into a specific intention or plan of action.

• Example: User plans to open their email app and write the message.

• Stage 3: Specifying the Action Sequence

• The user identifies the steps required to carry out their intention.

• Example: Click on app → Click “Compose” → Enter email → Type message → Click “Send”.

• Stage 4: Executing the Action

• The user physically performs the planned steps.

• Example: The user actually opens the app, writes, and sends the email.

2. Evaluation Phase (User assesses the outcome):

• Stage 5: Perceiving the System State

• The user observes how the system responded.

• Example: A message pops up saying, "Email Sent".

• Stage 6: Interpreting the System State

• The user understands the meaning of the feedback.

• Example: The "Email Sent" message means the task was successful.

• Stage 7: Evaluating the Outcome

• The user checks if the result matches the original goal.

• Example: Confirms that the message reached the colleague.

Diagram Representation (Exam-suitable):

 Importance in HCI Design:

• Helps in identifying gaps between user actions and system responses.

• Encourages clear system feedback.

• Supports better error handling and goal achievement.

Q1 a) Explain HCI principles in detail. [5 Marks]

HCI (Human-Computer Interaction) principles are standard design rules that help developers create
interfaces that are user-friendly, efficient, and adapted to human needs. These principles ensure
that users can interact smoothly with a system with minimum confusion, error, and effort.

1. Consistency

• Meaning: The interface should behave the same in similar situations.

• Why Important: If the user learns one part of the system, they can apply the same
knowledge in other parts. It reduces learning time and increases confidence.

• Types of Consistency:

o Internal consistency: Same font, color, layout within the application.

o External consistency: Interface follows common standards across software (e.g.,

Ctrl+C always means Copy).

• Example: If the “Save” icon is always a floppy disk, don’t change it elsewhere to something
else.

2. Feedback

• Meaning: The system should tell the user what is happening.

• Why Important: Keeps the user informed and reduces anxiety or confusion.

• Types of Feedback:

o Immediate feedback (button highlights when clicked)

o Delayed feedback (loading bar when file is uploading)

• Example: After submitting a form, a “Thank you” message or “Submission successful” must
appear.

3. Visibility

• Meaning: All necessary options and tools must be visible without the user having to
remember commands.

• Why Important: Reduces memory load and helps users understand available actions.

• Example: Instead of hiding navigation links in a drop-down, show main links directly on the
page.
 4. Affordance

• Meaning: Design should make it clear what an element can do.

• Why Important: Users recognize how to interact without instructions.

• Example: A button should look like it can be pressed (raised or shadowed), while links should
be underlined.

5. Error Prevention and Recovery

• Meaning: Prevent mistakes, and if they occur, help users recover easily.

• Why Important: No system is error-proof, so support should be built-in.

• Features:

o Validation: Preventing invalid data entry.

o Undo/redo options: Allowing easy correction.

• Example: “Are you sure you want to delete?” prompt before deleting a file permanently.

6. Flexibility and Efficiency of Use

• Meaning: Design should support both beginner and expert users.

• Why Important: Novices need help; experts want shortcuts.

• Features:

o Menus and toolbars for beginners.

o Keyboard shortcuts and macros for experts.

• Example: Gmail allows both button-click and keyboard shortcut “R” to reply to an email.

7. User Control and Freedom

• Meaning: Users should be able to start, stop, undo, or redo actions.

• Why Important: Gives confidence and avoids user frustration.

• Example: Providing a “Back” or “Cancel” button during form filling.

8. Match Between System and Real World

• Meaning: Use familiar language, visuals, and actions the user already knows from real life.

• Why Important: Makes the system intuitive.

• Example:

o A trash can icon to delete files.

o Using “Print” as a word instead of “Output Document.”

b) What is ergonomics in HCI. [5] rep

Q1 c) Differentiate between Mistake and Slip with examples. [5 Marks]

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), errors are classified into two main types: Mistakes and Slips.
Both are user errors, but they differ in their cause and nature.

1. Definition

Point Mistake Slip

A mistake is a wrong decision or incorrect A slip is a correct plan but wrong execution
Meaning
plan made by the user. during interaction.

Occurs due to wrong goals or Occurs due to inattention or mechanical

Cause
understanding. error while performing action.

Type of Cognitive error – related to thinking or Execution error – related to doing or

Error planning. performing.

2. Nature of Error

• Mistakes:

o User intends to do the task but the plan itself is wrong.

o Often result from lack of knowledge, incorrect rules, or poor design.

• Slips:

o The user knows what to do but accidentally presses the wrong key/button or
performs an unintended action.

o Usually happen due to fatigue, distractions, or rushed activity.

3. Examples

Mistake Slip

A user clicks “Shut Down” instead of “Restart” A user intends to click “Restart”, but
because they think it's the right one. accidentally clicks “Shut Down”.

A person enters PIN in wrong format (e.g., adds A person knows the correct PIN but types a
extra digits), thinking it’s correct. wrong digit by mistake.

A traveler books a flight on the wrong date thinking A traveler clicks the wrong date on the
it's a weekend. calendar while booking.

4. Prevention

• To prevent Mistakes:

o Give clear instructions, good system feedback, and help messages.

 o Use meaningful labels and real-world conventions.

• To prevent Slips:

o Use undo options, confirmation messages, and error-tolerant designs.

o Design buttons and menus with adequate spacing to avoid accidental clicks.

5. Summary Table

Criteria Mistake Slip

Caused by Wrong intention or decision Wrong action execution

Type Planning/goal error Execution/motor error

User's plan Incorrect Correct

Example Using wrong formula in Excel Typing "124" instead of "123"

Prevention Educating users, better UI design Undo, alerts, spacing, feedback

Q2) a) Differentiate between Good Design and Bad Design with example.[5]

b) Explain WIMP in detail. [5]

c) Draw and explain Human Memory Structure. [5] rep

Here's a more in-depth and detailed version of the 5-mark answer for:

Q3) a) Why Do People Have Trouble with Computers? [5 Marks]

Humans often struggle while interacting with computers due to cognitive, psychological, design-
related, and environmental reasons. These challenges arise when the system does not support the
user’s natural thinking, memory limits, expectations, or prior experiences.

1. Lack of Computer Literacy and Experience

• Many users, especially beginners or elderly people, lack the basic understanding of how
software and hardware function.

• They are unfamiliar with operating systems, navigation patterns, file handling, or even using
basic input devices.

• Impact: Users perform actions through trial and error, leading to stress, errors, or even data
loss.

• Example: A user might shut down the computer instead of logging off due to
misunderstanding icons or labels.

2. Complex or Poorly Designed User Interfaces

• Unintuitive interfaces make it hard for users to understand how to proceed.

• Common design issues include:

o No labels on icons.

o Overloaded screens with too many options.

o Inconsistent layouts across pages.

• Result: Users become confused, make mistakes, and need help to complete basic tasks.

• Example: If the “Delete” and “Save” buttons are very close, the user might accidentally
delete a file.

3. Inappropriate Error Handling

• Computers often show technical error messages like:

o “File Not Found (404)” or

o “Fatal Exception Error”.

• Such messages don’t explain:

o What went wrong.

o What the user should do next.

• Ideal Design: Error messages should be in plain language with solutions.

• Example: Instead of "Access Denied", say "You do not have permission to open this file.
Please contact the administrator."

4. Mismatch Between Mental Model and System Design

• A mental model is the user’s internal understanding of how a system should behave.

• Designers often build the system based on a technical model, ignoring how end-users think.

• Impact: Users expect one behavior but get another.

• Example: Dragging a file to the trash and then expecting it to be deleted instantly, while the
system only moves it to Recycle Bin.

5. Cognitive Overload and Memory Limits

• Humans can only process 7±2 chunks of information at once (Miller’s Law).

• If systems require:

o Too many steps,

o Remembering complex commands, or

o Switching tasks frequently,

the user becomes mentally overloaded.

• Result: Slow performance, errors, or abandonment.

 • Example: Filling a form with many mandatory fields without guidance or validation leads to
fatigue.

6. Lack of Proper Feedback from System

• When the system doesn’t show feedback (like progress bars or messages), users feel
uncertain.

• They may:

o Repeat the same action (double-clicking),

o Close applications forcefully,

o Or assume the system crashed.

• Example: Clicking “Submit” but seeing no visual change leads the user to click again, possibly
submitting duplicate data.

7. Rapid Changes and Frequent Updates

• Frequent software updates often:

o Change the layout,

o Move functions around,

o Or add unfamiliar features.

• This disrupts the user’s learned habits and causes resistance or frustration.

• Example: Users struggle to find familiar options in a new version of MS Word or a redesigned
banking app.

8. Accessibility and Usability Barriers

• Interfaces that don’t support different needs (age, disability, culture, etc.) are hard to use.

• Common issues:

o Small font sizes,

o Lack of subtitles/audio for visually or hearing-impaired users,

o Not supporting local languages.

• Example: An app with no “voice commands” may be difficult for visually impaired users.

Here’s a detailed and exam-oriented answer for:

Q3) b) Discuss Shneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules. [5 Marks]

Ben Shneiderman, a pioneer in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), proposed eight golden rules that
guide designers in creating user-friendly, efficient, and error-tolerant interfaces. These rules focus on
enhancing usability and minimizing user errors.
1. Strive for Consistency

• The system should behave in a predictable and uniform way throughout.

• Use consistent commands, colors, fonts, layouts, and terminology across all screens.

• Example: If “Ctrl + S” saves a file in one module, it should work the same in all modules.

2. Enable Frequent Users to Use Shortcuts

• Provide accelerators (shortcuts) to help expert users complete tasks faster.

• Shortcuts reduce keystrokes and navigation time.

• Example: Keyboard shortcuts like Ctrl+C for copy, Alt+Tab to switch windows.

3. Offer Informative Feedback

• The system should give clear, immediate feedback after every user action.

• For frequent or minor actions, feedback can be brief; for major actions, it should be detailed.

• Example: Showing a progress bar when uploading files.

4. Design Dialogs to Yield Closure

• Organize sequences of actions into clear beginning, middle, and end.

• Provide feedback at the end of a task to indicate successful completion.

• Example: After submitting a form, show a "Thank You" or "Form Submitted" message.

5. Offer Simple Error Handling

• Design the system to prevent errors where possible.

• When errors occur, provide meaningful messages and solutions.

• Avoid technical jargon.

• Example: Instead of “404 Error,” show “Page not found. Please check the URL.”

6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions

• Users should be able to undo or redo actions to avoid fear of mistakes.

• This encourages exploration and reduces anxiety.

• Example: Undo (Ctrl + Z), “Are you sure you want to delete?” prompts.

7. Support Internal Locus of Control

• Users should feel in control of the interface, not like the system is forcing actions.

• Avoid unexpected behavior, pop-ups, or automatic actions.

 • Example: Let users choose when to save or exit, rather than forcing auto-save.

8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load

• Avoid forcing users to remember information between different screens or steps.

• Provide instructions, labels, or reminders when needed.

• Example: Show field labels and help tips on forms instead of assuming the user remembers
them.

Q3 c) Explain Advantages and Disadvantages of the Primary Interaction Styles. [5 Marks]

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), interaction styles refer to the methods by which users
communicate with computers. Each style has its strengths and limitations depending on the context
of use, user experience level, and system design.

1. Command Line Interface (CLI)

Advantages:

• Efficient for expert users (fast execution using keyboard).

• Low memory usage; no need for graphics.

• Powerful: Users can perform complex operations using scripts and chaining commands.

Disadvantages:

• Steep learning curve; requires memorizing commands.

• Not user-friendly for novices.

• High chances of errors due to incorrect syntax or spelling.

2. Menu-Based Interface

Advantages:

• Easy to learn; options are visible.

• Reduces memory load; user doesn’t need to remember commands.

• Guides user through available options.

Disadvantages:

• Limited flexibility; users can only select listed options.

• Slow for expert users.

• Can become cluttered if too many menu items are present.

3. Direct Manipulation (Graphical User Interface - GUI)

Advantages:

• Highly intuitive; uses icons, buttons, dragging.

 • Immediate feedback makes interaction satisfying.

• Suitable for touch-based and visual tasks (e.g., drawing, photo editing).

Disadvantages:

• Resource-intensive (needs good graphics).

• May lack precision for advanced tasks.

• Can be inefficient for expert users who prefer shortcuts.

4. Form Fill-In

Advantages:

• Structured; ensures data entry consistency.

• Useful for data collection tasks (e.g., registration, surveys).

• Easy to validate and control input.

Disadvantages:

• Rigid format; less flexibility.

• Can be boring or time-consuming for users.

• Difficult for users if form is too long or complex.

5. Natural Language Interface (NLI)

Advantages:

• User-friendly; allows users to speak/type in natural language.

• No need to learn commands.

• Useful in voice assistants and chatbots.

Disadvantages:

• Misinterpretation of user intent due to ambiguity.

• Requires advanced NLP technology.

• Error handling is complex and sometimes unclear.

Q4 a) Explain Norman’s Seven Principles of Design. [5 Marks]

Don Norman, a cognitive scientist, proposed Seven Principles of Design to guide user-centered
interface development. These principles aim to make systems more usable, intuitive, and error-
resistant by aligning design with how people naturally perceive and act.

1. Use both Knowledge in the World and Knowledge in the Head

• Explanation: Users rely on both internal knowledge (memory, experience) and external cues
(labels, signs).
 • Example: A “Print” icon helps users recall the action by showing a printer symbol.

• Design Tip: Use familiar symbols and clear instructions to reduce cognitive load.

2. Simplify the Structure of Tasks

• Explanation: Reduce the mental and physical effort needed to perform actions.

• Example: Auto-filling address forms saves time and prevents errors.

• Design Tip: Break complex tasks into simpler, manageable steps.

3. Make Things Visible

• Explanation: Important functions should be clearly visible and accessible to the user.

• Example: A visible “Save” button ensures users can quickly locate and use it.

• Design Tip: Avoid hidden menus for critical features.

4. Get the Mapping Right

• Explanation: The relationship between control and result should be logical.

• Example: Turning a steering wheel left moves the car left — intuitive mapping.

• Design Tip: Layout buttons in a way that matches their function, like volume buttons
up/down.

5. Exploit the Power of Constraints

• Explanation: Design should limit wrong actions using physical, semantic, or logical
constraints.

• Example: USB plugs only fit one way—this reduces error.

• Design Tip: Prevent users from selecting invalid options by graying them out.

6. Design for Error

• Explanation: Since humans make mistakes, design should anticipate and guide recovery.

• Example: "Undo" option in MS Word helps recover from typing errors.

• Design Tip: Provide confirmations, error messages, and recovery options.

7. When All Else Fails, Standardize

• Explanation: If a better design is not possible, use common standards to maintain

consistency.

• Example: Blue underlined text means hyperlinks on all websites.

• Design Tip: Follow platform conventions (e.g., Android, iOS standards).

b) Explain different human considerations in design of business systems. [5]

c) Explain Millers Law. [5] rep