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diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
index 44f9d3190f7..502204b70bc 100644
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -54,17 +54,20 @@ rustyline = { workspace = true }
 [dev-dependencies]
 criterion = { workspace = true }
 pyo3 = { version = "0.27", features = ["auto-initialize"] }
+pvm-alto = { path = "crates/pvm-alto" }
+pvm-host = { path = "crates/pvm-host" }
+pvm-runtime = { path = "crates/pvm-runtime" }
 
-[[bench]]
-name = "execution"
-harness = false
+# [[bench]]
+# name = "execution"
+# harness = false
 
-[[bench]]
-name = "microbenchmarks"
-harness = false
+# [[bench]]
+# name = "microbenchmarks"
+# harness = false
 
 [[bin]]
-name = "rustpython"
+name = "pvm"
 path = "src/main.rs"
 
 [profile.dev.package."*"]
@@ -119,6 +122,10 @@ template = "installer-config/installer.nsi"
 [package.metadata.packager.wix]
 template = "installer-config/installer.wxs"
 
+# PVM Current Version 
+[package.metadata.pvm]
+version = "0.1.3"
+
 
 [workspace]
 resolver = "2"
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/__init__.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/__init__.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ef5b7f04168
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/__init__.py
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+from . import pvm_random
+from . import pvm_sys
+from . import pvm_time
+from . import runtime
+from . import continuation
+from . import runner
+from . import actor
+from . import verify
+from . import types
+
+capture = continuation.capture
+
+__all__ = [
+    "pvm_random",
+    "pvm_sys",
+    "pvm_time",
+    "runtime",
+    "continuation",
+    "runner",
+    "actor",
+    "verify",
+    "types",
+    "capture",
+]
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/actor.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/actor.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9f43c069a98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/actor.py
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+from . import runtime
+
+
+def continuation(*_args, **_kwargs):
+    def decorator(func):
+        return func
+    return decorator
+
+
+class ActorRef:
+    def __init__(self, address):
+        self.address = address
+
+    def async_call(self, method, *args, **kwargs):
+        if runtime.mode() != "checkpoint":
+            raise RuntimeError("actor async is only supported in checkpoint mode without FSM")
+        return _ActorAwaitable(self.address, method, *args, **kwargs)
+
+
+class _ActorAwaitable:
+    def __init__(self, address, method, *args, **kwargs):
+        self.address = address
+        self.method = method
+        self.args = args
+        self.kwargs = kwargs
+
+    def __await__(self):
+        raise RuntimeError("actor await not implemented")
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/continuation.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/continuation.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..1d04f60b8ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/continuation.py
@@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
+import hashlib
+import json
+
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def _encode_value(value):
+    if isinstance(value, bytes):
+        return {"__bytes__": value.hex()}
+    if isinstance(value, bytearray):
+        return {"__bytes__": bytes(value).hex()}
+    if isinstance(value, dict):
+        return {str(k): _encode_value(v) for k, v in value.items()}
+    if isinstance(value, list):
+        return [_encode_value(v) for v in value]
+    if value is None or isinstance(value, (bool, int, str)):
+        return value
+    raise TypeError("unsupported capture value type")
+
+
+def _decode_value(value):
+    if isinstance(value, dict) and "__bytes__" in value:
+        return bytes.fromhex(value["__bytes__"])
+    if isinstance(value, dict):
+        return {k: _decode_value(v) for k, v in value.items()}
+    if isinstance(value, list):
+        return [_decode_value(v) for v in value]
+    return value
+
+
+def _encode_json(value):
+    try:
+        return json.dumps(
+            value,
+            sort_keys=True,
+            separators=(",", ":"),
+            ensure_ascii=True,
+        ).encode("ascii")
+    except AttributeError as exc:
+        if "check_circular" not in str(exc):
+            raise
+        try:
+            import importlib
+            import json as _json
+            importlib.reload(_json)
+            return _json.dumps(
+                value,
+                sort_keys=True,
+                separators=(",", ":"),
+                ensure_ascii=True,
+            ).encode("ascii")
+        except Exception:
+            raise exc
+
+
+def _decode_json(data):
+    try:
+        return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+    except TypeError as exc:
+        if "Pattern" not in str(exc):
+            raise
+        try:
+            import importlib
+            import re as _re
+            import json as _json
+            importlib.reload(_re)
+            importlib.reload(_json)
+            return _json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+        except Exception:
+            raise exc
+
+
+class Capture:
+    def __init__(self):
+        object.__setattr__(self, "_data", {})
+
+    def __getattr__(self, name):
+        data = object.__getattribute__(self, "_data")
+        if name in data:
+            return data[name]
+        raise AttributeError(name)
+
+    def __setattr__(self, name, value):
+        data = object.__getattribute__(self, "_data")
+        data[name] = value
+
+    def to_dict(self):
+        return dict(self._data)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_dict(cls, value):
+        inst = cls()
+        for k, v in value.items():
+            inst._data[k] = v
+        return inst
+
+
+def capture():
+    return Capture()
+
+
+def new_cid(self_obj, name):
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    seed = b""
+    tx_hash = ctx.get("tx_hash")
+    if isinstance(tx_hash, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        seed += bytes(tx_hash)
+    sender = ctx.get("sender")
+    if isinstance(sender, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        seed += bytes(sender)
+    seed += str(name).encode("utf-8")
+    return hashlib.sha256(seed).digest()
+
+
+def _cont_key(cid):
+    return b"__continuation:" + cid
+
+
+def save_cont(cid, state, ctx, handler, timeout_blocks=0, guard_unchanged=None):
+    if isinstance(ctx, Capture):
+        ctx_dict = ctx.to_dict()
+    else:
+        ctx_dict = dict(ctx)
+    guard_value = guard_unchanged
+    if isinstance(guard_value, Capture):
+        guard_value = guard_value.to_dict()
+    payload = {
+        "state": int(state),
+        "ctx": _encode_value(ctx_dict),
+        "handler": str(handler),
+        "timeout_blocks": int(timeout_blocks),
+        "guard_unchanged": _encode_value(guard_value),
+    }
+    pvm_host.set_state(_cont_key(cid), _encode_json(payload))
+
+
+def load_cont(cid):
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(_cont_key(cid))
+    if raw is None:
+        raise RuntimeError("continuation state missing")
+    data = _decode_json(raw)
+    ctx = _decode_value(data.get("ctx") or {})
+    data["ctx"] = Capture.from_dict(ctx)
+    if "guard_unchanged" in data:
+        data["guard_unchanged"] = _decode_value(data["guard_unchanged"])
+    return data
+
+
+def delete_cont(cid):
+    pvm_host.delete_state(_cont_key(cid))
+
+
+def encode_payload(value):
+    return _encode_json(_encode_value(value))
+
+
+def decode_payload(data):
+    return _decode_value(_decode_json(data))
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_random.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_random.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b8cbde1e509
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_random.py
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+_seed_prefix = b"N"
+_counter = 0
+_buffer = b""
+_buffer_pos = 0
+
+
+def _next_block():
+    global _counter
+    domain = b"random" + _seed_prefix + _counter.to_bytes(8, "little")
+    _counter += 1
+    return pvm_host.randomness(domain)
+
+
+def _reset_state():
+    global _counter, _buffer, _buffer_pos
+    _counter = 0
+    _buffer = b""
+    _buffer_pos = 0
+
+
+def _coerce_seed(a):
+    if a is None:
+        return b"N"
+    if isinstance(a, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        return b"B" + bytes(a)
+    if isinstance(a, str):
+        return b"S" + a.encode("utf-8")
+    if isinstance(a, int):
+        if a == 0:
+            data = b"\x00"
+        else:
+            bits = a.bit_length()
+            if a < 0:
+                bits += 1
+            data = a.to_bytes((bits + 7) // 8, "big", signed=True)
+        return b"I" + data
+    raise TypeError("seed must be int, bytes, bytearray, str, or None")
+
+
+def seed(a=None, version=2):
+    global _seed_prefix
+    _seed_prefix = _coerce_seed(a)
+    _reset_state()
+
+
+def getstate():
+    return (1, _seed_prefix, _counter, _buffer, _buffer_pos)
+
+
+def setstate(state):
+    if not isinstance(state, tuple) or len(state) != 5:
+        raise ValueError("state must be a 5-item tuple from getstate()")
+    version, seed_prefix, counter, buffer_data, buffer_pos = state
+    if version != 1:
+        raise ValueError("unsupported state version")
+    if isinstance(seed_prefix, bytearray):
+        seed_prefix = bytes(seed_prefix)
+    if not isinstance(seed_prefix, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        raise TypeError("seed_prefix must be bytes")
+    if not isinstance(counter, int):
+        raise TypeError("counter must be int")
+    if isinstance(buffer_data, bytearray):
+        buffer_data = bytes(buffer_data)
+    if not isinstance(buffer_data, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        raise TypeError("buffer must be bytes")
+    if not isinstance(buffer_pos, int):
+        raise TypeError("buffer_pos must be int")
+    if buffer_pos < 0 or buffer_pos > len(buffer_data):
+        raise ValueError("buffer_pos out of range")
+    global _seed_prefix, _counter, _buffer, _buffer_pos
+    _seed_prefix = bytes(seed_prefix)
+    _counter = counter
+    _buffer = bytes(buffer_data)
+    _buffer_pos = buffer_pos
+
+
+def _compact_buffer():
+    global _buffer, _buffer_pos
+    if _buffer_pos <= 0:
+        return
+    if _buffer_pos >= len(_buffer):
+        _buffer = b""
+        _buffer_pos = 0
+        return
+    _buffer = _buffer[_buffer_pos :]
+    _buffer_pos = 0
+
+
+def _fill(n):
+    global _buffer, _buffer_pos
+    if _buffer_pos > 0:
+        _compact_buffer()
+    needed = n - (len(_buffer) - _buffer_pos)
+    while needed > 0:
+        _buffer += _next_block()
+        needed = n - (len(_buffer) - _buffer_pos)
+
+
+def _randbytes(n):
+    global _buffer_pos
+    if n <= 0:
+        return b""
+    _fill(n)
+    start = _buffer_pos
+    end = start + n
+    _buffer_pos = end
+    return _buffer[start:end]
+
+
+def _randbelow(n):
+    if n <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("n must be > 0")
+    k = n.bit_length()
+    while True:
+        r = getrandbits(k)
+        if r < n:
+            return r
+
+
+def getrandbits(k):
+    if k < 0:
+        raise ValueError("number of bits must be non-negative")
+    if k == 0:
+        return 0
+    nbytes = (k + 7) // 8
+    value = int.from_bytes(_randbytes(nbytes), "big")
+    return value >> (nbytes * 8 - k)
+
+
+def random():
+    return getrandbits(53) / (1 << 53)
+
+
+def randbytes(n):
+    return _randbytes(n)
+
+
+def randint(a, b):
+    if a > b:
+        raise ValueError("empty range for randint()")
+    return randrange(a, b + 1, 1)
+
+
+def randrange(start, stop=None, step=1):
+    if stop is None:
+        if start > 0:
+            return _randbelow(start)
+        raise ValueError("empty range for randrange()")
+    if step == 0:
+        raise ValueError("step must not be zero")
+    width = stop - start
+    if step == 1:
+        if width > 0:
+            return start + _randbelow(width)
+        raise ValueError("empty range for randrange()")
+    if step > 0:
+        n = (width + step - 1) // step
+    else:
+        n = (width + step + 1) // step
+    if n <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("empty range for randrange()")
+    return start + step * _randbelow(n)
+
+
+def choice(seq):
+    if not seq:
+        raise IndexError("cannot choose from an empty sequence")
+    return seq[_randbelow(len(seq))]
+
+
+def shuffle(x):
+    for i in range(len(x) - 1, 0, -1):
+        j = _randbelow(i + 1)
+        x[i], x[j] = x[j], x[i]
+
+
+def uniform(a, b):
+    return a + (b - a) * random()
+
+
+def sample(population, k):
+    if k < 0:
+        raise ValueError("sample size must be non-negative")
+    pool = list(population)
+    n = len(pool)
+    if k > n:
+        raise ValueError("sample larger than population")
+    result = []
+    for i in range(k):
+        j = _randbelow(n - i)
+        result.append(pool[j])
+        pool[j] = pool[n - i - 1]
+    return result
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_sys.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_sys.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d63c7e8b01d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_sys.py
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+_ctx = pvm_host.context()
+
+chain_id = _ctx.get("chain_id")
+pvm_version = _ctx.get("pvm_version")
+stdlib_hash = _ctx.get("stdlib_hash")
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_time.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_time.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5b2a9585a12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/pvm_time.py
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def time():
+    return pvm_host.context()["timestamp_ms"] / 1000.0
+
+
+def time_ns():
+    return pvm_host.context()["timestamp_ms"] * 1_000_000
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/runner.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/runner.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b189faeea4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/runner.py
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+import pvm_host
+from . import continuation as _continuation
+from . import runtime
+
+try:
+    import rustpython_checkpoint as _checkpoint
+except Exception:
+    _checkpoint = None
+
+
+RUNNER_ADDRESS = b"__runner__"
+
+
+def continuation(*_args, **_kwargs):
+    def decorator(func):
+        return func
+    return decorator
+
+
+def _send_job(job_type, cid, reply_handler, *args, **kwargs):
+    payload = {
+        "kind": "runner_job",
+        "job_type": job_type,
+        "payload": {
+            "args": list(args),
+            "kwargs": kwargs,
+        },
+        "cid": cid,
+        "reply_handler": reply_handler,
+    }
+    pvm_host.send_message(RUNNER_ADDRESS, _continuation.encode_payload(payload))
+
+
+def _result_key(cid):
+    return b"__runner_result:" + cid
+
+
+def _try_get_result(cid):
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(_result_key(cid))
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    pvm_host.delete_state(_result_key(cid))
+    return _continuation.decode_payload(raw)
+
+
+class _RunnerAwaitable:
+    def __init__(self, job_type, *args, **kwargs):
+        self.job_type = job_type
+        self.args = args
+        self.kwargs = kwargs
+        self.cid = _continuation.new_cid(None, job_type)
+
+    def __await__(self):
+        if runtime.mode() != "checkpoint":
+            raise RuntimeError("runner await is only supported in checkpoint mode without FSM")
+        if False:
+            yield None
+        try_get_result = _try_get_result
+        send_job = _send_job
+        checkpoint = _checkpoint
+        while True:
+            result = try_get_result(self.cid)
+            if result is not None:
+                return result
+            send_job(self.job_type, self.cid, "", *self.args, **self.kwargs)
+            if checkpoint is None:
+                raise RuntimeError("checkpoint support missing")
+            checkpoint.checkpoint_bytes()
+
+
+def _request_checkpoint():
+    if _checkpoint is None:
+        raise RuntimeError("checkpoint support missing")
+    _checkpoint.checkpoint_bytes()
+
+
+def llm(*args, **kwargs):
+    return _RunnerAwaitable("llm", *args, **kwargs)
+
+
+def http(*args, **kwargs):
+    return _RunnerAwaitable("http", *args, **kwargs)
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/runtime.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/runtime.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..64fa425481a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/runtime.py
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def mode():
+    cfg = pvm_host.runtime_config()
+    return cfg.get("continuation_mode", "fsm")
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/types.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/types.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a4224b18350
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/types.py
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+class SoftFloat(str):
+    def __new__(cls, value):
+        return str.__new__(cls, str(value))
diff --git a/Lib/pvm_sdk/verify.py b/Lib/pvm_sdk/verify.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..784191c2c0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Lib/pvm_sdk/verify.py
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+class VerifyBuilder:
+    def __init__(self):
+        self._data = {
+            "mode": "none",
+            "runners": 1,
+            "threshold": 1,
+            "checks": [],
+        }
+
+    def mode(self, value):
+        self._data["mode"] = value
+        return self
+
+    def runners(self, value):
+        self._data["runners"] = int(value)
+        return self
+
+    def threshold(self, value):
+        self._data["threshold"] = int(value)
+        return self
+
+    def check(self, value):
+        self._data["checks"].append(value)
+        return self
+
+    def build(self):
+        return dict(self._data)
+
+
+class Verify:
+    @staticmethod
+    def builder():
+        return VerifyBuilder()
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def json_schema_valid(schema):
+        return {"kind": "json_schema_valid", "schema": schema}
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def structured_match(fields):
+        return {"kind": "structured_match", "fields": list(fields)}
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def majority_vote(field):
+        return {"kind": "majority_vote", "field": field}
diff --git a/crates/codegen/Cargo.toml b/crates/codegen/Cargo.toml
index ce7e8d74f59..52796994e20 100644
--- a/crates/codegen/Cargo.toml
+++ b/crates/codegen/Cargo.toml
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ rustpython-compiler-core = { workspace = true }
 rustpython-literal = {workspace = true }
 rustpython-wtf8 = { workspace = true }
 ruff_python_ast = { workspace = true }
+ruff_python_parser = { workspace = true }
 ruff_text_size = { workspace = true }
 
 ahash = { workspace = true }
@@ -28,7 +29,6 @@ memchr = { workspace = true }
 unicode_names2 = { workspace = true }
 
 [dev-dependencies]
-ruff_python_parser = { workspace = true }
 insta = { workspace = true }
 
 [lints]
diff --git a/crates/codegen/src/compile.rs b/crates/codegen/src/compile.rs
index 7909e924251..33ee754c2ab 100644
--- a/crates/codegen/src/compile.rs
+++ b/crates/codegen/src/compile.rs
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ use crate::{
     IndexMap, IndexSet, ToPythonName,
     error::{CodegenError, CodegenErrorType, InternalError, PatternUnreachableReason},
     ir::{self, BlockIdx},
+    pvm_fsm,
     symboltable::{self, CompilerScope, SymbolFlags, SymbolScope, SymbolTable},
     unparse::UnparseExpr,
 };
@@ -119,6 +120,8 @@ pub struct CompileOpts {
     /// How optimized the bytecode output should be; any optimize > 0 does
     /// not emit assert statements
     pub optimize: u8,
+    /// Enable PVM FSM continuation transform
+    pub pvm_fsm: bool,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
@@ -170,6 +173,15 @@ pub fn compile_top(
     mode: Mode,
     opts: CompileOpts,
 ) -> CompileResult<CodeObject> {
+    let ast = if opts.pvm_fsm {
+        pvm_fsm::transform_mod(ast, &source_file).map_err(|err| CodegenError {
+            location: None,
+            error: err,
+            source_path: source_file.name().to_owned(),
+        })?
+    } else {
+        ast
+    };
     match ast {
         ruff_python_ast::Mod::Module(module) => match mode {
             Mode::Exec | Mode::Eval => compile_program(&module, source_file, opts),
diff --git a/crates/codegen/src/lib.rs b/crates/codegen/src/lib.rs
index 291b57d7f67..2eb17cc4427 100644
--- a/crates/codegen/src/lib.rs
+++ b/crates/codegen/src/lib.rs
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ type IndexSet<T> = indexmap::IndexSet<T, ahash::RandomState>;
 pub mod compile;
 pub mod error;
 pub mod ir;
+mod pvm_fsm;
 mod string_parser;
 pub mod symboltable;
 mod unparse;
diff --git a/crates/codegen/src/pvm_fsm.rs b/crates/codegen/src/pvm_fsm.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6a9fdc354b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/codegen/src/pvm_fsm.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,503 @@
+use ruff_python_ast::{
+    Arguments, Decorator, Expr, ExprAttribute, ExprCall, ExprName, Mod, Parameters, Stmt,
+    StmtAssign, StmtExpr, StmtFunctionDef, visitor::{Visitor, walk_expr, walk_stmt},
+};
+use ruff_python_parser::parse_module;
+use rustpython_compiler_core::SourceFile;
+
+use crate::error::CodegenErrorType;
+use crate::unparse::UnparseExpr;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct ContinuationMeta {
+    decorator_kind: DecoratorKind,
+    timeout_expr: String,
+    guard_expr: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum DecoratorKind {
+    Runner,
+    Actor,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct AwaitStep {
+    target_attr: String,
+    job_type: String,
+    args: String,
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn transform_mod(ast: Mod, source_file: &SourceFile) -> Result<Mod, CodegenErrorType> {
+    match ast {
+        Mod::Module(mut module) => {
+            let mut new_body = Vec::new();
+            for stmt in module.body {
+                new_body.extend(transform_stmt(stmt, source_file)?);
+            }
+            module.body = new_body;
+            Ok(Mod::Module(module))
+        }
+        other => Ok(other),
+    }
+}
+
+fn transform_stmt(stmt: Stmt, source_file: &SourceFile) -> Result<Vec<Stmt>, CodegenErrorType> {
+    match stmt {
+        Stmt::ClassDef(mut class_def) => {
+            let mut new_body = Vec::with_capacity(class_def.body.len());
+            for inner in class_def.body.into_iter() {
+                new_body.extend(transform_stmt(inner, source_file)?);
+            }
+            class_def.body = new_body;
+            Ok(vec![Stmt::ClassDef(class_def)])
+        }
+        Stmt::FunctionDef(func_def) => transform_function(func_def, source_file),
+        other => Ok(vec![other]),
+    }
+}
+
+fn transform_function(
+    func_def: StmtFunctionDef,
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<Vec<Stmt>, CodegenErrorType> {
+    if !func_def.is_async {
+        return Ok(vec![Stmt::FunctionDef(func_def)]);
+    }
+
+    let meta = continuation_meta(&func_def.decorator_list, source_file)?;
+    if meta.is_none() {
+        if contains_await(&Stmt::FunctionDef(func_def.clone())) {
+            return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                "await is only allowed inside @runner.continuation/@actor.continuation".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+        return Ok(vec![Stmt::FunctionDef(func_def)]);
+    }
+    let meta = meta.unwrap();
+
+    if func_def.decorator_list.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation functions must not use extra decorators".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let (self_name, msg_name, params_str) = extract_params(&func_def.parameters)?;
+    let (ctx_name, steps, return_expr) = parse_body(&func_def.body, source_file)?;
+
+    if steps.is_empty() {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation function must contain at least one await".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let new_stmts = build_fsm_functions(
+        func_def.name.as_str(),
+        &params_str,
+        self_name,
+        msg_name,
+        &ctx_name,
+        &steps,
+        &return_expr,
+        &meta,
+    )?;
+
+    Ok(new_stmts)
+}
+
+fn continuation_meta(
+    decorators: &[Decorator],
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<Option<ContinuationMeta>, CodegenErrorType> {
+    if decorators.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let mut found = None;
+    for deco in decorators {
+        if let Some((kind, timeout_expr, guard_expr)) = parse_decorator(&deco.expression, source_file)? {
+            if found.is_some() {
+                return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                    "multiple continuation decorators are not allowed".to_owned(),
+                ));
+            }
+            found = Some(ContinuationMeta {
+                decorator_kind: kind,
+                timeout_expr,
+                guard_expr,
+            });
+        } else {
+            return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                "continuation functions must only use @runner.continuation/@actor.continuation"
+                    .to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(found)
+}
+
+fn parse_decorator(
+    expr: &Expr,
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<Option<(DecoratorKind, String, String)>, CodegenErrorType> {
+    let (kind, call) = match expr {
+        Expr::Attribute(attr) => {
+            if attr.attr.as_str() != "continuation" {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let kind = decorator_base_kind(&attr.value)?;
+            let timeout_expr = "0".to_owned();
+            let guard_expr = "None".to_owned();
+            return Ok(Some((kind, timeout_expr, guard_expr)));
+        }
+        Expr::Call(call) => {
+            let Expr::Attribute(attr) = call.func.as_ref() else {
+                return Ok(None);
+            };
+            if attr.attr.as_str() != "continuation" {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let kind = decorator_base_kind(&attr.value)?;
+            (kind, call)
+        }
+        _ => return Ok(None),
+    };
+
+    let mut timeout_expr = "0".to_owned();
+    let mut guard_expr = "None".to_owned();
+    for kw in &call.arguments.keywords {
+        let Some(name) = &kw.arg else {
+            return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                "continuation decorator does not allow **kwargs".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        };
+        let value = UnparseExpr::new(&kw.value, source_file).to_string();
+        match name.as_str() {
+            "timeout_blocks" => timeout_expr = value,
+            "guard_unchanged" => guard_expr = value,
+            _ => {
+                return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(format!(
+                    "unsupported continuation decorator argument: {}",
+                    name.as_str()
+                )))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(Some((kind, timeout_expr, guard_expr)))
+}
+
+fn decorator_base_kind(expr: &Expr) -> Result<DecoratorKind, CodegenErrorType> {
+    match expr {
+        Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) if id.as_str() == "runner" => Ok(DecoratorKind::Runner),
+        Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) if id.as_str() == "actor" => Ok(DecoratorKind::Actor),
+        _ => Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation decorator must be runner.continuation or actor.continuation".to_owned(),
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn extract_params(
+    params: &Parameters,
+) -> Result<(&str, &str, String), CodegenErrorType> {
+    let has_default = params
+        .posonlyargs
+        .iter()
+        .chain(&params.args)
+        .chain(&params.kwonlyargs)
+        .any(|param| param.default.is_some());
+    if !params.posonlyargs.is_empty()
+        || !params.kwonlyargs.is_empty()
+        || params.vararg.is_some()
+        || params.kwarg.is_some()
+        || has_default
+    {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation functions must use simple (self, msg) parameters".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    if params.args.len() != 2 {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation functions must use exactly (self, msg) parameters".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let self_name = params.args[0].name().as_str();
+    let msg_name = params.args[1].name().as_str();
+    Ok((self_name, msg_name, format!("{}, {}", self_name, msg_name)))
+}
+
+fn parse_body(
+    body: &[Stmt],
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<(String, Vec<AwaitStep>, String), CodegenErrorType> {
+    if body.is_empty() {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "continuation function body is empty".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+
+    let (ctx_name, start) = parse_capture(body)?;
+    let mut steps = Vec::new();
+    let mut return_expr = "None".to_owned();
+
+    for stmt in &body[start..] {
+        match stmt {
+            Stmt::Assign(assign) => {
+                let step = parse_await_assign(assign, &ctx_name, source_file)?;
+                steps.push(step);
+            }
+            Stmt::Return(ret) => {
+                return_expr = match &ret.value {
+                    Some(expr) => UnparseExpr::new(expr, source_file).to_string(),
+                    None => "None".to_owned(),
+                };
+            }
+            _ => {
+                return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                    "only ctx.<name> = await runner.* and return are supported".to_owned(),
+                ))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok((ctx_name, steps, return_expr))
+}
+
+fn parse_capture(body: &[Stmt]) -> Result<(String, usize), CodegenErrorType> {
+    let mut start = 0;
+    if let Some(Stmt::Expr(StmtExpr { value, .. })) = body.first() {
+        if matches!(value.as_ref(), Expr::StringLiteral(_)) {
+            start = 1;
+        }
+    }
+    let first = body
+        .get(start)
+        .ok_or_else(|| CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError("empty body".to_owned()))?;
+    let Stmt::Assign(StmtAssign { targets, value, .. }) = first else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "first statement must be ctx = capture()".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if targets.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "capture assignment must have one target".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) = &targets[0] else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "capture assignment target must be a name".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if !is_capture_call(value) {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "first statement must be ctx = capture()".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    Ok((id.to_string(), start + 1))
+}
+
+fn is_capture_call(expr: &Expr) -> bool {
+    let Expr::Call(ExprCall { func, .. }) = expr else {
+        return false;
+    };
+    match func.as_ref() {
+        Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) => id.as_str() == "capture",
+        Expr::Attribute(ExprAttribute { value, attr, .. }) => {
+            if attr.as_str() != "capture" {
+                return false;
+            }
+            matches!(value.as_ref(), Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) if id.as_str() == "pvm_sdk")
+        }
+        _ => false,
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_await_assign(
+    assign: &StmtAssign,
+    ctx_name: &str,
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<AwaitStep, CodegenErrorType> {
+    if assign.targets.len() != 1 {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await assignment must have one target".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let Expr::Attribute(attr) = &assign.targets[0] else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await assignment target must be ctx.<name>".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) = attr.value.as_ref() else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await assignment target must be ctx.<name>".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if id.as_str() != ctx_name {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await assignment target must be ctx.<name>".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let target_attr = attr.attr.as_str().to_owned();
+
+    let Expr::Await(await_expr) = assign.value.as_ref() else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await assignment must await runner.*".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let Expr::Call(call) = await_expr.value.as_ref() else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await must call runner.*".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let Expr::Attribute(func_attr) = call.func.as_ref() else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await must call runner.*".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    let Expr::Name(ExprName { id, .. }) = func_attr.value.as_ref() else {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await must call runner.*".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    };
+    if id.as_str() != "runner" {
+        return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+            "await must call runner.*".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    let job_type = func_attr.attr.as_str().to_owned();
+    let args = format_call_args(&call.arguments, source_file)?;
+
+    Ok(AwaitStep {
+        target_attr,
+        job_type,
+        args,
+    })
+}
+
+fn format_call_args(
+    args: &Arguments,
+    source_file: &SourceFile,
+) -> Result<String, CodegenErrorType> {
+    let mut parts = Vec::new();
+    for arg in &args.args {
+        parts.push(UnparseExpr::new(arg, source_file).to_string());
+    }
+    for kw in &args.keywords {
+        let Some(name) = &kw.arg else {
+            return Err(CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(
+                "runner calls do not allow **kwargs in continuation mode".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        };
+        let value = UnparseExpr::new(&kw.value, source_file).to_string();
+        parts.push(format!("{}={}", name.as_str(), value));
+    }
+    Ok(parts.join(", "))
+}
+
+fn build_fsm_functions(
+    name: &str,
+    params: &str,
+    self_name: &str,
+    msg_name: &str,
+    ctx_name: &str,
+    steps: &[AwaitStep],
+    return_expr: &str,
+    meta: &ContinuationMeta,
+) -> Result<Vec<Stmt>, CodegenErrorType> {
+    let first = &steps[0];
+    let mut init_lines = Vec::new();
+    init_lines.push(format!("def {}({}):", name, params));
+    init_lines.push("    import pvm_sdk".to_owned());
+    init_lines.push(format!(
+        "    cid = pvm_sdk.continuation.new_cid({}, \"{}\")",
+        self_name, name
+    ));
+    init_lines.push(format!("    {} = pvm_sdk.capture()", ctx_name));
+    init_lines.push(format!(
+        "    pvm_sdk.continuation.save_cont(cid, state=0, ctx={}, handler=\"{}__resume\", timeout_blocks={}, guard_unchanged={})",
+        ctx_name, name, meta.timeout_expr, meta.guard_expr
+    ));
+    init_lines.push(format!(
+        "    pvm_sdk.runner._send_job(\"{}\", cid, \"{}__resume\"{}{})",
+        first.job_type,
+        name,
+        if first.args.is_empty() { "" } else { ", " },
+        first.args
+    ));
+    init_lines.push("    return None".to_owned());
+
+    let mut resume_lines = Vec::new();
+    resume_lines.push(format!("def {}__resume({}):", name, params));
+    resume_lines.push("    import pvm_sdk".to_owned());
+    resume_lines.push(format!("    cid = {}.get(\"cid\")", msg_name));
+    resume_lines.push("    st = pvm_sdk.continuation.load_cont(cid)".to_owned());
+    resume_lines.push(format!("    {} = st.get(\"ctx\")", ctx_name));
+
+    for (idx, step) in steps.iter().enumerate() {
+        let is_last = idx == steps.len() - 1;
+        resume_lines.push(format!("    if st.get(\"state\") == {}:", idx));
+        resume_lines.push(format!(
+            "        {}.{} = {}.get(\"result\")",
+            ctx_name, step.target_attr, msg_name
+        ));
+        if is_last {
+            resume_lines.push("        pvm_sdk.continuation.delete_cont(cid)".to_owned());
+            resume_lines.push(format!("        return {}", return_expr));
+        } else {
+            resume_lines.push(format!(
+                "        pvm_sdk.continuation.save_cont(cid, state={}, ctx={}, handler=\"{}__resume\", timeout_blocks=st.get(\"timeout_blocks\"), guard_unchanged=st.get(\"guard_unchanged\"))",
+                idx + 1,
+                ctx_name,
+                name
+            ));
+            let next_step = &steps[idx + 1];
+            resume_lines.push(format!(
+                "        pvm_sdk.runner._send_job(\"{}\", cid, \"{}__resume\"{}{})",
+                next_step.job_type,
+                name,
+                if next_step.args.is_empty() { "" } else { ", " },
+                next_step.args
+            ));
+            resume_lines.push("        return None".to_owned());
+        }
+    }
+    resume_lines.push("    return None".to_owned());
+
+    let code = format!(
+        "{}\n\n{}",
+        init_lines.join("\n"),
+        resume_lines.join("\n")
+    );
+
+    let parsed = parse_module(&code).map_err(|err| {
+        CodegenErrorType::SyntaxError(format!("pvm fsm transform failed: {}", err.error))
+    })?;
+    let module = parsed.into_syntax();
+    Ok(module.body)
+}
+
+fn contains_await(stmt: &Stmt) -> bool {
+    let mut finder = AwaitFinder { found: false };
+    finder.visit_stmt(stmt);
+    finder.found
+}
+
+struct AwaitFinder {
+    found: bool,
+}
+
+impl Visitor<'_> for AwaitFinder {
+    fn visit_expr(&mut self, expr: &Expr) {
+        if matches!(expr, Expr::Await(_)) {
+            self.found = true;
+            return;
+        }
+        walk_expr(self, expr);
+    }
+
+    fn visit_stmt(&mut self, stmt: &Stmt) {
+        if self.found {
+            return;
+        }
+        walk_stmt(self, stmt);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/compiler-source/src/lib.rs b/crates/compiler-source/src/lib.rs
index 2d967e218d2..356b9224bf2 100644
--- a/crates/compiler-source/src/lib.rs
+++ b/crates/compiler-source/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-pub use ruff_source_file::{LineIndex, OneIndexed as LineNumber, SourceLocation};
+pub use ruff_source_file::{LineIndex, OneIndexed as LineNumber, PositionEncoding, SourceLocation};
 use ruff_text_size::TextRange;
 pub use ruff_text_size::TextSize;
 
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ impl<'src> SourceCode<'src> {
     }
 
     pub fn source_location(&self, offset: TextSize) -> SourceLocation {
-        self.index.source_location(offset, self.text)
+        self.index.source_location(offset, self.text, PositionEncoding::Utf8)
     }
 
     pub fn get_range(&'src self, range: TextRange) -> &'src str {
diff --git a/crates/pvm-alto/Cargo.toml b/crates/pvm-alto/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4812c096247
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-alto/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+[package]
+name = "pvm-alto"
+version.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+
+[dependencies]
+pvm-host = { path = "../pvm-host" }
+pvm-runtime = { path = "../pvm-runtime" }
diff --git a/crates/pvm-alto/src/lib.rs b/crates/pvm-alto/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d822927d377
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-alto/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+use std::fs;
+use std::io::Write;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use pvm_host::{Bytes, HostApi, HostContext, HostError, HostResult};
+use pvm_runtime::{execute_tx_with_options, ExecutionOptions};
+
+pub struct FsHost {
+    state_dir: PathBuf,
+    events_path: PathBuf,
+    gas_left: u64,
+    context: HostContext,
+    randomness_seed: [u8; 32],
+    timer_nonce: u64,
+}
+
+impl FsHost {
+    pub fn new(
+        state_dir: impl Into<PathBuf>,
+        events_path: impl Into<PathBuf>,
+        gas_limit: u64,
+        context: HostContext,
+    ) -> Result<Self, HostError> {
+        let state_dir = state_dir.into();
+        let events_path = events_path.into();
+
+        fs::create_dir_all(&state_dir).map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)?;
+        if let Some(parent) = events_path.parent() {
+            fs::create_dir_all(parent).map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)?;
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            state_dir,
+            events_path,
+            gas_left: gas_limit,
+            randomness_seed: context.tx_hash,
+            context,
+            timer_nonce: 0,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_randomness_seed(mut self, seed: [u8; 32]) -> Self {
+        self.randomness_seed = seed;
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn key_path(&self, key: &[u8]) -> PathBuf {
+        let name = if key.is_empty() {
+            "__empty__".to_owned()
+        } else {
+            encode_hex(key)
+        };
+        self.state_dir.join(name)
+    }
+}
+
+impl HostApi for FsHost {
+    fn state_get(&self, key: &[u8]) -> HostResult<Option<Bytes>> {
+        let path = self.key_path(key);
+        match fs::read(&path) {
+            Ok(bytes) => Ok(Some(bytes)),
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound => Ok(None),
+            Err(_) => Err(HostError::StorageError),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn state_set(&mut self, key: &[u8], value: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()> {
+        let path = self.key_path(key);
+        fs::write(path, value).map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)
+    }
+
+    fn state_delete(&mut self, key: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()> {
+        let path = self.key_path(key);
+        match fs::remove_file(path) {
+            Ok(_) => Ok(()),
+            Err(err) if err.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound => Ok(()),
+            Err(_) => Err(HostError::StorageError),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn emit_event(&mut self, topic: &str, data: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()> {
+        let mut file = fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .create(true)
+            .append(true)
+            .open(&self.events_path)
+            .map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)?;
+        let line = format!("{}:{}\n", topic, encode_hex(data));
+        file.write_all(line.as_bytes())
+            .map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)
+    }
+
+    fn charge_gas(&mut self, amount: u64) -> HostResult<()> {
+        if amount > self.gas_left {
+            return Err(HostError::OutOfGas);
+        }
+        self.gas_left -= amount;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn gas_left(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.gas_left
+    }
+
+    fn context(&self) -> HostContext {
+        self.context.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn randomness(&self, domain: &[u8]) -> HostResult<[u8; 32]> {
+        Ok(pseudo_random(&self.randomness_seed, domain))
+    }
+
+    fn send_message(&mut self, target: &[u8], payload: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()> {
+        let line = format!(
+            "message:{}:{}\n",
+            encode_hex(target),
+            encode_hex(payload)
+        );
+        fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .create(true)
+            .append(true)
+            .open(&self.events_path)
+            .and_then(|mut file| file.write_all(line.as_bytes()))
+            .map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)
+    }
+
+    fn schedule_timer(&mut self, height: u64, payload: &[u8]) -> HostResult<Bytes> {
+        self.timer_nonce = self.timer_nonce.wrapping_add(1);
+        let mut id = Vec::with_capacity(8);
+        id.extend_from_slice(&self.timer_nonce.to_le_bytes());
+        let line = format!(
+            "timer.schedule:{}:{}:{}\n",
+            height,
+            encode_hex(&id),
+            encode_hex(payload)
+        );
+        fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .create(true)
+            .append(true)
+            .open(&self.events_path)
+            .and_then(|mut file| file.write_all(line.as_bytes()))
+            .map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)?;
+        Ok(id)
+    }
+
+    fn cancel_timer(&mut self, timer_id: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()> {
+        let line = format!(
+            "timer.cancel:{}\n",
+            encode_hex(timer_id)
+        );
+        fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .create(true)
+            .append(true)
+            .open(&self.events_path)
+            .and_then(|mut file| file.write_all(line.as_bytes()))
+            .map_err(|_| HostError::StorageError)
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct FsTxConfig {
+    pub state_dir: PathBuf,
+    pub events_path: PathBuf,
+    pub gas_limit: u64,
+    pub context: HostContext,
+}
+
+pub fn execute_tx_fs(
+    code: &[u8],
+    input: &[u8],
+    config: FsTxConfig,
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> Result<Bytes, HostError> {
+    let mut host = FsHost::new(
+        config.state_dir,
+        config.events_path,
+        config.gas_limit,
+        config.context,
+    )?;
+    execute_tx_with_options(&mut host, code, input, options)
+}
+
+pub fn default_options() -> ExecutionOptions {
+    ExecutionOptions::default()
+        .with_source_path("contract.py")
+        .with_entrypoint("main")
+        .deterministic()
+}
+
+fn encode_hex(bytes: &[u8]) -> String {
+    const HEX: &[u8; 16] = b"0123456789abcdef";
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(bytes.len() * 2);
+    for &byte in bytes {
+        out.push(HEX[(byte >> 4) as usize] as char);
+        out.push(HEX[(byte & 0x0f) as usize] as char);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+fn fnv1a64(mut hash: u64, bytes: &[u8]) -> u64 {
+    const FNV_PRIME: u64 = 0x00000100000001b3;
+    for &byte in bytes {
+        hash ^= u64::from(byte);
+        hash = hash.wrapping_mul(FNV_PRIME);
+    }
+    hash
+}
+
+fn pseudo_random(seed: &[u8; 32], domain: &[u8]) -> [u8; 32] {
+    const FNV_OFFSET: u64 = 0xcbf29ce484222325;
+    let mut out = [0u8; 32];
+    for (idx, chunk) in out.chunks_exact_mut(8).enumerate() {
+        let mut hash = FNV_OFFSET;
+        hash = fnv1a64(hash, seed);
+        hash = fnv1a64(hash, domain);
+        hash = fnv1a64(hash, &(idx as u64).to_le_bytes());
+        chunk.copy_from_slice(&hash.to_le_bytes());
+    }
+    out
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-host/Cargo.toml b/crates/pvm-host/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..54e9c6579a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-host/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+[package]
+name = "pvm-host"
+version.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+
+[dependencies]
diff --git a/crates/pvm-host/src/lib.rs b/crates/pvm-host/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..72d878a7be3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-host/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+use core::fmt;
+
+pub type Bytes = Vec<u8>;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct HostContext {
+    pub block_height: u64,
+    pub block_hash: [u8; 32],
+    pub tx_hash: [u8; 32],
+    pub sender: Bytes,
+    pub timestamp_ms: u64,
+    pub actor_addr: Bytes,
+    pub msg_id: Bytes,
+    pub nonce: u64,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum HostError {
+    OutOfGas,
+    InvalidInput,
+    NotFound,
+    StorageError,
+    Forbidden,
+    Internal,
+}
+
+impl HostError {
+    pub const fn code(&self) -> u32 {
+        match self {
+            HostError::OutOfGas => 1,
+            HostError::InvalidInput => 2,
+            HostError::NotFound => 3,
+            HostError::StorageError => 4,
+            HostError::Forbidden => 5,
+            HostError::Internal => 6,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub const fn as_str(&self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            HostError::OutOfGas => "out_of_gas",
+            HostError::InvalidInput => "invalid_input",
+            HostError::NotFound => "not_found",
+            HostError::StorageError => "storage_error",
+            HostError::Forbidden => "forbidden",
+            HostError::Internal => "internal",
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_code(code: u32) -> Option<Self> {
+        match code {
+            1 => Some(HostError::OutOfGas),
+            2 => Some(HostError::InvalidInput),
+            3 => Some(HostError::NotFound),
+            4 => Some(HostError::StorageError),
+            5 => Some(HostError::Forbidden),
+            6 => Some(HostError::Internal),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_name(name: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        match name {
+            "out_of_gas" => Some(HostError::OutOfGas),
+            "invalid_input" => Some(HostError::InvalidInput),
+            "not_found" => Some(HostError::NotFound),
+            "storage_error" => Some(HostError::StorageError),
+            "forbidden" => Some(HostError::Forbidden),
+            "internal" => Some(HostError::Internal),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for HostError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        let msg = match self {
+            HostError::OutOfGas => "out of gas",
+            HostError::InvalidInput => "invalid input",
+            HostError::NotFound => "not found",
+            HostError::StorageError => "storage error",
+            HostError::Forbidden => "forbidden",
+            HostError::Internal => "internal error",
+        };
+        f.write_str(msg)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for HostError {}
+
+pub type HostResult<T> = Result<T, HostError>;
+
+pub trait HostApi {
+    fn state_get(&self, key: &[u8]) -> HostResult<Option<Bytes>>;
+    fn state_set(&mut self, key: &[u8], value: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()>;
+    fn state_delete(&mut self, key: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()>;
+
+    fn emit_event(&mut self, topic: &str, data: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()>;
+
+    fn charge_gas(&mut self, amount: u64) -> HostResult<()>;
+    fn gas_left(&self) -> u64;
+
+    fn context(&self) -> HostContext;
+    fn randomness(&self, domain: &[u8]) -> HostResult<[u8; 32]>;
+
+    fn send_message(&mut self, target: &[u8], payload: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()>;
+    fn schedule_timer(&mut self, height: u64, payload: &[u8]) -> HostResult<Bytes>;
+    fn cancel_timer(&mut self, timer_id: &[u8]) -> HostResult<()>;
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/Cargo.toml b/crates/pvm-runtime/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ea01fd702a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+[package]
+name = "pvm-runtime"
+version.workspace = true
+authors.workspace = true
+edition.workspace = true
+rust-version.workspace = true
+repository.workspace = true
+license.workspace = true
+
+[features]
+default = ["stdlib"]
+stdlib = ["rustpython/stdlib"]
+
+[dependencies]
+pvm-host = { path = "../pvm-host" }
+rustpython = { path = "../.." }
+rustpython-common = { workspace = true }
+rustpython-vm = { workspace = true }
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/continuation.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/continuation.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0b9550496dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/continuation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+use rustpython_vm::vm::ContinuationMode;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct ContinuationOptions {
+    pub mode: ContinuationMode,
+    pub resume_bytes: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+    pub resume_key: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+    pub checkpoint_key: Option<Vec<u8>>,
+}
+
+impl Default for ContinuationOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            mode: ContinuationMode::Fsm,
+            resume_bytes: None,
+            resume_key: None,
+            checkpoint_key: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct RuntimeConfig {
+    pub continuation_mode: ContinuationMode,
+}
+
+impl RuntimeConfig {
+    pub fn from_options(options: Option<&ContinuationOptions>) -> Self {
+        let continuation_mode = options.map(|o| o.mode).unwrap_or(ContinuationMode::Fsm);
+        Self { continuation_mode }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/determinism.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/determinism.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..01a8d38778b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/determinism.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct DeterminismOptions {
+    pub enabled: bool,
+    pub hash_seed: u32,
+    pub stdlib_whitelist: Vec<String>,
+    pub stdlib_blacklist: Vec<String>,
+    pub stdlib_hash: Option<String>,
+    pub enable_softfloat: bool,
+    pub enable_gas: bool,
+    pub trace_imports: bool,
+    pub trace_allow_all: bool,
+    pub trace_path: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl DeterminismOptions {
+    pub fn deterministic(hash_seed: Option<u32>) -> Self {
+        let mut options = Self::default();
+        options.enabled = true;
+        options.hash_seed = hash_seed.unwrap_or(0);
+        options
+    }
+
+    pub fn default_whitelist() -> Vec<String> {
+        vec![
+            "builtins",
+            "types",
+            "collections",
+            "collections.abc",
+            "abc",
+            "enum",
+            "dataclasses",
+            "typing",
+            "functools",
+            "itertools",
+            "operator",
+            "re",
+            "sre_compile",
+            "sre_parse",
+            "sre_constants",
+            "_sre",
+            "string",
+            "codecs",
+            "encodings",
+            "unicodedata",
+            "math",
+            "keyword",
+            "reprlib",
+            "json",
+            "copyreg",
+            "base64",
+            "binascii",
+            "struct",
+            "hashlib",
+            "hmac",
+            "warnings",
+            "heapq",
+            "bisect",
+            "_collections",
+            "_collections_abc",
+            "_functools",
+            "_abc",
+            "_py_abc",
+            "_struct",
+            "_weakrefset",
+            "_weakref",
+            "weakref",
+            "_thread",
+            "_json",
+            "_hashlib",
+            "_md5",
+            "_sha1",
+            "_sha256",
+            "_sha512",
+            "_sha3",
+            "_blake2",
+            "_bisect",
+            "_heapq",
+            "_warnings",
+            "_operator",
+            "pvm_host",
+            "pvm_sdk",
+            "pvm_sdk.pvm_time",
+            "pvm_sdk.pvm_random",
+            "pvm_sdk.pvm_sys",
+            "pvm_sdk.runtime",
+            "pvm_sdk.continuation",
+            "pvm_sdk.runner",
+            "pvm_sdk.actor",
+            "pvm_sdk.verify",
+            "pvm_sdk.types",
+            "rustpython_checkpoint",
+            "pvm_time",
+            "pvm_random",
+            "pvm_sys",
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|item| item.to_owned())
+        .collect()
+    }
+
+    pub fn default_blacklist() -> Vec<String> {
+        vec![
+            "time",
+            "datetime",
+            "random",
+            "secrets",
+            "uuid",
+            "os",
+            "sys",
+            "socket",
+            "ssl",
+            "subprocess",
+            "ctypes",
+            "threading",
+            "multiprocessing",
+            "signal",
+            "select",
+            "asyncio",
+            "pathlib",
+            "glob",
+            "tempfile",
+            "shutil",
+            "zipfile",
+            "inspect",
+            "traceback",
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|item| item.to_owned())
+        .collect()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for DeterminismOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            enabled: false,
+            hash_seed: 0,
+            stdlib_whitelist: Self::default_whitelist(),
+            stdlib_blacklist: Self::default_blacklist(),
+            stdlib_hash: None,
+            enable_softfloat: false,
+            enable_gas: false,
+            trace_imports: false,
+            trace_allow_all: false,
+            trace_path: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/guard.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/guard.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ea105c8754a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/guard.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,221 @@
+use crate::determinism::DeterminismOptions;
+use rustpython_vm::{
+    PyObjectRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    builtins::PyListRef,
+    compiler::Mode,
+};
+
+const GUARD_SOURCE: &str = r#"
+import builtins
+import sys
+
+_ALLOW = set(PVM_WHITELIST)
+_DENY = set(PVM_BLACKLIST)
+_REAL_IMPORT = builtins.__import__
+_HOST = _REAL_IMPORT(PVM_HOST_MODULE, None, None, (), 0)
+_TRACE_IMPORTS = bool(PVM_TRACE_IMPORTS)
+_TRACE_ALLOW_ALL = bool(PVM_TRACE_ALLOW_ALL)
+_TRACE = []
+_TRACE_BLOCKED = []
+sys._pvm_import_trace = _TRACE
+sys._pvm_import_blocked = _TRACE_BLOCKED
+
+_ALIAS = {
+    "time": "pvm_sdk.pvm_time",
+    "random": "pvm_sdk.pvm_random",
+    "pvm_time": "pvm_sdk.pvm_time",
+    "pvm_random": "pvm_sdk.pvm_random",
+    "pvm_sys": "pvm_sdk.pvm_sys",
+}
+
+
+def _resolve_name(name, globals, level):
+    if level and globals:
+        pkg = globals.get("__package__") or globals.get("__name__")
+        if pkg:
+            parts = pkg.split(".")
+            if level <= len(parts):
+                base = ".".join(parts[: len(parts) - level + 1])
+                return base + ("." + name if name else "")
+    return name
+
+
+def _is_allowed(name, globals=None, level=0):
+    resolved = _resolve_name(name, globals, level)
+    if resolved == "sys" and globals:
+        importer = globals.get("__package__") or globals.get("__name__")
+        if importer and _allowed_by_whitelist(importer):
+            return True
+    parts = resolved.split(".") if resolved else []
+    for i in range(1, len(parts) + 1):
+        prefix = ".".join(parts[:i])
+        if prefix in _DENY:
+            return False
+    if resolved in _DENY:
+        return False
+    if resolved in _ALLOW:
+        return True
+    for i in range(1, len(parts) + 1):
+        prefix = ".".join(parts[:i])
+        if prefix in _ALLOW:
+            return True
+    if resolved:
+        prefix = resolved + "."
+        for item in _ALLOW:
+            if item.startswith(prefix):
+                return True
+    return False
+
+
+def _allowed_by_whitelist(name):
+    parts = name.split(".") if name else []
+    if name in _ALLOW:
+        return True
+    for i in range(1, len(parts) + 1):
+        prefix = ".".join(parts[:i])
+        if prefix in _ALLOW:
+            return True
+    if name:
+        prefix = name + "."
+        for item in _ALLOW:
+            if item.startswith(prefix):
+                return True
+    return False
+
+
+def _alias(name, target):
+    try:
+        if "." in target:
+            leaf = target.rsplit(".", 1)[-1]
+            mod = _REAL_IMPORT(target, None, None, (leaf,), 0)
+        else:
+            mod = _REAL_IMPORT(target, None, None, (), 0)
+    except Exception:
+        return
+    sys.modules[name] = mod
+
+
+def _record_import(name, allowed):
+    if not _TRACE_IMPORTS:
+        return
+    if not name:
+        return
+    _TRACE.append(name)
+    if not allowed:
+        _TRACE_BLOCKED.append(name)
+
+
+if PVM_SYS_PATH is not None:
+    sys.path[:] = PVM_SYS_PATH
+    try:
+        sys.path_importer_cache.clear()
+    except Exception:
+        sys.path_importer_cache = {}
+
+for _name, _target in _ALIAS.items():
+    _alias(_name, _target)
+
+
+def _pvm_import(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0):
+    resolved = _resolve_name(name, globals, level)
+    if resolved in _ALIAS:
+        _record_import(_ALIAS[resolved], True)
+        mod = sys.modules.get(resolved)
+        if mod is None:
+            raise _HOST.DeterministicValidationError("alias module missing: " + resolved)
+        return mod
+    allowed = _is_allowed(name, globals, level)
+    _record_import(resolved or name, allowed)
+    if not allowed and not _TRACE_ALLOW_ALL:
+        raise _HOST.NonDeterministicError("module not allowed: " + name)
+    return _REAL_IMPORT(name, globals, locals, fromlist, level)
+
+
+builtins.__import__ = _pvm_import
+
+
+class _PvmImportGuard:
+    def find_spec(self, fullname, path=None, target=None):
+        if not _is_allowed(fullname):
+            if not _TRACE_ALLOW_ALL:
+                raise _HOST.NonDeterministicError("module not allowed: " + fullname)
+        return None
+
+
+sys.meta_path.insert(0, _PvmImportGuard())
+
+
+def _blocked_open(*_args, **_kwargs):
+    raise _HOST.DeterministicValidationError(
+        "file IO is disabled in deterministic mode"
+    )
+
+
+builtins.open = _blocked_open
+try:
+    import io as _io
+    _io.open = _blocked_open
+except Exception:
+    pass
+
+if hasattr(builtins, "execfile"):
+    builtins.execfile = _blocked_open
+"#;
+
+pub(crate) fn install(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    options: &DeterminismOptions,
+    host_module_name: &str,
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    if !options.enabled {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let scope = vm.new_scope_with_builtins();
+    let mut whitelist_items = options.stdlib_whitelist.clone();
+    if !whitelist_items.iter().any(|item| item == host_module_name) {
+        whitelist_items.push(host_module_name.to_owned());
+    }
+    let whitelist = to_pylist(vm, &whitelist_items);
+    scope
+        .globals
+        .set_item("PVM_WHITELIST", whitelist.into(), vm)?;
+    let blacklist = to_pylist(vm, &options.stdlib_blacklist);
+    scope
+        .globals
+        .set_item("PVM_BLACKLIST", blacklist.into(), vm)?;
+    let sys_paths = vm.state.config.paths.module_search_paths.clone();
+    let sys_paths_list = to_pylist(vm, &sys_paths);
+    scope
+        .globals
+        .set_item("PVM_SYS_PATH", sys_paths_list.into(), vm)?;
+    scope.globals.set_item(
+        "PVM_HOST_MODULE",
+        vm.ctx.new_str(host_module_name).into(),
+        vm,
+    )?;
+    scope.globals.set_item(
+        "PVM_TRACE_IMPORTS",
+        vm.ctx.new_bool(options.trace_imports).into(),
+        vm,
+    )?;
+    scope.globals.set_item(
+        "PVM_TRACE_ALLOW_ALL",
+        vm.ctx.new_bool(options.trace_allow_all).into(),
+        vm,
+    )?;
+
+    let code = vm
+        .compile(GUARD_SOURCE, Mode::Exec, "<pvm_guard>".to_owned())
+        .map_err(|err| vm.new_syntax_error(&err, Some(GUARD_SOURCE)))?;
+    vm.run_code_obj(code, scope)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn to_pylist(vm: &VirtualMachine, items: &[String]) -> PyListRef {
+    let entries: Vec<PyObjectRef> = items
+        .iter()
+        .map(|item| vm.ctx.new_str(item.as_str()).into())
+        .collect();
+    vm.ctx.new_list(entries)
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/host.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/host.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..86f449013c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/host.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+use pvm_host::HostApi;
+use crate::continuation::RuntimeConfig;
+use std::cell::Cell;
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+use std::mem;
+
+type HostPtr = *mut (dyn HostApi + 'static);
+
+thread_local! {
+    static HOST: Cell<Option<HostPtr>> = Cell::new(None);
+    static RUNTIME_CONFIG: Cell<Option<RuntimeConfig>> = Cell::new(None);
+}
+
+pub struct HostGuard<'a> {
+    _marker: PhantomData<&'a mut dyn HostApi>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> HostGuard<'a> {
+    pub fn install(host: &'a mut dyn HostApi, runtime_config: RuntimeConfig) -> Self {
+        let ptr = host as *mut dyn HostApi;
+        // Erase the lifetime; the guard ensures the pointer is only used in-scope.
+        let ptr = unsafe { mem::transmute::<*mut dyn HostApi, HostPtr>(ptr) };
+        HOST.with(|cell| cell.set(Some(ptr)));
+        RUNTIME_CONFIG.with(|cell| cell.set(Some(runtime_config)));
+        Self {
+            _marker: PhantomData,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for HostGuard<'_> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        HOST.with(|cell| cell.set(None));
+        RUNTIME_CONFIG.with(|cell| cell.set(None));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn with_host<R>(f: impl FnOnce(&mut dyn HostApi) -> R) -> Option<R> {
+    HOST.with(|cell| {
+        let ptr = cell.get()?;
+        // Safety: host pointer is installed for the duration of an execution.
+        Some(unsafe { f(&mut *ptr) })
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn runtime_config() -> Option<RuntimeConfig> {
+    RUNTIME_CONFIG.with(|cell| cell.get())
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/lib.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..210e9c42c10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,589 @@
+mod host;
+mod continuation;
+mod determinism;
+mod guard;
+mod module;
+
+pub use continuation::{ContinuationOptions, RuntimeConfig};
+pub use determinism::DeterminismOptions;
+use pvm_host::{Bytes, HostApi, HostError};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::Path;
+use rustpython::InterpreterConfig;
+use rustpython_vm::{
+    AsObject,
+    PyObjectRef, PyResult, Settings, VirtualMachine,
+    builtins::{PyBaseExceptionRef, PyListRef, PyNone},
+    compiler::Mode,
+    convert::TryFromObject,
+    scope::Scope,
+};
+use rustpython_vm::vm::ContinuationMode;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct ExecutionOptions {
+    pub argv: Vec<String>,
+    pub module_name: String,
+    pub source_path: String,
+    pub input_var: String,
+    pub output_var: String,
+    pub entrypoint: Option<String>,
+    pub host_module_name: String,
+    pub init_stdlib: bool,
+    pub deterministic: bool,
+    pub hash_seed: Option<u32>,
+    pub determinism: Option<DeterminismOptions>,
+    pub set_main_module: bool,
+    pub continuation: Option<ContinuationOptions>,
+}
+
+impl Default for ExecutionOptions {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            argv: Vec::new(),
+            module_name: "__main__".to_owned(),
+            source_path: "<pvm>".to_owned(),
+            input_var: "__pvm_input__".to_owned(),
+            output_var: "__pvm_output__".to_owned(),
+            entrypoint: None,
+            host_module_name: "pvm_host".to_owned(),
+            init_stdlib: true,
+            deterministic: false,
+            hash_seed: None,
+            determinism: None,
+            set_main_module: true,
+            continuation: Some(ContinuationOptions::default()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExecutionOptions {
+    pub fn with_entrypoint(mut self, entrypoint: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.entrypoint = Some(entrypoint.into());
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_module_name(mut self, module_name: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.module_name = module_name.into();
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_source_path(mut self, source_path: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        self.source_path = source_path.into();
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_argv(mut self, argv: Vec<String>) -> Self {
+        self.argv = argv;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn deterministic(mut self) -> Self {
+        self.deterministic = true;
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_determinism(mut self, determinism: DeterminismOptions) -> Self {
+        self.determinism = Some(determinism);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn execute_tx(host: &mut dyn HostApi, code: &[u8], input: &[u8]) -> Result<Bytes, HostError> {
+    execute_tx_with_options(host, code, input, &ExecutionOptions::default())
+}
+
+pub fn execute_tx_with_options(
+    host: &mut dyn HostApi,
+    code: &[u8],
+    input: &[u8],
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> Result<Bytes, HostError> {
+    let source = std::str::from_utf8(code).map_err(|_| HostError::InvalidInput)?;
+    let mut settings = Settings::default();
+    settings.argv = if options.argv.is_empty() {
+        vec![options.source_path.clone()]
+    } else {
+        options.argv.clone()
+    };
+
+    let mut determinism = options.determinism.clone().or_else(|| {
+        if options.deterministic {
+            Some(DeterminismOptions::deterministic(options.hash_seed))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    });
+
+    if let Some(det) = determinism.as_ref().filter(|item| item.enabled) {
+        settings.hash_seed = Some(det.hash_seed);
+        settings.ignore_environment = true;
+        settings.import_site = false;
+        settings.user_site_directory = false;
+        settings.isolated = true;
+        settings.safe_path = true;
+        settings.install_signal_handlers = false;
+    } else if let Some(seed) = options.hash_seed {
+        settings.hash_seed = Some(seed);
+    }
+
+    if let Some(cont) = options.continuation.as_ref() {
+        settings.continuation_mode = Some(cont.mode);
+        settings.checkpoint_exit = false;
+    }
+
+    let mut config = InterpreterConfig::new().settings(settings);
+    #[cfg(feature = "stdlib")]
+    {
+        if options.init_stdlib {
+            config = config.init_stdlib();
+        }
+    }
+    config = config.add_native_module(options.host_module_name.clone(), module::make_module);
+    if options.host_module_name != "pvm_host_module" {
+        config = config.add_native_module("pvm_host_module".to_owned(), module::make_module);
+    }
+    let interpreter = config.interpreter();
+
+    let resume_bytes = if let Some(cont) = options.continuation.as_ref() {
+        if cont.mode == ContinuationMode::Checkpoint {
+            if let Some(bytes) = cont.resume_bytes.as_ref() {
+                Some(bytes.clone())
+            } else if let Some(key) = cont.resume_key.as_ref() {
+                host.state_get(key)?
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    } else {
+        None
+    };
+    if resume_bytes.is_some() {
+        if let Some(det) = determinism.as_mut().filter(|item| item.enabled) {
+            // Snapshot restore may import os/path modules; allow them during resume.
+            let allow = [
+                "os",
+                "posix",
+                "posixpath",
+                "genericpath",
+                "stat",
+                "_stat",
+                "errno",
+                "nt",
+                "ntpath",
+                "pvm_host_module",
+                "importlib",
+                "_frozen_importlib",
+                "_frozen_importlib_external",
+            ];
+            det.stdlib_blacklist
+                .retain(|item| !allow.iter().any(|name| name == item));
+            for name in allow {
+                if !det.stdlib_whitelist.iter().any(|item| item == name) {
+                    det.stdlib_whitelist.push(name.to_owned());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let runtime_config = RuntimeConfig::from_options(options.continuation.as_ref());
+    let _host_guard = host::HostGuard::install(host, runtime_config);
+
+    interpreter.enter(|vm| {
+        if let Some(det) = determinism.as_ref().filter(|item| item.enabled) {
+            if let Err(err) = guard::install(vm, det, options.host_module_name.as_str()) {
+                vm.print_exception(err);
+                return Err(HostError::Internal);
+            }
+        }
+        let res = if let Some(data) = resume_bytes.as_ref() {
+            if let Err(err) = ensure_sys_path(vm) {
+                Err(err)
+            } else {
+                vm.resume_from_bytes(options.source_path.as_str(), data)
+                    .and_then(|_| Ok(Vec::new()))
+            }
+        } else {
+            run_source(vm, source, input, options)
+        };
+        let trace_result = determinism
+            .as_ref()
+            .filter(|item| item.enabled)
+            .map(|det| export_import_trace(vm, det))
+            .unwrap_or(Ok(()));
+        match res {
+            Ok(bytes) => {
+                if let Some(checkpoint) = vm.take_checkpoint_bytes() {
+                    if let Some(cont) = options.continuation.as_ref() {
+                        if let Some(key) = cont.checkpoint_key.as_ref() {
+                            let result = host::with_host(|host| host.state_set(key, &checkpoint))
+                                .ok_or(HostError::Internal)?;
+                            result?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    return Ok(Vec::new());
+                }
+                if let Err(err) = trace_result {
+                    return Err(err);
+                }
+                Ok(bytes)
+            }
+            Err(err) => {
+                if let Some(checkpoint) = vm.take_checkpoint_bytes() {
+                    if let Some(cont) = options.continuation.as_ref() {
+                        if let Some(key) = cont.checkpoint_key.as_ref() {
+                            let result = host::with_host(|host| host.state_set(key, &checkpoint))
+                                .ok_or(HostError::Internal)?;
+                            result?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    return Ok(Vec::new());
+                }
+                if let Err(trace_err) = trace_result {
+                    eprintln!("pvm import trace failed: {trace_err}");
+                }
+                if std::env::var_os("PVM_PRINT_EXCEPTION").is_some() {
+                    vm.print_exception(err.clone());
+                }
+                let host_error = map_exception(vm, &err, options);
+                if host_error == HostError::Internal {
+                    vm.print_exception(err.clone());
+                }
+                Err(host_error)
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+fn run_source(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source: &str,
+    input: &[u8],
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> PyResult<Bytes> {
+    let scope = setup_main_module(vm, options)?;
+    let input_obj = vm.ctx.new_bytes(input.to_vec());
+    scope
+        .globals
+        .set_item(options.input_var.as_str(), input_obj.clone().into(), vm)?;
+
+    let code_obj = vm
+        .compile(source, Mode::Exec, options.source_path.clone())
+        .map_err(|err| vm.new_syntax_error(&err, Some(source)))?;
+    vm.run_code_obj(code_obj, scope.clone())?;
+
+    let output = if let Some(entrypoint) = &options.entrypoint {
+        let callable = scope
+            .globals
+            .get_item_opt(entrypoint.as_str(), vm)?
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                vm.new_name_error(
+                    format!(
+                        "pvm entrypoint '{}' not found in module '{}'",
+                        entrypoint, options.module_name
+                    ),
+                    vm.ctx.new_str(entrypoint.as_str()),
+                )
+            })?;
+        Some(callable.call((input_obj,), vm)?)
+    } else {
+        scope.globals.get_item_opt(options.output_var.as_str(), vm)?
+    };
+
+    extract_output(vm, output)
+}
+
+fn ensure_sys_path(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let obj = vm.sys_module.get_attr("path", vm)?;
+    let list = PyListRef::try_from_object(vm, obj)?;
+    let items = list.borrow_vec();
+    let mut existing = HashSet::new();
+    for item in items.iter() {
+        let value = item.str(vm)?;
+        existing.insert(value.to_string());
+    }
+    for path in vm.state.config.paths.module_search_paths.iter().rev() {
+        if !existing.contains(path) {
+            vm.insert_sys_path(vm.ctx.new_str(path.as_str()).into())?;
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn setup_main_module(vm: &VirtualMachine, options: &ExecutionOptions) -> PyResult<Scope> {
+    let scope = vm.new_scope_with_builtins();
+    let main_module = vm.new_module(options.module_name.as_str(), scope.globals.clone(), None);
+    main_module
+        .dict()
+        .set_item("__annotations__", vm.ctx.new_dict().into(), vm)
+        .expect("Failed to initialize __main__.__annotations__");
+    main_module
+        .dict()
+        .set_item("__file__", vm.ctx.new_str(options.source_path.clone()).into(), vm)
+        .expect("Failed to initialize __main__.__file__");
+    main_module
+        .dict()
+        .set_item("__cached__", vm.ctx.none(), vm)
+        .expect("Failed to initialize __main__.__cached__");
+
+    let modules = vm.sys_module.get_attr("modules", vm)?;
+    modules.set_item(options.module_name.as_str(), main_module.clone().into(), vm)?;
+    if options.set_main_module && options.module_name != "__main__" {
+        modules.set_item("__main__", main_module.into(), vm)?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(scope)
+}
+
+fn extract_output(vm: &VirtualMachine, output: Option<rustpython_vm::PyObjectRef>) -> PyResult<Bytes> {
+    let Some(output) = output else {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    };
+
+    if output.downcast_ref::<PyNone>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+
+    output
+        .try_bytes_like(vm, |bytes| bytes.to_vec())
+        .map_err(|_| {
+            vm.new_type_error("pvm output must be bytes-like or None".to_owned())
+        })
+}
+
+fn map_exception(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    err: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> HostError {
+    if let Some(host_error) = host_error_from_exception(vm, err, options) {
+        return host_error;
+    }
+    if let Some(host_error) = determinism_error_from_exception(vm, err, options) {
+        vm.print_exception(err.clone());
+        return host_error;
+    }
+
+    let is_syntax = err.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.syntax_error);
+    if is_syntax {
+        return HostError::InvalidInput;
+    }
+
+    let is_type = err.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.exceptions.type_error);
+    if is_type {
+        return HostError::InvalidInput;
+    }
+
+    HostError::Internal
+}
+
+fn determinism_error_from_exception(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    err: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> Option<HostError> {
+    let module = get_host_module(vm, options)?;
+    let det_err_obj = module.get_attr("DeterministicValidationError", vm).ok()?;
+    let det_err_type = rustpython_vm::builtins::PyTypeRef::try_from_object(vm, det_err_obj).ok()?;
+    if err.fast_isinstance(&det_err_type) {
+        return Some(HostError::InvalidInput);
+    }
+
+    let nondet_obj = module.get_attr("NonDeterministicError", vm).ok()?;
+    let nondet_type = rustpython_vm::builtins::PyTypeRef::try_from_object(vm, nondet_obj).ok()?;
+    if err.fast_isinstance(&nondet_type) {
+        return Some(HostError::Forbidden);
+    }
+
+    let ooo_obj = module.get_attr("OutOfGasError", vm).ok()?;
+    let ooo_type = rustpython_vm::builtins::PyTypeRef::try_from_object(vm, ooo_obj).ok()?;
+    if err.fast_isinstance(&ooo_type) {
+        return Some(HostError::OutOfGas);
+    }
+
+    None
+}
+
+fn host_error_from_exception(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    err: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
+    options: &ExecutionOptions,
+) -> Option<HostError> {
+    let module = get_host_module(vm, options)?;
+    let host_error_obj = module.get_attr("HostError", vm).ok()?;
+    let host_error_type =
+        rustpython_vm::builtins::PyTypeRef::try_from_object(vm, host_error_obj).ok()?;
+    if !err.fast_isinstance(&host_error_type) {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let code_obj = err.as_object().get_attr("code", vm).ok()?;
+    let code = u32::try_from_object(vm, code_obj).ok()?;
+    HostError::from_code(code).or_else(|| {
+        let name_obj = err.as_object().get_attr("name", vm).ok()?;
+        let name = name_obj.str(vm).ok()?.to_string();
+        HostError::from_name(name.as_str())
+    })
+}
+
+fn get_host_module(vm: &VirtualMachine, options: &ExecutionOptions) -> Option<PyObjectRef> {
+    let modules_obj = vm.sys_module.get_attr("modules", vm).ok()?;
+    let modules = rustpython_vm::builtins::PyDictRef::try_from_object(vm, modules_obj).ok()?;
+    modules
+        .get_item_opt(options.host_module_name.as_str(), vm)
+        .ok()
+        .flatten()
+}
+
+fn export_import_trace(vm: &VirtualMachine, det: &DeterminismOptions) -> Result<(), HostError> {
+    if !det.trace_imports {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let Some(path) = det.trace_path.as_ref() else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+
+    let trace = read_trace_list(vm, "_pvm_import_trace")?;
+    let blocked = read_trace_list(vm, "_pvm_import_blocked")?;
+    let unique = dedup_in_order(&trace);
+    let blocked_unique = dedup_in_order(&blocked);
+
+    let blacklist = det.stdlib_blacklist.clone();
+    let mut whitelist = det.stdlib_whitelist.clone();
+    let mut missing = Vec::new();
+    let mut blacklisted = Vec::new();
+
+    for name in &unique {
+        if denied_by_list(&blacklist, name) {
+            blacklisted.push(name.clone());
+            continue;
+        }
+        if allowed_by_list(&whitelist, name) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        missing.push(name.clone());
+        whitelist.push(name.clone());
+    }
+
+    let payload = format!(
+        "{{\"trace\":{},\"unique\":{},\"blocked\":{},\"missing\":{},\"blacklisted\":{},\"whitelist_base\":{},\"whitelist_suggested\":{},\"blacklist\":{}}}\n",
+        json_list(&trace),
+        json_list(&unique),
+        json_list(&blocked_unique),
+        json_list(&missing),
+        json_list(&blacklisted),
+        json_list(&det.stdlib_whitelist),
+        json_list(&whitelist),
+        json_list(&blacklist),
+    );
+
+    write_trace_file(path, &payload)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn read_trace_list(vm: &VirtualMachine, name: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>, HostError> {
+    let name_obj = vm.ctx.new_str(name);
+    let obj = vm
+        .sys_module
+        .get_attr(&name_obj, vm)
+        .map_err(|_| HostError::Internal)?;
+    let list = PyListRef::try_from_object(vm, obj).map_err(|_| HostError::Internal)?;
+    let items = list.borrow_vec();
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(items.len());
+    for item in items.iter() {
+        let value = item.str(vm).map_err(|_| HostError::Internal)?;
+        out.push(value.to_string());
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+fn dedup_in_order(items: &[String]) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut seen: HashSet<&str> = HashSet::new();
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    for item in items {
+        if seen.insert(item.as_str()) {
+            out.push(item.clone());
+        }
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+fn allowed_by_list(list: &[String], name: &str) -> bool {
+    if name.is_empty() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    if list.iter().any(|item| item == name) {
+        return true;
+    }
+    let mut prefix = String::new();
+    for (idx, part) in name.split('.').enumerate() {
+        if idx > 0 {
+            prefix.push('.');
+        }
+        prefix.push_str(part);
+        if list.iter().any(|item| item == &prefix) {
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+    let name_prefix = format!("{name}.");
+    list.iter().any(|item| item.starts_with(&name_prefix))
+}
+
+fn denied_by_list(list: &[String], name: &str) -> bool {
+    if name.is_empty() {
+        return false;
+    }
+    let mut prefix = String::new();
+    for (idx, part) in name.split('.').enumerate() {
+        if idx > 0 {
+            prefix.push('.');
+        }
+        prefix.push_str(part);
+        if list.iter().any(|item| item == &prefix) {
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+    false
+}
+
+fn write_trace_file(path: &str, payload: &str) -> Result<(), HostError> {
+    let path = Path::new(path);
+    if let Some(parent) = path.parent() {
+        if !parent.as_os_str().is_empty() {
+            fs::create_dir_all(parent).map_err(|_| HostError::Internal)?;
+        }
+    }
+    fs::write(path, payload).map_err(|_| HostError::Internal)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn json_list(items: &[String]) -> String {
+    let mut out = String::from("[");
+    for (idx, item) in items.iter().enumerate() {
+        if idx > 0 {
+            out.push(',');
+        }
+        out.push('"');
+        out.push_str(&json_escape(item));
+        out.push('"');
+    }
+    out.push(']');
+    out
+}
+
+fn json_escape(input: &str) -> String {
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(input.len());
+    for ch in input.chars() {
+        match ch {
+            '\\' => out.push_str("\\\\"),
+            '"' => out.push_str("\\\""),
+            '\n' => out.push_str("\\n"),
+            '\r' => out.push_str("\\r"),
+            '\t' => out.push_str("\\t"),
+            _ => out.push(ch),
+        }
+    }
+    out
+}
diff --git a/crates/pvm-runtime/src/module.rs b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/module.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..db5fd1ede57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/pvm-runtime/src/module.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+pub(crate) use pvm_host_module::make_module;
+
+#[rustpython_vm::pymodule]
+mod pvm_host_module {
+    use crate::host;
+    use crate::continuation::RuntimeConfig;
+    use ::pvm_host::{HostApi, HostContext, HostError};
+    use rustpython_vm::{
+        AsObject,
+        PyObjectRef, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+        builtins::{PyBaseExceptionRef, PyStrRef, PyTypeRef},
+        function::ArgBytesLike,
+    };
+
+    fn host_error(vm: &VirtualMachine, err: HostError) -> PyBaseExceptionRef {
+        let exc = vm.new_exception(
+            host_error_type(vm),
+            vec![vm.ctx.new_str(err.to_string()).into()],
+        );
+        let _ = exc
+            .as_object()
+            .set_attr("code", vm.new_pyobj(err.code()), vm);
+        let _ = exc
+            .as_object()
+            .set_attr("name", vm.ctx.new_str(err.as_str()), vm);
+        exc
+    }
+
+    fn with_host<R>(
+        vm: &VirtualMachine,
+        f: impl FnOnce(&mut dyn HostApi) -> Result<R, HostError>,
+    ) -> PyResult<R> {
+        let result = host::with_host(f)
+            .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("pvm host is not initialized".to_owned()))?;
+        result.map_err(|err| host_error(vm, err))
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn get_state(key: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+        let value = with_host(vm, |host| key.with_ref(|bytes| host.state_get(bytes)))?;
+        Ok(match value {
+            Some(data) => vm.ctx.new_bytes(data).into(),
+            None => vm.ctx.none(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn set_state(key: ArgBytesLike, value: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| {
+            key.with_ref(|k| value.with_ref(|v| host.state_set(k, v)))
+        })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn delete_state(key: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| key.with_ref(|bytes| host.state_delete(bytes)))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn emit_event(topic: PyStrRef, data: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| data.with_ref(|bytes| host.emit_event(topic.as_str(), bytes)))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn charge_gas(amount: u64, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| host.charge_gas(amount))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn gas_left(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<u64> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| Ok(host.gas_left()))
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn context(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+        let ctx = with_host(vm, |host| Ok(host.context()))?;
+        Ok(host_context_to_dict(vm, ctx)?.into())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn randomness(domain: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+        let bytes = with_host(vm, |host| domain.with_ref(|d| host.randomness(d)))?;
+        Ok(vm.ctx.new_bytes(bytes.to_vec()).into())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn send_message(target: ArgBytesLike, payload: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| {
+            target.with_ref(|t| payload.with_ref(|p| host.send_message(t, p)))
+        })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn schedule_timer(height: u64, payload: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+        let timer_id = with_host(vm, |host| {
+            payload.with_ref(|p| host.schedule_timer(height, p))
+        })?;
+        Ok(vm.ctx.new_bytes(timer_id).into())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn cancel_timer(timer_id: ArgBytesLike, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        with_host(vm, |host| timer_id.with_ref(|id| host.cancel_timer(id)))?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn runtime_config(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+        let config = host::runtime_config();
+        Ok(runtime_config_to_dict(vm, config)?.into())
+    }
+
+    #[pyattr(name = "HostError", once)]
+    fn host_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyTypeRef {
+        vm.ctx.new_exception_type(
+            "pvm_host",
+            "HostError",
+            Some(vec![vm.ctx.exceptions.runtime_error.to_owned()]),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[pyattr(name = "DeterministicValidationError", once)]
+    fn deterministic_validation_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyTypeRef {
+        vm.ctx.new_exception_type(
+            "pvm_host",
+            "DeterministicValidationError",
+            Some(vec![vm.ctx.exceptions.value_error.to_owned()]),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[pyattr(name = "NonDeterministicError", once)]
+    fn nondeterministic_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyTypeRef {
+        vm.ctx.new_exception_type(
+            "pvm_host",
+            "NonDeterministicError",
+            Some(vec![vm.ctx.exceptions.runtime_error.to_owned()]),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[pyattr(name = "OutOfGasError", once)]
+    fn out_of_gas_error_type(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyTypeRef {
+        vm.ctx.new_exception_type(
+            "pvm_host",
+            "OutOfGasError",
+            Some(vec![vm.ctx.exceptions.runtime_error.to_owned()]),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn host_context_to_dict(
+        vm: &VirtualMachine,
+        ctx: HostContext,
+    ) -> PyResult<rustpython_vm::builtins::PyDictRef> {
+        let dict = vm.ctx.new_dict();
+        dict.set_item("block_height", vm.new_pyobj(ctx.block_height), vm)?;
+        dict.set_item(
+            "block_hash",
+            vm.ctx.new_bytes(ctx.block_hash.to_vec()).into(),
+            vm,
+        )?;
+        dict.set_item(
+            "tx_hash",
+            vm.ctx.new_bytes(ctx.tx_hash.to_vec()).into(),
+            vm,
+        )?;
+        dict.set_item("sender", vm.ctx.new_bytes(ctx.sender).into(), vm)?;
+        dict.set_item("timestamp_ms", vm.new_pyobj(ctx.timestamp_ms), vm)?;
+        dict.set_item("actor_addr", vm.ctx.new_bytes(ctx.actor_addr).into(), vm)?;
+        dict.set_item("msg_id", vm.ctx.new_bytes(ctx.msg_id).into(), vm)?;
+        dict.set_item("nonce", vm.new_pyobj(ctx.nonce), vm)?;
+        Ok(dict)
+    }
+
+    fn runtime_config_to_dict(
+        vm: &VirtualMachine,
+        cfg: Option<RuntimeConfig>,
+    ) -> PyResult<rustpython_vm::builtins::PyDictRef> {
+        let dict = vm.ctx.new_dict();
+        if let Some(cfg) = cfg {
+            dict.set_item(
+                "continuation_mode",
+                vm.ctx.new_str(cfg.continuation_mode.to_string()).into(),
+                vm,
+            )?;
+        }
+        Ok(dict)
+    }
+
+}
diff --git a/crates/stdlib/src/json.rs b/crates/stdlib/src/json.rs
index eb6ed3a5f64..e24a1d71508 100644
--- a/crates/stdlib/src/json.rs
+++ b/crates/stdlib/src/json.rs
@@ -34,23 +34,42 @@ mod _json {
         type Args = PyObjectRef;
 
         fn py_new(_cls: &Py<PyType>, ctx: Self::Args, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Self> {
-            let strict = ctx.get_attr("strict", vm)?.try_to_bool(vm)?;
-            let object_hook = vm.option_if_none(ctx.get_attr("object_hook", vm)?);
-            let object_pairs_hook = vm.option_if_none(ctx.get_attr("object_pairs_hook", vm)?);
-            let parse_float = ctx.get_attr("parse_float", vm)?;
-            let parse_float = if vm.is_none(&parse_float) || parse_float.is(vm.ctx.types.float_type)
-            {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(parse_float)
+            let strict = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "strict")? {
+                Some(value) => value.try_to_bool(vm)?,
+                None => true,
             };
-            let parse_int = ctx.get_attr("parse_int", vm)?;
-            let parse_int = if vm.is_none(&parse_int) || parse_int.is(vm.ctx.types.int_type) {
-                None
-            } else {
-                Some(parse_int)
+            let object_hook = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "object_hook")? {
+                Some(value) => vm.option_if_none(value),
+                None => None,
+            };
+            let object_pairs_hook = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "object_pairs_hook")? {
+                Some(value) => vm.option_if_none(value),
+                None => None,
+            };
+            let parse_float = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "parse_float")? {
+                Some(value) => {
+                    if vm.is_none(&value) || value.is(vm.ctx.types.float_type) {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(value)
+                    }
+                }
+                None => None,
+            };
+            let parse_int = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "parse_int")? {
+                Some(value) => {
+                    if vm.is_none(&value) || value.is(vm.ctx.types.int_type) {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(value)
+                    }
+                }
+                None => None,
+            };
+            let parse_constant = match vm.get_attribute_opt(ctx.clone(), "parse_constant")? {
+                Some(value) if !vm.is_none(&value) => value,
+                _ => vm.ctx.types.float_type.to_owned().into(),
             };
-            let parse_constant = ctx.get_attr("parse_constant", vm)?;
 
             Ok(Self {
                 strict,
@@ -66,6 +85,11 @@ mod _json {
 
     #[pyclass(with(Callable, Constructor))]
     impl JsonScanner {
+        #[pymethod]
+        fn __getnewargs__(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyObjectRef> {
+            Ok(vm.new_tuple(vec![self.ctx.clone()]).into())
+        }
+
         fn parse(
             &self,
             s: &str,
diff --git a/crates/vm/build.rs b/crates/vm/build.rs
index f76bf3f5cbd..6c76097a541 100644
--- a/crates/vm/build.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/build.rs
@@ -12,6 +12,8 @@ fn main() {
         println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed={display}");
     }
     println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=../../Lib/importlib/_bootstrap.py");
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed=../../Cargo.toml");
+    println!("cargo:rerun-if-env-changed=PVM_VERSION");
 
     println!("cargo:rustc-env=RUSTPYTHON_GIT_HASH={}", git_hash());
     println!(
@@ -21,6 +23,7 @@ fn main() {
     println!("cargo:rustc-env=RUSTPYTHON_GIT_TAG={}", git_tag());
     println!("cargo:rustc-env=RUSTPYTHON_GIT_BRANCH={}", git_branch());
     println!("cargo:rustc-env=RUSTC_VERSION={}", rustc_version());
+    println!("cargo:rustc-env=PVM_VERSION={}", pvm_version());
 
     println!(
         "cargo:rustc-env=RUSTPYTHON_TARGET_TRIPLE={}",
@@ -63,6 +66,45 @@ fn rustc_version() -> String {
     command(rustc, &["-V"])
 }
 
+fn pvm_version() -> String {
+    if let Ok(version) = env::var("PVM_VERSION") {
+        if !version.trim().is_empty() {
+            return version;
+        }
+    }
+
+    let manifest_dir = match env::var("CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR") {
+        Ok(dir) => PathBuf::from(dir),
+        Err(_) => return "0.0.0".to_owned(),
+    };
+    let root_manifest = manifest_dir.join("../../Cargo.toml");
+    let manifest = match std::fs::read_to_string(root_manifest) {
+        Ok(contents) => contents,
+        Err(_) => return "0.0.0".to_owned(),
+    };
+
+    let mut in_pvm_section = false;
+    for line in manifest.lines() {
+        let line = line.trim();
+        if line.starts_with('[') && line.ends_with(']') {
+            in_pvm_section = line == "[package.metadata.pvm]";
+            continue;
+        }
+        if !in_pvm_section || line.is_empty() || line.starts_with('#') {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let (key, value) = match line.split_once('=') {
+            Some(pair) => pair,
+            None => continue,
+        };
+        if key.trim() == "version" {
+            return value.trim().trim_matches('"').to_owned();
+        }
+    }
+
+    "0.0.0".to_owned()
+}
+
 fn command(cmd: impl AsRef<std::ffi::OsStr>, args: &[&str]) -> String {
     match Command::new(cmd).args(args).output() {
         Ok(output) => match String::from_utf8(output.stdout) {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/frame.rs b/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
index 3f470e5453f..b570180fe54 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/frame.rs
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ use crate::{
     types::PyTypeFlags,
     vm::{Context, PyMethod},
 };
+use crate::vm::checkpoint;
 use indexmap::IndexMap;
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use rustpython_common::{boxvec::BoxVec, lock::PyMutex, wtf8::Wtf8Buf};
@@ -27,15 +28,15 @@ use std::sync::atomic;
 use std::{fmt, iter::zip};
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-struct Block {
+pub(crate) struct Block {
     /// The type of block.
-    typ: BlockType,
+    pub(crate) typ: BlockType,
     /// The level of the value stack when the block was entered.
-    level: usize,
+    pub(crate) level: usize,
 }
 
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-enum BlockType {
+pub(crate) enum BlockType {
     Loop,
     TryExcept {
         handler: bytecode::Label,
@@ -60,7 +61,7 @@ pub type FrameRef = PyRef<Frame>;
 /// This could be return of function, exception being
 /// raised, a break or continue being hit, etc..
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-enum UnwindReason {
+pub(crate) enum UnwindReason {
     /// We are returning a value from a return statement.
     Returning { value: PyObjectRef },
 
@@ -222,6 +223,76 @@ impl Frame {
         }
         Ok(locals.clone())
     }
+
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    pub(crate) fn checkpoint_stack(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Vec<PyObjectRef>> {
+        let state = self.state.lock();
+        if !state.blocks.is_empty() {
+            return Err(vm.new_runtime_error(
+                "checkpoint does not support active block stacks".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(state.stack.iter().cloned().collect())
+    }
+
+    /// Get the value stack without checking blocks (for multi-frame checkpoint support)
+    pub(crate) fn get_stack(&self, _vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Vec<PyObjectRef>> {
+        let state = self.state.lock();
+        Ok(state.stack.iter().cloned().collect())
+    }
+
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    pub(crate) fn restore_stack(
+        &self,
+        stack: Vec<PyObjectRef>,
+        vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    ) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock();
+        if stack.len() > state.stack.capacity() {
+            return Err(vm.new_runtime_error(
+                "checkpoint stack exceeds frame capacity".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+        state.stack.clear();
+        for value in stack {
+            state.stack.push(value);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Push a value onto the frame's value stack
+    /// This is used when resuming from a checkpoint and an inner frame returns
+    pub(crate) fn push_stack_value(&self, value: PyObjectRef) {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock();
+        state.stack.push(value);
+    }
+
+    /// Push a block onto the frame's block stack
+    /// This is used when resuming from a checkpoint to restore control flow state
+    pub(crate) fn push_block(&self, block: Block) {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock();
+        state.blocks.push(block);
+    }
+
+    /// Get a clone of the current block stack
+    /// This is used when creating a checkpoint to save control flow state
+    pub(crate) fn get_blocks(&self) -> Vec<Block> {
+        let state = self.state.lock();
+        state.blocks.clone()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn set_lasti(&self, value: u32) {
+        #[cfg(feature = "threading")]
+        {
+            let mut state = self.state.lock();
+            state.lasti = value;
+            self.lasti.store(value, atomic::Ordering::Relaxed);
+        }
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "threading"))]
+        {
+            self.lasti.set(value);
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 impl Py<Frame> {
@@ -412,6 +483,93 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
             if !do_extend_arg {
                 arg_state.reset()
             }
+            if let Some(request) = maybe_checkpoint_request(vm, op, idx as u32) {
+                // Save checkpoint using the new multi-frame API
+                // Pass the current instruction index (which has already been validated as PopTop)
+                // The resume point is the next instruction after PopTop
+                let resume_lasti = (idx as u32).checked_add(1).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint lasti overflow".to_owned())
+                })?;
+                
+                // Collect current frame's stack and blocks (must do this while we still hold the state lock)
+                let current_stack: Vec<PyObjectRef> = self.state.stack.iter().cloned().collect();
+                let current_blocks: Vec<Block> = self.state.blocks.clone();
+                
+                // Prepare locals dict for current frame (to avoid locking fastlocals later)
+                // For now, use a minimal approach to avoid any potential deadlocks
+                let current_locals = {
+                    let locals_dict = vm.ctx.new_dict();
+                    // Try to lock fastlocals - if this fails/hangs, we have a problem
+                    if let Some(fastlocals) = self.fastlocals.try_lock() {
+                        for (idx, varname) in self.code.code.varnames.iter().enumerate() {
+                            if let Some(value) = &fastlocals[idx] {
+                                let _ = locals_dict.set_item(*varname, value.clone(), vm);
+                            }
+                        }
+                        // Note: Not handling cell/free vars for now to avoid complexity
+                    }
+                    // If try_lock fails, use empty dict
+                    Some(locals_dict.into())
+                };
+                
+                let save_result = match request.target {
+                    crate::vm::CheckpointTarget::File(path) => {
+                        checkpoint::save_checkpoint_with_lasti_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+                            &vm,
+                            &path,
+                            resume_lasti,
+                            current_stack,
+                            current_blocks,
+                            current_locals,
+                        )
+                        .map(|_| None)
+                    }
+                    crate::vm::CheckpointTarget::Bytes => {
+                        checkpoint::save_checkpoint_bytes_with_lasti_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+                            &vm,
+                            resume_lasti,
+                            current_stack,
+                            current_blocks,
+                            current_locals,
+                        )
+                        .map(Some)
+                    }
+                };
+                let checkpoint_bytes = match save_result {
+                    Ok(bytes) => bytes,
+                    Err(exc) => {
+                        eprintln!("  Exception class: {}", exc.class().name());
+                        return Err(exc);
+                    }
+                };
+                if let Some(bytes) = checkpoint_bytes {
+                    *vm.state.checkpoint_result.lock() = Some(bytes);
+                }
+                
+                // Flush output buffers before exiting
+                // Try to flush Python's stdout/stderr by accessing the sys module
+                if let Ok(sys_module) = vm.import("sys", 0) {
+                    if let Ok(stdout) = sys_module.get_attr("stdout", vm) {
+                        let _ = vm.call_method(&stdout, "flush", ());
+                    }
+                    if let Ok(stderr) = sys_module.get_attr("stderr", vm) {
+                        let _ = vm.call_method(&stderr, "flush", ());
+                    }
+                }
+                
+                // Also flush Rust-level output
+                use std::io::Write;
+                let _ = std::io::stdout().flush();
+                let _ = std::io::stderr().flush();
+                
+                if vm.state.config.settings.checkpoint_exit {
+                    std::process::exit(0);
+                }
+                return Err(vm.new_exception_msg(
+                    vm.ctx.exceptions.system_exit.to_owned(),
+                    "checkpoint exit".to_owned(),
+                ));
+            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -2554,6 +2712,27 @@ impl ExecutingFrame<'_> {
     }
 }
 
+fn maybe_checkpoint_request(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    op: bytecode::Instruction,
+    idx: u32,
+) -> Option<crate::vm::CheckpointRequest> {
+    let mut request = vm.state.checkpoint_request.lock();
+    let Some(pending) = request.as_ref() else {
+        return None;
+    };
+    if pending.expected_lasti != idx {
+        return None;
+    }
+    if op != bytecode::Instruction::PopTop {
+        *request = None;
+        return None;
+    }
+    let pending = pending.clone();
+    *request = None;
+    Some(pending)
+}
+
 impl fmt::Debug for Frame {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
         let state = self.state.lock();
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/object/core.rs b/crates/vm/src/object/core.rs
index d52a33884ce..a562561b991 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/object/core.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/object/core.rs
@@ -804,7 +804,9 @@ impl PyObject {
                 // we've been resurrected by __del__
                 Some(false) => Err(()),
                 None => {
-                    warn!("couldn't run __del__ method for object");
+                    if crate::vm::thread::has_vm() {
+                        warn!("couldn't run __del__ method for object");
+                    }
                     Ok(())
                 }
             }
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/mod.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/mod.rs
index 9fae516fe04..7ed6082135d 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/mod.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/mod.rs
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ pub mod io;
 mod itertools;
 mod marshal;
 mod operator;
+mod rustpython_checkpoint;
 // TODO: maybe make this an extension module, if we ever get those
 // mod re;
 mod sre;
@@ -95,6 +96,7 @@ pub fn get_module_inits() -> StdlibMap {
             "_io" => io::make_module,
             "marshal" => marshal::make_module,
             "_operator" => operator::make_module,
+            "rustpython_checkpoint" => rustpython_checkpoint::make_module,
             "_signal" => signal::make_module,
             "_sre" => sre::make_module,
             "_stat" => stat::make_module,
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/stdlib/rustpython_checkpoint.rs b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/rustpython_checkpoint.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bfc68f3203d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/vm/src/stdlib/rustpython_checkpoint.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+pub(crate) use rustpython_checkpoint::make_module;
+
+#[pymodule]
+mod rustpython_checkpoint {
+    use crate::{PyResult, VirtualMachine, builtins::PyStrRef};
+    use crate::vm::{CheckpointRequest, CheckpointTarget};
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn checkpoint(path: PyStrRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let frame = vm
+            .current_frame()
+            .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()))?;
+        let expected_lasti = frame.lasti();
+        let mut request = vm.state.checkpoint_request.lock();
+        *request = Some(crate::vm::CheckpointRequest {
+            target: CheckpointTarget::File(path.as_str().to_owned()),
+            expected_lasti,
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[pyfunction]
+    fn checkpoint_bytes(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
+        let frame = vm
+            .current_frame()
+            .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()))?;
+        let expected_lasti = frame.lasti();
+        let mut request = vm.state.checkpoint_request.lock();
+        *request = Some(CheckpointRequest {
+            target: CheckpointTarget::Bytes,
+            expected_lasti,
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/version.rs b/crates/vm/src/version.rs
index 0a598842a56..94d1daa18bb 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/version.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/version.rs
@@ -31,10 +31,13 @@ pub fn get_version() -> String {
     #[cfg(not(windows))]
     let msc_info = String::new();
 
+    let pvm_version = env!("PVM_VERSION");
+
     format!(
-        "{:.80} ({:.80}) \n[RustPython {} with {:.80}{}]", // \n is PyPy convention
+        "{:.80} ({:.80}) \nPVM VERSION {} , based on RustPython {} with {:.80}{}", // \n is PyPy convention
         get_version_number(),
         get_build_info(),
+        pvm_version,
         env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION"),
         COMPILER,
         msc_info,
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/checkpoint.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/checkpoint.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..46e46a9adf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/checkpoint.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,477 @@
+use crate::{
+    PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    builtins::{PyDictRef, code::PyCode},
+    convert::TryFromObject,
+    frame::FrameRef,
+    scope::Scope,
+    vm::snapshot,
+};
+use crate::bytecode;
+use crate::builtins::function::PyFunction;
+use std::fs;
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint(vm: &VirtualMachine, path: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let frames = vm.frames.borrow();
+    if frames.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()));
+    }
+    
+    // Get all frames in the stack
+    let frame_refs: Vec<_> = frames.iter().map(|f| f.to_owned()).collect();
+    drop(frames);  // Release borrow
+    
+    
+    // Temporarily skip validation to avoid potential deadlock
+    // TODO: Re-enable validation after fixing the issue
+    // for frame in &frame_refs {
+    //     validate_frame_for_checkpoint(vm, frame)?;
+    // }
+    
+    let data = save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames(vm, &frame_refs, None)?;
+    fs::write(path, &data).map_err(|err| vm.new_os_error(format!("checkpoint write failed: {err}")))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+// Version that accepts the innermost frame's resume_lasti (already validated)
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_with_lasti(vm: &VirtualMachine, path: &str, innermost_resume_lasti: u32) -> PyResult<()> {
+    save_checkpoint_with_lasti_stack_and_blocks(vm, path, innermost_resume_lasti, Vec::new(), Vec::new())
+}
+
+// Version that accepts both resume_lasti and the innermost frame's stack
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_with_lasti_stack_and_blocks(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine, 
+    path: &str, 
+    innermost_resume_lasti: u32,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    save_checkpoint_with_lasti_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm, path, innermost_resume_lasti, innermost_stack, innermost_blocks, None
+    )
+}
+
+// Version that also accepts prepared locals for innermost frame
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_with_lasti_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine, 
+    path: &str, 
+    innermost_resume_lasti: u32,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>,
+    innermost_locals: Option<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let frames = vm.frames.borrow();
+    if frames.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()));
+    }
+    
+    
+    // Get all frames in the stack
+    let frame_refs: Vec<_> = frames.iter().map(|f| f.to_owned()).collect();
+    drop(frames);  // Release borrow
+    
+    
+    let data = save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm, 
+        &frame_refs, 
+        Some(innermost_resume_lasti),
+        innermost_stack,
+        innermost_blocks,
+        innermost_locals
+    )?;
+    fs::write(path, &data).map_err(|err| vm.new_os_error(format!("checkpoint write failed: {err}")))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_bytes_with_lasti_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    innermost_resume_lasti: u32,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>,
+    innermost_locals: Option<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    let frames = vm.frames.borrow();
+    if frames.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()));
+    }
+
+    let frame_refs: Vec<_> = frames.iter().map(|f| f.to_owned()).collect();
+    drop(frames);
+
+    save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm,
+        &frame_refs,
+        Some(innermost_resume_lasti),
+        innermost_stack,
+        innermost_blocks,
+        innermost_locals,
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_bytes(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    let frames = vm.frames.borrow();
+    if frames.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint requires an active frame".to_owned()));
+    }
+    
+    // Get all frames in the stack
+    let frame_refs: Vec<_> = frames.iter().map(|f| f.to_owned()).collect();
+    drop(frames);  // Release borrow
+    
+    // Validate all frames
+    for frame in &frame_refs {
+        validate_frame_for_checkpoint(vm, frame)?;
+    }
+    
+    save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames(vm, &frame_refs, None)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_from_exec(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    lasti: u32,
+    code: &PyCode,
+    globals: &PyDictRef,
+    path: &str,
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let data = save_checkpoint_bytes_from_exec(vm, source_path, lasti, code, globals)?;
+    fs::write(path, &data).map_err(|err| vm.new_os_error(format!("checkpoint write failed: {err}")))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn save_checkpoint_bytes_from_exec(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    lasti: u32,
+    code: &PyCode,
+    globals: &PyDictRef,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    snapshot::dump_checkpoint_state(vm, source_path, lasti, code, globals)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn resume_script_from_checkpoint(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    _scope: Scope,
+    script_path: &str,
+    checkpoint_path: &str,
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let data = fs::read(checkpoint_path)
+        .map_err(|err| vm.new_os_error(format!("checkpoint read failed: {err}")))?;
+    resume_script_from_bytes(vm, script_path, &data)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn resume_script_from_bytes(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    script_path: &str,
+    data: &[u8],
+) -> PyResult<()> {
+    let (state, objects) = snapshot::load_checkpoint_state(vm, data)?;
+    
+    if state.source_path != script_path {
+        return Err(vm.new_value_error(format!(
+            "checkpoint source_path '{}' does not match script '{}'",
+            state.source_path, script_path
+        )));
+    }
+
+    // Get globals
+    let globals_obj = objects
+        .get(state.root as usize)
+        .cloned()
+        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint globals missing".to_owned()))?;
+    let globals_dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(vm, globals_obj)?;
+
+    if !globals_dict.contains_key("__file__", vm) {
+        globals_dict.set_item("__file__", vm.ctx.new_str(script_path).into(), vm)?;
+        globals_dict.set_item("__cached__", vm.ctx.none(), vm)?;
+    }
+
+    // Rebuild all frames from bottom to top
+    let mut frame_refs = Vec::new();
+    for (i, frame_state) in state.frames.iter().enumerate() {
+        let code = snapshot::decode_code_object(vm, &frame_state.code)
+            .map_err(|err| vm.new_value_error(format!("checkpoint frame {i} code invalid: {err:?}")))?;
+        let code_obj: crate::PyRef<PyCode> = vm.ctx.new_pyref(PyCode::new(code));
+
+        // Get locals for this frame
+        let locals_obj = objects
+            .get(frame_state.locals as usize)
+            .cloned()
+            .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("checkpoint frame {i} locals missing")))?;
+        
+        let locals_dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(vm, locals_obj.clone())?;
+
+        let varnames = &code_obj.code.varnames;
+        
+        // Try to iterate all keys in the dict
+        let dict_items: Vec<_> = locals_dict.clone().into_iter().collect();
+        for (key, value) in dict_items.iter() {
+            if let Some(key_str) = key.downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::PyStr>() {
+            }
+        }
+        
+        // Debug: check what's in locals_dict BEFORE creating the frame
+        for varname in varnames.iter() {
+            if let Some(value) = locals_dict.get_item_opt(*varname, vm)? {
+            } else {
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Create ArgMapping from locals dict
+        let locals_mapping = crate::function::ArgMapping::from_dict_exact(locals_dict.clone());
+        
+        // Create scope with locals and globals
+        let scope = Scope::with_builtins(Some(locals_mapping), globals_dict.clone(), vm);
+        let func = PyFunction::new(code_obj.clone(), globals_dict.clone(), vm)?;
+        let func_obj = func.into_ref(&vm.ctx).into();
+        let frame = crate::frame::Frame::new(code_obj.clone(), scope, vm.builtins.dict(), &[], Some(func_obj), vm)
+            .into_ref(&vm.ctx);
+
+        // Restore fastlocals from the locals dict
+        let mut fastlocals = frame.fastlocals.lock();
+        for (idx, varname) in varnames.iter().enumerate() {
+            if let Some(value) = locals_dict.get_item_opt(*varname, vm)? {
+                fastlocals[idx] = Some(value);
+            } else {
+            }
+        }
+        drop(fastlocals);
+
+        // Restore the value stack
+        for stack_item_id in &frame_state.stack {
+            let stack_obj = objects
+                .get(*stack_item_id as usize)
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("checkpoint frame {i} stack item {} missing", stack_item_id)))?;
+            frame.push_stack_value(stack_obj);
+        }
+
+        // Restore block stack
+        for block_state in &frame_state.blocks {
+            let block = snapshot::convert_block_state_to_block(block_state, &objects, vm)?;
+            frame.push_block(block);
+        }
+
+        if frame_state.lasti as usize >= frame.code.instructions.len() {
+            return Err(vm.new_value_error(
+                format!("checkpoint frame {i} lasti is out of range for current bytecode"),
+            ));
+        }
+        frame.set_lasti(frame_state.lasti);
+        frame_refs.push(frame);
+    }
+
+    
+    if frame_refs.len() == 1 {
+        // Simple case: only one frame, just run it
+        let result = vm.run_frame(frame_refs[0].clone());
+        vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+        return result.map(drop);
+    }
+    
+    // Multiple frames: need to execute inner frames first, then continue outer frames
+    // Push all outer frames to VM stack (they are waiting for inner frames to return)
+    for i in 0..frame_refs.len() - 1 {
+        vm.frames.borrow_mut().push(frame_refs[i].clone());
+    }
+
+    // Run the innermost frame using vm.run_frame
+    let innermost_frame = frame_refs.last().unwrap().clone();
+    let inner_result = vm.run_frame(innermost_frame);
+    
+    // If inner frame failed, clean up and return error
+    let inner_return_val = match inner_result {
+        Ok(val) => val,
+        Err(e) => {
+            vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+            return Err(e);
+        }
+    };
+    
+    // Push the inner frame's return value to the caller's (outer frame's) stack
+    let caller_frame = &frame_refs[frame_refs.len() - 2];
+    caller_frame.push_stack_value(inner_return_val);
+    
+    // Inner frame succeeded. Now continue executing outer frames
+    // The return value from inner frame should be on the caller's stack already
+    // We need to continue executing from the outermost frame
+    for i in (0..frame_refs.len() - 1).rev() {
+        let frame = frame_refs[i].clone();
+        
+        // Use frame.run() directly since frame is already on VM stack
+        let result = frame.run(vm);
+        
+        match result {
+            Ok(crate::frame::ExecutionResult::Return(val)) => {
+                // Frame returned normally
+                // Pop this frame
+                vm.frames.borrow_mut().pop();
+                
+                // If there's an outer frame, push the return value to its stack
+                if i > 0 {
+                    frame_refs[i - 1].push_stack_value(val);
+                } else {
+                    // This was the outermost frame, we're done
+                    vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                // Error occurred
+                vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+                return Err(e);
+            }
+            Ok(_other) => {
+                vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+                return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("unexpected execution result (not Return)".to_owned()));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    
+    vm.frames.borrow_mut().clear();
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+fn compute_resume_lasti(vm: &VirtualMachine, frame: &FrameRef) -> PyResult<u32> {
+    let lasti = frame.lasti();
+    let next = frame
+        .code
+        .instructions
+        .get(lasti as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint out of range".to_owned()))?;
+    if next.op != bytecode::Instruction::PopTop {
+        return Err(vm.new_value_error(
+            "checkpoint() must be used as a standalone statement".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    lasti
+        .checked_add(1)
+        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint lasti overflow".to_owned()))
+}
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+fn validate_frame_for_checkpoint(vm: &VirtualMachine, frame: &FrameRef) -> PyResult<()> {
+    // Check value stack is empty
+    let stack = frame.checkpoint_stack(vm)?;
+    if !stack.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_value_error(
+            "checkpoint requires an empty value stack in all frames".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    
+    // Validate instruction pointer
+    let lasti = frame.lasti();
+    let next = frame
+        .code
+        .instructions
+        .get(lasti as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error("checkpoint out of range".to_owned()))?;
+    if next.op != bytecode::Instruction::PopTop {
+        return Err(vm.new_value_error(
+            "checkpoint() must be used as a standalone statement".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    frames: &[FrameRef],
+    innermost_resume_lasti: Option<u32>,  // If provided, use this for the innermost frame
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack(vm, frames, innermost_resume_lasti, Vec::new())
+}
+
+fn save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    frames: &[FrameRef],
+    innermost_resume_lasti: Option<u32>,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_and_blocks(
+        vm,
+        frames,
+        innermost_resume_lasti,
+        innermost_stack,
+        Vec::new()  // Empty blocks for compatibility
+    )
+}
+
+fn save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_and_blocks(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    frames: &[FrameRef],
+    innermost_resume_lasti: Option<u32>,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm, frames, innermost_resume_lasti, innermost_stack, innermost_blocks, None
+    )
+}
+
+fn save_checkpoint_bytes_from_frames_with_stack_blocks_and_locals(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    frames: &[FrameRef],
+    innermost_resume_lasti: Option<u32>,
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>,
+    innermost_locals: Option<crate::PyObjectRef>,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    if frames.is_empty() {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error("no frames to checkpoint".to_owned()));
+    }
+    
+    // Get source path from the outermost (first) frame
+    let source_path = frames[0].code.source_path.as_str();
+    
+    // Build blocks vec: only innermost frame gets blocks, others get empty vec.
+    // Outer frames are waiting for inner frames to return and their block state
+    // can be safely reconstructed as empty since they're not in active control flow.
+    let mut all_blocks = vec![Vec::new(); frames.len()];
+    if !frames.is_empty() {
+        all_blocks[frames.len() - 1] = innermost_blocks;
+    }
+    
+    // Collect frame states
+    let mut frame_states = Vec::new();
+    for (idx, frame) in frames.iter().enumerate() {
+        // Only the innermost (last) frame needs special handling
+        let is_innermost = idx == frames.len() - 1;
+        let resume_lasti = if is_innermost {
+            // If innermost_resume_lasti is provided, use it (already validated)
+            // Otherwise compute it (for backward compatibility)
+            if let Some(lasti) = innermost_resume_lasti {
+                lasti
+            } else {
+                compute_resume_lasti(vm, frame)?
+            }
+        } else {
+            // For non-innermost frames, just use current lasti
+            frame.lasti()
+        };
+        frame_states.push((frame, resume_lasti));
+    }
+    
+    snapshot::dump_checkpoint_frames_with_all_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm, 
+        source_path, 
+        &frame_states, 
+        innermost_stack,
+        all_blocks,
+        innermost_locals
+    )
+}
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+fn ensure_supported_frame(vm: &VirtualMachine, frame: &FrameRef) -> PyResult<()> {
+    if vm.frames.borrow().len() != 1 {
+        return Err(vm.new_runtime_error(
+            "checkpoint only supports top-level module frames".to_owned(),
+        ));
+    }
+    validate_frame_for_checkpoint(vm, frame)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/compile.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/compile.rs
index b5f10e47aa1..f1ccef84d89 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/compile.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/compile.rs
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ use crate::{
     convert::TryFromObject,
     scope::Scope,
 };
+use crate::vm::checkpoint;
 
 impl VirtualMachine {
     pub fn compile(
@@ -50,6 +51,29 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
         self.run_any_file(scope, path)
     }
 
+    pub fn run_script_resume(&self, scope: Scope, path: &str, checkpoint_path: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
+        if get_importer(path, self)?.is_some() {
+            return Err(self.new_runtime_error(
+                "checkpoint resume does not support importers".to_owned(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if !self.state.config.settings.safe_path {
+            let dir = std::path::Path::new(path)
+                .parent()
+                .unwrap()
+                .to_str()
+                .unwrap();
+            self.insert_sys_path(self.new_pyobj(dir))?;
+        }
+
+        checkpoint::resume_script_from_checkpoint(self, scope, path, checkpoint_path)
+    }
+
+    pub fn resume_from_bytes(&self, script_path: &str, data: &[u8]) -> PyResult<()> {
+        checkpoint::resume_script_from_bytes(self, script_path, data)
+    }
+
     // = _PyRun_AnyFileObject
     fn run_any_file(&self, scope: Scope, path: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
         let path = if path.is_empty() { "???" } else { path };
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
index 34092454059..0c856122b80 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/mod.rs
@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@
 #[cfg(feature = "rustpython-compiler")]
 mod compile;
 mod context;
+pub(crate) mod checkpoint;
+pub(crate) mod snapshot;
 mod interpreter;
 mod method;
 mod setting;
@@ -50,7 +52,7 @@ use std::{
 pub use context::Context;
 pub use interpreter::Interpreter;
 pub(crate) use method::PyMethod;
-pub use setting::{CheckHashPycsMode, Paths, PyConfig, Settings};
+pub use setting::{CheckHashPycsMode, ContinuationMode, Paths, PyConfig, Settings};
 
 pub const MAX_MEMORY_SIZE: usize = isize::MAX as usize;
 
@@ -103,6 +105,20 @@ pub struct PyGlobalState {
     pub after_forkers_parent: PyMutex<Vec<PyObjectRef>>,
     pub int_max_str_digits: AtomicCell<usize>,
     pub switch_interval: AtomicCell<f64>,
+    pub(crate) checkpoint_request: PyMutex<Option<CheckpointRequest>>,
+    pub(crate) checkpoint_result: PyMutex<Option<Vec<u8>>>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct CheckpointRequest {
+    pub target: CheckpointTarget,
+    pub expected_lasti: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum CheckpointTarget {
+    File(String),
+    Bytes,
 }
 
 pub fn process_hash_secret_seed() -> u32 {
@@ -187,6 +203,8 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
                 after_forkers_parent: PyMutex::default(),
                 int_max_str_digits,
                 switch_interval: AtomicCell::new(0.005),
+                checkpoint_request: PyMutex::default(),
+                checkpoint_result: PyMutex::default(),
             }),
             initialized: false,
             recursion_depth: Cell::new(0),
@@ -506,9 +524,17 @@ impl VirtualMachine {
     pub fn compile_opts(&self) -> crate::compiler::CompileOpts {
         crate::compiler::CompileOpts {
             optimize: self.state.config.settings.optimize,
+            pvm_fsm: matches!(
+                self.state.config.settings.continuation_mode,
+                Some(setting::ContinuationMode::Fsm)
+            ),
         }
     }
 
+    pub fn take_checkpoint_bytes(&self) -> Option<Vec<u8>> {
+        self.state.checkpoint_result.lock().take()
+    }
+
     // To be called right before raising the recursion depth.
     fn check_recursive_call(&self, _where: &str) -> PyResult<()> {
         if self.recursion_depth.get() >= self.recursion_limit.get() {
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/setting.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/setting.rs
index 53e2cef1160..19b6f2b0976 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/setting.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/setting.rs
@@ -70,6 +70,9 @@ pub struct Settings {
     /// sys.argv
     pub argv: Vec<String>,
 
+    /// RustPython checkpoint resume path
+    pub resume_path: Option<String>,
+
     // spell-checker:ignore Xfoo
     /// -Xfoo[=bar]
     pub xoptions: Vec<(String, Option<String>)>,
@@ -138,6 +141,12 @@ pub struct Settings {
     /// -O optimization switch counter
     pub optimize: u8,
 
+    /// PVM continuation mode (FSM or checkpoint)
+    pub continuation_mode: Option<ContinuationMode>,
+
+    /// Allow checkpoint to exit the process (CLI default)
+    pub checkpoint_exit: bool,
+
     /// -E
     pub ignore_environment: bool,
 
@@ -159,6 +168,13 @@ pub enum CheckHashPycsMode {
     Never,
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, strum_macros::Display, strum_macros::EnumString)]
+#[strum(serialize_all = "lowercase")]
+pub enum ContinuationMode {
+    Fsm,
+    Checkpoint,
+}
+
 impl Settings {
     pub fn with_path(mut self, path: String) -> Self {
         self.path_list.push(path);
@@ -174,6 +190,8 @@ impl Default for Settings {
             inspect: false,
             interactive: false,
             optimize: 0,
+            continuation_mode: None,
+            checkpoint_exit: true,
             install_signal_handlers: true,
             user_site_directory: true,
             import_site: true,
@@ -190,6 +208,7 @@ impl Default for Settings {
             warnoptions: vec![],
             path_list: vec![],
             argv: vec![],
+            resume_path: None,
             hash_seed: None,
             faulthandler: false,
             buffered_stdio: true,
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/snapshot.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/snapshot.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2d8965ab0dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/snapshot.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,3667 @@
+use crate::{
+    AsObject, PyObjectRef, PyPayload, PyResult, VirtualMachine,
+    builtins::{
+        PyClassMethod, PyDictRef, PyFloat, PyInt, PyList, PyModule, PyStaticMethod, PyStr, PyTuple,
+        PyWeak,
+        code::{PyCode, CodeObject, PyObjBag},
+        dict::PyDict,
+        function::{PyCell, PyFunction},
+        set::{PyFrozenSet, PySet},
+        type_::PyType,
+    },
+    convert::TryFromObject,
+    protocol::PyIterReturn,
+};
+use rustpython_compiler_core::marshal;
+use rustpython_compiler_core::bytecode;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+// Block conversion functions are defined at the end of this file
+
+pub(crate) type ObjId = u32;
+
+const SNAPSHOT_VERSION: u32 = 3;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct CheckpointState {
+    pub version: u32,
+    pub source_path: String,
+    pub frames: Vec<FrameState>,  // Frame stack (outermost first)
+    pub root: ObjId,               // Global namespace
+    pub objects: Vec<ObjectEntry>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct FrameState {
+    pub code: Vec<u8>,      // Marshaled code object
+    pub lasti: u32,         // Instruction pointer
+    pub locals: ObjId,      // Local variables dict
+    pub stack: Vec<ObjId>,  // Value stack (for loop iterators, etc.)
+    pub blocks: Vec<BlockState>, // Block stack (for loops, try/except)
+}
+
+impl Default for FrameState {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            code: Vec::new(),
+            lasti: 0,
+            locals: 0,
+            stack: Vec::new(),
+            blocks: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Serializable representation of a block stack entry
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) struct BlockState {
+    pub typ: BlockTypeState,
+    pub level: usize,
+}
+
+/// Serializable representation of block types
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum BlockTypeState {
+    Loop,
+    TryExcept { handler: u32 },
+    Finally { handler: u32 },
+    FinallyHandler {
+        reason: Option<UnwindReasonState>,
+        prev_exc: Option<ObjId>,
+    },
+    ExceptHandler {
+        prev_exc: Option<ObjId>,
+    },
+}
+
+/// Serializable representation of unwind reasons
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub(crate) enum UnwindReasonState {
+    Returning { value: ObjId },
+    Raising { exception: ObjId },
+    Break { target: u32 },
+    Continue { target: u32 },
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(u8)]
+enum ObjTag {
+    None = 0,
+    Bool = 1,
+    Int = 2,
+    Float = 3,
+    Str = 4,
+    Bytes = 5,
+    List = 6,
+    Tuple = 7,
+    Dict = 8,
+    Set = 9,
+    FrozenSet = 10,
+    Module = 11,
+    Function = 12,
+    Code = 13,
+    Type = 14,
+    BuiltinType = 15,
+    Instance = 16,
+    Cell = 17,
+    BuiltinModule = 18,
+    BuiltinDict = 19,
+    BuiltinFunction = 20,
+    Enumerate = 21,
+    Zip = 22,
+    Map = 23,
+    Filter = 24,
+    ListIterator = 25,
+    RangeIterator = 26,
+    Range = 27,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) struct ObjectEntry {
+    tag: ObjTag,
+    payload: ObjectPayload,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum ObjectPayload {
+    None,
+    Bool(bool),
+    Int(String),
+    Float(f64),
+    Str(String),
+    Bytes(Vec<u8>),
+    List(Vec<ObjId>),
+    Tuple(Vec<ObjId>),
+    Dict(Vec<(ObjId, ObjId)>),
+    Set(Vec<ObjId>),
+    FrozenSet(Vec<ObjId>),
+    Module { name: String, dict: ObjId },
+    BuiltinModule { name: String },
+    BuiltinDict { name: String },
+    Function(FunctionPayload),
+    Enumerate { iterator: ObjId, count: i64 },
+    Zip { iterators: Vec<ObjId> },
+    Map { function: ObjId, iterator: ObjId },
+    Filter { function: ObjId, iterator: ObjId },
+    ListIterator { list: ObjId, position: usize },
+    RangeIterator { range: ObjId, position: usize },
+    Range { start: i64, stop: i64, step: i64 },
+    BuiltinFunction(BuiltinFunctionPayload),
+    Code(Vec<u8>),
+    Type(TypePayload),
+    BuiltinType { module: String, name: String },
+    Instance(InstancePayload),
+    Cell(Option<ObjId>),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct FunctionPayload {
+    code: ObjId,
+    globals: ObjId,
+    defaults: Option<ObjId>,
+    kwdefaults: Option<ObjId>,
+    closure: Option<ObjId>,
+    name: ObjId,
+    qualname: ObjId,
+    annotations: ObjId,
+    module: ObjId,
+    doc: ObjId,
+    type_params: ObjId,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct TypePayload {
+    name: String,
+    qualname: String,
+    bases: Vec<ObjId>,
+    dict: ObjId,
+    flags: u64,
+    basicsize: usize,
+    itemsize: usize,
+    member_count: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct InstancePayload {
+    typ: ObjId,
+    state: Option<ObjId>,
+    new_args: Option<ObjId>,
+    new_kwargs: Option<ObjId>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct BuiltinFunctionPayload {
+    name: String,
+    module: Option<String>,
+    self_obj: Option<ObjId>,
+}
+
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub(crate) enum SnapshotError {
+    Message(String),
+}
+
+impl SnapshotError {
+    fn msg(msg: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::Message(msg.into())
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_frames(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    frames: &[(&crate::frame::FrameRef, u32)],  // (frame, resume_lasti)
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    dump_checkpoint_frames_with_stack(vm, source_path, frames, Vec::new())
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_frames_with_stack(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    frames: &[(&crate::frame::FrameRef, u32)],  // (frame, resume_lasti)
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,  // Stack of the innermost frame
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    dump_checkpoint_frames_with_stack_and_blocks(
+        vm,
+        source_path,
+        frames,
+        innermost_stack,
+        Vec::new()  // Empty blocks for compatibility
+    )
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_frames_with_stack_and_blocks(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    frames: &[(&crate::frame::FrameRef, u32)],  // (frame, resume_lasti)
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,  // Stack of the innermost frame
+    innermost_blocks: Vec<crate::frame::Block>,  // Blocks of the innermost frame
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    // Build blocks vec with innermost blocks
+    let mut all_blocks = vec![Vec::new(); frames.len()];
+    if !frames.is_empty() {
+        all_blocks[frames.len() - 1] = innermost_blocks;
+    }
+    dump_checkpoint_frames_with_all_blocks(vm, source_path, frames, innermost_stack, all_blocks)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_frames_with_all_blocks(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    frames: &[(&crate::frame::FrameRef, u32)],  // (frame, resume_lasti)
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,  // Stack of the innermost frame
+    all_blocks: Vec<Vec<crate::frame::Block>>,  // Blocks for all frames
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    dump_checkpoint_frames_with_all_blocks_and_locals(
+        vm, source_path, frames, innermost_stack, all_blocks, None
+    )
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_frames_with_all_blocks_and_locals(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    frames: &[(&crate::frame::FrameRef, u32)],  // (frame, resume_lasti)
+    innermost_stack: Vec<crate::PyObjectRef>,  // Stack of the innermost frame
+    all_blocks: Vec<Vec<crate::frame::Block>>,  // Blocks for all frames
+    innermost_locals: Option<crate::PyObjectRef>,  // Pre-prepared locals for innermost frame
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    use crate::builtins::PyDictRef;
+    
+    // STEP 1: Prepare all locals dicts BEFORE creating SnapshotWriter
+    let mut locals_dicts = Vec::new();
+    for (idx, (frame, _resume_lasti)) in frames.iter().enumerate() {
+        let is_innermost = idx == frames.len() - 1;
+        let locals_dict = if idx == 0 {
+            // For module-level frame (first frame), use globals as locals
+            // This ensures that module-level variables defined during execution are captured
+            frame.globals.clone()
+        } else if is_innermost && innermost_locals.is_some() {
+            // For innermost frame, use pre-prepared locals to avoid deadlock
+            PyDictRef::try_from_object(vm, innermost_locals.clone().unwrap())?
+        } else {
+            // For other function frames, create a new dict and copy fastlocals
+            // This is safe because these frames are not actively executing
+            let locals_dict = vm.ctx.new_dict();
+            
+            // Copy fastlocals into the new dict
+            let varnames = &frame.code.code.varnames;
+            let fastlocals = frame.fastlocals.lock();
+            for (idx, varname) in varnames.iter().enumerate() {
+                if let Some(value) = &fastlocals[idx] {
+                    locals_dict.set_item(*varname, value.clone(), vm)?;
+                }
+            }
+            drop(fastlocals);
+            
+            // Also copy cell/free vars if any
+            if !frame.code.code.cellvars.is_empty() || !frame.code.code.freevars.is_empty() {
+                let all_vars = frame.code.code.cellvars.iter().chain(frame.code.code.freevars.iter());
+                for (idx, varname) in all_vars.enumerate() {
+                    if let Some(cell) = frame.cells_frees.get(idx) {
+                        if let Some(value) = cell.get() {
+                            locals_dict.set_item(*varname, value, vm)?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            
+            locals_dict
+        };
+        
+        locals_dicts.push(locals_dict);
+    }
+    
+    // STEP 2: Collect value stacks from all frames
+    let mut stack_items = Vec::new();
+    for (idx, (_frame, _resume_lasti)) in frames.iter().enumerate() {
+        let is_innermost = idx == frames.len() - 1;
+        let stack_result = if is_innermost {
+            // Use the provided stack for the innermost frame
+            innermost_stack.clone()
+        } else {
+            // For outer frames, use empty stack
+            // They are waiting for inner frames to return, and their stack state
+            // will be reconstructed during resume (return value will be pushed)
+            Vec::new()
+        };
+        stack_items.push(stack_result);
+    }
+    
+    // STEP 3: Create writer and do a SINGLE serialization pass
+    // Get globals (from the first frame)
+    let globals = &frames[0].0.globals;
+    
+    // STEP 3: Create writer and do a SINGLE serialization pass
+    // Create a container tuple that holds: globals, all locals dicts, and all stack lists
+    let mut container_items = vec![globals.clone().into()];
+    for locals_dict in locals_dicts.iter() {
+        container_items.push(locals_dict.clone().into());
+    }
+    for stack in stack_items.iter() {
+        let stack_list = vm.ctx.new_list(stack.clone());
+        container_items.push(stack_list.into());
+    }
+    let container = vm.ctx.new_tuple(container_items);
+    
+    // Now serialize the container (this will serialize everything in one pass)
+    let mut writer = SnapshotWriter::new(vm);
+    let container_obj = container.into();
+    let _container_id = writer.serialize_obj(&container_obj).map_err(|err| {
+        vm.new_value_error(format!("checkpoint snapshot failed: {err:?}"))
+    })?;
+    
+    // Now get the IDs for globals and each locals dict
+    let globals_obj = globals.as_object().to_owned();
+    let root = writer.get_id(&globals_obj).map_err(|err| {
+        vm.new_value_error(format!("globals not found: {err:?}"))
+    })?;
+    
+    // Build frame states with correct locals IDs and stack IDs
+    let mut frame_states = Vec::new();
+    for (_idx, (((frame, resume_lasti), locals_dict), stack)) in 
+        frames.iter().zip(locals_dicts.iter()).zip(stack_items.iter()).enumerate() {
+        let code_bytes = serialize_code_object(&frame.code.code);
+        
+        let locals_obj = locals_dict.clone().into();
+        let locals_id = writer.get_id(&locals_obj).map_err(|err| {
+            vm.new_value_error(format!("frame {} locals not found: {err:?}", _idx))
+        })?;
+        
+        // Get IDs for all stack items
+        let mut stack_ids = Vec::new();
+        for stack_item in stack.iter() {
+            let item_id = writer.get_id(stack_item).map_err(|err| {
+                vm.new_value_error(format!("frame {} stack item not found: {err:?}", _idx))
+            })?;
+            stack_ids.push(item_id);
+        }
+        
+        // Get blocks from frame
+        let blocks = all_blocks.get(_idx).cloned().unwrap_or_else(Vec::new);
+        
+        // Convert blocks to BlockState for serialization
+        let mut block_states = Vec::new();
+        for (_block_idx, block) in blocks.iter().enumerate() {
+            let block_state = convert_block_to_state(block, &writer)?;
+            block_states.push(block_state);
+        }
+        
+        frame_states.push(FrameState {
+            code: code_bytes,
+            lasti: *resume_lasti,
+            locals: locals_id,
+            stack: stack_ids,
+            blocks: block_states,
+        });
+    }
+    
+    let state = CheckpointState {
+        version: SNAPSHOT_VERSION,
+        source_path: source_path.to_owned(),
+        frames: frame_states,
+        root,
+        objects: writer.objects,
+    };
+    Ok(encode_checkpoint_state(&state))
+}
+
+// Keep the old function for backward compatibility
+pub(crate) fn dump_checkpoint_state(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    source_path: &str,
+    lasti: u32,
+    code: &PyCode,
+    globals: &PyDictRef,
+) -> PyResult<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut writer = SnapshotWriter::new(vm);
+    let root = writer.serialize_obj(&globals.as_object().to_owned()).map_err(|err| {
+        vm.new_value_error(format!("checkpoint snapshot failed: {err:?}"))
+    })?;
+    
+    let code_bytes = serialize_code_object(&code.code);
+    // Convert to new format with single frame
+    let frame_state = FrameState {
+        code: code_bytes,
+        lasti,
+        locals: root,  // For module-level, locals == globals
+        stack: Vec::new(),  // Legacy path, assume empty stack
+        blocks: Vec::new(),  // Legacy path, assume empty blocks
+    };
+    
+    let state = CheckpointState {
+        version: SNAPSHOT_VERSION,
+        source_path: source_path.to_owned(),
+        frames: vec![frame_state],
+        root,
+        objects: writer.objects,
+    };
+    Ok(encode_checkpoint_state(&state))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn load_checkpoint_state(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    data: &[u8],
+) -> PyResult<(CheckpointState, Vec<PyObjectRef>)> {
+    let state = decode_checkpoint_state(data)
+        .map_err(|err| vm.new_value_error(format!("checkpoint decode failed: {err:?}")))?;
+    if state.version != SNAPSHOT_VERSION {
+        return Err(vm.new_value_error(format!(
+            "unsupported checkpoint version: {}",
+            state.version
+        )));
+    }
+    let reader = SnapshotReader::new(vm, &state.objects, state.root);
+    let objects = reader
+        .restore_all()
+        .map_err(|err| vm.new_value_error(format!("checkpoint restore failed: {err:?}")))?;
+    Ok((state, objects))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn decode_code_object(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    bytes: &[u8],
+) -> Result<CodeObject, SnapshotError> {
+    deserialize_code_object(vm, bytes)
+}
+
+fn serialize_code_object(code: &CodeObject) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut buf = Vec::new();
+    marshal::serialize_code(&mut buf, code);
+    buf
+}
+
+fn deserialize_code_object(vm: &VirtualMachine, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<CodeObject, SnapshotError> {
+    let mut cursor = marshal::Cursor { data: bytes, position: 0 };
+    marshal::deserialize_code(&mut cursor, PyObjBag(&vm.ctx)).map_err(|e| {
+        SnapshotError::msg(format!("failed to deserialize code object: {e:?}"))
+    })
+}
+
+struct SnapshotWriter<'a> {
+    vm: &'a VirtualMachine,
+    ids: HashMap<usize, ObjId>,
+    objects: Vec<ObjectEntry>,
+    held: Vec<PyObjectRef>,
+    /// Cache for dynamically created Type attribute dicts: type_ptr -> dict_obj
+    type_attr_dicts: HashMap<usize, PyObjectRef>,
+    /// Cache for instance newargs/kwargs/state: obj_ptr -> (newargs, newkwargs, state)
+    instance_data: HashMap<usize, (Option<PyObjectRef>, Option<PyObjectRef>, Option<PyObjectRef>)>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> SnapshotWriter<'a> {
+    fn new(vm: &'a VirtualMachine) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            vm,
+            ids: HashMap::new(),
+            objects: Vec::new(),
+            held: Vec::new(),
+            type_attr_dicts: HashMap::new(),
+            instance_data: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Two-pass serialization: first assign IDs, then build payloads
+    fn serialize_obj(&mut self, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<ObjId, SnapshotError> {
+        // Phase 1: Assign IDs to all reachable objects
+        self.assign_ids_phase(obj)?;
+        
+        // Phase 2: Build payloads for all objects in ID order
+        self.build_payloads_phase()?;
+        
+        // Return the root object's ID
+        let ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+        Ok(*self.ids.get(&ptr).unwrap())
+    }
+    
+    /// Phase 1: Recursively assign IDs to all objects in the graph
+    fn assign_ids_phase(&mut self, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        // Check recursion depth to prevent stack overflow
+        static MAX_DEPTH: usize = 100000;
+        if self.held.len() > MAX_DEPTH {
+            return Err(SnapshotError::msg("recursion depth exceeded"));
+        }
+        
+        let ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+        if self.ids.contains_key(&ptr) {
+            return Ok(()); // Already visited
+        }
+        
+        let id = self.held.len() as ObjId;
+        self.ids.insert(ptr, id);
+        self.held.push(obj.clone());
+        
+        // Recursively visit child objects
+        self.visit_children(obj)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    
+    /// Visit all child objects for ID assignment
+    fn visit_children(&mut self, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        let tag = classify_obj(self.vm, obj)?;
+        
+        match tag {
+            ObjTag::None | ObjTag::Bool | ObjTag::Int | ObjTag::Float | 
+            ObjTag::Str | ObjTag::Bytes | ObjTag::Code | ObjTag::BuiltinType |
+            ObjTag::BuiltinModule | ObjTag::BuiltinDict => {
+                // No child objects to visit
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::BuiltinFunction => {
+                // Visit __self__ if present
+                if let Some(self_obj) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__self__")? {
+                    if !self.vm.is_none(&self_obj) {
+                        self.assign_ids_phase(&self_obj)?;
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::List => {
+                let list = obj.downcast_ref::<PyList>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected list"))?;
+                for item in list.borrow_vec().iter() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(item)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Tuple => {
+                let tuple = obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected tuple"))?;
+                for item in tuple.iter() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(item)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Dict => {
+                let dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, obj.clone())
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("expected dict"))?;
+                for (key, value) in &dict {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&key)?;
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&value)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Set => {
+                let set = obj.downcast_ref::<PySet>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected set"))?;
+                for key in set.elements() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&key)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::FrozenSet => {
+                let set = obj.downcast_ref::<PyFrozenSet>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected frozenset"))?;
+                for key in set.elements() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&key)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Module => {
+                let dict = obj.dict().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("module missing dict"))?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&dict.into())?;
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Function => {
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__code__")?)?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__globals__")?)?;
+                
+                let defaults_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__defaults__")?.unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.none());
+                if !self.vm.is_none(&defaults_obj) && defaults_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&defaults_obj)?;
+                }
+                
+                // For kwdefaults and annotations, just visit the original object
+                // Conversion will be done in phase 2
+                let kwdefaults_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__kwdefaults__")?.unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.none());
+                if !self.vm.is_none(&kwdefaults_obj) {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&kwdefaults_obj)?;
+                }
+                
+                let closure_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__closure__")?;
+                if !self.vm.is_none(&closure_obj) && closure_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&closure_obj)?;
+                }
+                
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__name__")?)?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__qualname__")?)?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__annotations__")?)?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__module__")?)?;
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__doc__")?)?;
+                
+                let type_params_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__type_params__")?.unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.empty_tuple.clone().into());
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&type_params_obj)?;
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Type => {
+                let typ = obj.downcast_ref::<PyType>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected type"))?;
+                
+                for base in typ.bases.read().iter() {
+                    if base.as_object().as_raw() == self.vm.ctx.types.object_type.as_object().as_raw() {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&base.to_owned().into())?;
+                }
+                
+                // Create and cache attributes dict in phase 1
+                let dict = self.vm.ctx.new_dict();
+                for (key, value) in typ.attributes.read().iter() {
+                    if should_skip_type_attr(self.vm, value) {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    dict.set_item(key.as_str(), value.clone(), self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("type dict build failed"))?;
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(value)?;
+                }
+                let dict_obj: PyObjectRef = dict.into();
+                let type_ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                self.type_attr_dicts.insert(type_ptr, dict_obj.clone());
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&dict_obj)?;
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Instance => {
+                let typ = obj.class();
+                self.assign_ids_phase(&typ.to_owned().into())?;
+                
+                let (new_args, new_kwargs) = get_newargs(self.vm, obj)?;
+                let state = get_state(self.vm, obj)?;
+                
+                // Cache for later use in build_payload
+                let obj_ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                self.instance_data.insert(obj_ptr, (new_args.clone(), new_kwargs.clone(), state.clone()));
+                
+                if let Some(ref args) = new_args {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(args)?;
+                }
+                if let Some(ref kwargs) = new_kwargs {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(kwargs)?;
+                }
+                if let Some(ref s) = state {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(s)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Cell => {
+                let cell = obj.downcast_ref::<PyCell>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected cell"))?;
+                if let Some(contents) = cell.get() {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&contents)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Enumerate => {
+                // Visit the iterator via __reduce__
+                // enumerate.__reduce__() returns (type, (iterator, count))
+                if let Some(reduce_fn) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")? {
+                    if let Ok(result) = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ()) {
+                        if let Some(tuple) = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                            if tuple.len() >= 2 {
+                                // Get the args tuple: (iterator, count)
+                                if let Some(args) = tuple.get(1).and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()) {
+                                    if let Some(iterator) = args.get(0) {
+                                        self.assign_ids_phase(iterator)?;
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Zip => {
+                // Visit all iterators in the zip
+                if let Some(iterators) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterators__")? {
+                    if let Some(tuple) = iterators.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                        for iter in tuple.iter() {
+                            self.assign_ids_phase(iter)?;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Map => {
+                // Visit the function and iterator
+                if let Some(func) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__func__")? {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&func)?;
+                }
+                if let Some(iterator) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterator__")? {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&iterator)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Filter => {
+                // Visit the predicate and iterator
+                if let Some(func) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__predicate__")? {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&func)?;
+                }
+                if let Some(iterator) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterator__")? {
+                    self.assign_ids_phase(&iterator)?;
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::ListIterator => {
+                // Visit the list via __reduce__
+                // list_iterator.__reduce__() returns (iter, (list,), position)
+                if let Some(reduce_fn) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")? {
+                    if let Ok(result) = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ()) {
+                        if let Some(tuple) = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                            if tuple.len() >= 2 {
+                                // Get the args tuple: (list,)
+                                if let Some(args) = tuple.get(1).and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()) {
+                                    if let Some(list) = args.get(0) {
+                                        self.assign_ids_phase(list)?;
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::Range => {
+                // range object has start, stop, step which are integers
+                // No need to assign IDs for these primitive values
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            ObjTag::RangeIterator => {
+                // Visit the range via __reduce__
+                // range_iterator.__reduce__() returns (iter, (range,), position)
+                if let Some(reduce_fn) = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")? {
+                    if let Ok(result) = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ()) {
+                        if let Some(tuple) = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                            if tuple.len() >= 2 {
+                                // Get the args tuple: (range,)
+                                if let Some(args) = tuple.get(1).and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()) {
+                                    if let Some(range) = args.get(0) {
+                                        self.assign_ids_phase(range)?;
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    
+    /// Phase 2: Build payloads for all objects in ID order
+    fn build_payloads_phase(&mut self) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        let count = self.held.len();
+        self.objects.reserve(count);
+        
+        for idx in 0..count {
+            let obj = self.held[idx].clone(); // Clone to avoid borrow checker issues
+            let tag = classify_obj(self.vm, &obj)?;
+            let payload = self.build_payload(tag, &obj)?;
+            self.objects.push(ObjectEntry { tag, payload });
+        }
+        
+        Ok(())
+    }
+    
+    /// Get the ID of an already-visited object
+    fn get_id(&self, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<ObjId, SnapshotError> {
+        let ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+        self.ids.get(&ptr).copied()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg(format!("object not in ID map: class={}", obj.class().name())))
+    }
+    
+    /// Get ID or assign new ID if object not yet visited (for dynamically created objects)
+    fn get_or_assign_id(&mut self, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<ObjId, SnapshotError> {
+        let ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+        if let Some(&id) = self.ids.get(&ptr) {
+            return Ok(id);
+        }
+        
+        // Object not yet visited, assign ID now
+        let id = self.held.len() as ObjId;
+        self.ids.insert(ptr, id);
+        self.held.push(obj.clone());
+        
+        // Build payload immediately
+        let tag = classify_obj(self.vm, obj)?;
+        let payload = self.build_payload(tag, obj)?;
+        self.objects.push(ObjectEntry { tag, payload });
+        
+        Ok(id)
+    }
+    
+    /// Get or create a converted dict object (for kwdefaults/annotations)
+    /// Returns the same object on subsequent calls with the same source_ptr
+    fn build_payload(&mut self, tag: ObjTag, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<ObjectPayload, SnapshotError> {
+        match tag {
+            ObjTag::None => Ok(ObjectPayload::None),
+            ObjTag::Bool => Ok(ObjectPayload::Bool(obj.clone().is_true(self.vm).unwrap_or(false))),
+            ObjTag::Int => {
+                let value = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyInt>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected int"))?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Int(value.as_bigint().to_string()))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Float => {
+                let value = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyFloat>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected float"))?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Float(value.to_f64()))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Str => {
+                let value = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected str"))?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Str(value.as_str().to_owned()))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Bytes => {
+                let value = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::PyBytes>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected bytes"))?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Bytes(value.as_bytes().to_vec()))
+            }
+            ObjTag::List => {
+                let list = obj.downcast_ref::<PyList>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected list"))?;
+                let items = list
+                    .borrow_vec()
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|item| self.get_id(item))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::List(items))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Tuple => {
+                let tuple = obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected tuple"))?;
+                let items = tuple
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|item| self.get_id(item))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Tuple(items))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Dict => {
+                let dict: PyDictRef = obj
+                    .clone()
+                    .downcast()
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("expected dict"))?;
+                let mut entries = Vec::new();
+                for (key, value) in &dict {
+                    let key_bytes = snapshot_key_bytes(self.vm, &key)?;
+                    let key_id = self.get_id(&key)?;
+                    let value_id = self.get_id(&value)?;
+                    entries.push((key_bytes, key_id, value_id));
+                }
+                entries.sort_by(|(a, _, _), (b, _, _)| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+                let pairs = entries
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|(_, k, v)| (k, v))
+                    .collect();
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Dict(pairs))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Set => {
+                let set = obj.downcast_ref::<PySet>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected set"))?;
+                let mut entries = Vec::new();
+                for key in set.elements() {
+                    let key_bytes = snapshot_key_bytes(self.vm, &key)?;
+                    let key_id = self.get_id(&key)?;
+                    entries.push((key_bytes, key_id));
+                }
+                entries.sort_by(|(a, _), (b, _)| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+                let ids = entries.into_iter().map(|(_, id)| id).collect();
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Set(ids))
+            }
+            ObjTag::FrozenSet => {
+                let set = obj.downcast_ref::<PyFrozenSet>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected frozenset"))?;
+                let mut entries = Vec::new();
+                for key in set.elements() {
+                    let key_bytes = snapshot_key_bytes(self.vm, &key)?;
+                    let key_id = self.get_id(&key)?;
+                    entries.push((key_bytes, key_id));
+                }
+                entries.sort_by(|(a, _), (b, _)| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+                let ids = entries.into_iter().map(|(_, id)| id).collect();
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::FrozenSet(ids))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Module => {
+                obj.downcast_ref::<PyModule>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected module"))?;
+                let dict = obj
+                    .dict()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("module missing dict"))?;
+                let name = get_attr_str(self.vm, obj, "__name__")?.unwrap_or_default();
+                let dict_id = self.get_id(&dict.into())?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Module { name, dict: dict_id })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Function => {
+                obj.downcast_ref::<PyFunction>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected function"))?;
+                let code_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__code__")?;
+                let code = self.get_id(&code_obj)?;
+                let globals_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__globals__")?;
+                let globals = self.get_id(&globals_obj)?;
+                let defaults_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__defaults__")?;
+                let defaults = if self.vm.is_none(&defaults_obj) {
+                    None
+                } else if defaults_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+                    Some(self.get_id(&defaults_obj)?)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                let kwdefaults_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__kwdefaults__")?;
+                let kwdefaults = if self.vm.is_none(&kwdefaults_obj) {
+                    None
+                } else if PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, kwdefaults_obj.clone()).is_ok() {
+                    Some(self.get_id(&kwdefaults_obj)?)
+                } else if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &kwdefaults_obj) {
+                    // Create new dict, assign ID dynamically
+                    let dict_obj: PyObjectRef = dict.into();
+                    let id = self.held.len() as ObjId;
+                    let ptr = dict_obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                    self.ids.insert(ptr, id);
+                    self.held.push(dict_obj.clone());
+                    self.objects.push(ObjectEntry {
+                        tag: ObjTag::Dict,
+                        payload: ObjectPayload::Dict(Vec::new()), // Will be filled later if needed
+                    });
+                    Some(id)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                let closure_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__closure__")?;
+                let closure = if self.vm.is_none(&closure_obj) {
+                    None
+                } else if closure_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+                    Some(self.get_id(&closure_obj)?)
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+                let name = self.get_id(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__name__")?)?;
+                let qualname = self.get_id(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__qualname__")?)?;
+                let annotations_obj = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__annotations__")?;
+                let annotations = if PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, annotations_obj.clone()).is_ok() {
+                    self.get_id(&annotations_obj)?
+                } else if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &annotations_obj) {
+                    // Create new dict, assign ID dynamically
+                    let dict_obj: PyObjectRef = dict.into();
+                    let id = self.held.len() as ObjId;
+                    let ptr = dict_obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                    self.ids.insert(ptr, id);
+                    self.held.push(dict_obj.clone());
+                    self.objects.push(ObjectEntry {
+                        tag: ObjTag::Dict,
+                        payload: ObjectPayload::Dict(Vec::new()),
+                    });
+                    id
+                } else {
+                    // Create empty dict
+                    let dict_obj: PyObjectRef = self.vm.ctx.new_dict().into();
+                    let id = self.held.len() as ObjId;
+                    let ptr = dict_obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                    self.ids.insert(ptr, id);
+                    self.held.push(dict_obj);
+                    self.objects.push(ObjectEntry {
+                        tag: ObjTag::Dict,
+                        payload: ObjectPayload::Dict(Vec::new()),
+                    });
+                    id
+                };
+                let module = self.get_id(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__module__")?)?;
+                let doc = self.get_id(&get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__doc__")?)?;
+                let type_params_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__type_params__")?
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.empty_tuple.clone().into());
+                let type_params = self.get_id(&type_params_obj)?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Function(FunctionPayload {
+                    code,
+                    globals,
+                    defaults,
+                    kwdefaults,
+                    closure,
+                    name,
+                    qualname,
+                    annotations,
+                    module,
+                    doc,
+                    type_params,
+                }))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Code => {
+                let code = obj.downcast_ref::<PyCode>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected code"))?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Code(serialize_code_object(&code.code)))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Type => {
+                let typ = obj.downcast_ref::<PyType>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected type"))?;
+                let bases: Vec<ObjId> = typ
+                    .bases
+                    .read()
+                    .iter()
+                    .filter_map(|base| {
+                        // Skip object type (should not be serialized)
+                        if base.as_object().as_raw() == self.vm.ctx.types.object_type.as_object().as_raw() {
+                            None
+                        } else {
+                            Some(self.get_id(&base.to_owned().into()))
+                        }
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                
+                // Retrieve cached attributes dict
+                let type_ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                let dict_obj = self.type_attr_dicts.get(&type_ptr)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type attributes dict not found in cache"))?;
+                let dict_id = self.get_id(dict_obj)?;
+                
+                let qualname_obj = typ.__qualname__(self.vm);
+                let qualname = qualname_obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type __qualname__ must be str"))?
+                    .as_str()
+                    .to_owned();
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Type(TypePayload {
+                    name: typ.name().to_owned(),
+                    qualname,
+                    bases,
+                    dict: dict_id,
+                    flags: typ.slots.flags.bits(),
+                    basicsize: typ.slots.basicsize,
+                    itemsize: typ.slots.itemsize,
+                    member_count: typ.slots.member_count,
+                }))
+            }
+            ObjTag::BuiltinType => {
+                let typ = obj.downcast_ref::<PyType>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected type"))?;
+                let module = get_attr_str(self.vm, obj, "__module__")?
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| "builtins".to_owned());
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinType {
+                    module,
+                    name: typ.name().to_owned(),
+                })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Instance => {
+                let typ = obj.class();
+                let typ_id = self.get_id(&typ.to_owned().into())?;
+                
+                // Retrieve cached instance data
+                let obj_ptr = obj.as_object().as_raw() as usize;
+                let (new_args, new_kwargs, state) = self.instance_data.get(&obj_ptr)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("instance data not found in cache"))?;
+                
+                let new_args_id = new_args.as_ref().map(|o| self.get_id(o)).transpose()?;
+                let new_kwargs_id = new_kwargs.as_ref().map(|o| self.get_id(o)).transpose()?;
+                let state_id = state.as_ref().map(|o| self.get_id(o)).transpose()?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Instance(InstancePayload {
+                    typ: typ_id,
+                    state: state_id,
+                    new_args: new_args_id,
+                    new_kwargs: new_kwargs_id,
+                }))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Cell => {
+                let cell = obj.downcast_ref::<PyCell>().ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected cell"))?;
+                let contents = cell.get().map(|o| self.get_id(&o)).transpose()?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Cell(contents))
+            }
+            ObjTag::BuiltinModule => {
+                let name = get_attr_str(self.vm, obj, "__name__")?.unwrap_or_default();
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinModule { name })
+            }
+            ObjTag::BuiltinDict => {
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinDict { name: "builtins".to_owned() })
+            }
+            ObjTag::BuiltinFunction => {
+                let name = get_attr_str(self.vm, obj, "__name__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("builtin function missing __name__"))?;
+                let module = get_attr_str(self.vm, obj, "__module__")?;
+                let self_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__self__")?
+                    .and_then(|value| if self.vm.is_none(&value) { None } else { Some(value) })
+                    .map(|value| self.get_id(&value))
+                    .transpose()?;
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinFunction(BuiltinFunctionPayload {
+                    name,
+                    module,
+                    self_obj,
+                }))
+            }
+            ObjTag::Enumerate => {
+                // Use __reduce__ to get iterator and count
+                let reduce_fn = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")?;
+                let result = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ())
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("enumerate __reduce__ failed"))?;
+                
+                let tuple = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("enumerate __reduce__ didn't return tuple"))?;
+                
+                if tuple.len() < 2 {
+                    return Err(SnapshotError::msg("enumerate __reduce__ tuple too short"));
+                }
+                
+                // Get args tuple: (iterator, count)
+                let args = tuple.get(1)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("enumerate __reduce__ args invalid"))?;
+                
+                let iterator = args.get(0)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("enumerate missing iterator in __reduce__"))?
+                    .clone();
+                let iterator_id = self.get_id(&iterator)?;
+                
+                let count_bigint = args.get(1)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("enumerate missing count in __reduce__"))?;
+                
+                let count = count_bigint.try_to_primitive::<i64>(self.vm).unwrap_or(0);
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Enumerate { iterator: iterator_id, count })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Zip => {
+                // Extract iterators from zip object
+                let iterators_obj = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterators__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("zip missing __iterators__"))?;
+                
+                let iterators = if let Some(tuple) = iterators_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                    tuple.iter()
+                        .map(|iter| self.get_id(iter))
+                        .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?
+                } else {
+                    Vec::new()
+                };
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Zip { iterators })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Map => {
+                // Extract function and iterator from map object
+                let function = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__func__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("map missing __func__"))?;
+                let function_id = self.get_id(&function)?;
+                
+                let iterator = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterator__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("map missing __iterator__"))?;
+                let iterator_id = self.get_id(&iterator)?;
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Map { function: function_id, iterator: iterator_id })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Filter => {
+                // Extract predicate and iterator from filter object
+                let function = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__predicate__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("filter missing __predicate__"))?;
+                let function_id = self.get_id(&function)?;
+                
+                let iterator = get_attr_opt(self.vm, obj, "__iterator__")?
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("filter missing __iterator__"))?;
+                let iterator_id = self.get_id(&iterator)?;
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Filter { function: function_id, iterator: iterator_id })
+            }
+            ObjTag::ListIterator => {
+                // Use __reduce__ to get list and position
+                // list_iterator.__reduce__() returns (iter, (list,), position)
+                let reduce_fn = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")?;
+                let result = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ())
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator __reduce__ failed"))?;
+                
+                let tuple = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator __reduce__ didn't return tuple"))?;
+                
+                if tuple.len() < 3 {
+                    return Err(SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator __reduce__ tuple too short"));
+                }
+                
+                // Get args tuple: (list,)
+                let args = tuple.get(1)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator __reduce__ args invalid"))?;
+                
+                let list = args.get(0)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator missing list in __reduce__"))?
+                    .clone();
+                
+                let list_id = self.get_id(&list)?;
+                
+                // Get position (third element of reduce result)
+                let position = tuple.get(2)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("list_iterator missing position in __reduce__"))?
+                    .try_to_primitive::<usize>(self.vm)
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::ListIterator { list: list_id, position })
+            }
+            ObjTag::Range => {
+                // Serialize range object by extracting start, stop, step
+                let start = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "start")?
+                    .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range.start is not int"))?
+                    .try_to_primitive::<i64>(self.vm)
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                
+                let stop = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "stop")?
+                    .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range.stop is not int"))?
+                    .try_to_primitive::<i64>(self.vm)
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                
+                let step = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "step")?
+                    .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range.step is not int"))?
+                    .try_to_primitive::<i64>(self.vm)
+                    .unwrap_or(1);
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::Range { start, stop, step })
+            }
+            ObjTag::RangeIterator => {
+                // Use __reduce__ to get range and position
+                // range_iterator.__reduce__() returns (iter, (range,), position)
+                let reduce_fn = get_attr(self.vm, obj, "__reduce__")?;
+                let result = self.vm.invoke(&reduce_fn, ())
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator __reduce__ failed"))?;
+                
+                let tuple = result.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator __reduce__ didn't return tuple"))?;
+                
+                if tuple.len() < 3 {
+                    return Err(SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator __reduce__ tuple too short"));
+                }
+                
+                // Get args tuple: (range,)
+                let args = tuple.get(1)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator __reduce__ args invalid"))?;
+                
+                let range = args.get(0)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator missing range in __reduce__"))?
+                    .clone();
+                
+                // Use get_or_assign_id to handle range objects that may not have been visited yet
+                let range_id = self.get_or_assign_id(&range)?;
+                
+                // Get position (third element of reduce result)
+                let position = tuple.get(2)
+                    .and_then(|o| o.downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::int::PyInt>())
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("range_iterator missing position in __reduce__"))?
+                    .try_to_primitive::<usize>(self.vm)
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                
+                Ok(ObjectPayload::RangeIterator { range: range_id, position })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn classify_obj(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<ObjTag, SnapshotError> {
+    if vm.is_none(obj) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::None);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.bool_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Bool);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.int_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Int);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.float_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Float);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.str_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Str);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.bytes_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Bytes);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyList>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::List);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Tuple);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyDict>().is_some() {
+        if is_builtin_dict(vm, obj) {
+            return Ok(ObjTag::BuiltinDict);
+        }
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Dict);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PySet>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Set);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyFrozenSet>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::FrozenSet);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyModule>().is_some() {
+        if is_builtin_module(vm, obj) {
+            return Ok(ObjTag::BuiltinModule);
+        }
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Module);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyFunction>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Function);
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.builtin_function_or_method_type) {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::BuiltinFunction);
+    }
+    
+    // Check for iterator types by class name
+    let class_name_obj = obj.class().name();
+    let class_name = class_name_obj.as_ref();
+    match class_name {
+        "enumerate" => return Ok(ObjTag::Enumerate),
+        "zip" => return Ok(ObjTag::Zip),
+        "map" => return Ok(ObjTag::Map),
+        "filter" => return Ok(ObjTag::Filter),
+        "list_iterator" => return Ok(ObjTag::ListIterator),
+        "range_iterator" => return Ok(ObjTag::RangeIterator),
+        "range" => return Ok(ObjTag::Range),
+        _ => {}
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyCode>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Code);
+    }
+    if let Some(typ) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyType>() {
+        if typ.slots.flags.has_feature(crate::types::PyTypeFlags::HEAPTYPE) {
+            return Ok(ObjTag::Type);
+        }
+        return Ok(ObjTag::BuiltinType);
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyCell>().is_some() {
+        return Ok(ObjTag::Cell);
+    }
+    Ok(ObjTag::Instance)
+}
+
+fn get_attr(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    obj: &PyObjectRef,
+    name: &'static str,
+) -> Result<PyObjectRef, SnapshotError> {
+    get_attr_opt(vm, obj, name)?
+        .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg(format!("attribute '{name}' missing")))
+}
+
+fn get_attr_opt(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    obj: &PyObjectRef,
+    name: &'static str,
+) -> Result<Option<PyObjectRef>, SnapshotError> {
+    vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), name)
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg(format!("attribute '{name}' lookup failed")))
+}
+
+fn get_attr_str(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    obj: &PyObjectRef,
+    name: &'static str,
+) -> Result<Option<String>, SnapshotError> {
+    let Some(value) = get_attr_opt(vm, obj, name)? else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    if vm.is_none(&value) {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let value = value
+        .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+        .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg(format!("attribute '{name}' must be str")))?;
+    Ok(Some(value.as_str().to_owned()))
+}
+
+fn is_builtin_module(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> bool {
+    let raw = obj.as_object().as_raw();
+    if raw == vm.builtins.as_object().as_raw() || raw == vm.sys_module.as_object().as_raw() {
+        return true;
+    }
+    matches!(
+        get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__name__").ok().flatten().as_deref(),
+        Some("builtins") | Some("sys")
+    )
+}
+
+fn is_builtin_dict(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> bool {
+    let raw = obj.as_object().as_raw();
+    raw == vm.builtins.dict().as_object().as_raw()
+}
+
+fn should_skip_type_attr(vm: &VirtualMachine, value: &PyObjectRef) -> bool {
+    value.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.getset_type)
+        || value.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.member_descriptor_type)
+        || value.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.method_descriptor_type)
+        || value.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.wrapper_descriptor_type)
+}
+
+fn get_state(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<Option<PyObjectRef>, SnapshotError> {
+    let class_name = obj.class().name();
+    
+    // Skip __getstate__ for problematic types that cause infinite recursion
+    let skip_getstate = &*class_name == "_Feature";
+    
+    if !skip_getstate {
+        if let Some(getstate) = vm.get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), "__getstate__").map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("getstate lookup failed"))? {
+            let value = getstate
+                .call((), vm)
+                .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__getstate__ failed"))?;
+            return Ok(Some(value));
+        }
+    }
+    
+    if let Some(dict) = obj.dict() {
+        return Ok(Some(dict.into()));
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+fn get_newargs(
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+    obj: &PyObjectRef,
+) -> Result<(Option<PyObjectRef>, Option<PyObjectRef>), SnapshotError> {
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.classmethod_type)
+        || obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.staticmethod_type)
+    {
+        let func = get_attr(vm, obj, "__func__")?;
+        let args = vm.new_tuple(vec![func]).into();
+        return Ok((Some(args), None));
+    }
+    if let Some(getnewargs_ex) = vm
+        .get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), "__getnewargs_ex__")
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("getnewargs_ex lookup failed"))?
+    {
+        let value = getnewargs_ex
+            .call((), vm)
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__getnewargs_ex__ failed"))?;
+        let tuple = if let Some(tuple) = value.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+            tuple
+        } else if let Some(list) = value.downcast_ref::<PyList>() {
+            return Ok((Some(vm.new_tuple(list.borrow_vec().to_vec()).into()), None));
+        } else {
+            return Ok((None, None));
+        };
+        let args = tuple
+            .get(0)
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("__getnewargs_ex__ missing args"))?
+            .clone();
+        let kwargs = tuple
+            .get(1)
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("__getnewargs_ex__ missing kwargs"))?
+            .clone();
+        return Ok((Some(args), Some(kwargs)));
+    }
+    if let Some(getnewargs) = vm
+        .get_attribute_opt(obj.clone(), "__getnewargs__")
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("getnewargs lookup failed"))?
+    {
+        let value = getnewargs
+            .call((), vm)
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__getnewargs__ failed"))?;
+        if value.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>().is_some() {
+            return Ok((Some(value), None));
+        }
+        if let Some(list) = value.downcast_ref::<PyList>() {
+            return Ok((Some(vm.new_tuple(list.borrow_vec().to_vec()).into()), None));
+        }
+        return Ok((None, None));
+    }
+    Ok((None, None))
+}
+
+fn snapshot_key_bytes(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<Vec<u8>, SnapshotError> {
+    let mut encoder = CborWriter::new();
+    encode_key(vm, obj, &mut encoder)?;
+    Ok(encoder.into_bytes())
+}
+
+fn encode_key(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: &PyObjectRef, encoder: &mut CborWriter) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+    const TAG_NONE: u64 = 0;
+    const TAG_BOOL: u64 = 1;
+    const TAG_INT: u64 = 2;
+    const TAG_FLOAT: u64 = 3;
+    const TAG_STR: u64 = 4;
+    const TAG_BYTES: u64 = 5;
+    const TAG_TUPLE: u64 = 6;
+    const TAG_TYPE: u64 = 7;
+    const TAG_MODULE: u64 = 8;
+    const TAG_FUNCTION: u64 = 9;
+    const TAG_BUILTIN_FUNCTION: u64 = 10;
+    const TAG_CODE: u64 = 11;
+    const TAG_FROZENSET: u64 = 12;
+    const TAG_WEAKREF: u64 = 13;
+
+    if vm.is_none(obj) {
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_NONE, |enc| enc.write_null());
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.bool_type) {
+        let value = obj.clone().is_true(vm).unwrap_or(false);
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_BOOL, |enc| enc.write_bool(value));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.int_type) {
+        let value = obj
+            .downcast_ref::<PyInt>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected int key"))?;
+        let text = value.as_bigint().to_string();
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_INT, |enc| enc.write_text(&text));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.float_type) {
+        let value = obj
+            .downcast_ref::<PyFloat>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected float key"))?;
+        let num = value.to_f64();
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_FLOAT, |enc| enc.write_f64(num));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.str_type) {
+        let value = obj
+            .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected str key"))?;
+        let text = value.as_str();
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_STR, |enc| enc.write_text(text));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.bytes_type) {
+        let value = obj
+            .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::PyBytes>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("expected bytes key"))?;
+        let bytes = value.as_bytes();
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_BYTES, |enc| enc.write_bytes(bytes));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if let Some(tuple) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_TUPLE);
+        encoder.write_array_len(tuple.len());
+        for item in tuple.iter() {
+            encode_key(vm, item, encoder)?;
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if let Some(frozen) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyFrozenSet>() {
+        let mut entries = Vec::new();
+        for item in frozen.elements() {
+            let mut item_writer = CborWriter::new();
+            encode_key(vm, &item, &mut item_writer)?;
+            entries.push(item_writer.into_bytes());
+        }
+        entries.sort_by(|a, b| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_FROZENSET);
+        encoder.write_array_len(entries.len());
+        for item in entries {
+            encoder.buf.extend_from_slice(&item);
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if let Some(weak) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyWeak>() {
+        let Some(target) = weak.upgrade() else {
+            return Err(SnapshotError::msg("unsupported dict/set key type: weakref (dead)"));
+        };
+        let mut target_writer = CborWriter::new();
+        encode_key(vm, &target, &mut target_writer)?;
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_WEAKREF);
+        encoder.buf.extend_from_slice(&target_writer.into_bytes());
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if let Some(typ) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyType>() {
+        let module = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__module__")?
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "builtins".to_owned());
+        let qualname = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__qualname__")?
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| typ.name().to_owned());
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_TYPE);
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_text(&module);
+        encoder.write_text(&qualname);
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyModule>().is_some() {
+        let name = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__name__")?.unwrap_or_default();
+        write_tagged_key(encoder, TAG_MODULE, |enc| enc.write_text(&name));
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.downcast_ref::<PyFunction>().is_some() {
+        let module = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__module__")?.unwrap_or_default();
+        let qualname = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__qualname__")?
+            .or_else(|| get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__name__").ok().flatten())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_FUNCTION);
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_text(&module);
+        encoder.write_text(&qualname);
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if obj.fast_isinstance(vm.ctx.types.builtin_function_or_method_type) {
+        let module = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__module__")?
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| "builtins".to_owned());
+        let qualname = get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__qualname__")?
+            .or_else(|| get_attr_str(vm, obj, "__name__").ok().flatten())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        let self_obj = get_attr_opt(vm, obj, "__self__")?
+            .and_then(|value| if vm.is_none(&value) { None } else { Some(value) });
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_BUILTIN_FUNCTION);
+        if let Some(self_obj) = self_obj {
+            encoder.write_array_len(3);
+            encoder.write_text(&module);
+            encoder.write_text(&qualname);
+            let mut self_writer = CborWriter::new();
+            encode_key(vm, &self_obj, &mut self_writer)?;
+            encoder.buf.extend_from_slice(&self_writer.into_bytes());
+        } else {
+            encoder.write_array_len(2);
+            encoder.write_text(&module);
+            encoder.write_text(&qualname);
+        }
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    if let Some(code) = obj.downcast_ref::<PyCode>() {
+        let filename = code.code.source_path.as_str();
+        let name = code.code.obj_name.as_str();
+        let first_line = code.code.first_line_number.map_or(0, |n| n.get());
+        encoder.write_array_len(2);
+        encoder.write_uint(TAG_CODE);
+        encoder.write_array_len(3);
+        encoder.write_text(filename);
+        encoder.write_text(name);
+        encoder.write_uint(first_line as u64);
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let type_name = obj.class().name();
+    Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!(
+        "unsupported dict/set key type: {type_name}"
+    )))
+}
+
+fn write_tagged_key(encoder: &mut CborWriter, tag: u64, f: impl FnOnce(&mut CborWriter)) {
+    encoder.write_array_len(2);
+    encoder.write_uint(tag);
+    f(encoder);
+}
+
+fn cbor_key_cmp(a: &[u8], b: &[u8]) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
+    a.len().cmp(&b.len()).then_with(|| a.cmp(b))
+}
+
+struct SnapshotReader<'a> {
+    vm: &'a VirtualMachine,
+    entries: &'a [ObjectEntry],
+    root: ObjId,
+    objects: Vec<Option<PyObjectRef>>,
+    filled: Vec<bool>,
+    /// Track which objects are currently being restored to detect cycles
+    restoring: Vec<bool>,
+}
+
+impl<'a> SnapshotReader<'a> {
+    fn new(vm: &'a VirtualMachine, entries: &'a [ObjectEntry], root: ObjId) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            vm,
+            entries,
+            root,
+            objects: vec![None; entries.len()],
+            filled: vec![false; entries.len()],
+            restoring: vec![false; entries.len()],
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn restore_all(mut self) -> Result<Vec<PyObjectRef>, SnapshotError> {
+        for idx in 0..self.entries.len() {
+            self.restore_entry(idx)?;
+        }
+        for idx in 0..self.entries.len() {
+            self.fill_container(idx)?;
+        }
+        for idx in 0..self.entries.len() {
+            self.apply_instance_state(idx)?;
+        }
+        Ok(self.objects.into_iter().map(|o| o.unwrap()).collect())
+    }
+
+    fn restore_entry(&mut self, idx: usize) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        // Already restored
+        if self.objects[idx].is_some() {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        
+        // Cycle detection: if we're already restoring this object, we have a cycle
+        if self.restoring[idx] {
+            let entry = &self.entries[idx];
+            // For cycles, we'll create a placeholder and handle it later
+            // This shouldn't happen with the two-phase serialization, but check anyway
+            return Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("cycle detected while restoring object {} (tag={:?})", idx, entry.tag)));
+        }
+        
+        self.restoring[idx] = true;
+        let entry = &self.entries[idx];
+        let obj = match &entry.payload {
+            ObjectPayload::None => self.vm.ctx.none(),
+            ObjectPayload::Bool(value) => self.vm.ctx.new_bool(*value).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::Int(value) => {
+                let int = value
+                    .parse::<malachite_bigint::BigInt>()
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("invalid int"))?;
+                self.vm.ctx.new_int(int).into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Float(value) => self.vm.ctx.new_float(*value).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::Str(value) => self.vm.ctx.new_str(value.clone()).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::Bytes(value) => self.vm.ctx.new_bytes(value.clone()).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::List(_) => self.vm.ctx.new_list(Vec::new()).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::Dict(_) => self.vm.ctx.new_dict().into(),
+            ObjectPayload::Set(_) => PySet::default().into_ref(&self.vm.ctx).into(),
+            ObjectPayload::FrozenSet(items) => {
+                let values = items
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(*id))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                let frozen = PyFrozenSet::from_iter(self.vm, values)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("frozenset build failed"))?;
+                frozen.into_ref(&self.vm.ctx).into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Tuple(items) => {
+                let values = items
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(*id))
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                self.vm.new_tuple(values).into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Module { name, dict } => {
+                let dict = self.get_obj(*dict)?;
+                let dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, dict)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("module dict invalid"))?;
+                self.vm.new_module(name, dict.clone(), None).into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::BuiltinModule { name } => lookup_module(self.vm, name)?,
+            ObjectPayload::BuiltinDict { name } => {
+                let module = lookup_module(self.vm, name)?;
+                let dict = module
+                    .dict()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("builtin module missing dict"))?;
+                dict.into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Function(payload) => {
+                let code_obj = self.get_obj(payload.code)?;
+                let code = code_obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyCode>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("function code invalid"))?
+                    .to_owned();
+                let globals_obj = self.get_obj(payload.globals)?;
+                let globals = self.resolve_globals(globals_obj, Some(payload.module))?;
+                let mut func = PyFunction::new(code, globals.clone(), self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("function create failed"))?;
+                if let Some(defaults) = payload.defaults {
+                    let obj = self.get_obj(defaults)?;
+                    func
+                        .set_function_attribute(crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::DEFAULTS, obj, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("defaults invalid"))?;
+                }
+                if let Some(kwdefaults) = payload.kwdefaults {
+                    let obj = self.get_obj(kwdefaults)?;
+                    if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, obj.clone()) {
+                        func
+                            .set_function_attribute(
+                                crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::KW_ONLY_DEFAULTS,
+                                dict.into(),
+                                self.vm,
+                            )
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("kwdefaults invalid"))?;
+                    } else if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &obj) {
+                        func
+                            .set_function_attribute(
+                                crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::KW_ONLY_DEFAULTS,
+                                dict.into(),
+                                self.vm,
+                            )
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("kwdefaults invalid"))?;
+                    }
+                }
+                if let Some(closure_id) = payload.closure {
+                    let obj = self.get_obj(closure_id)?;
+                    func
+                        .set_function_attribute(crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::CLOSURE, obj, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("closure invalid"))?;
+                }
+                let annotations_obj = self.get_obj(payload.annotations)?;
+                let annotations_obj = match PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, annotations_obj.clone()) {
+                    Ok(dict) => dict.into(),
+                    Err(_) => match mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &annotations_obj) {
+                        Ok(dict) => dict.into(),
+                        Err(_) => annotations_obj,
+                    },
+                };
+                func
+                    .set_function_attribute(crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::ANNOTATIONS, annotations_obj, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("annotations invalid"))?;
+                let type_params_obj = self.get_obj(payload.type_params)?;
+                func
+                    .set_function_attribute(crate::bytecode::MakeFunctionFlags::TYPE_PARAMS, type_params_obj, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("type params invalid"))?;
+                let func_ref = func.into_ref(&self.vm.ctx);
+                let func_obj: PyObjectRef = func_ref.clone().into();
+                let name = self.get_obj(payload.name)?;
+                func_obj
+                    .set_attr("__name__", name, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("name invalid"))?;
+                let qualname = self.get_obj(payload.qualname)?;
+                func_obj
+                    .set_attr("__qualname__", qualname, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("qualname invalid"))?;
+                let module = self.get_obj(payload.module)?;
+                func_obj
+                    .set_attr("__module__", module, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("module invalid"))?;
+                let doc = self.get_obj(payload.doc)?;
+                func_obj
+                    .set_attr("__doc__", doc, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("doc invalid"))?;
+                func_obj
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::BuiltinFunction(payload) => {
+                if let Some(self_id) = payload.self_obj {
+                    let target = self.get_obj(self_id)?;
+                    let attr = self.vm.ctx.intern_str(payload.name.as_str());
+                    target
+                        .get_attr(attr, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("builtin method lookup failed"))?
+                } else {
+                    let module_name = payload.module.as_deref().unwrap_or("builtins");
+                    
+                    // Special case: maketrans is actually str.maketrans, not builtins.maketrans
+                    if module_name == "builtins" && payload.name == "maketrans" {
+                        let attr = self.vm.ctx.intern_str("maketrans");
+                        self.vm.ctx.types.str_type.as_object().get_attr(attr, self.vm)
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("str.maketrans not found"))?
+                    } else if module_name == "builtins" && payload.name.ends_with("_errors") {
+                        let name = payload.name.trim_end_matches("_errors");
+                        self.vm
+                            .state
+                            .codec_registry
+                            .lookup_error(name, self.vm)
+                            .map_err(|_| {
+                                SnapshotError::msg(format!(
+                                    "builtin function lookup failed: {}.{}",
+                                    module_name, payload.name
+                                ))
+                            })?
+                    } else {
+                        let module = lookup_module(self.vm, module_name)?;
+                        let attr = self.vm.ctx.intern_str(payload.name.as_str());
+                        module
+                            .get_attr(attr, self.vm)
+                            .map_err(|e| {
+                                SnapshotError::msg(format!("builtin function lookup failed: {}.{}", module_name, payload.name))
+                            })?
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Code(bytes) => {
+                let code = deserialize_code_object(self.vm, bytes)?;
+                let code_ref: crate::PyRef<PyCode> = self.vm.ctx.new_pyref(PyCode::new(code));
+                code_ref.into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Type(payload) => {
+                // Phase 1: Create type with object as base and empty attributes to avoid cycles
+                // Real bases and attributes will be set in fill_container phase
+                let temp_bases = vec![self.vm.ctx.types.object_type.to_owned()];
+                let empty_attrs = crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes::default();
+                let mut slots = crate::types::PyTypeSlots::heap_default();
+                slots.flags = crate::types::PyTypeFlags::from_bits_truncate(payload.flags);
+                slots.basicsize = payload.basicsize;
+                slots.itemsize = payload.itemsize;
+                slots.member_count = payload.member_count;
+                let metatype = self.vm.ctx.types.type_type.to_owned();
+                let typ = crate::builtins::type_::PyType::new_heap(
+                    payload.name.as_str(),
+                    temp_bases,
+                    empty_attrs,
+                    slots,
+                    metatype,
+                    &self.vm.ctx,
+                )
+                .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("type create failed: {e}")))?;
+                let typ_obj: PyObjectRef = typ.clone().into();
+                if payload.qualname != payload.name {
+                    typ_obj
+                        .set_attr("__qualname__", self.vm.ctx.new_str(payload.qualname.clone()), self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("type qualname invalid"))?;
+                }
+                typ_obj
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::BuiltinType { module, name } => {
+                // Some builtin types (iterators, views, generators, descriptors, wrappers, etc.) cannot be properly restored
+                // Use the type class itself instead
+                if name.ends_with("_iterator") 
+                    || name.ends_with("iterator")
+                    || name.ends_with("_descriptor")  // wrapper_descriptor, method_descriptor, etc.
+                    || name.ends_with("-wrapper")  // method-wrapper, etc.
+                    || name.starts_with("dict_")  // dict_keys, dict_values, dict_items
+                    || name.contains("_wrapper")  // slot_wrapper, etc.
+                    || name == "generator"
+                    || name == "coroutine"
+                    || name == "async_generator" {
+                    self.vm.ctx.types.type_type.to_owned().into()
+                } else {
+                    // Handle module and type name aliases
+                    let (actual_module, actual_name) = match (module.as_str(), name.as_str()) {
+                        ("thread", "lock") => ("_thread", "LockType"),
+                        ("builtins", "weakref") => ("weakref", "ref"),
+                        ("builtins", "weakproxy") => ("weakref", "ProxyType"),
+                        ("builtins", "code") => ("types", "CodeType"),
+                        ("builtins", "EllipsisType") => ("types", "EllipsisType"),
+                        ("builtins", "function") => ("types", "FunctionType"),
+                        ("builtins", "mappingproxy") => ("types", "MappingProxyType"),
+                        ("builtins", "cell") => ("types", "CellType"),
+                        ("builtins", "method") => ("types", "MethodType"),
+                        ("builtins", "builtin_function_or_method") => ("types", "BuiltinMethodType"),
+                        ("builtins", "builtin_method") => ("types", "BuiltinMethodType"),
+                        ("builtins", "module") => ("types", "ModuleType"),
+                        ("builtins", "traceback") => ("types", "TracebackType"),
+                        ("builtins", "frame") => ("types", "FrameType"),
+                        ("builtins", "NoneType") => ("types", "NoneType"),
+                        ("builtins", "NotImplementedType") => ("types", "NotImplementedType"),
+                        ("_json", "Scanner") => ("_json", "make_scanner"),
+                        _ => (module.as_str(), name.as_str()),
+                    };
+                    
+                    let module_obj = lookup_module(self.vm, actual_module)?;
+                    let attr = self.vm.ctx.intern_str(actual_name);
+                    module_obj
+                        .get_attr(attr, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|e| {
+                            SnapshotError::msg(format!("builtin type not found: {}.{}", module, name))
+                        })?
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Instance(payload) => {
+                let typ_obj = self.get_obj(payload.typ)?;
+                let typ = match typ_obj.clone().downcast::<PyType>() {
+                    Ok(typ) => typ,
+                    Err(obj) => obj.class().to_owned(),
+                };
+                let type_name = typ.name().to_owned();
+                
+                // Special case: if this is a type instance, it should not be created via __new__
+                // Use the type itself
+                if type_name == "type" {
+                    typ.clone().into()
+                } else
+                
+                // Some types cannot be properly restored (weakref, iterators, methods, slices, etc.)
+                // Return None for these cases
+                if type_name == "weakref" 
+                    || type_name == "weakproxy" 
+                    || type_name == "method"  // bound methods need specific object binding
+                    || type_name == "builtin_method"
+                    || type_name == "slice"  // slice objects need specific start/stop/step
+                    || type_name.ends_with("_iterator")
+                    || type_name.ends_with("iterator") {
+                    self.vm.ctx.none()
+                } else {
+                let args_obj = payload
+                    .new_args
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(id))
+                    .transpose()?;
+                let kwargs_obj = payload
+                    .new_kwargs
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(id))
+                    .transpose()?;
+                let args_obj = args_obj.unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.empty_tuple.clone().into());
+                let args = if let Some(tuple) = args_obj.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+                    tuple.to_owned()
+                } else if let Some(list) = args_obj.downcast_ref::<PyList>() {
+                    self.vm.new_tuple(list.borrow_vec().to_vec())
+                } else {
+                    self.vm.ctx.empty_tuple.clone()
+                };
+                if typ.is(self.vm.ctx.types.classmethod_type)
+                    || typ.is(self.vm.ctx.types.staticmethod_type)
+                {
+                    let func = args
+                        .get(0)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.none().into());
+                    if typ.is(self.vm.ctx.types.classmethod_type) {
+                        let obj: PyObjectRef = PyClassMethod::from(func)
+                            .into_ref_with_type(self.vm, typ.clone())
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("classmethod create failed"))?
+                            .into();
+                        obj
+                    } else {
+                        let obj: PyObjectRef = PyStaticMethod::new(func)
+                            .into_ref_with_type(self.vm, typ.clone())
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("staticmethod create failed"))?
+                            .into();
+                        obj
+                    }
+                } else {
+                let new_func = self
+                    .vm
+                    .get_attribute_opt(typ.clone().into(), "__new__")
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__new__ lookup failed"))?;
+                let kwargs_obj = kwargs_obj.unwrap_or_else(|| self.vm.ctx.new_dict().into());
+                let kwargs = if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, kwargs_obj.clone()) {
+                    dict
+                } else if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &kwargs_obj) {
+                    dict
+                } else {
+                    self.vm.ctx.new_dict()
+                };
+                let mut call_args = Vec::with_capacity(args.len() + 1);
+                call_args.push(typ.clone().into());
+                call_args.extend(args.iter().cloned());
+                let kwargs = kwargs_from_dict(kwargs)?;
+                let instance = if let Some(new_func) = new_func {
+                    match new_func.call(crate::function::FuncArgs::new(call_args.clone(), kwargs.clone()), self.vm) {
+                        Ok(value) => value,
+                        Err(_) => {
+                            self
+                            .vm
+                            .call_method(self.vm.ctx.types.object_type.as_object(), "__new__", (typ.clone(),))
+                            .map_err(|_| {
+                                SnapshotError::msg(format!("__new__ failed for {type_name}"))
+                            })?
+                        }
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    self.vm
+                        .call_method(self.vm.ctx.types.object_type.as_object(), "__new__", (typ.clone(),))
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg(format!("__new__ missing for {type_name}")))?
+                };
+                instance
+                }
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Cell(contents) => {
+                let value = contents
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(id))
+                    .transpose()?;
+                let cell = PyCell::new(value);
+                let cell_ref: crate::PyRef<PyCell> = self.vm.ctx.new_pyref(cell);
+                cell_ref.into()
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Enumerate { iterator, count } => {
+                // Restore enumerate object
+                // Important: get_obj will trigger list_iterator restoration with __setstate__
+                let iter_obj = self.get_obj(*iterator)
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("enumerate: failed to get iterator {}: {:?}", iterator, e)))?;
+                
+                // Call enumerate(iter, start=count) to recreate
+                // Note: iter_obj should already be at the correct position after get_obj
+                let enumerate_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("enumerate", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("enumerate: builtin not found: {:?}", e)))?;
+                let count_obj = self.vm.ctx.new_int(*count);
+                
+                // Create kwargs with "start" parameter
+                use crate::function::{FuncArgs, KwArgs};
+                use indexmap::IndexMap;
+                let mut kwargs_map = IndexMap::new();
+                kwargs_map.insert("start".to_string(), count_obj.into());
+                let kwargs = KwArgs::new(kwargs_map);
+                // Use iter_obj directly (don't clone, as it's already the restored iterator)
+                let args = FuncArgs::new(vec![iter_obj], kwargs);
+                
+                self.vm.invoke(&enumerate_fn, args)
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("enumerate(iterator={}, start={}) failed: {:?}", iterator, count, e)))?
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Zip { iterators } => {
+                // Restore zip object
+                let iter_objs: Result<Vec<_>, _> = iterators.iter()
+                    .map(|id| self.get_obj(*id))
+                    .collect();
+                let iter_objs = iter_objs?;
+                let zip_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("zip", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("zip not found"))?;
+                self.vm.invoke(&zip_fn, iter_objs)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("zip restore failed"))?
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Map { function, iterator } => {
+                // Restore map object
+                let func_obj = self.get_obj(*function)?;
+                let iter_obj = self.get_obj(*iterator)?;
+                let map_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("map", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("map not found"))?;
+                self.vm.invoke(&map_fn, (func_obj, iter_obj))
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("map restore failed"))?
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Filter { function, iterator } => {
+                // Restore filter object
+                let func_obj = self.get_obj(*function)?;
+                let iter_obj = self.get_obj(*iterator)?;
+                let filter_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("filter", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("filter not found"))?;
+                self.vm.invoke(&filter_fn, (func_obj, iter_obj))
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("filter restore failed"))?
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::ListIterator { list, position } => {
+                // Restore list_iterator object
+                // 1. Get the list object and fill it
+                let list_obj = self.get_obj(*list)?;
+                
+                // IMPORTANT: fill_container must be called to populate the list's elements
+                // Otherwise the list will be empty!
+                let list_idx = *list as usize;
+                self.fill_container(list_idx)?;
+                
+                // 2. Create a new iterator from the list
+                let iter_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("iter", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("iter not found"))?;
+                let new_iter = self.vm.invoke(&iter_fn, (list_obj.clone(),))
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("iter() failed: {:?}", e)))?;
+                
+                // 3. Advance the iterator to the saved position by calling __next__
+                for _ in 0..*position {
+                    match self.vm.call_method(&new_iter, "__next__", ()) {
+                        Ok(_) => {
+                            // Successfully advanced, continue
+                        }
+                        Err(e) => {
+                            // Check if it's StopIteration (iterator exhausted early)
+                            let class_name = e.class().name();
+                            if &*class_name == "StopIteration" {
+                                // Iterator exhausted before reaching target position, break
+                                break;
+                            } else {
+                                // Other error, propagate
+                                return Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("list_iterator advance failed: {:?}", e)));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                
+                new_iter
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Range { start, stop, step } => {
+                // Restore range object by calling range(start, stop, step)
+                let range_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("range", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("range not found"))?;
+                let start_obj = self.vm.ctx.new_int(*start);
+                let stop_obj = self.vm.ctx.new_int(*stop);
+                let step_obj = self.vm.ctx.new_int(*step);
+                self.vm.invoke(&range_fn, (start_obj, stop_obj, step_obj))
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("range({}, {}, {}) failed: {:?}", start, stop, step, e)))?
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::RangeIterator { range, position } => {
+                // Restore range_iterator object
+                // 1. Get the range object
+                let range_obj = self.get_obj(*range)?;
+                
+                // 2. Create a new iterator from the range
+                let iter_fn = self.vm.builtins.get_attr("iter", self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("iter not found"))?;
+                let new_iter = self.vm.invoke(&iter_fn, (range_obj.clone(),))
+                    .map_err(|e| SnapshotError::msg(format!("iter(range) failed: {:?}", e)))?;
+                
+                // 3. Advance the iterator to the saved position by calling __next__
+                for _ in 0..*position {
+                    match self.vm.call_method(&new_iter, "__next__", ()) {
+                        Ok(_) => {
+                            // Successfully advanced, continue
+                        }
+                        Err(e) => {
+                            // Check if it's StopIteration (iterator exhausted early)
+                            let class_name = e.class().name();
+                            if &*class_name == "StopIteration" {
+                                // Iterator exhausted before reaching target position, break
+                                break;
+                            } else {
+                                // Other error, propagate
+                                return Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("range_iterator advance failed: {:?}", e)));
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                
+                new_iter
+            }
+        };
+        self.objects[idx] = Some(obj);
+        self.restoring[idx] = false;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn fill_container(&mut self, idx: usize) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        if self.filled[idx] {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let entry = &self.entries[idx];
+        let Some(obj) = self.objects[idx].clone() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        match &entry.payload {
+            ObjectPayload::List(items) => {
+                let list = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PyList>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("list fill type error"))?;
+                let mut data = list.borrow_vec_mut();
+                for id in items {
+                    data.push(self.get_obj(*id)?);
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Dict(items) => {
+                let dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, obj)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("dict fill type error"))?;
+                for (k, v) in items {
+                    let key = self.get_obj(*k)?;
+                    let value = self.get_obj(*v)?;
+                    dict.set_item(&*key, value, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("dict fill failed"))?;
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Set(items) => {
+                let set = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<PySet>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("set fill type error"))?;
+                for id in items {
+                    set.add(self.get_obj(*id)?, self.vm)
+                        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("set add failed"))?;
+                }
+            }
+            ObjectPayload::Type(payload) => {
+                // Fill in the real bases and attributes for Type objects
+                let typ = obj
+                    .downcast_ref::<crate::builtins::type_::PyType>()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type fill type error"))?;
+                
+                // Fill bases
+                if !payload.bases.is_empty() {
+                    let mut bases = Vec::new();
+                    for base_id in &payload.bases {
+                        let base_obj = self.get_obj(*base_id)?;
+                        let base_type = base_obj.downcast::<crate::builtins::type_::PyType>()
+                            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("type base invalid"))?;
+                        bases.push(base_type);
+                    }
+                    // Update the bases
+                    *typ.bases.write() = bases;
+                }
+                
+                // Fill attributes
+                let attrs = build_type_attributes(self, payload.dict, idx as ObjId)?;
+                for (key, value) in attrs.iter() {
+                    typ.attributes.write().insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+                }
+                
+                // Apply deferred attributes
+                apply_deferred_type_attrs(self, obj.clone(), payload.dict, idx as ObjId)?;
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+        self.filled[idx] = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn apply_instance_state(&mut self, idx: usize) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+        let entry = &self.entries[idx];
+        let ObjectPayload::Instance(payload) = &entry.payload else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let Some(instance) = self.objects[idx].clone() else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let Some(state_id) = payload.state else {
+            return Ok(());
+        };
+        let state = self.get_obj(state_id)?;
+        if let Some(setstate) = self
+            .vm
+            .get_attribute_opt(instance.clone(), "__setstate__")
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__setstate__ lookup failed"))?
+        {
+            setstate
+                .call((state,), self.vm)
+                .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__setstate__ failed"))?;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        if let Some(dict) = instance.dict() {
+            // state can be None for some objects
+            if self.vm.is_none(&state) {
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            let state_dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, state.clone())
+                .map_err(|_| {
+                    SnapshotError::msg("state must be dict")
+                })?;
+            for (key, value) in &state_dict {
+                dict.set_item(&*key, value, self.vm)
+                    .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("state set failed"))?;
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn get_obj(&mut self, id: ObjId) -> Result<PyObjectRef, SnapshotError> {
+        let idx = id as usize;
+        if self.objects.get(idx).and_then(|o| o.as_ref()).is_none() {
+            self.restore_entry(idx)?;
+        }
+        Ok(self.objects[idx].clone().unwrap())
+    }
+
+    fn resolve_globals(
+        &mut self,
+        globals_obj: PyObjectRef,
+        module_id: Option<ObjId>,
+    ) -> Result<PyDictRef, SnapshotError> {
+        if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, globals_obj.clone()) {
+            return Ok(dict);
+        }
+        if let Some(dict) = globals_obj.dict() {
+            return Ok(dict);
+        }
+        if let Some(module_id) = module_id {
+            let module_obj = self.get_obj(module_id)?;
+            if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, module_obj.clone()) {
+                return Ok(dict);
+            }
+            if let Some(dict) = module_obj.dict() {
+                return Ok(dict);
+            }
+            if let Some(name) = module_obj
+                .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+                .map(|s| s.as_str().to_owned())
+            {
+                if let Ok(module) = lookup_module(self.vm, &name) {
+                    if let Some(dict) = module.dict() {
+                        return Ok(dict);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(self.vm, &globals_obj) {
+            return Ok(dict);
+        }
+        let root_obj = self.get_obj(self.root)?;
+        if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(self.vm, root_obj.clone()) {
+            return Ok(dict);
+        }
+        if let Some(dict) = root_obj.dict() {
+            return Ok(dict);
+        }
+        Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!(
+            "function globals invalid: {}",
+            globals_obj.class().name()
+        )))
+    }
+}
+
+fn lookup_module(vm: &VirtualMachine, name: &str) -> Result<PyObjectRef, SnapshotError> {
+    if name == "builtins" {
+        return Ok(vm.builtins.clone().into());
+    }
+    if name == "sys" {
+        return Ok(vm.sys_module.clone().into());
+    }
+    
+    // Handle module name aliases (Python 2 -> Python 3)
+    let actual_name = match name {
+        "thread" => "_thread",
+        "_os" => "posix",  // _os is typically mapped to posix or nt
+        _ => name,
+    };
+    
+    // Try to get from sys.modules first
+    let sys_modules = vm.sys_module
+        .get_attr("modules", vm)
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("sys.modules unavailable"))?;
+    
+    if let Ok(module) = sys_modules.get_item(actual_name, vm) {
+        return Ok(module);
+    }
+    
+    // If not found, try to import it
+    let import_func = vm.builtins
+        .get_attr("__import__", vm)
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("__import__ not found"))?;
+    
+    match import_func.call((actual_name,), vm) {
+        Ok(module) => {
+            Ok(module)
+        }
+        Err(e) => {
+            let msg = e
+                .as_object()
+                .str(vm)
+                .map(|s| s.to_string())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|_| "unknown import error".to_owned());
+            Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!(
+                "failed to import module: {name} ({msg})"
+            )))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn build_type_attributes(
+    reader: &mut SnapshotReader<'_>,
+    dict_id: ObjId,
+    type_id: ObjId,
+) -> Result<crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes, SnapshotError> {
+    if dict_id == type_id {
+        return Ok(crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes::default());
+    }
+    let entry = reader
+        .entries
+        .get(dict_id as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type dict missing"))?;
+    let items = match &entry.payload {
+        ObjectPayload::Dict(items) => items.clone(),
+        ObjectPayload::BuiltinDict { name } => {
+            let module = lookup_module(reader.vm, name)?;
+            let dict = module
+                .dict()
+                .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("builtin module missing dict"))?;
+            return build_type_attributes_from_dict(reader, dict, type_id);
+        }
+        ObjectPayload::Module { dict, .. } => {
+            let dict_obj = reader.get_obj(*dict)?;
+            let dict = PyDictRef::try_from_object(reader.vm, dict_obj)
+                .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("module dict invalid"))?;
+            return build_type_attributes_from_dict(reader, dict, type_id);
+        }
+        _ => {
+            let dict_obj = reader.get_obj(dict_id)?;
+            if let Ok(dict) = PyDictRef::try_from_object(reader.vm, dict_obj.clone()) {
+                return build_type_attributes_from_dict(reader, dict, type_id);
+            }
+            if let Ok(dict) = mapping_to_dict(reader.vm, &dict_obj) {
+                return build_type_attributes_from_dict(reader, dict, type_id);
+            }
+            return Ok(crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes::default());
+        }
+    };
+    let mut attrs = crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes::default();
+    for (key_id, val_id) in items {
+        if key_id == type_id || val_id == type_id {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let key_obj = reader.get_obj(key_id)?;
+        let key = key_obj
+            .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type dict key must be str"))?;
+        let value = reader.get_obj(val_id)?;
+        let interned = reader.vm.ctx.intern_str(key.as_str());
+        attrs.insert(interned, value);
+    }
+    Ok(attrs)
+}
+
+fn build_type_attributes_from_dict(
+    reader: &mut SnapshotReader<'_>,
+    dict: PyDictRef,
+    type_id: ObjId,
+) -> Result<crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes, SnapshotError> {
+    let mut attrs = crate::builtins::type_::PyAttributes::default();
+    for (key, value) in &dict {
+        let _ = type_id;
+        let key = key
+            .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type dict key must be str"))?;
+        let interned = reader.vm.ctx.intern_str(key.as_str());
+        attrs.insert(interned, value);
+    }
+    Ok(attrs)
+}
+
+fn apply_deferred_type_attrs(
+    reader: &mut SnapshotReader<'_>,
+    typ_obj: PyObjectRef,
+    dict_id: ObjId,
+    type_id: ObjId,
+) -> Result<(), SnapshotError> {
+    let entry = reader
+        .entries
+        .get(dict_id as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type dict missing"))?;
+    let items = match &entry.payload {
+        ObjectPayload::Dict(items) => items.clone(),
+        _ => return Ok(()),
+    };
+    for (key_id, val_id) in items {
+        if key_id != type_id && val_id != type_id {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let key_obj = reader.get_obj(key_id)?;
+        let key = key_obj
+            .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("type dict key must be str"))?;
+        let value = reader.get_obj(val_id)?;
+        let key_interned = reader.vm.ctx.intern_str(key.as_str());
+        typ_obj
+            .set_attr(key_interned, value, reader.vm)
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("type attribute set failed"))?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn kwargs_from_dict(dict: PyDictRef) -> Result<crate::function::KwArgs, SnapshotError> {
+    let mut map = indexmap::IndexMap::new();
+    for (key, value) in &dict {
+        let key = key
+            .downcast_ref::<PyStr>()
+            .ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("kwargs key must be str"))?;
+        map.insert(key.as_str().to_owned(), value);
+    }
+    Ok(crate::function::KwArgs::new(map))
+}
+
+fn mapping_to_dict(vm: &VirtualMachine, mapping: &PyObjectRef) -> Result<PyDictRef, SnapshotError> {
+    let items = vm
+        .call_method(mapping.as_object(), "items", ())
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("globals items() failed"))?;
+    let iter = items
+        .get_iter(vm)
+        .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("globals items() not iterable"))?;
+    let dict = vm.ctx.new_dict();
+    loop {
+        let next = iter
+            .next(vm)
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("globals items() iteration failed"))?;
+        let PyIterReturn::Return(item) = next else {
+            break;
+        };
+        let (key, value) = if let Some(pair) = item.downcast_ref::<PyTuple>() {
+            if pair.len() != 2 {
+                return Err(SnapshotError::msg("globals item must be (key, value)"));
+            }
+            (
+                pair.get(0).unwrap().clone(),
+                pair.get(1).unwrap().clone(),
+            )
+        } else if let Some(pair) = item.downcast_ref::<PyList>() {
+            if pair.borrow_vec().len() != 2 {
+                return Err(SnapshotError::msg("globals item must be [key, value]"));
+            }
+            let values = pair.borrow_vec();
+            (values[0].clone(), values[1].clone())
+        } else {
+            return Err(SnapshotError::msg("globals item must be tuple/list"));
+        };
+        dict.set_item(&*key, value, vm)
+            .map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("globals item set failed"))?;
+    }
+    Ok(dict)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct CborWriter {
+    buf: Vec<u8>,
+}
+
+impl CborWriter {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self { buf: Vec::new() }
+    }
+
+    fn into_bytes(self) -> Vec<u8> {
+        self.buf
+    }
+
+    fn write_uint(&mut self, value: u64) {
+        write_uint_major(&mut self.buf, 0, value);
+    }
+
+    fn write_bytes(&mut self, value: &[u8]) {
+        write_uint_major(&mut self.buf, 2, value.len() as u64);
+        self.buf.extend_from_slice(value);
+    }
+
+    fn write_text(&mut self, value: &str) {
+        write_uint_major(&mut self.buf, 3, value.len() as u64);
+        self.buf.extend_from_slice(value.as_bytes());
+    }
+
+    fn write_array_len(&mut self, len: usize) {
+        write_uint_major(&mut self.buf, 4, len as u64);
+    }
+
+    fn write_map_len(&mut self, len: usize) {
+        write_uint_major(&mut self.buf, 5, len as u64);
+    }
+
+    fn write_bool(&mut self, value: bool) {
+        self.buf.push(if value { 0xf5 } else { 0xf4 });
+    }
+
+    fn write_null(&mut self) {
+        self.buf.push(0xf6);
+    }
+
+    fn write_f64(&mut self, value: f64) {
+        self.buf.push(0xfb);
+        self.buf.extend_from_slice(&value.to_be_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+fn write_uint_major(buf: &mut Vec<u8>, major: u8, value: u64) {
+    if value < 24 {
+        buf.push((major << 5) | value as u8);
+    } else if value <= u8::MAX as u64 {
+        buf.push((major << 5) | 24);
+        buf.push(value as u8);
+    } else if value <= u16::MAX as u64 {
+        buf.push((major << 5) | 25);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&(value as u16).to_be_bytes());
+    } else if value <= u32::MAX as u64 {
+        buf.push((major << 5) | 26);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&(value as u32).to_be_bytes());
+    } else {
+        buf.push((major << 5) | 27);
+        buf.extend_from_slice(&value.to_be_bytes());
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct CborReader<'a> {
+    data: &'a [u8],
+    pos: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> CborReader<'a> {
+    fn new(data: &'a [u8]) -> Self {
+        Self { data, pos: 0 }
+    }
+
+    fn read_u8(&mut self) -> Result<u8, SnapshotError> {
+        let b = *self.data.get(self.pos).ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("cbor eof"))?;
+        self.pos += 1;
+        Ok(b)
+    }
+
+    fn read_exact(&mut self, len: usize) -> Result<&'a [u8], SnapshotError> {
+        let end = self.pos + len;
+        let slice = self.data.get(self.pos..end).ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("cbor eof"))?;
+        self.pos = end;
+        Ok(slice)
+    }
+
+    fn read_uint(&mut self, info: u8) -> Result<u64, SnapshotError> {
+        match info {
+            0..=23 => Ok(info as u64),
+            24 => Ok(self.read_u8()? as u64),
+            25 => Ok(u16::from_be_bytes(self.read_exact(2)?.try_into().unwrap()) as u64),
+            26 => Ok(u32::from_be_bytes(self.read_exact(4)?.try_into().unwrap()) as u64),
+            27 => Ok(u64::from_be_bytes(self.read_exact(8)?.try_into().unwrap())),
+            _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("unsupported uint")),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn read_value(&mut self) -> Result<CborValue, SnapshotError> {
+        let head = self.read_u8()?;
+        let major = head >> 5;
+        let info = head & 0x1f;
+        match major {
+            0 => Ok(CborValue::Uint(self.read_uint(info)?)),
+            1 => Ok(CborValue::Nint(self.read_uint(info)?)),
+            2 => {
+                let len = self.read_uint(info)? as usize;
+                let bytes = self.read_exact(len)?.to_vec();
+                Ok(CborValue::Bytes(bytes))
+            }
+            3 => {
+                let len = self.read_uint(info)? as usize;
+                let bytes = self.read_exact(len)?.to_vec();
+                let text = String::from_utf8(bytes).map_err(|_| SnapshotError::msg("utf8 error"))?;
+                Ok(CborValue::Text(text))
+            }
+            4 => {
+                let len = self.read_uint(info)? as usize;
+                let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+                for _ in 0..len {
+                    items.push(self.read_value()?);
+                }
+                Ok(CborValue::Array(items))
+            }
+            5 => {
+                let len = self.read_uint(info)? as usize;
+                let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(len);
+                for _ in 0..len {
+                    let key = self.read_value()?;
+                    let val = self.read_value()?;
+                    items.push((key, val));
+                }
+                Ok(CborValue::Map(items))
+            }
+            7 => match info {
+                20 => Ok(CborValue::Bool(false)),
+                21 => Ok(CborValue::Bool(true)),
+                22 => Ok(CborValue::Null),
+                27 => {
+                    let bytes = self.read_exact(8)?;
+                    Ok(CborValue::Float(f64::from_be_bytes(bytes.try_into().unwrap())))
+                }
+                _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("unsupported simple")),
+            },
+            _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("unsupported major")),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum CborValue {
+    Uint(u64),
+    Nint(u64),
+    Bytes(Vec<u8>),
+    Text(String),
+    Array(Vec<CborValue>),
+    Map(Vec<(CborValue, CborValue)>),
+    Bool(bool),
+    Null,
+    Float(f64),
+}
+
+fn encode_checkpoint_state(state: &CheckpointState) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut writer = CborWriter::new();
+    let mut fields = Vec::new();
+    fields.push(("version", CborValue::Uint(state.version as u64)));
+    fields.push(("source_path", CborValue::Text(state.source_path.clone())));
+    
+    // Encode frames array
+    let frames_array = state.frames.iter().map(|frame_state| {
+        let stack_array = frame_state.stack.iter()
+            .map(|obj_id| CborValue::Uint(*obj_id as u64))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        
+        // Encode blocks array
+        let blocks_array = frame_state.blocks.iter().map(|block_state| {
+            encode_block_state(block_state)
+        }).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        
+        CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("code".to_owned()), CborValue::Bytes(frame_state.code.clone())),
+            (CborValue::Text("lasti".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(frame_state.lasti as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("locals".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(frame_state.locals as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("stack".to_owned()), CborValue::Array(stack_array)),
+            (CborValue::Text("blocks".to_owned()), CborValue::Array(blocks_array)),
+        ])
+    }).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    fields.push(("frames", CborValue::Array(frames_array)));
+    
+    fields.push(("root", CborValue::Uint(state.root as u64)));
+    let objects = state
+        .objects
+        .iter()
+        .map(encode_object_entry)
+        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+    fields.push(("objects", CborValue::Array(objects)));
+    write_cbor_map(&mut writer, fields);
+    writer.into_bytes()
+}
+
+fn decode_checkpoint_state(data: &[u8]) -> Result<CheckpointState, SnapshotError> {
+    let mut reader = CborReader::new(data);
+    let value = reader.read_value()?;
+    let map = match value {
+        CborValue::Map(map) => map,
+        _ => return Err(SnapshotError::msg("checkpoint is not map")),
+    };
+    let mut version = None;
+    let mut source_path = None;
+    let mut frames_data = None;
+    // Old format fields (for backward compatibility)
+    let mut lasti = None;
+    let mut code = None;
+    let mut root = None;
+    let mut objects = None;
+    for (key, val) in map {
+        let key = match key {
+            CborValue::Text(text) => text,
+            _ => return Err(SnapshotError::msg("invalid map key")),
+        };
+        match key.as_str() {
+            "version" => version = Some(expect_uint(val)? as u32),
+            "source_path" => source_path = Some(expect_text(val)?),
+            "frames" => {
+                let arr = expect_array(val)?;
+                let mut frame_states = Vec::new();
+                for frame_val in arr {
+                    let frame_map = expect_map(frame_val)?;
+                    let mut f_code = None;
+                    let mut f_lasti = None;
+                    let mut f_locals = None;
+                    let mut f_stack = None;
+                    let mut f_blocks = None;
+                    for (k, v) in frame_map {
+                        let k = expect_text(k)?;
+                        match k.as_str() {
+                            "code" => f_code = Some(expect_bytes(v)?),
+                            "lasti" => f_lasti = Some(expect_uint(v)? as u32),
+                            "locals" => f_locals = Some(expect_uint(v)? as ObjId),
+                            "stack" => {
+                                let arr = expect_array(v)?;
+                                let mut stack_ids = Vec::new();
+                                for item in arr {
+                                    stack_ids.push(expect_uint(item)? as ObjId);
+                                }
+                                f_stack = Some(stack_ids);
+                            }
+                            "blocks" => {
+                                let arr = expect_array(v)?;
+                                let mut blocks = Vec::new();
+                                for block_val in arr {
+                                    blocks.push(decode_block_state(block_val)?);
+                                }
+                                f_blocks = Some(blocks);
+                            }
+                            _ => {}
+                        }
+                    }
+                    frame_states.push(FrameState {
+                        code: f_code.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing frame code"))?,
+                        lasti: f_lasti.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing frame lasti"))?,
+                        locals: f_locals.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing frame locals"))?,
+                        stack: f_stack.unwrap_or_else(Vec::new),  // For backward compatibility
+                        blocks: f_blocks.unwrap_or_else(Vec::new),  // For backward compatibility
+                    });
+                }
+                frames_data = Some(frame_states);
+            }
+            // Old format fields
+            "lasti" => lasti = Some(expect_uint(val)? as u32),
+            "code" => code = Some(expect_bytes(val)?),
+            "root" => root = Some(expect_uint(val)? as ObjId),
+            "objects" => {
+                let arr = expect_array(val)?;
+                let mut entries = Vec::new();
+                for item in arr {
+                    entries.push(decode_object_entry(item)?);
+                }
+                objects = Some(entries);
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+    
+    let root = root.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing root"))?;
+    
+    // Handle backward compatibility: if 'frames' field doesn't exist, convert old format
+    let frames = if let Some(frames_data) = frames_data {
+        frames_data
+    } else {
+        // Old format: single frame
+        let lasti = lasti.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing lasti"))?;
+        let code = code.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing code"))?;
+        vec![FrameState {
+            code,
+            lasti,
+            locals: root,  // Old format: locals == globals for module-level
+            stack: Vec::new(),  // Old format: assume empty stack
+            blocks: Vec::new(),  // Old format: assume empty blocks
+        }]
+    };
+    
+    Ok(CheckpointState {
+        version: version.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing version"))?,
+        source_path: source_path.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing source_path"))?,
+        frames,
+        root,
+        objects: objects.ok_or_else(|| SnapshotError::msg("missing objects"))?,
+    })
+}
+
+fn encode_object_entry(entry: &ObjectEntry) -> CborValue {
+    let payload = match &entry.payload {
+        ObjectPayload::None => CborValue::Null,
+        ObjectPayload::Bool(value) => CborValue::Bool(*value),
+        ObjectPayload::Int(value) => CborValue::Text(value.clone()),
+        ObjectPayload::Float(value) => CborValue::Float(*value),
+        ObjectPayload::Str(value) => CborValue::Text(value.clone()),
+        ObjectPayload::Bytes(value) => CborValue::Bytes(value.clone()),
+        ObjectPayload::List(items) => CborValue::Array(items.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect()),
+        ObjectPayload::Tuple(items) => CborValue::Array(items.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect()),
+        ObjectPayload::Dict(items) => CborValue::Array(items.iter().map(|(k, v)| {
+            CborValue::Array(vec![CborValue::Uint(*k as u64), CborValue::Uint(*v as u64)])
+        }).collect()),
+        ObjectPayload::Set(items) => CborValue::Array(items.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect()),
+        ObjectPayload::FrozenSet(items) => CborValue::Array(items.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect()),
+        ObjectPayload::Module { name, dict } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(name.clone())),
+            (CborValue::Text("dict".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*dict as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::BuiltinModule { name } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(name.clone())),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::BuiltinDict { name } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(name.clone())),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Function(func) => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("code".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.code as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("globals".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.globals as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("defaults".to_owned()), opt_id(func.defaults)),
+            (CborValue::Text("kwdefaults".to_owned()), opt_id(func.kwdefaults)),
+            (CborValue::Text("closure".to_owned()), opt_id(func.closure)),
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.name as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("qualname".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.qualname as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("annotations".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.annotations as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("module".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.module as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("doc".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.doc as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("type_params".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(func.type_params as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::BuiltinFunction(func) => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(func.name.clone())),
+            (
+                CborValue::Text("module".to_owned()),
+                func.module
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .map(|m| CborValue::Text(m.clone()))
+                    .unwrap_or(CborValue::Null),
+            ),
+            (CborValue::Text("self".to_owned()), opt_id(func.self_obj)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Code(bytes) => CborValue::Bytes(bytes.clone()),
+        ObjectPayload::Type(typ) => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(typ.name.clone())),
+            (CborValue::Text("qualname".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(typ.qualname.clone())),
+            (CborValue::Text("bases".to_owned()), CborValue::Array(typ.bases.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect())),
+            (CborValue::Text("dict".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(typ.dict as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("flags".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(typ.flags)),
+            (CborValue::Text("basicsize".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(typ.basicsize as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("itemsize".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(typ.itemsize as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("member_count".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(typ.member_count as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::BuiltinType { module, name } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("module".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(module.clone())),
+            (CborValue::Text("name".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(name.clone())),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Instance(inst) => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("type".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(inst.typ as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("state".to_owned()), opt_id(inst.state)),
+            (CborValue::Text("new_args".to_owned()), opt_id(inst.new_args)),
+            (CborValue::Text("new_kwargs".to_owned()), opt_id(inst.new_kwargs)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Cell(value) => opt_id(*value),
+        ObjectPayload::Enumerate { iterator, count } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("iterator".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*iterator as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("count".to_owned()), if *count >= 0 {
+                CborValue::Uint(*count as u64)
+            } else {
+                CborValue::Nint((-*count - 1) as u64)
+            }),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Zip { iterators } => CborValue::Array(
+            iterators.iter().map(|id| CborValue::Uint(*id as u64)).collect()
+        ),
+        ObjectPayload::Map { function, iterator } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("function".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*function as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("iterator".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*iterator as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Filter { function, iterator } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("function".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*function as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("iterator".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*iterator as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::ListIterator { list, position } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("list".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*list as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("position".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*position as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::RangeIterator { range, position } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("range".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*range as u64)),
+            (CborValue::Text("position".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*position as u64)),
+        ]),
+        ObjectPayload::Range { start, stop, step } => CborValue::Map(vec![
+            (CborValue::Text("start".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(start.to_string())),
+            (CborValue::Text("stop".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(stop.to_string())),
+            (CborValue::Text("step".to_owned()), CborValue::Text(step.to_string())),
+        ]),
+    };
+    CborValue::Array(vec![CborValue::Uint(entry.tag as u64), payload])
+}
+
+fn decode_object_entry(value: CborValue) -> Result<ObjectEntry, SnapshotError> {
+    let arr = expect_array(value)?;
+    if arr.len() != 2 {
+        return Err(SnapshotError::msg("invalid object entry"));
+    }
+    let tag = expect_uint(arr[0].clone())? as u8;
+    let tag = match tag {
+        0 => ObjTag::None,
+        1 => ObjTag::Bool,
+        2 => ObjTag::Int,
+        3 => ObjTag::Float,
+        4 => ObjTag::Str,
+        5 => ObjTag::Bytes,
+        6 => ObjTag::List,
+        7 => ObjTag::Tuple,
+        8 => ObjTag::Dict,
+        9 => ObjTag::Set,
+        10 => ObjTag::FrozenSet,
+        11 => ObjTag::Module,
+        12 => ObjTag::Function,
+        13 => ObjTag::Code,
+        14 => ObjTag::Type,
+        15 => ObjTag::BuiltinType,
+        16 => ObjTag::Instance,
+        17 => ObjTag::Cell,
+        18 => ObjTag::BuiltinModule,
+        19 => ObjTag::BuiltinDict,
+        20 => ObjTag::BuiltinFunction,
+        21 => ObjTag::Enumerate,
+        22 => ObjTag::Zip,
+        23 => ObjTag::Map,
+        24 => ObjTag::Filter,
+        25 => ObjTag::ListIterator,
+        26 => ObjTag::RangeIterator,
+        27 => ObjTag::Range,
+        _ => return Err(SnapshotError::msg("unknown tag")),
+    };
+    let payload = decode_payload(tag, arr[1].clone())?;
+    Ok(ObjectEntry { tag, payload })
+}
+
+fn decode_payload(tag: ObjTag, value: CborValue) -> Result<ObjectPayload, SnapshotError> {
+    match tag {
+        ObjTag::None => Ok(ObjectPayload::None),
+        ObjTag::Bool => Ok(ObjectPayload::Bool(expect_bool(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Int => Ok(ObjectPayload::Int(expect_text(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Float => Ok(ObjectPayload::Float(expect_float(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Str => Ok(ObjectPayload::Str(expect_text(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Bytes => Ok(ObjectPayload::Bytes(expect_bytes(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::List => Ok(ObjectPayload::List(expect_id_list(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Tuple => Ok(ObjectPayload::Tuple(expect_id_list(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Dict => {
+            let arr = expect_array(value)?;
+            let mut items = Vec::new();
+            for item in arr {
+                let pair = expect_array(item)?;
+                if pair.len() != 2 {
+                    return Err(SnapshotError::msg("dict entry invalid"));
+                }
+                items.push((expect_uint(pair[0].clone())? as ObjId, expect_uint(pair[1].clone())? as ObjId));
+            }
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Dict(items))
+        }
+        ObjTag::Set => Ok(ObjectPayload::Set(expect_id_list(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::FrozenSet => Ok(ObjectPayload::FrozenSet(expect_id_list(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Module => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            let name = expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?;
+            let dict = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "dict")?)? as ObjId;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Module { name, dict })
+        }
+        ObjTag::BuiltinModule => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            let name = expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinModule { name })
+        }
+        ObjTag::BuiltinDict => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            let name = expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinDict { name })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Function => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Function(FunctionPayload {
+                code: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "code")?)? as ObjId,
+                globals: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "globals")?)? as ObjId,
+                defaults: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "defaults")?),
+                kwdefaults: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "kwdefaults")?),
+                closure: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "closure")?),
+                name: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "name")?)? as ObjId,
+                qualname: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "qualname")?)? as ObjId,
+                annotations: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "annotations")?)? as ObjId,
+                module: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "module")?)? as ObjId,
+                doc: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "doc")?)? as ObjId,
+                type_params: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "type_params")?)? as ObjId,
+            }))
+        }
+        ObjTag::BuiltinFunction => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            let name = expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?;
+            let module = match map_get(&map, "module")? {
+                CborValue::Null => None,
+                CborValue::Text(text) => Some(text.clone()),
+                _ => return Err(SnapshotError::msg("builtin function module invalid")),
+            };
+            let self_obj = opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "self")?);
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinFunction(BuiltinFunctionPayload {
+                name,
+                module,
+                self_obj,
+            }))
+        }
+        ObjTag::Code => Ok(ObjectPayload::Code(expect_bytes(value)?)),
+        ObjTag::Type => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Type(TypePayload {
+                name: expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?,
+                qualname: expect_text(map_get(&map, "qualname")?)?,
+                bases: expect_id_list(map_get(&map, "bases")?)?,
+                dict: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "dict")?)? as ObjId,
+                flags: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "flags")?)?,
+                basicsize: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "basicsize")?)? as usize,
+                itemsize: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "itemsize")?)? as usize,
+                member_count: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "member_count")?)? as usize,
+            }))
+        }
+        ObjTag::BuiltinType => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::BuiltinType {
+                module: expect_text(map_get(&map, "module")?)?,
+                name: expect_text(map_get(&map, "name")?)?,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Instance => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Instance(InstancePayload {
+                typ: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "type")?)? as ObjId,
+                state: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "state")?),
+                new_args: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "new_args")?),
+                new_kwargs: opt_id_decode(&map_get(&map, "new_kwargs")?),
+            }))
+        }
+        ObjTag::Cell => Ok(ObjectPayload::Cell(opt_id_decode(&value))),
+        ObjTag::Enumerate => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Enumerate {
+                iterator: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "iterator")?)? as ObjId,
+                count: expect_int(map_get(&map, "count")?)?,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Zip => {
+            let arr = expect_array(value)?;
+            let iterators = arr.iter()
+                .map(|v| expect_uint(v.clone()).map(|id| id as ObjId))
+                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Zip { iterators })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Map => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Map {
+                function: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "function")?)? as ObjId,
+                iterator: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "iterator")?)? as ObjId,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Filter => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Filter {
+                function: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "function")?)? as ObjId,
+                iterator: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "iterator")?)? as ObjId,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::ListIterator => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::ListIterator {
+                list: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "list")?)? as ObjId,
+                position: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "position")?)? as usize,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::RangeIterator => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::RangeIterator {
+                range: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "range")?)? as ObjId,
+                position: expect_uint(map_get(&map, "position")?)? as usize,
+            })
+        }
+        ObjTag::Range => {
+            let map = expect_map(value)?;
+            let start_str = expect_text(map_get(&map, "start")?)?;
+            let stop_str = expect_text(map_get(&map, "stop")?)?;
+            let step_str = expect_text(map_get(&map, "step")?)?;
+            Ok(ObjectPayload::Range {
+                start: start_str.parse::<i64>().unwrap_or(0),
+                stop: stop_str.parse::<i64>().unwrap_or(0),
+                step: step_str.parse::<i64>().unwrap_or(1),
+            })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn opt_id(value: Option<ObjId>) -> CborValue {
+    match value {
+        Some(id) => CborValue::Uint(id as u64),
+        None => CborValue::Null,
+    }
+}
+
+fn opt_id_decode(value: &CborValue) -> Option<ObjId> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Null => None,
+        CborValue::Uint(id) => Some(*id as ObjId),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+fn write_cbor_map(writer: &mut CborWriter, fields: Vec<(&str, CborValue)>) {
+    let mut entries: Vec<(Vec<u8>, Vec<u8>)> = Vec::with_capacity(fields.len());
+    for (key, value) in fields {
+        let mut key_writer = CborWriter::new();
+        key_writer.write_text(key);
+        let key_bytes = key_writer.into_bytes();
+        let value_bytes = encode_cbor_value(value);
+        entries.push((key_bytes, value_bytes));
+    }
+    entries.sort_by(|(a, _), (b, _)| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+    writer.write_map_len(entries.len());
+    for (key, value) in entries {
+        writer.buf.extend_from_slice(&key);
+        writer.buf.extend_from_slice(&value);
+    }
+}
+
+fn encode_cbor_value(value: CborValue) -> Vec<u8> {
+    let mut writer = CborWriter::new();
+    write_cbor_value(&mut writer, value);
+    writer.into_bytes()
+}
+
+fn write_cbor_value(writer: &mut CborWriter, value: CborValue) {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Uint(value) => writer.write_uint(value),
+        CborValue::Nint(value) => write_uint_major(&mut writer.buf, 1, value),
+        CborValue::Bytes(value) => writer.write_bytes(&value),
+        CborValue::Text(value) => writer.write_text(&value),
+        CborValue::Array(items) => {
+            writer.write_array_len(items.len());
+            for item in items {
+                write_cbor_value(writer, item);
+            }
+        }
+        CborValue::Map(items) => {
+            let mut fields = Vec::with_capacity(items.len());
+            for (k, v) in items {
+                let mut key_writer = CborWriter::new();
+                write_cbor_value(&mut key_writer, k);
+                let key_bytes = key_writer.into_bytes();
+                let value_bytes = encode_cbor_value(v);
+                fields.push((key_bytes, value_bytes));
+            }
+            fields.sort_by(|(a, _), (b, _)| cbor_key_cmp(a, b));
+            writer.write_map_len(fields.len());
+            for (key, value) in fields {
+                writer.buf.extend_from_slice(&key);
+                writer.buf.extend_from_slice(&value);
+            }
+        }
+        CborValue::Bool(value) => writer.write_bool(value),
+        CborValue::Null => writer.write_null(),
+        CborValue::Float(value) => writer.write_f64(value),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_uint(value: CborValue) -> Result<u64, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Uint(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected uint")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_int(value: CborValue) -> Result<i64, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Uint(v) => Ok(v as i64),
+        CborValue::Nint(v) => Ok(-(v as i64) - 1),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected int")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_text(value: CborValue) -> Result<String, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Text(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected text")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_bytes(value: CborValue) -> Result<Vec<u8>, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Bytes(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected bytes")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_array(value: CborValue) -> Result<Vec<CborValue>, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Array(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected array")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_map(value: CborValue) -> Result<Vec<(CborValue, CborValue)>, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Map(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected map")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_bool(value: CborValue) -> Result<bool, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Bool(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected bool")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_float(value: CborValue) -> Result<f64, SnapshotError> {
+    match value {
+        CborValue::Float(v) => Ok(v),
+        _ => Err(SnapshotError::msg("expected float")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn expect_id_list(value: CborValue) -> Result<Vec<ObjId>, SnapshotError> {
+    let arr = expect_array(value)?;
+    arr.into_iter()
+        .map(|v| Ok(expect_uint(v)? as ObjId))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn map_get(map: &[(CborValue, CborValue)], key: &str) -> Result<CborValue, SnapshotError> {
+    for (k, v) in map {
+        if let CborValue::Text(text) = k {
+            if text == key {
+                return Ok(v.clone());
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Err(SnapshotError::msg("missing map key"))
+}
+
+/// Encode a BlockState to CBOR
+fn encode_block_state(block_state: &BlockState) -> CborValue {
+    let mut map = vec![
+        (CborValue::Text("level".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(block_state.level as u64)),
+    ];
+    
+    let typ_value = match &block_state.typ {
+        BlockTypeState::Loop => {
+            CborValue::Text("Loop".to_owned())
+        }
+        BlockTypeState::TryExcept { handler } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("type".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("TryExcept".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("handler".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*handler as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+        BlockTypeState::Finally { handler } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("type".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("Finally".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("handler".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*handler as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+        BlockTypeState::FinallyHandler { reason, prev_exc } => {
+            let mut inner_map = vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("type".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("FinallyHandler".to_owned())),
+            ];
+            if let Some(reason_state) = reason {
+                inner_map.push((CborValue::Text("reason".to_owned()), encode_unwind_reason(reason_state)));
+            }
+            if let Some(exc_id) = prev_exc {
+                inner_map.push((CborValue::Text("prev_exc".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*exc_id as u64)));
+            }
+            CborValue::Map(inner_map)
+        }
+        BlockTypeState::ExceptHandler { prev_exc } => {
+            let mut inner_map = vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("type".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("ExceptHandler".to_owned())),
+            ];
+            if let Some(exc_id) = prev_exc {
+                inner_map.push((CborValue::Text("prev_exc".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*exc_id as u64)));
+            }
+            CborValue::Map(inner_map)
+        }
+    };
+    
+    map.push((CborValue::Text("typ".to_owned()), typ_value));
+    CborValue::Map(map)
+}
+
+/// Encode an UnwindReasonState to CBOR
+fn encode_unwind_reason(reason: &UnwindReasonState) -> CborValue {
+    match reason {
+        UnwindReasonState::Returning { value } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("kind".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("Returning".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("value".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*value as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+        UnwindReasonState::Raising { exception } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("kind".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("Raising".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("exception".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*exception as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+        UnwindReasonState::Break { target } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("kind".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("Break".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("target".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*target as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+        UnwindReasonState::Continue { target } => {
+            CborValue::Map(vec![
+                (CborValue::Text("kind".to_owned()), CborValue::Text("Continue".to_owned())),
+                (CborValue::Text("target".to_owned()), CborValue::Uint(*target as u64)),
+            ])
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Decode a BlockState from CBOR
+fn decode_block_state(value: CborValue) -> Result<BlockState, SnapshotError> {
+    let map = expect_map(value)?;
+    let level = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "level")?)? as usize;
+    let typ_val = map_get(&map, "typ")?;
+    
+    let typ = match typ_val {
+        CborValue::Text(text) => {
+            if text == "Loop" {
+                BlockTypeState::Loop
+            } else {
+                return Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("unknown block type: {}", text)));
+            }
+        }
+        CborValue::Map(inner_map) => {
+            let type_name = expect_text(map_get(&inner_map, "type")?)?;
+            match type_name.as_str() {
+                "TryExcept" => {
+                    let handler = expect_uint(map_get(&inner_map, "handler")?)? as u32;
+                    BlockTypeState::TryExcept { handler }
+                }
+                "Finally" => {
+                    let handler = expect_uint(map_get(&inner_map, "handler")?)? as u32;
+                    BlockTypeState::Finally { handler }
+                }
+                "FinallyHandler" => {
+                    let reason = if let Ok(reason_val) = map_get(&inner_map, "reason") {
+                        Some(decode_unwind_reason(reason_val)?)
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    let prev_exc = if let Ok(exc_val) = map_get(&inner_map, "prev_exc") {
+                        Some(expect_uint(exc_val)? as ObjId)
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    BlockTypeState::FinallyHandler { reason, prev_exc }
+                }
+                "ExceptHandler" => {
+                    let prev_exc = if let Ok(exc_val) = map_get(&inner_map, "prev_exc") {
+                        Some(expect_uint(exc_val)? as ObjId)
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    BlockTypeState::ExceptHandler { prev_exc }
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("unknown block type: {}", type_name)));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        _ => {
+            return Err(SnapshotError::msg("invalid block type format"));
+        }
+    };
+    
+    Ok(BlockState { typ, level })
+}
+
+/// Decode an UnwindReasonState from CBOR
+fn decode_unwind_reason(value: CborValue) -> Result<UnwindReasonState, SnapshotError> {
+    let map = expect_map(value)?;
+    let kind = expect_text(map_get(&map, "kind")?)?;
+    
+    match kind.as_str() {
+        "Returning" => {
+            let value_id = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "value")?)? as ObjId;
+            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Returning { value: value_id })
+        }
+        "Raising" => {
+            let exc_id = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "exception")?)? as ObjId;
+            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Raising { exception: exc_id })
+        }
+        "Break" => {
+            let target = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "target")?)? as u32;
+            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Break { target })
+        }
+        "Continue" => {
+            let target = expect_uint(map_get(&map, "target")?)? as u32;
+            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Continue { target })
+        }
+        _ => {
+            Err(SnapshotError::msg(format!("unknown unwind reason: {}", kind)))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Block Stack Conversion Functions
+// ============================================================================
+
+/// Convert frame Block to serializable BlockState
+fn convert_block_to_state(
+    block: &crate::frame::Block,
+    writer: &SnapshotWriter<'_>,
+) -> PyResult<BlockState> {
+    use crate::frame::{BlockType, UnwindReason};
+    
+    let typ_state = match &block.typ {
+        BlockType::Loop => BlockTypeState::Loop,
+        
+        BlockType::TryExcept { handler } => {
+            BlockTypeState::TryExcept {
+                handler: handler.0,
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockType::Finally { handler } => {
+            BlockTypeState::Finally {
+                handler: handler.0,
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockType::FinallyHandler { reason, prev_exc } => {
+            let reason_state = reason.as_ref()
+                .map(|r| {
+                    let value_id = match r {
+                        UnwindReason::Returning { value } => {
+                            writer.get_id(value).map(|id| UnwindReasonState::Returning { value: id })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReason::Raising { exception } => {
+                            let exc_obj = exception.as_object().to_owned();
+                            writer.get_id(&exc_obj).map(|id| UnwindReasonState::Raising { exception: id })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReason::Break { target } => {
+                            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Break { target: target.0 })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReason::Continue { target } => {
+                            Ok(UnwindReasonState::Continue { target: target.0 })
+                        }
+                    };
+                    value_id.map_err(|e| writer.vm.new_value_error(format!("Failed to serialize unwind reason: {e:?}")))
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            let prev_exc_id = prev_exc.as_ref()
+                .map(|exc| {
+                    let exc_obj = exc.as_object().to_owned();
+                    writer.get_id(&exc_obj).map_err(|e| writer.vm.new_value_error(format!("Failed to get exception ID: {e:?}")))
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            
+            BlockTypeState::FinallyHandler {
+                reason: reason_state,
+                prev_exc: prev_exc_id,
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockType::ExceptHandler { prev_exc } => {
+            let prev_exc_id = prev_exc.as_ref()
+                .map(|exc| {
+                    let exc_obj = exc.as_object().to_owned();
+                    writer.get_id(&exc_obj).map_err(|e| writer.vm.new_value_error(format!("Failed to get exception ID: {e:?}")))
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            
+            BlockTypeState::ExceptHandler {
+                prev_exc: prev_exc_id,
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    
+    Ok(BlockState {
+        typ: typ_state,
+        level: block.level,
+    })
+}
+
+/// Convert serializable BlockState to frame Block
+pub(super) fn convert_block_state_to_block(
+    block_state: &BlockState,
+    objects: &[PyObjectRef],
+    vm: &VirtualMachine,
+) -> PyResult<crate::frame::Block> {
+    use crate::frame::{Block, BlockType, UnwindReason};
+    use crate::convert::TryFromObject;
+    
+    let typ = match &block_state.typ {
+        BlockTypeState::Loop => BlockType::Loop,
+        
+        BlockTypeState::TryExcept { handler } => {
+            BlockType::TryExcept {
+                handler: bytecode::Label(*handler),
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockTypeState::Finally { handler } => {
+            BlockType::Finally {
+                handler: bytecode::Label(*handler),
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockTypeState::FinallyHandler { reason, prev_exc } => {
+            let reason_opt = reason.as_ref()
+                .map(|r| {
+                    match r {
+                        UnwindReasonState::Returning { value } => {
+                            let value_obj = objects.get(*value as usize)
+                                .cloned()
+                                .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("return value {} not found", value)))?;
+                            Ok(UnwindReason::Returning { value: value_obj })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReasonState::Raising { exception } => {
+                            let exc_obj = objects.get(*exception as usize)
+                                .cloned()
+                                .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("exception {} not found", exception)))?;
+                            let exc = crate::builtins::PyBaseExceptionRef::try_from_object(vm, exc_obj)?;
+                            Ok(UnwindReason::Raising { exception: exc })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReasonState::Break { target } => {
+                            Ok(UnwindReason::Break { target: bytecode::Label(*target) })
+                        }
+                        UnwindReasonState::Continue { target } => {
+                            Ok(UnwindReason::Continue { target: bytecode::Label(*target) })
+                        }
+                    }
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            let prev_exc_opt = prev_exc.as_ref()
+                .map(|exc_id| {
+                    let exc_obj = objects.get(*exc_id as usize)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("exception {} not found", exc_id)))?;
+                    crate::builtins::PyBaseExceptionRef::try_from_object(vm, exc_obj)
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            
+            BlockType::FinallyHandler {
+                reason: reason_opt,
+                prev_exc: prev_exc_opt,
+            }
+        }
+        
+        BlockTypeState::ExceptHandler { prev_exc } => {
+            let prev_exc_opt = prev_exc.as_ref()
+                .map(|exc_id| {
+                    let exc_obj = objects.get(*exc_id as usize)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| vm.new_runtime_error(format!("exception {} not found", exc_id)))?;
+                    crate::builtins::PyBaseExceptionRef::try_from_object(vm, exc_obj)
+                })
+                .transpose()?;
+            
+            BlockType::ExceptHandler {
+                prev_exc: prev_exc_opt,
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    
+    Ok(Block {
+        typ,
+        level: block_state.level,
+    })
+}
diff --git a/crates/vm/src/vm/thread.rs b/crates/vm/src/vm/thread.rs
index 2e687d99820..9c9079e26a6 100644
--- a/crates/vm/src/vm/thread.rs
+++ b/crates/vm/src/vm/thread.rs
@@ -55,6 +55,10 @@ where
     })
 }
 
+pub(crate) fn has_vm() -> bool {
+    VM_STACK.with(|vms| !vms.borrow().is_empty())
+}
+
 #[must_use = "ThreadedVirtualMachine does nothing unless you move it to another thread and call .run()"]
 #[cfg(feature = "threading")]
 pub struct ThreadedVirtualMachine {
diff --git a/examples/ast_visualize/README.md b/examples/ast_visualize/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..46446447023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/ast_visualize/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,182 @@
+# AST Visualize Example
+
+This example shows how to render a Python AST as a structured tree or a
+Graphviz DOT file using RustPython's `ast` module.
+
+## Run
+
+Tree view (default):
+
+```
+./target/release/rustpython examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py --file examples/ast_visualize/sample.py
+```
+
+Dump view (ast.dump):
+
+```
+./target/release/rustpython examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py --file examples/ast_visualize/sample.py --format dump
+```
+
+Graphviz DOT output:
+
+```
+./target/release/rustpython examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py --file examples/ast_visualize/sample.py --format dot --output ast.dot
+```
+
+## Graphviz 安装与渲染
+
+macOS (Homebrew):
+
+```
+brew install graphviz
+```
+
+macOS (Conda):
+
+```
+conda install -c conda-forge graphviz
+```
+
+Ubuntu/Debian:
+
+```
+sudo apt-get update
+sudo apt-get install graphviz
+```
+
+Fedora:
+
+```
+sudo dnf install graphviz
+```
+
+Arch:
+
+```
+sudo pacman -S graphviz
+```
+
+Windows (Chocolatey):
+
+```
+choco install graphviz
+```
+
+Windows (Scoop):
+
+```
+scoop install graphviz
+```
+
+安装完成后将 DOT 渲染为图片：
+
+```
+dot -Tpng ast.dot -o ast.png
+```
+
+打开图片：
+
+macOS:
+
+```
+open ast.png
+```
+
+Linux:
+
+```
+xdg-open ast.png
+```
+
+Windows:
+
+```
+start ast.png
+```
+
+## Example Output
+
+Tree view:
+
+```
+`-- Module
+    |-- FunctionDef name=add
+    |   |-- arguments
+    |   |   |-- arg arg=a
+    |   |   `-- arg arg=b
+    |   `-- Return
+    |       `-- BinOp
+    |           |-- Name id=a ctx=Load
+    |           |-- Add
+    |           `-- Name id=b ctx=Load
+    |-- Assign targets=list[1]
+    |   |-- Name id=result ctx=Store
+    |   `-- Call func=Name
+    |       |-- Name id=add ctx=Load
+    |       |-- Constant value=1
+    |       `-- Constant value=2
+    `-- If
+        |-- Compare
+        |   |-- Name id=result ctx=Load
+        |   |-- Gt
+        |   `-- Constant value=2
+        `-- Expr
+            `-- Call func=Name
+                |-- Name id=print ctx=Load
+                `-- Constant value='ok'
+```
+
+Dump view (excerpt):
+
+```
+Module(
+  body=[
+    FunctionDef(
+      name='add',
+      args=arguments(
+        posonlyargs=[],
+        args=[
+          arg(arg='a'),
+          arg(arg='b')],
+        kwonlyargs=[],
+        kw_defaults=[],
+        defaults=[]),
+      body=[
+        Return(
+          value=BinOp(
+            left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
+            op=Add(),
+            right=Name(id='b', ctx=Load())))],
+      decorator_list=[]),
+    Assign(
+      targets=[
+        Name(id='result', ctx=Store())],
+      value=Call(
+        func=Name(id='add', ctx=Load()),
+        args=[
+          Constant(value=1),
+          Constant(value=2)],
+        keywords=[])),
+    If(
+      test=Compare(
+        left=Name(id='result', ctx=Load()),
+        ops=[
+          Gt()],
+        comparators=[
+          Constant(value=2)]),
+      body=[
+        Expr(
+          value=Call(
+            func=Name(id='print', ctx=Load()),
+            args=[
+              Constant(value='ok')],
+            keywords=[]))],
+      orelse=[])],
+  type_ignores=[])
+```
+
+## Notes
+
+- Use `--code` to pass inline code.
+- Use `--attrs` to include line/column info.
+- If you render DOT, use Graphviz (dot) to convert it to an image.
diff --git a/examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py b/examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b296e731572
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/ast_visualize/ast_view.py
@@ -0,0 +1,219 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import argparse
+import ast
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Iterable
+
+
+SUMMARY_FIELDS: dict[type[ast.AST], tuple[str, ...]] = {
+    ast.FunctionDef: ("name",),
+    ast.AsyncFunctionDef: ("name",),
+    ast.ClassDef: ("name",),
+    ast.Name: ("id", "ctx"),
+    ast.arg: ("arg",),
+    ast.Attribute: ("attr", "ctx"),
+    ast.Constant: ("value",),
+    ast.Import: ("names",),
+    ast.ImportFrom: ("module", "names", "level"),
+    ast.alias: ("name", "asname"),
+    ast.Assign: ("targets",),
+    ast.AnnAssign: ("target",),
+    ast.Call: ("func",),
+}
+
+
+def read_source(args: argparse.Namespace) -> tuple[str, str]:
+    if args.file and args.code:
+        raise SystemExit("choose either --file or --code")
+
+    if args.file:
+        path = Path(args.file)
+        return path.read_text(encoding="utf-8"), str(path)
+
+    if args.code:
+        return args.code, "<string>"
+
+    return sys.stdin.read(), "<stdin>"
+
+
+def truncate(text: str, limit: int = 60) -> str:
+    if len(text) <= limit:
+        return text
+    return text[: limit - 3] + "..."
+
+
+def format_value(value: object) -> str:
+    if isinstance(value, ast.AST):
+        return type(value).__name__
+    if isinstance(value, list):
+        if value and all(isinstance(item, ast.alias) for item in value):
+            parts = []
+            for item in value:
+                if item.asname:
+                    parts.append(f"{item.name} as {item.asname}")
+                else:
+                    parts.append(item.name)
+            return "[" + ", ".join(parts) + "]"
+        return f"list[{len(value)}]"
+    if value is None:
+        return "None"
+    return truncate(repr(value))
+
+
+def node_summary(node: ast.AST, show_attrs: bool) -> str:
+    fields = SUMMARY_FIELDS.get(type(node), ())
+    parts: list[str] = []
+    for field in fields:
+        value = getattr(node, field, None)
+        if field == "ctx" and isinstance(value, ast.AST):
+            parts.append(f"{field}={type(value).__name__}")
+        else:
+            parts.append(f"{field}={format_value(value)}")
+
+    if show_attrs:
+        lineno = getattr(node, "lineno", None)
+        col = getattr(node, "col_offset", None)
+        if lineno is not None and col is not None:
+            parts.append(f"@{lineno}:{col}")
+
+    if parts:
+        return f"{type(node).__name__} " + " ".join(parts)
+    return type(node).__name__
+
+
+def render_tree(
+    node: ast.AST,
+    lines: list[str],
+    prefix: str,
+    is_last: bool,
+    max_depth: int,
+    show_attrs: bool,
+    depth: int = 0,
+) -> None:
+    connector = "`-- " if is_last else "|-- "
+    lines.append(prefix + connector + node_summary(node, show_attrs))
+
+    if depth >= max_depth:
+        if list(ast.iter_child_nodes(node)):
+            lines.append(prefix + ("    " if is_last else "|   ") + "`-- ...")
+        return
+
+    children = list(ast.iter_child_nodes(node))
+    for idx, child in enumerate(children):
+        last = idx == len(children) - 1
+        next_prefix = prefix + ("    " if is_last else "|   ")
+        render_tree(child, lines, next_prefix, last, max_depth, show_attrs, depth + 1)
+
+
+def to_tree_text(tree: ast.AST, max_depth: int, show_attrs: bool) -> str:
+    lines: list[str] = []
+    render_tree(tree, lines, "", True, max_depth, show_attrs)
+    return "\n".join(lines)
+
+
+def dump_node(node: object, show_attrs: bool, indent: int, level: int) -> str:
+    if isinstance(node, ast.AST):
+        parts: list[str] = []
+        for name, value in ast.iter_fields(node):
+            parts.append(f"{name}={dump_node(value, show_attrs, indent, level + 1)}")
+        if show_attrs:
+            for name in getattr(node, "_attributes", ()):
+                if hasattr(node, name):
+                    value = getattr(node, name)
+                    parts.append(f"{name}={dump_node(value, show_attrs, indent, level + 1)}")
+        if indent <= 0 or not parts:
+            inner = ", ".join(parts)
+            return f"{type(node).__name__}({inner})"
+        pad = " " * (indent * (level + 1))
+        inner = ",\n".join(pad + part for part in parts)
+        closing = " " * (indent * level)
+        return f"{type(node).__name__}(\n{inner}\n{closing})"
+    if isinstance(node, list):
+        if not node:
+            return "[]"
+        if indent <= 0:
+            inner = ", ".join(dump_node(item, show_attrs, indent, level + 1) for item in node)
+            return f"[{inner}]"
+        pad = " " * (indent * (level + 1))
+        inner = ",\n".join(pad + dump_node(item, show_attrs, indent, level + 1) for item in node)
+        closing = " " * (indent * level)
+        return f"[\n{inner}\n{closing}]"
+    return repr(node)
+
+
+def to_dump_text(tree: ast.AST, show_attrs: bool) -> str:
+    return dump_node(tree, show_attrs, indent=2, level=0)
+
+
+def escape_dot_label(text: str) -> str:
+    return text.replace("\\", "\\\\").replace('"', "\\\"")
+
+
+def to_dot(tree: ast.AST, show_attrs: bool) -> str:
+    lines = ["digraph AST {", "node [shape=box];"]
+    counter = 0
+
+    def add_node(node: ast.AST) -> int:
+        nonlocal counter
+        node_id = counter
+        counter += 1
+        label = escape_dot_label(node_summary(node, show_attrs))
+        lines.append(f'n{node_id} [label="{label}"];')
+        for child in ast.iter_child_nodes(node):
+            child_id = add_node(child)
+            lines.append(f"n{node_id} -> n{child_id};")
+        return node_id
+
+    add_node(tree)
+    lines.append("}")
+    return "\n".join(lines)
+
+
+def write_output(text: str, output: str | None) -> None:
+    if output:
+        Path(output).write_text(text, encoding="utf-8")
+    else:
+        sys.stdout.write(text)
+        if not text.endswith("\n"):
+            sys.stdout.write("\n")
+
+
+def main() -> int:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="AST view utility")
+    parser.add_argument("--file", help="python source file")
+    parser.add_argument("--code", help="inline python code")
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--mode",
+        default="exec",
+        choices=["exec", "eval", "single"],
+        help="ast.parse mode",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--format",
+        default="tree",
+        choices=["tree", "dump", "dot"],
+        help="output format",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument("--output", help="output file path")
+    parser.add_argument("--max-depth", type=int, default=20)
+    parser.add_argument("--attrs", action="store_true", help="include line/col info")
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    source, source_name = read_source(args)
+    tree = ast.parse(source, filename=source_name, mode=args.mode)
+
+    if args.format == "dump":
+        text = to_dump_text(tree, args.attrs)
+    elif args.format == "dot":
+        text = to_dot(tree, args.attrs)
+    else:
+        text = to_tree_text(tree, args.max_depth, args.attrs)
+
+    write_output(text, args.output)
+    return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    raise SystemExit(main())
diff --git a/examples/ast_visualize/sample.py b/examples/ast_visualize/sample.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5c2957fa2f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/ast_visualize/sample.py
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+def add(a, b):
+    return a + b
+
+result = add(1, 2)
+if result > 2:
+    print("ok")
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/actor_complex_demo.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/actor_complex_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..97aae071e58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/actor_complex_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from pathlib import Path
+import os
+
+import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+
+CHECKPOINT_PATH = str(Path(__file__).with_suffix(".rpsnap"))
+SEP = "=" * 68
+
+print(SEP)
+print("PVM Actor Checkpoint Placement Demo")
+print("Flow: run -> #1(function) -> #2(loop) -> #3(if) -> #4(try) -> done")
+print("Use --resume to continue after each checkpoint.")
+print(SEP)
+
+actor = {
+    "actor_id": "actor:alpha",
+    "balance": 1200.0,
+    "limits": {"daily": 2000.0, "transfer": 600.0},
+    "flags": [],
+    "history": [],
+}
+
+mailbox = [
+    {"type": "deposit", "amount": 1200.0, "meta": {"source": "salary"}},
+    {"type": "transfer", "to": "actor:beta", "amount": 350.0, "meta": {"note": "rent"}},
+    {"type": "transfer", "to": "actor:gamma", "amount": 650.0, "meta": {"note": "equipment"}},
+    {"type": "transfer", "to": "actor:zeta", "amount": 950.0, "meta": {"note": "equipment"}},
+    {"type": "adjust", "amount": -50.0, "meta": {"reason": "fee"}},
+    {"type": "query", "fields": ["balance", "flags"]},
+    {"type": "noop"},
+]
+
+normalized_mailbox = [
+    {
+        "seq": i,
+        **msg,
+        "amount": round(msg.get("amount", 0.0), 2),
+        "meta": {**msg.get("meta", {}), "batch": "b001"},
+    }
+    for i, msg in enumerate(mailbox, start=1)
+]
+
+summary = {
+    "mailbox_size": len(normalized_mailbox),
+    "types": sorted({msg["type"] for msg in normalized_mailbox}),
+}
+actor["history"].append({"event": "bootstrap", **summary})
+
+print(f"[init] actor={actor['actor_id']} balance={actor['balance']}")
+print(f"[init] summary={summary}")
+
+
+def stage_function(state: dict[str, object], messages: list[dict[str, object]]) -> None:
+    state["history"].append({"stage": "function", "count": len(messages)})
+    state["flags"].append("function:armed")
+    print(SEP)
+    print("[checkpoint #1] inside function")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["history"].append({"stage": "function", "resume": True})
+    print("[resume #1] after function checkpoint")
+
+
+stage_function(actor, normalized_mailbox)
+
+
+
+print(SEP)
+print("[2/5] loop stage")
+for idx, msg in enumerate(normalized_mailbox):
+    print(f"[loop] {idx} {msg}")
+    if msg["type"] == "transfer" and not actor.get("loop_checkpoint"):
+        actor["loop_checkpoint"] = True
+        actor["history"].append({"stage": "loop", "seq": idx})
+        print("[checkpoint #2] inside loop")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        print("[resume #2] after loop checkpoint")
+
+    match msg:
+        case {"type": "deposit", "amount": amt}:
+            actor["balance"] = round(actor["balance"] + amt, 2)
+        case {"type": "transfer", "amount": amt, "to": target}:
+            if actor["balance"] >= amt:
+                actor["balance"] = round(actor["balance"] - amt, 2)
+            else:
+                actor["flags"].append(f"overdraft:{target}")
+        case {"type": "adjust", "amount": amt}:
+            actor["balance"] = round(actor["balance"] + amt, 2)
+        case {"type": "query", "fields": fields}:
+            snapshot = {field: actor.get(field) for field in fields}
+            actor["history"].append({"stage": "query", "snapshot": snapshot})
+        case {"type": "noop"}:
+            actor["flags"].append("noop")
+        case _:
+            actor["flags"].append("unknown")
+
+arr = [1,2,3]
+for i in enumerate(arr):
+    print(f"[loop] {i}")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    print(f"[loop] {i} resumed")
+
+print(SEP)
+print("[3/5] if stage")
+if actor["balance"] >= 0 and not actor.get("if_checkpoint"):
+    actor["if_checkpoint"] = True
+    actor["history"].append({"stage": "if", "balance": actor["balance"]})
+    print("[checkpoint #3] inside if")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    actor["flags"].append("if_resumed")
+    print("[resume #3] after if checkpoint")
+
+
+
+print(SEP)
+print("[4/5] try/except stage")
+try:
+    if not actor.get("try_checkpoint"):
+        actor["try_checkpoint"] = True
+        actor["history"].append({"stage": "try"})
+        print("[checkpoint #4] inside try")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        print("[resume #4] after try checkpoint")
+    raise ValueError("demo")
+except ValueError as exc:
+    actor["flags"].append(f"handled:{exc}")
+
+print(SEP)
+print("[5/5] final report")
+report = {
+    "actor_id": actor["actor_id"],
+    "balance": actor["balance"],
+    "flags": actor["flags"],
+    "history_tail": actor["history"][-4:],
+}
+print(f"  report={report}")
+
+if os.path.exists(CHECKPOINT_PATH):
+    os.remove(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+print("[done] checkpoint file removed; next run starts fresh")
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/comprehensive_demo.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/comprehensive_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a32b6b359f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/comprehensive_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,373 @@
+"""
+PVM Comprehensive Checkpoint/Resume Demo
+===========================================
+
+This demo showcases the wide variety of Python control flow structures
+that PVM can successfully checkpoint and resume, including:
+
+- Functions (nested calls)
+- For loops (list iteration, enumerate, zip, map, filter)
+- While loops
+- If/elif/else statements
+- Try/except/finally blocks
+- Match statements (pattern matching)
+- List comprehensions
+- Dictionary and set operations
+- Nested control structures
+
+Note: This demo avoids using range() due to a known issue with
+range_iterator restoration in loop contexts. Use list iteration
+or while loops as alternatives.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+from pathlib import Path
+import os
+
+import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+
+CHECKPOINT_PATH = str(Path(__file__).with_suffix(".rpsnap"))
+SEP = "=" * 70
+
+# Global state for tracking progress
+state = {
+    "checkpoints_passed": [],
+    "test_results": [],
+    "counter": 0,
+}
+
+print(SEP)
+print("PVM Comprehensive Checkpoint/Resume Demo")
+print(SEP)
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 1: Nested Function Calls
+# ============================================================================
+print("\n[Test 1] Nested Function Calls")
+
+def outer_function(data: dict) -> int:
+    """Outer function that calls inner functions."""
+    data["outer_called"] = True
+    result = inner_function_a(data)
+    return result
+
+def inner_function_a(data: dict) -> int:
+    """First inner function."""
+    data["inner_a_called"] = True
+    result = inner_function_b(data)
+    return result + 10
+
+def inner_function_b(data: dict) -> int:
+    """Second inner function with checkpoint."""
+    data["inner_b_called"] = True
+    if "checkpoint_1" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print("  [Checkpoint #1] Inside nested function (depth=3)")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_1")
+        print("  [Resumed #1] Continuing from nested function")
+    return 42
+
+result = outer_function(state)
+state["test_results"].append(("nested_functions", result == 52))
+print(f"  Result: {result} (expected 52)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 2: For Loop with List Iteration
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 2] For Loop with List Iteration")
+
+data_list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
+sum_val = 0
+
+for value in data_list:
+    sum_val += value
+    if value == 30 and "checkpoint_2" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #2] Inside for loop, value={value}, sum={sum_val}")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_2")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #2] Continuing for loop")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("for_list", sum_val == 150))
+print(f"  Final sum: {sum_val} (expected 150)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 3: Enumerate Loop
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 3] Enumerate Loop")
+
+fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "date"]
+enum_results = []
+
+for idx, fruit in enumerate(fruits):
+    enum_results.append((idx, fruit))
+    if idx == 2 and "checkpoint_3" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #3] In enumerate loop, idx={idx}, fruit={fruit}")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_3")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #3] Continuing enumerate loop")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("enumerate_loop", len(enum_results) == 4))
+print(f"  Enumerated {len(enum_results)} items")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 4: While Loop
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 4] While Loop")
+
+counter = 0
+while_sum = 0
+
+while counter < 5:
+    while_sum += counter * 2
+    counter += 1
+    if counter == 3 and "checkpoint_4" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #4] In while loop, counter={counter}, sum={while_sum}")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_4")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #4] Continuing while loop")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("while_loop", while_sum == 20))
+print(f"  Final sum: {while_sum} (expected 20)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 5: If/Elif/Else Chains
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 5] If/Elif/Else Chains")
+
+test_value = 75
+category = ""
+
+if test_value < 0:
+    category = "negative"
+elif test_value < 50:
+    category = "low"
+elif test_value < 100:
+    # Checkpoint in elif branch
+    if "checkpoint_5" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #5] In elif branch, value={test_value}")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_5")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #5] Continuing from elif")
+    category = "medium"
+else:
+    category = "high"
+
+state["test_results"].append(("if_elif_else", category == "medium"))
+print(f"  Category: {category} (expected medium)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 6: Try/Except/Finally
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 6] Try/Except/Finally")
+
+try_result = {"attempted": False, "caught": False, "finalized": False}
+
+try:
+    try_result["attempted"] = True
+    if "checkpoint_6" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #6] Inside try block")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_6")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #6] Continuing from try")
+    # Raise an exception to test except
+    if "checkpoint_7" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        raise ValueError("test_exception")
+except ValueError as e:
+    try_result["caught"] = True
+    if "checkpoint_7" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+        print(f"  [Checkpoint #7] Inside except block, caught: {e}")
+        rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+        state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_7")
+        print(f"  [Resumed #7] Continuing from except")
+finally:
+    try_result["finalized"] = True
+
+state["test_results"].append(("try_except", all(try_result.values())))
+print(f"  Try/Except/Finally: {try_result}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 7: Nested Loops
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 7] Nested Loops")
+
+matrix = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]
+nested_sum = 0
+
+for row_idx, row in enumerate(matrix):
+    for col_idx, value in enumerate(row):
+        nested_sum += value
+        if row_idx == 1 and col_idx == 1 and "checkpoint_8" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+            print(f"  [Checkpoint #8] In nested loop, pos=({row_idx},{col_idx}), value={value}")
+            rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+            state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_8")
+            print(f"  [Resumed #8] Continuing nested loops")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("nested_loops", nested_sum == 45))
+print(f"  Matrix sum: {nested_sum} (expected 45)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 8: Match Statement (Pattern Matching)
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 8] Match Statement")
+
+test_data = {"type": "transfer", "amount": 100, "to": "account_123"}
+match_result = ""
+
+match test_data:
+    case {"type": "deposit", "amount": amt}:
+        match_result = f"deposit_{amt}"
+    case {"type": "transfer", "amount": amt, "to": target}:
+        if "checkpoint_9" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+            print(f"  [Checkpoint #9] In match case, transfer to {target}")
+            rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+            state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_9")
+            print(f"  [Resumed #9] Continuing from match")
+        match_result = f"transfer_{amt}_to_{target}"
+    case _:
+        match_result = "unknown"
+
+state["test_results"].append(("match_stmt", "transfer" in match_result))
+print(f"  Match result: {match_result}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 9: List Comprehension with Checkpoint After
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 9] List Comprehension")
+
+numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+squares = [x * x for x in numbers]
+
+if "checkpoint_10" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+    print(f"  [Checkpoint #10] After list comprehension")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_10")
+    print(f"  [Resumed #10] Continuing after comprehension")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("list_comp", squares == [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]))
+print(f"  Squares: {squares}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 10: Dictionary and Set Operations
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 10] Dictionary and Set Operations")
+
+test_dict = {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3}
+test_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
+
+# Iterate over dictionary
+dict_sum = 0
+for key, value in test_dict.items():
+    dict_sum += value
+
+# Set operations
+set_result = test_set.union({6, 7})
+
+# Checkpoint after dict/set operations
+if "checkpoint_11" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+    print(f"  [Checkpoint #11] After dict/set operations")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_11")
+    print(f"  [Resumed #11] Continuing after dict/set")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("dict_set", dict_sum == 6 and 7 in set_result))
+print(f"  Dict sum: {dict_sum}, Set size: {len(set_result)}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 11: Zip and Multiple Iterators
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 11] Zip with Multiple Iterators")
+
+list_a = [10, 20, 30]
+list_b = ["x", "y", "z"]
+zip_results = []
+
+for num, letter in zip(list_a, list_b):
+    zip_results.append((num, letter))
+
+# Checkpoint after zip operation
+if "checkpoint_12" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+    print(f"  [Checkpoint #12] After zip loop")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_12")
+    print(f"  [Resumed #12] Continuing after zip")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("zip_loop", len(zip_results) == 3))
+print(f"  Zip pairs: {zip_results}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 12: Map and Filter
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 12] Map and Filter")
+
+def double(x):
+    return x * 2
+
+def is_even(x):
+    return x % 2 == 0
+
+numbers_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+doubled = list(map(double, numbers_list))
+evens = list(filter(is_even, numbers_list))
+
+if "checkpoint_13" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+    print(f"  [Checkpoint #13] After map/filter operations")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_13")
+    print(f"  [Resumed #13] Continuing after map/filter")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("map_filter", len(doubled) == 6 and len(evens) == 3))
+print(f"  Doubled: {doubled}, Evens: {evens}")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Test 13: Nested Function with Closure
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n[Test 13] Nested Function with Closure")
+
+def outer_with_closure(x):
+    """Function that returns a closure."""
+    def inner(y):
+        return x + y
+    return inner
+
+closure_func = outer_with_closure(100)
+closure_result = closure_func(23)
+
+# Checkpoint after closure operation
+if "checkpoint_14" not in state["checkpoints_passed"]:
+    print(f"  [Checkpoint #14] After closure execution")
+    rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    state["checkpoints_passed"].append("checkpoint_14")
+    print(f"  [Resumed #14] Continuing after closure")
+
+state["test_results"].append(("closure", closure_result == 123))
+print(f"  Closure result: {closure_result} (expected 123)")
+
+# ============================================================================
+# Final Report
+# ============================================================================
+print(f"\n{SEP}")
+print("FINAL REPORT")
+print(SEP)
+
+passed_count = sum(1 for _, passed in state["test_results"] if passed)
+total_count = len(state["test_results"])
+
+print(f"\nCheckpoints passed: {len(state['checkpoints_passed'])}")
+print(f"Tests passed: {passed_count}/{total_count}")
+print(f"\nDetailed results:")
+for test_name, passed in state["test_results"]:
+    status = "✓ PASS" if passed else "✗ FAIL"
+    print(f"  {status}: {test_name}")
+
+if passed_count == total_count:
+    print(f"\n🎉 All tests passed!")
+else:
+    print(f"\n⚠️  Some tests failed")
+
+# Cleanup
+if os.path.exists(CHECKPOINT_PATH):
+    os.remove(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+    print(f"\nCheckpoint file removed; next run starts fresh")
+
+print(SEP)
+
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..19efb0ae77e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+import os
+
+# Checkpoint file path as a string to keep it serializable.
+CHECKPOINT_PATH = str(Path(__file__).with_suffix(".rpsnap"))
+SEP = "-" * 60
+
+# Phase 1: prepare input data and a minimal run log.
+print("=" * 60)
+print(" PVM Breakpoint/Resume Demo")
+print(" Idea: VM saves state at checkpoints and exits.")
+print(" Run flow: 1) run -> stop #1, 2) resume -> stop #2, 3) resume -> finish")
+print("=" * 60)
+print("[1/3] build input state (trading day snapshot)")
+print("  action: load orders, prices, and risk limits; precompute exposure summary")
+orders = [
+    {"id": "ord-001", "symbol": "AAPL", "side": "BUY", "qty": 120, "limit": 192.10},
+    {"id": "ord-002", "symbol": "MSFT", "side": "SELL", "qty": 80, "limit": 411.50},
+    {"id": "ord-003", "symbol": "NVDA", "side": "BUY", "qty": 60, "limit": 122.30},
+]
+prices = {"AAPL": 192.25, "MSFT": 411.10, "NVDA": 122.60}
+max_order_notional = 25000.0
+slippage_limit = 0.35
+run_log = ["loaded orders", f"slippage_limit={slippage_limit}"]
+summary = {
+    "order_count": len(orders),
+    "total_qty": sum(item["qty"] for item in orders),
+    "symbols": sorted({item["symbol"] for item in orders}),
+}
+for item in orders:
+    print(
+        "  order {id} {side} {qty} {symbol} limit={limit}".format(**item)
+    )
+print(f"  prices={prices}")
+print(f"  max_order_notional={max_order_notional} slippage_limit={slippage_limit}")
+print(f"  summary={summary}")
+
+# Breakpoint 1: must be a standalone statement.
+print(SEP)
+print("[checkpoint #1] VM snapshot saved; process exits now")
+print("  note: next run with --resume continues from the next line")
+print(SEP)
+rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+
+# Re-import after resume so the next checkpoint works.
+# import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+
+# Phase 2: derive alerts and billing info from restored state.
+print("[2/3] resumed after checkpoint #1")
+print("  action: simulate fills, compute slippage and notional, flag risk, append run log")
+fills = []
+risk_flags = []
+for item in orders:
+    mkt = prices[item["symbol"]]
+    slip = round(abs(mkt - item["limit"]), 2)
+    notional = round(mkt * item["qty"], 2)
+    fills.append(
+        {
+            "id": item["id"],
+            "symbol": item["symbol"],
+            "side": item["side"],
+            "qty": item["qty"],
+            "fill": mkt,
+            "slippage": slip,
+            "notional": notional,
+        }
+    )
+    if slip > slippage_limit or notional > max_order_notional:
+        risk_flags.append(item["id"])
+total_notional = round(sum(item["notional"] for item in fills), 2)
+run_log.append(f"risk_flags={risk_flags}")
+run_log.append(f"total_notional={total_notional}")
+print("  fills:")
+for item in fills:
+    print(
+        "    - {id} {symbol} {side} qty={qty} fill={fill} "
+        "slip={slippage} notional={notional}".format(**item)
+    )
+print("  risk_flags:")
+if risk_flags:
+    for item_id in risk_flags:
+        print(f"    - {item_id}")
+else:
+    print("    - none")
+print(f"  total_notional={total_notional}")
+print("  log:")
+for entry in run_log:
+    print(f"    - {entry}")
+
+# Breakpoint 2: save state again and exit; next run continues below.
+print(SEP)
+print("[checkpoint #2] VM snapshot saved; process exits now")
+print("  note: next run with --resume continues from the next line")
+print(SEP)
+rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+
+# After resume, prepare cleanup utilities.
+# import os
+
+# Phase 3: produce a final report and clean up the checkpoint file.
+print(SEP)
+print("[3/3] resumed after checkpoint #2")
+print("  action: settle trades, build ledger, emit final report, and cleanup snapshot")
+ledger = [
+    {
+        "symbol": item["symbol"],
+        "net_qty": item["qty"] if item["side"] == "BUY" else -item["qty"],
+        "avg_price": item["fill"],
+    }
+    for item in fills
+]
+report = {
+    "summary": summary,
+    "risk_flags": risk_flags,
+    "ledger": ledger,
+    "total_notional": total_notional,
+    "status": "ready",
+}
+run_log.append("report_ready")
+print("  report:")
+print(f"    summary={report['summary']}")
+print(f"    risk_flags={report['risk_flags']}")
+print("    ledger:")
+for item in report["ledger"]:
+    print(
+        "      - {symbol} net_qty={net_qty} avg_price={avg_price}".format(**item)
+    )
+print(f"    total_notional={report['total_notional']}")
+print(f"    status={report['status']}")
+print("  log:")
+for entry in run_log:
+    print(f"    - {entry}")
+print(SEP)
+
+# Clean up the checkpoint file so the next run starts fresh.
+if os.path.exists(CHECKPOINT_PATH):
+    os.remove(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+print("[done] checkpoint file removed; next run starts fresh")
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo_en.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo_en.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..05a20a7941d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/demo_en.py
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from pathlib import Path
+
+import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+
+# Checkpoint file path as a string to keep it serializable.
+CHECKPOINT_PATH = str(Path(__file__).with_suffix(".rpsnap"))
+
+
+def section(title: str) -> None:
+    print("\n" + "=" * 60)
+    print(title)
+    print("=" * 60)
+
+
+section("PVM Breakpoint/Resume Showcase")
+print("[run] phase=init")
+customer = "Acme Corp"
+order_id = "ORD-2049"
+items = [f"sku_{i:02d}" for i in range(3)]
+score = 0.87
+notes = ["session started", "items captured"]
+print(f"[run] customer={customer} order_id={order_id}")
+print(f"[run] items={items} score={score}")
+print(f"[run] notes={notes}")
+
+# Breakpoint 1: must be a standalone statement.
+# RustPython saves VM state here and exits the process.
+rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+
+# Re-import after resume so the next checkpoint works.
+import rustpython_checkpoint as rpc  # type: ignore
+
+# Recreate helpers after resume (functions are not checkpoint-serializable).
+def section(title: str) -> None:
+    print("\n" + "=" * 60)
+    print(title)
+    print("=" * 60)
+
+section("Resume #1: state restored")
+print("[run] phase=after_checkpoint_1")
+priced = [f"{item}:$99" for item in items]
+total = 99 * len(priced)
+notes.append("pricing complete")
+print(f"[run] priced={priced}")
+print(f"[run] total={total} notes={notes}")
+
+# Breakpoint 2: save state again and exit; next run continues below.
+rpc.checkpoint(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+
+import os
+
+# Recreate helpers after resume (functions are not checkpoint-serializable).
+def section(title: str) -> None:
+    print("\n" + "=" * 60)
+    print(title)
+    print("=" * 60)
+
+section("Resume #2: finishing up")
+print("[run] phase=after_checkpoint_2")
+receipt = {
+    "customer": customer,
+    "order_id": order_id,
+    "total": total,
+    "status": "ok",
+}
+notes.append("receipt issued")
+print(f"[run] receipt={receipt}")
+print(f"[run] notes={notes}")
+
+# Clean up so a fresh run starts from the top.
+if os.path.exists(CHECKPOINT_PATH):
+    os.remove(CHECKPOINT_PATH)
+print("[run] done")
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/state_store.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/state_store.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..7e56ce23fc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/state_store.py
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import json
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Any
+
+BASE_DIR = Path(__file__).parent
+DATA_DIR = BASE_DIR / "state"
+STATE_FILE = DATA_DIR / "breakpoint_state.json"
+
+
+def load_state() -> dict[str, Any] | None:
+    # Load checkpoint state file; return None when missing to indicate first run.
+    if not STATE_FILE.exists():
+        return None
+    return json.loads(STATE_FILE.read_text())
+
+
+def save_state(state: dict[str, Any]) -> None:
+    # Write checkpoint state, ensuring the directory exists.
+    DATA_DIR.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+    STATE_FILE.write_text(json.dumps(state, sort_keys=True, indent=2))
+
+
+def clear_state() -> None:
+    # Clear checkpoint state to allow a fresh start.
+    if STATE_FILE.exists():
+        STATE_FILE.unlink()
diff --git a/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/test_checkpoint.py b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/test_checkpoint.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5fe98b0b756
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/breakpoint_resume_demo/test_checkpoint.py
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import argparse
+import os
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+
+
+def resolve_bin_path(root: Path, bin_override: str | None) -> Path:
+    if bin_override:
+        return Path(bin_override)
+
+    bin_path = root / "target" / "release" / "pvm"
+    if os.name == "nt":
+        bin_path = bin_path.with_suffix(".exe")
+    return bin_path
+
+
+def run_cmd(args: list[str]) -> subprocess.CompletedProcess[str]:
+    return subprocess.run(args, capture_output=True, text=True, check=False)
+
+
+def combined_output(result: subprocess.CompletedProcess[str]) -> str:
+    return (result.stdout or "") + (result.stderr or "")
+
+
+def main() -> int:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="Checkpoint resume functionality test")
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--bin",
+        help="Path to the rustpython executable, defaults to target/release/rustpython",
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    repo_root = Path(__file__).resolve().parents[2]
+    bin_path = resolve_bin_path(repo_root, args.bin)
+    demo_path = Path(__file__).with_name("demo.py")
+    snap_path = demo_path.with_suffix(".rpsnap")
+
+    if not bin_path.exists():
+        print(f"[error] rustpython not found: {bin_path}")
+        return 1
+
+    if snap_path.exists():
+        snap_path.unlink()
+
+    # First run: hit checkpoint and generate snapshot
+    result1 = run_cmd([str(bin_path), str(demo_path)])
+    output1 = combined_output(result1)
+    if result1.returncode != 0:
+        print("[error] First run failed")
+        print("stdout:")
+        print(result1.stdout)
+        print("stderr:")
+        print(result1.stderr)
+        return 1
+    if output1.strip():
+        if "phase=init" not in output1:
+            print("[error] First run output did not match expectation")
+            print("stdout:")
+            print(result1.stdout)
+            print("stderr:")
+            print(result1.stderr)
+            return 1
+    if not snap_path.exists():
+        print("[error] Snapshot file not generated")
+        return 1
+
+    # Second run: resume from checkpoint 1 to checkpoint 2
+    result2 = run_cmd([str(bin_path), "--resume", str(snap_path), str(demo_path)])
+    output2 = combined_output(result2)
+    if result2.returncode != 0:
+        print("[error] Second run failed")
+        print("stdout:")
+        print(result2.stdout)
+        print("stderr:")
+        print(result2.stderr)
+        return 1
+    if output2.strip():
+        if "phase=after_checkpoint_1" not in output2:
+            print("[error] Second run output did not match expectation")
+            print("stdout:")
+            print(result2.stdout)
+            print("stderr:")
+            print(result2.stderr)
+            return 1
+    if not snap_path.exists():
+        print("[error] Snapshot file missing after second run")
+        return 1
+
+    # Third run: resume from checkpoint 2 and complete
+    result3 = run_cmd([str(bin_path), "--resume", str(snap_path), str(demo_path)])
+    output3 = combined_output(result3)
+    if result3.returncode != 0:
+        print("[error] Third run failed")
+        print("stdout:")
+        print(result3.stdout)
+        print("stderr:")
+        print(result3.stderr)
+        return 1
+    if output3.strip():
+        if "phase=after_checkpoint_2" not in output3 or "done" not in output3:
+            print("[error] Third run output did not match expectation")
+            print("stdout:")
+            print(result3.stdout)
+            print("stderr:")
+            print(result3.stderr)
+            return 1
+    if snap_path.exists():
+        print("[error] Snapshot file not cleaned up after third run")
+        return 1
+
+    print("[ok] Checkpoint resume test passed")
+    return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    raise SystemExit(main())
diff --git a/examples/dis.rs b/examples/dis.rs
index 504b734ca59..21da9c20bd3 100644
--- a/examples/dis.rs
+++ b/examples/dis.rs
@@ -53,7 +53,10 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), lexopt::Error> {
         return Err("expected at least one argument".into());
     }
 
-    let opts = compiler::CompileOpts { optimize };
+    let opts = compiler::CompileOpts {
+        optimize,
+        pvm_fsm: false,
+    };
 
     for script in &scripts {
         if script.exists() && script.is_file() {
diff --git a/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/README.md b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3c2b001d852
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+# PVM Actor Transfer Demo (Filesystem Host)
+
+This demo shows a minimal actor-style contract with balances and transfers.
+
+## Files
+
+- `main.rs`: Example runner.
+- `contract.py`: Actor transfer contract.
+
+## Run
+
+From the repo root:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_actor_transfer_demo -- \
+  examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"init","params":{"balances":{"alice":1000,"bob":500}}}'
+```
+
+Mint to a user:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_actor_transfer_demo -- \
+  examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"mint","params":{"to":"carol","amount":200}}'
+```
+
+Transfer from the sender:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_actor_transfer_demo -- --sender alice \
+  examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"transfer","params":{"to":"bob","amount":150}}'
+```
+
+Check balance:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_actor_transfer_demo -- --sender bob \
+  examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"balance"}'
+```
+
+## Alto call example
+
+Programmatic call using `pvm_alto`:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_alto_call_demo
+```
+
+## Output
+
+The runner prints `output_hex=...`. Decode with:
+
+```bash
+python - <<'PY'
+hex_str = "PASTE_OUTPUT_HEX"
+print(bytes.fromhex(hex_str).decode("utf-8"))
+PY
+```
+
+## State and events
+
+- State stored in `tmp/pvm_actor_transfer_state/`.
+- Events appended to `tmp/pvm_actor_transfer_events.log`.
+- Delete those paths to reset the demo.
+
+## Actions
+
+- `init`: initialize balances (`balances` map).
+- `mint`: add balance (`to`, `amount`).
+- `transfer`: transfer from sender (`to`, `amount`).
+- `balance`: read balance (`user`, default sender).
+- `info`: dump full state.
diff --git a/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..cfcc2c77f47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py
@@ -0,0 +1,217 @@
+import json
+
+import pvm_host
+
+STATE_KEY = b"actor_transfer_state_v1"
+
+GAS_BASE = 5
+GAS_READ = 5
+GAS_WRITE = 20
+
+
+def _json_dumps(value):
+    return json.dumps(
+        value,
+        sort_keys=True,
+        separators=(",", ":"),
+        ensure_ascii=True,
+    ).encode("ascii")
+
+
+def _json_loads(data):
+    return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _emit(topic, payload):
+    pvm_host.emit_event(topic, _json_dumps(payload))
+
+
+def _ok(payload):
+    payload["ok"] = True
+    return _json_dumps(payload)
+
+
+def _err(code, detail=None):
+    out = {"ok": False, "error": code}
+    if detail is not None:
+        out["detail"] = detail
+    return _json_dumps(out)
+
+
+def _require_int(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be int")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_positive_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be > 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_str(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, str) or not value:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be non-empty string")
+    return value
+
+
+def _normalize_user(value, name):
+    if value is None:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} required")
+    if isinstance(value, str):
+        return _require_str(value, name)
+    return _require_str(str(value), name)
+
+
+def _ctx_sender(ctx):
+    sender = ctx.get("sender", b"")
+    if isinstance(sender, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        try:
+            return sender.decode("ascii")
+        except Exception:
+            return sender.hex()
+    return str(sender)
+
+
+def _load_state():
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(STATE_KEY)
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    return _json_loads(raw)
+
+
+def _save_state(state):
+    pvm_host.set_state(STATE_KEY, _json_dumps(state))
+
+
+def _balance_get(state, user):
+    return int(state["balances"].get(user, 0))
+
+
+def _balance_set(state, user, amount):
+    if amount <= 0:
+        state["balances"].pop(user, None)
+    else:
+        state["balances"][user] = amount
+
+
+def _new_state():
+    return {"version": 1, "balances": {}}
+
+
+def _parse_input(input_bytes):
+    if not input_bytes:
+        return "info", {}
+    data = _json_loads(input_bytes)
+    if not isinstance(data, dict):
+        raise ValueError("input must be object")
+    action = data.get("action", "info")
+    if not isinstance(action, str) or not action:
+        raise ValueError("action must be non-empty string")
+    params = data.get("params", {})
+    if params is None:
+        params = {}
+    if not isinstance(params, dict):
+        raise ValueError("params must be object")
+    return action, params
+
+
+def _handle_init(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    if state is not None:
+        raise ValueError("already initialized")
+    balances = params.get("balances", {})
+    if balances is None:
+        balances = {}
+    if not isinstance(balances, dict):
+        raise ValueError("balances must be object")
+    state = _new_state()
+    for user, amount in balances.items():
+        user = _normalize_user(user, "user")
+        amount = _require_positive_int(amount, "amount")
+        _balance_set(state, user, amount)
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("actor.init", {"balances": len(state["balances"])})
+    return _ok({"action": "init", "balances": state["balances"]})
+
+
+def _handle_mint(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    user = params.get("to")
+    if user is None:
+        user = params.get("user")
+    user = _normalize_user(user, "to")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    new_bal = _balance_get(state, user) + amount
+    _balance_set(state, user, new_bal)
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("actor.mint", {"to": user, "amount": amount})
+    return _ok({"action": "mint", "to": user, "balance": new_bal})
+
+
+def _handle_transfer(state, params, ctx_sender):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    sender = params.get("from")
+    if sender is None:
+        sender = ctx_sender
+    else:
+        sender = _normalize_user(sender, "from")
+    if sender != ctx_sender:
+        raise ValueError("from must match sender")
+    to = _normalize_user(params.get("to"), "to")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    if sender == to:
+        raise ValueError("from and to must differ")
+    sender_bal = _balance_get(state, sender)
+    if sender_bal < amount:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient balance")
+    _balance_set(state, sender, sender_bal - amount)
+    receiver_bal = _balance_get(state, to) + amount
+    _balance_set(state, to, receiver_bal)
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("actor.transfer", {"from": sender, "to": to, "amount": amount})
+    return _ok(
+        {"action": "transfer", "from": sender, "to": to, "amount": amount}
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_balance(state, params, ctx_sender):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    user = params.get("user")
+    if user is None:
+        user = ctx_sender
+    else:
+        user = _normalize_user(user, "user")
+    bal = _balance_get(state, user)
+    return _ok({"action": "balance", "user": user, "balance": bal})
+
+
+def _handle_info(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return _ok({"action": "info", "state": state})
+
+
+def main(input_bytes: bytes) -> bytes:
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_BASE)
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    ctx_sender = _ctx_sender(ctx)
+    try:
+        action, params = _parse_input(input_bytes)
+        state = _load_state()
+        if action == "init":
+            return _handle_init(state, params)
+        if state is None:
+            state = _new_state()
+        if action == "mint":
+            return _handle_mint(state, params)
+        if action == "transfer":
+            return _handle_transfer(state, params, ctx_sender)
+        if action == "balance":
+            return _handle_balance(state, params, ctx_sender)
+        if action == "info":
+            return _handle_info(state)
+        raise ValueError("unknown action")
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_request", str(exc))
diff --git a/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/main.rs b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ff31bb720b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+use std::env;
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use pvm_alto::{default_options, execute_tx_fs, FsTxConfig};
+use pvm_host::HostContext;
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let mut args = env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut script_path: Option<String> = None;
+    let mut input: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+    let mut input_file: Option<String> = None;
+
+    let mut sender = b"alice".to_vec();
+    let mut actor_addr = b"demo_actor".to_vec();
+    let mut state_dir = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_actor_transfer_state");
+    let mut events_path = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_actor_transfer_events.log");
+    let mut gas_limit: u64 = 1_000_000;
+
+    while let Some(arg) = args.next() {
+        match arg.as_str() {
+            "--sender" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                sender = value.into_bytes();
+            }
+            "--actor" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                actor_addr = value.into_bytes();
+            }
+            "--state-dir" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                state_dir = PathBuf::from(value);
+            }
+            "--events-path" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                events_path = PathBuf::from(value);
+            }
+            "--gas" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                gas_limit = value.parse()?;
+            }
+            "--input-file" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                input_file = Some(value);
+            }
+            "--help" | "-h" => {
+                println!("{}", usage());
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--sender=") {
+                    sender = value.as_bytes().to_vec();
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--actor=") {
+                    actor_addr = value.as_bytes().to_vec();
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--state-dir=") {
+                    state_dir = PathBuf::from(value);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--events-path=") {
+                    events_path = PathBuf::from(value);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--gas=") {
+                    gas_limit = value.parse()?;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--input-file=") {
+                    input_file = Some(value.to_owned());
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                if script_path.is_none() {
+                    script_path = Some(arg);
+                } else if input.is_none() {
+                    if let Some(path) = arg.strip_prefix('@') {
+                        input_file = Some(path.to_owned());
+                    } else {
+                        input = Some(arg.into_bytes());
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    return Err(usage().into());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let script_path = script_path.ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+    if input.is_some() && input_file.is_some() {
+        return Err("use --input-file or input string, not both".into());
+    }
+
+    let code = fs::read(&script_path)?;
+    let input = match (input, input_file) {
+        (Some(bytes), None) => bytes,
+        (None, Some(path)) => fs::read(path)?,
+        (None, None) => Vec::new(),
+        (Some(_), Some(_)) => unreachable!(),
+    };
+
+    let ctx = HostContext {
+        block_height: 1,
+        block_hash: [0u8; 32],
+        tx_hash: [1u8; 32],
+        sender,
+        timestamp_ms: 1_700_000_000_000,
+        actor_addr,
+        msg_id: Vec::new(),
+        nonce: 0,
+    };
+
+    let config = FsTxConfig {
+        state_dir,
+        events_path,
+        gas_limit,
+        context: ctx,
+    };
+
+    let options = default_options().with_source_path(script_path);
+    let output = execute_tx_fs(&code, &input, config, &options)?;
+
+    println!("output_hex={}", encode_hex(&output));
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn encode_hex(bytes: &[u8]) -> String {
+    const HEX: &[u8; 16] = b"0123456789abcdef";
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(bytes.len() * 2);
+    for &byte in bytes {
+        out.push(HEX[(byte >> 4) as usize] as char);
+        out.push(HEX[(byte & 0x0f) as usize] as char);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+fn usage() -> &'static str {
+    "usage: pvm_actor_transfer_demo [--sender <name>] [--actor <addr>] [--state-dir <path>] [--events-path <path>] [--gas <limit>] [--input-file <path>] <script.py> [input]"
+}
diff --git a/examples/pvm_alto_call_demo.rs b/examples/pvm_alto_call_demo.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..557f53392ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_alto_call_demo.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use pvm_alto::{default_options, execute_tx_fs, FsTxConfig};
+use pvm_host::HostContext;
+
+fn exec_tx(
+    code: &[u8],
+    input: &str,
+    sender: &[u8],
+    state_dir: &PathBuf,
+    events_path: &PathBuf,
+    script_path: &str,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>, Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let ctx = HostContext {
+        block_height: 1,
+        block_hash: [0u8; 32],
+        tx_hash: [1u8; 32],
+        sender: sender.to_vec(),
+        timestamp_ms: 1_700_000_000_000,
+        actor_addr: b"demo_actor".to_vec(),
+        msg_id: Vec::new(),
+        nonce: 0,
+    };
+
+    let config = FsTxConfig {
+        state_dir: state_dir.clone(),
+        events_path: events_path.clone(),
+        gas_limit: 1_000_000,
+        context: ctx,
+    };
+
+    let options = default_options().with_source_path(script_path);
+    Ok(execute_tx_fs(code, input.as_bytes(), config, &options)?)
+}
+
+fn print_output(label: &str, output: &[u8]) {
+    println!("{}: {}", label, String::from_utf8_lossy(output));
+}
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let script_path = "examples/pvm_actor_transfer_demo/contract.py";
+    let code = fs::read(script_path)?;
+
+    let state_dir = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_alto_call_state");
+    let events_path = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_alto_call_events.log");
+
+    let init = r#"{"action":"init","params":{"balances":{"alice":1000,"bob":500}}}"#;
+    let out = exec_tx(
+        &code,
+        init,
+        b"alice",
+        &state_dir,
+        &events_path,
+        script_path,
+    )?;
+    print_output("init", &out);
+
+    let transfer = r#"{"action":"transfer","params":{"to":"bob","amount":150}}"#;
+    let out = exec_tx(
+        &code,
+        transfer,
+        b"alice",
+        &state_dir,
+        &events_path,
+        script_path,
+    )?;
+    print_output("transfer", &out);
+
+    let balance = r#"{"action":"balance","params":{"user":"bob"}}"#;
+    let out = exec_tx(
+        &code,
+        balance,
+        b"bob",
+        &state_dir,
+        &events_path,
+        script_path,
+    )?;
+    print_output("balance", &out);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
diff --git a/examples/pvm_dex_demo/README.md b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..909f391222d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+# PVM DEX Demo (Filesystem Host)
+
+This demo shows a tiny constant-product DEX contract running in `pvm-runtime`
+with a filesystem-backed host.
+
+## Files
+
+- `main.rs`: Example runner.
+- `contract.py`: DEX contract.
+
+## Run
+
+From the repo root:
+DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH=/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib \
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"init","params":{"token_a":"USDC","token_b":"ETH","fee_bps":30}}'
+```
+
+Mint balances (faucet-style):
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender alice examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"mint","params":{"token":"USDC","amount":100000}}'
+
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender alice examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"mint","params":{"token":"ETH","amount":100}}'
+```
+
+Add liquidity:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender alice examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"add_liquidity","params":{"amount_a":50000,"amount_b":50}}'
+```
+
+Swap:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender bob examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"mint","params":{"token":"USDC","amount":1000}}'
+
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender bob examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"swap","params":{"token_in":"USDC","amount_in":1000,"min_out":1}}'
+```
+
+Check balances and pool:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- --sender bob examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"balance"}'
+
+cargo run --release --example pvm_dex_demo -- examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py \
+  '{"action":"info"}'
+```
+
+## Output
+
+The runner prints `output_hex=...`. Decode with:
+
+```bash
+python - <<'PY'
+hex_str = "PASTE_OUTPUT_HEX"
+print(bytes.fromhex(hex_str).decode("utf-8"))
+PY
+```
+
+## State and events
+
+- State stored in `tmp/pvm_dex_state/`.
+- Events appended to `tmp/pvm_dex_events.log`.
+- Delete those paths to reset the demo.
+
+## Actions
+
+- `init`: set `token_a`, `token_b`, `fee_bps`.
+- `mint`: faucet-like balance top-up (`token`, `amount`).
+- `add_liquidity`: add to pool (`amount_a`, `amount_b`).
+- `remove_liquidity`: withdraw (`lp_amount`).
+- `swap`: swap token (`token_in`, `amount_in`, `min_out`).
+- `quote`: price estimate (`token_in`, `amount_in`).
+- `balance`: user balances and LP.
+- `info`: pool and config.
diff --git a/examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..604e8742e5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/contract.py
@@ -0,0 +1,516 @@
+import json
+
+import pvm_host
+
+STATE_KEY = b"dex_state_v1"
+
+GAS_BASE = 5
+GAS_READ = 5
+GAS_WRITE = 20
+GAS_SWAP = 30
+
+
+def _json_dumps(value):
+    return json.dumps(
+        value,
+        sort_keys=True,
+        separators=(",", ":"),
+        ensure_ascii=True,
+    ).encode("ascii")
+
+
+def _json_loads(data):
+    return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _emit(topic, payload):
+    pvm_host.emit_event(topic, _json_dumps(payload))
+
+
+def _sender_id(ctx):
+    sender = ctx.get("sender", b"")
+    if isinstance(sender, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        try:
+            return sender.decode("ascii")
+        except Exception:
+            return sender.hex()
+    return str(sender)
+
+
+def _load_state():
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(STATE_KEY)
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    return _json_loads(raw)
+
+
+def _save_state(state):
+    pvm_host.set_state(STATE_KEY, _json_dumps(state))
+
+
+def _require_int(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be int")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_positive_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be > 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _get_balance(state, user, token):
+    return int(state["balances"].get(user, {}).get(token, 0))
+
+
+def _set_balance(state, user, token, amount):
+    balances = state["balances"].setdefault(user, {})
+    if amount <= 0:
+        balances.pop(token, None)
+    else:
+        balances[token] = amount
+
+
+def _get_lp(state, user):
+    return int(state["lp"].get(user, 0))
+
+
+def _set_lp(state, user, amount):
+    if amount <= 0:
+        state["lp"].pop(user, None)
+    else:
+        state["lp"][user] = amount
+
+
+def _token_symbol(state, token):
+    if token is None:
+        raise ValueError("token is required")
+    token_str = str(token)
+    token_upper = token_str.upper()
+    if token_upper == "A":
+        return state["token_a"]
+    if token_upper == "B":
+        return state["token_b"]
+    if token_str == state["token_a"] or token_str == state["token_b"]:
+        return token_str
+    if token_str.lower() == state["token_a"].lower():
+        return state["token_a"]
+    if token_str.lower() == state["token_b"].lower():
+        return state["token_b"]
+    raise ValueError("unknown token: " + token_str)
+
+
+def _public_state(state):
+    return {
+        "token_a": state["token_a"],
+        "token_b": state["token_b"],
+        "reserve_a": state["reserve_a"],
+        "reserve_b": state["reserve_b"],
+        "fee_bps": state["fee_bps"],
+        "lp_total": state["lp_total"],
+    }
+
+
+def _isqrt(n):
+    if n <= 0:
+        return 0
+    x = n
+    y = (x + 1) // 2
+    while y < x:
+        x = y
+        y = (x + n // x) // 2
+    return x
+
+
+def _amount_out(amount_in, reserve_in, reserve_out, fee_bps):
+    if amount_in <= 0:
+        return 0
+    if reserve_in <= 0 or reserve_out <= 0:
+        return 0
+    amount_in_with_fee = amount_in * (10000 - fee_bps)
+    numerator = amount_in_with_fee * reserve_out
+    denom = reserve_in * 10000 + amount_in_with_fee
+    return numerator // denom
+
+
+def _ok(payload):
+    payload["ok"] = True
+    return _json_dumps(payload)
+
+
+def _err(code, detail=None):
+    out = {"ok": False, "error": code}
+    if detail is not None:
+        out["detail"] = detail
+    return _json_dumps(out)
+
+
+def _handle_init(params, sender):
+    if _load_state() is not None:
+        raise ValueError("already initialized")
+    token_a = params.get("token_a", "TOKENA")
+    token_b = params.get("token_b", "TOKENB")
+    if not isinstance(token_a, str) or not isinstance(token_b, str):
+        raise ValueError("token names must be strings")
+    if token_a == token_b:
+        raise ValueError("token_a and token_b must differ")
+    fee_bps = params.get("fee_bps", 30)
+    fee_bps = _require_int(fee_bps, "fee_bps")
+    if fee_bps < 0 or fee_bps > 10000:
+        raise ValueError("fee_bps must be 0..10000")
+    state = {
+        "version": 1,
+        "token_a": token_a,
+        "token_b": token_b,
+        "reserve_a": 0,
+        "reserve_b": 0,
+        "fee_bps": fee_bps,
+        "lp_total": 0,
+        "balances": {},
+        "lp": {},
+    }
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit(
+        "dex.init",
+        {
+            "sender": sender,
+            "token_a": token_a,
+            "token_b": token_b,
+            "fee_bps": fee_bps,
+        },
+    )
+    return _ok({"action": "init", "state": _public_state(state)})
+
+
+def _handle_mint(state, sender, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    token = _token_symbol(state, params.get("token"))
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    bal = _get_balance(state, sender, token)
+    new_bal = bal + amount
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token, new_bal)
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("dex.mint", {"sender": sender, "token": token, "amount": amount})
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "mint",
+            "sender": sender,
+            "token": token,
+            "amount": amount,
+            "balance": new_bal,
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_balance(state, sender):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    balances = state["balances"].get(sender, {})
+    lp_balance = _get_lp(state, sender)
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "balance",
+            "sender": sender,
+            "balances": balances,
+            "lp": lp_balance,
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_info(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return _ok({"action": "info", "state": _public_state(state)})
+
+
+def _handle_quote(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    token_in = _token_symbol(state, params.get("token_in"))
+    amount_in = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount_in"), "amount_in")
+    token_a = state["token_a"]
+    token_b = state["token_b"]
+    if token_in == token_a:
+        token_out = token_b
+        reserve_in = state["reserve_a"]
+        reserve_out = state["reserve_b"]
+    else:
+        token_out = token_a
+        reserve_in = state["reserve_b"]
+        reserve_out = state["reserve_a"]
+    amount_out = _amount_out(amount_in, reserve_in, reserve_out, state["fee_bps"])
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "quote",
+            "token_in": token_in,
+            "token_out": token_out,
+            "amount_in": amount_in,
+            "amount_out": amount_out,
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_add_liquidity(state, sender, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    amount_a = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount_a"), "amount_a")
+    amount_b = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount_b"), "amount_b")
+    min_lp = params.get("min_lp", 0)
+    min_lp = _require_int(min_lp, "min_lp")
+    if min_lp < 0:
+        raise ValueError("min_lp must be >= 0")
+
+    token_a = state["token_a"]
+    token_b = state["token_b"]
+    bal_a = _get_balance(state, sender, token_a)
+    bal_b = _get_balance(state, sender, token_b)
+    if bal_a < amount_a or bal_b < amount_b:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient balance")
+
+    reserve_a = state["reserve_a"]
+    reserve_b = state["reserve_b"]
+    lp_total = state["lp_total"]
+
+    if lp_total == 0:
+        lp_minted = _isqrt(amount_a * amount_b)
+        if lp_minted <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("lp_minted is zero")
+        used_a = amount_a
+        used_b = amount_b
+    else:
+        if reserve_a <= 0 or reserve_b <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("pool reserves are zero")
+        lp_from_a = amount_a * lp_total // reserve_a
+        lp_from_b = amount_b * lp_total // reserve_b
+        lp_minted = min(lp_from_a, lp_from_b)
+        if lp_minted <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("lp_minted is zero")
+        used_a = lp_minted * reserve_a // lp_total
+        used_b = lp_minted * reserve_b // lp_total
+        if used_a <= 0 or used_b <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("used amount is zero")
+
+    if lp_minted < min_lp:
+        raise ValueError("lp_minted below min_lp")
+
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_a, bal_a - used_a)
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_b, bal_b - used_b)
+
+    state["reserve_a"] = reserve_a + used_a
+    state["reserve_b"] = reserve_b + used_b
+    state["lp_total"] = lp_total + lp_minted
+
+    user_lp = _get_lp(state, sender)
+    _set_lp(state, sender, user_lp + lp_minted)
+
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit(
+        "dex.add_liquidity",
+        {
+            "sender": sender,
+            "amount_a": used_a,
+            "amount_b": used_b,
+            "lp_minted": lp_minted,
+        },
+    )
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "add_liquidity",
+            "sender": sender,
+            "amount_a": used_a,
+            "amount_b": used_b,
+            "lp_minted": lp_minted,
+            "lp_total": state["lp_total"],
+            "reserves": {"a": state["reserve_a"], "b": state["reserve_b"]},
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_remove_liquidity(state, sender, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    lp_amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("lp_amount"), "lp_amount")
+    min_amount_a = _require_int(params.get("min_amount_a", 0), "min_amount_a")
+    min_amount_b = _require_int(params.get("min_amount_b", 0), "min_amount_b")
+    if min_amount_a < 0 or min_amount_b < 0:
+        raise ValueError("minimums must be >= 0")
+
+    lp_total = state["lp_total"]
+    if lp_total <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("no liquidity")
+
+    user_lp = _get_lp(state, sender)
+    if user_lp < lp_amount:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient lp")
+
+    reserve_a = state["reserve_a"]
+    reserve_b = state["reserve_b"]
+    amount_a = lp_amount * reserve_a // lp_total
+    amount_b = lp_amount * reserve_b // lp_total
+    if amount_a <= 0 or amount_b <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("withdraw amount is zero")
+    if amount_a < min_amount_a or amount_b < min_amount_b:
+        raise ValueError("withdrawal below minimum")
+
+    state["reserve_a"] = reserve_a - amount_a
+    state["reserve_b"] = reserve_b - amount_b
+    state["lp_total"] = lp_total - lp_amount
+
+    _set_lp(state, sender, user_lp - lp_amount)
+
+    token_a = state["token_a"]
+    token_b = state["token_b"]
+    bal_a = _get_balance(state, sender, token_a)
+    bal_b = _get_balance(state, sender, token_b)
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_a, bal_a + amount_a)
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_b, bal_b + amount_b)
+
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit(
+        "dex.remove_liquidity",
+        {
+            "sender": sender,
+            "lp_amount": lp_amount,
+            "amount_a": amount_a,
+            "amount_b": amount_b,
+        },
+    )
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "remove_liquidity",
+            "sender": sender,
+            "lp_amount": lp_amount,
+            "amount_a": amount_a,
+            "amount_b": amount_b,
+            "lp_total": state["lp_total"],
+            "reserves": {"a": state["reserve_a"], "b": state["reserve_b"]},
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def _handle_swap(state, sender, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_SWAP)
+    token_in = _token_symbol(state, params.get("token_in"))
+    amount_in = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount_in"), "amount_in")
+    min_out = _require_int(params.get("min_out", 0), "min_out")
+    if min_out < 0:
+        raise ValueError("min_out must be >= 0")
+
+    token_a = state["token_a"]
+    token_b = state["token_b"]
+    if token_in == token_a:
+        token_out = token_b
+        reserve_in = state["reserve_a"]
+        reserve_out = state["reserve_b"]
+        reserve_in_key = "reserve_a"
+        reserve_out_key = "reserve_b"
+    else:
+        token_out = token_a
+        reserve_in = state["reserve_b"]
+        reserve_out = state["reserve_a"]
+        reserve_in_key = "reserve_b"
+        reserve_out_key = "reserve_a"
+
+    if reserve_in <= 0 or reserve_out <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("empty pool")
+
+    bal_in = _get_balance(state, sender, token_in)
+    if bal_in < amount_in:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient balance")
+
+    amount_out = _amount_out(amount_in, reserve_in, reserve_out, state["fee_bps"])
+    if amount_out <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("amount_out is zero")
+    if amount_out < min_out:
+        raise ValueError("amount_out below min_out")
+    if amount_out >= reserve_out:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient liquidity")
+
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_in, bal_in - amount_in)
+    bal_out = _get_balance(state, sender, token_out)
+    _set_balance(state, sender, token_out, bal_out + amount_out)
+
+    state[reserve_in_key] = reserve_in + amount_in
+    state[reserve_out_key] = reserve_out - amount_out
+
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit(
+        "dex.swap",
+        {
+            "sender": sender,
+            "token_in": token_in,
+            "token_out": token_out,
+            "amount_in": amount_in,
+            "amount_out": amount_out,
+        },
+    )
+    return _ok(
+        {
+            "action": "swap",
+            "sender": sender,
+            "token_in": token_in,
+            "token_out": token_out,
+            "amount_in": amount_in,
+            "amount_out": amount_out,
+            "reserves": {"a": state["reserve_a"], "b": state["reserve_b"]},
+        }
+    )
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_BASE)
+    if not input_bytes:
+        return _ok(
+            {
+                "message": "pvm dex demo",
+                "actions": [
+                    "init",
+                    "mint",
+                    "add_liquidity",
+                    "remove_liquidity",
+                    "swap",
+                    "quote",
+                    "balance",
+                    "info",
+                ],
+            }
+        )
+
+    try:
+        request = _json_loads(input_bytes)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_json", str(exc))
+
+    action = request.get("action")
+    params = request.get("params", {})
+    if params is None:
+        params = {}
+    if not isinstance(params, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "params must be object")
+
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    sender = _sender_id(ctx)
+
+    try:
+        if action == "init":
+            return _handle_init(params, sender)
+
+        state = _load_state()
+        if state is None:
+            return _err("not_initialized")
+
+        if action == "mint":
+            return _handle_mint(state, sender, params)
+        if action == "balance":
+            return _handle_balance(state, sender)
+        if action == "info":
+            return _handle_info(state)
+        if action == "quote":
+            return _handle_quote(state, params)
+        if action == "add_liquidity":
+            return _handle_add_liquidity(state, sender, params)
+        if action == "remove_liquidity":
+            return _handle_remove_liquidity(state, sender, params)
+        if action == "swap":
+            return _handle_swap(state, sender, params)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    return _err("unknown_action", str(action))
diff --git a/examples/pvm_dex_demo/main.rs b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..97e113fe5f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_dex_demo/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+use std::env;
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use pvm_alto::{default_options, execute_tx_fs, FsTxConfig};
+use pvm_host::HostContext;
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let mut args = env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut script_path: Option<String> = None;
+    let mut input: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+    let mut input_file: Option<String> = None;
+
+    let mut sender = b"alice".to_vec();
+    let mut state_dir = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_dex_state");
+    let mut events_path = PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_dex_events.log");
+    let mut gas_limit: u64 = 1_000_000;
+
+    while let Some(arg) = args.next() {
+        match arg.as_str() {
+            "--sender" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                sender = value.into_bytes();
+            }
+            "--state-dir" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                state_dir = PathBuf::from(value);
+            }
+            "--events-path" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                events_path = PathBuf::from(value);
+            }
+            "--gas" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                gas_limit = value.parse()?;
+            }
+            "--input-file" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                input_file = Some(value);
+            }
+            "--help" | "-h" => {
+                println!("{}", usage());
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--sender=") {
+                    sender = value.as_bytes().to_vec();
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--state-dir=") {
+                    state_dir = PathBuf::from(value);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--events-path=") {
+                    events_path = PathBuf::from(value);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--gas=") {
+                    gas_limit = value.parse()?;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--input-file=") {
+                    input_file = Some(value.to_owned());
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                if script_path.is_none() {
+                    script_path = Some(arg);
+                } else if input.is_none() {
+                    if let Some(path) = arg.strip_prefix('@') {
+                        input_file = Some(path.to_owned());
+                    } else {
+                        input = Some(arg.into_bytes());
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    return Err(usage().into());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let script_path = script_path.ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+    if input.is_some() && input_file.is_some() {
+        return Err("use --input-file or input string, not both".into());
+    }
+
+    let code = fs::read(&script_path)?;
+    let input = match (input, input_file) {
+        (Some(bytes), None) => bytes,
+        (None, Some(path)) => fs::read(path)?,
+        (None, None) => Vec::new(),
+        (Some(_), Some(_)) => unreachable!(),
+    };
+
+    let ctx = HostContext {
+        block_height: 1,
+        block_hash: [0u8; 32],
+        tx_hash: [1u8; 32],
+        sender,
+        timestamp_ms: 1_700_000_000_000,
+        actor_addr: b"demo_actor".to_vec(),
+        msg_id: Vec::new(),
+        nonce: 0,
+    };
+
+    let config = FsTxConfig {
+        state_dir,
+        events_path,
+        gas_limit,
+        context: ctx,
+    };
+
+    let options = default_options().with_source_path(script_path);
+    let output = execute_tx_fs(&code, &input, config, &options)?;
+
+    println!("output_hex={}", encode_hex(&output));
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn encode_hex(bytes: &[u8]) -> String {
+    const HEX: &[u8; 16] = b"0123456789abcdef";
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(bytes.len() * 2);
+    for &byte in bytes {
+        out.push(HEX[(byte >> 4) as usize] as char);
+        out.push(HEX[(byte & 0x0f) as usize] as char);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+fn usage() -> &'static str {
+    "usage: pvm_dex_demo [--sender <name>] [--state-dir <path>] [--events-path <path>] [--gas <limit>] [--input-file <path>] <script.py> [input]"
+}
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/README.md b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8aa08c8efa2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+# PVM Runtime Chain Demo (Filesystem Host)
+
+This demo simulates an Alto-style chain host with a filesystem-backed `HostApi`.
+It runs a Python contract through `pvm-runtime` and writes state/events to local files.
+
+## Files
+
+- `main.rs`: Example runner that loads the Python contract and executes it.
+- `contract.py`: Sample contract using `pvm_host`.
+- `determinism_demo.py`: Determinism demo (import guard + stdlib shims + host context).
+- `escrow_marketplace_demo.py`: Escrow marketplace flow with expiry, funding, and release.
+- `batch_payroll_demo.py`: Batch payroll settlement with fees and audit sampling.
+- `staking_rewards_demo.py`: Staking rewards distribution with weighted proposer selection.
+
+## Run
+
+From the repo root:
+
+```bash
+cargo run --release --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo -- examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/contract.py hello
+```
+
+On macOS with Homebrew libffi, you may need:
+
+```bash
+DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH=/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib \
+cargo run --release --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo -- examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/contract.py hello
+```
+
+## Output and Artifacts
+
+- `output_hex=...` printed to stdout (hex-encoded bytes returned by the contract).
+- State files in `tmp/pvm_state/` (keyed by hex-encoded keys).
+- Event log in `tmp/pvm_events.log` (one line per event: `topic:hex_payload`).
+
+## Determinism Demo
+
+```bash
+DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH=/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib \
+cargo run --release --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo -- examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py hello
+```
+
+The contract output is JSON (hex-encoded on stdout) with:
+
+- Deterministic time and randomness via `time`/`random` stdlib shims.
+- Blocked modules and file IO recorded under `blocked`.
+- Host context echoed back (hashes and sender as hex).
+
+Run the command multiple times and compare `output_hex` for identical results.
+
+## Determinism Check (Multi-run)
+
+```bash
+python examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py --runs 5 --decode
+```
+
+Use `--keep-state` if you want to keep `tmp/pvm_state` between runs.
+
+## Business Scenario Demos
+
+Each demo supports `demo` as input for a built-in batch, or a JSON object with
+`action`/`params` or `actions` (list). Outputs include a `state_hash` to
+compare determinism.
+
+```bash
+python examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py \
+  --runs 5 --decode \
+  --script examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/escrow_marketplace_demo.py \
+  --input demo
+```
+
+```bash
+python examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py \
+  --runs 5 --decode \
+  --script examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/batch_payroll_demo.py \
+  --input demo
+```
+
+```bash
+python examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py \
+  --runs 5 --decode \
+  --script examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/staking_rewards_demo.py \
+  --input demo
+```
+
+## Import Trace (Whitelist Generator)
+
+Generate an import trace (with non-whitelisted imports allowed) and print a
+suggested whitelist:
+
+```bash
+python examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py \
+  --runs 1 \
+  --trace-imports tmp/pvm_import_trace.json \
+  --trace-allow-all \
+  --print-whitelist
+```
+
+Or run the binary directly:
+
+```bash
+DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH=/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib \
+cargo run --release --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo -- \
+  --trace-imports tmp/pvm_import_trace.json \
+  --trace-allow-all \
+  examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py hello
+```
+
+## Contract Behavior
+
+- Reads and increments a `counter` state key.
+- Emits a `demo` event.
+- Returns `b"ok:<input>:h=<block_height>"`.
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/batch_payroll_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/batch_payroll_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c3048223485
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/batch_payroll_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,406 @@
+import hashlib
+import json
+import random
+
+import pvm_host
+
+STATE_KEY = b"payroll_state_v1"
+
+GAS_BASE = 5
+GAS_READ = 5
+GAS_WRITE = 20
+
+
+def _json_dumps(value):
+    return json.dumps(
+        value,
+        sort_keys=True,
+        separators=(",", ":"),
+        ensure_ascii=True,
+    ).encode("ascii")
+
+
+def _json_loads(data):
+    return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _emit(topic, payload):
+    pvm_host.emit_event(topic, _json_dumps(payload))
+
+
+def _state_hash(state):
+    return hashlib.sha256(_json_dumps(state)).hexdigest()
+
+
+def _ok(payload, state=None):
+    payload["ok"] = True
+    if state is not None:
+        payload["state_hash"] = _state_hash(state)
+    return _json_dumps(payload)
+
+
+def _err(code, detail=None):
+    out = {"ok": False, "error": code}
+    if detail is not None:
+        out["detail"] = detail
+    return _json_dumps(out)
+
+
+def _require_int(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be int")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_positive_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be > 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_str(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, str) or not value:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be non-empty string")
+    return value
+
+
+def _load_state():
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(STATE_KEY)
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    return _json_loads(raw)
+
+
+def _save_state(state):
+    pvm_host.set_state(STATE_KEY, _json_dumps(state))
+
+
+def _balance_get(state, user):
+    return int(state["balances"].get(user, 0))
+
+
+def _balance_set(state, user, amount):
+    if amount <= 0:
+        state["balances"].pop(user, None)
+    else:
+        state["balances"][user] = amount
+
+
+def _demo_actions():
+    return [
+        {
+            "action": "init",
+            "params": {"fee_bps": 25, "treasury": "treasury"},
+        },
+        {"action": "credit", "params": {"user": "alice", "amount": 2000}},
+        {"action": "credit", "params": {"user": "carol", "amount": 1500}},
+        {
+            "action": "process_batch",
+            "params": {
+                "batch_id": "payroll-2024-09",
+                "transfers": [
+                    {"from": "alice", "to": "bob", "amount": 300},
+                    {"from": "alice", "to": "dora", "amount": 250},
+                    {"from": "carol", "to": "erin", "amount": 400},
+                    {"from": "carol", "to": "frank", "amount": 200},
+                ],
+            },
+        },
+        {"action": "snapshot", "params": {}},
+    ]
+
+
+def _handle_init(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    if state is not None:
+        raise ValueError("already initialized")
+    fee_bps = _require_int(params.get("fee_bps", 25), "fee_bps")
+    if fee_bps < 0 or fee_bps > 10000:
+        raise ValueError("fee_bps must be 0..10000")
+    treasury = _require_str(params.get("treasury", "treasury"), "treasury")
+    state = {
+        "version": 1,
+        "fee_bps": fee_bps,
+        "treasury": treasury,
+        "balances": {},
+        "batches": {},
+        "ledger": [],
+        "sequence": 1,
+    }
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("payroll.init", {"fee_bps": fee_bps, "treasury": treasury})
+    return state, {"action": "init", "fee_bps": fee_bps, "treasury": treasury}
+
+
+def _handle_credit(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    user = _require_str(params.get("user"), "user")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    new_bal = _balance_get(state, user) + amount
+    _balance_set(state, user, new_bal)
+    _emit("payroll.credit", {"user": user, "amount": amount})
+    return state, {"action": "credit", "user": user, "balance": new_bal}
+
+
+def _handle_process_batch(state, params, ctx):
+    transfers = params.get("transfers")
+    if not isinstance(transfers, list) or not transfers:
+        raise ValueError("transfers must be non-empty list")
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE + len(transfers))
+    batch_id = _require_str(params.get("batch_id"), "batch_id")
+    if batch_id in state["batches"]:
+        raise ValueError("batch_id already processed")
+    fee_bps = int(state["fee_bps"])
+    required = {}
+    normalized = []
+    total_amount = 0
+    total_fee = 0
+    for idx, entry in enumerate(transfers):
+        if not isinstance(entry, dict):
+            raise ValueError("transfer entry must be object")
+        sender = _require_str(entry.get("from"), "from")
+        recipient = _require_str(entry.get("to"), "to")
+        amount = _require_positive_int(entry.get("amount"), "amount")
+        fee = amount * fee_bps // 10000
+        normalized.append(
+            {
+                "index": idx,
+                "from": sender,
+                "to": recipient,
+                "amount": amount,
+                "fee": fee,
+            }
+        )
+        required[sender] = required.get(sender, 0) + amount + fee
+        total_amount += amount
+        total_fee += fee
+
+    for sender, needed in required.items():
+        if _balance_get(state, sender) < needed:
+            raise ValueError(f"insufficient balance: {sender}")
+
+    digest = hashlib.sha256()
+    for entry in normalized:
+        line = (
+            f"{entry['index']}:{entry['from']}->{entry['to']}:"
+            f"{entry['amount']}:{entry['fee']}"
+        )
+        digest.update(line.encode("utf-8"))
+    digest_hex = digest.hexdigest()
+
+    seed_material = f"{digest_hex}:{ctx.get('block_height', 0)}"
+    seed_hex = hashlib.sha256(seed_material.encode("utf-8")).hexdigest()[:16]
+    rng = random.Random(int(seed_hex, 16))
+    sample_count = min(2, len(normalized))
+    if sample_count:
+        sample_indices = sorted(
+            rng.sample(range(len(normalized)), sample_count)
+        )
+    else:
+        sample_indices = []
+    sample_hash = hashlib.sha256()
+    for idx in sample_indices:
+        entry = normalized[idx]
+        line = (
+            f"{entry['index']}:{entry['from']}:{entry['to']}:"
+            f"{entry['amount']}:{entry['fee']}"
+        )
+        sample_hash.update(line.encode("utf-8"))
+
+    treasury = state["treasury"]
+    ledger = state["ledger"]
+    sequence = int(state["sequence"])
+    for entry in normalized:
+        sender = entry["from"]
+        recipient = entry["to"]
+        amount = entry["amount"]
+        fee = entry["fee"]
+        _balance_set(
+            state, sender, _balance_get(state, sender) - amount - fee
+        )
+        _balance_set(
+            state, recipient, _balance_get(state, recipient) + amount
+        )
+        _balance_set(state, treasury, _balance_get(state, treasury) + fee)
+        ledger.append(
+            {
+                "id": sequence,
+                "batch_id": batch_id,
+                "index": entry["index"],
+                "from": sender,
+                "to": recipient,
+                "amount": amount,
+                "fee": fee,
+            }
+        )
+        sequence += 1
+        _emit(
+            "payroll.transfer",
+            {
+                "batch_id": batch_id,
+                "index": entry["index"],
+                "from": sender,
+                "to": recipient,
+                "amount": amount,
+                "fee": fee,
+            },
+        )
+    state["sequence"] = sequence
+    state["batches"][batch_id] = {
+        "count": len(normalized),
+        "total_amount": total_amount,
+        "total_fee": total_fee,
+        "digest": digest_hex,
+        "sample_digest": sample_hash.hexdigest(),
+    }
+    _emit(
+        "payroll.batch",
+        {
+            "batch_id": batch_id,
+            "count": len(normalized),
+            "total_amount": total_amount,
+            "total_fee": total_fee,
+        },
+    )
+    return state, {
+        "action": "process_batch",
+        "batch_id": batch_id,
+        "count": len(normalized),
+        "total_amount": total_amount,
+        "total_fee": total_fee,
+        "digest": digest_hex,
+        "audit_sample_indices": sample_indices,
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_snapshot(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return state, {
+        "action": "snapshot",
+        "balances": state["balances"],
+        "batch_count": len(state["batches"]),
+        "ledger_len": len(state["ledger"]),
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_balance(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    user = params.get("user")
+    if user is None:
+        return state, {"action": "balance", "balances": state["balances"]}
+    user = _require_str(user, "user")
+    return state, {"action": "balance", "user": user, "balance": _balance_get(state, user)}
+
+
+def _handle_batch_info(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    batch_id = _require_str(params.get("batch_id"), "batch_id")
+    info = state["batches"].get(batch_id)
+    if info is None:
+        raise ValueError("batch_id not found")
+    return state, {"action": "batch_info", "batch_id": batch_id, "info": info}
+
+
+def _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx):
+    if action == "init":
+        return _handle_init(state, params)
+    if state is None:
+        raise ValueError("not_initialized")
+    if action == "credit":
+        return _handle_credit(state, params)
+    if action == "process_batch":
+        return _handle_process_batch(state, params, ctx)
+    if action == "snapshot":
+        return _handle_snapshot(state)
+    if action == "balance":
+        return _handle_balance(state, params)
+    if action == "batch_info":
+        return _handle_batch_info(state, params)
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown_action: {action}")
+
+
+def _run_actions(state, actions, ctx):
+    results = []
+    for step in actions:
+        if not isinstance(step, dict):
+            raise ValueError("action entry must be object")
+        action = step.get("action")
+        params = step.get("params", {})
+        if params is None:
+            params = {}
+        if not isinstance(params, dict):
+            raise ValueError("params must be object")
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx)
+        _save_state(state)
+        results.append(summary)
+    return state, results
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_BASE)
+    if not input_bytes:
+        return _ok(
+            {
+                "message": "batch payroll demo",
+                "actions": [
+                    "init",
+                    "credit",
+                    "process_batch",
+                    "snapshot",
+                    "balance",
+                    "batch_info",
+                ],
+                "hint": "pass 'demo' or a JSON object",
+            }
+        )
+
+    try:
+        text = input_bytes.decode("utf-8")
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+
+    if text.strip().lower() == "demo":
+        actions = _demo_actions()
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    try:
+        request = _json_loads(input_bytes)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_json", str(exc))
+
+    if not isinstance(request, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "input must be object")
+
+    if "actions" in request:
+        actions = request.get("actions")
+        if not isinstance(actions, list):
+            return _err("invalid_input", "actions must be list")
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    action = request.get("action")
+    params = request.get("params", {})
+    if params is None:
+        params = {}
+    if not isinstance(params, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "params must be object")
+
+    try:
+        state = _load_state()
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx)
+        _save_state(state)
+        return _ok(summary, state)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/checkpoint_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/checkpoint_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d318d8c8d87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/checkpoint_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+import pvm_host
+from pvm_sdk import runner, continuation
+
+
+def run(coro):
+    return coro.send(None)
+
+
+async def analyze():
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"step", b"before")
+    cid = continuation.new_cid(None, "llm")
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"cid", cid)
+    result = await runner.llm("hi")
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"step", b"after")
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"result", str(result).encode("utf-8"))
+    return b"done"
+
+
+def main(_input):
+    return run(analyze())
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/contract.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/contract.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..2d7b2c6107c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/contract.py
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def main(input_bytes: bytes) -> bytes:
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(10)
+
+    current = pvm_host.get_state(b"counter")
+    if current is None:
+        counter = 1
+    else:
+        counter = int.from_bytes(current, "little") + 1
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"counter", counter.to_bytes(8, "little"))
+
+    pvm_host.emit_event("demo", b"ok")
+    payload = input_bytes if input_bytes else b"empty"
+    return b"ok:" + payload + b":h=" + str(ctx["block_height"]).encode("ascii")
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..29180c9a161
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_check.py
@@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
+import argparse
+import json
+import os
+import re
+import shutil
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+
+OUTPUT_RE = re.compile(r"output_hex=([0-9a-fA-F]+)")
+
+
+def repo_root() -> Path:
+    return Path(__file__).resolve().parents[2]
+
+
+def reset_state(root: Path) -> None:
+    state_dir = root / "tmp" / "pvm_state"
+    events_path = root / "tmp" / "pvm_events.log"
+    if state_dir.exists():
+        shutil.rmtree(state_dir)
+    if events_path.exists():
+        events_path.unlink()
+
+
+def ensure_built(root: Path, env: dict) -> None:
+    cmd = ["cargo", "build", "--release", "--example", "pvm_runtime_chain_demo"]
+    subprocess.run(cmd, cwd=root, env=env, check=True)
+
+
+def apply_dyld_fallback(env: dict) -> None:
+    fallback = env.get("DYLD_FALLBACK_LIBRARY_PATH")
+    if fallback:
+        paths = fallback.split(os.pathsep)
+    else:
+        paths = []
+
+    conda_prefix = env.get("CONDA_PREFIX")
+    if conda_prefix:
+        conda_lib = Path(conda_prefix) / "lib"
+        if conda_lib.exists():
+            paths.append(str(conda_lib))
+
+    candidates = [
+        Path("/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib"),
+        Path("/usr/local/opt/libffi/lib"),
+        Path("/opt/homebrew/opt/libiconv/lib"),
+        Path("/usr/local/opt/libiconv/lib"),
+        Path("/opt/miniconda3/lib"),
+    ]
+    for candidate in candidates:
+        if candidate.exists() and str(candidate) not in paths:
+            paths.append(str(candidate))
+
+    if paths:
+        env["DYLD_FALLBACK_LIBRARY_PATH"] = os.pathsep.join(
+            dict.fromkeys(paths)
+        )
+
+
+def run_once(
+    root: Path, exe: Path, script: str, input_text: str, env: dict, extra_args: list[str]
+) -> str:
+    cmd = [str(exe)]
+    cmd.extend(extra_args)
+    cmd.append(script)
+    if input_text:
+        cmd.append(input_text)
+    result = subprocess.run(
+        cmd,
+        cwd=root,
+        env=env,
+        capture_output=True,
+        text=True,
+    )
+    if result.returncode != 0:
+        sys.stderr.write(result.stdout)
+        sys.stderr.write(result.stderr)
+        raise RuntimeError(f"execution failed with code {result.returncode}")
+    text = result.stdout + result.stderr
+    match = OUTPUT_RE.search(text)
+    if not match:
+        sys.stderr.write(text)
+        raise RuntimeError("output_hex not found in output")
+    return match.group(1)
+
+
+def main() -> int:
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="Check determinism across runs.")
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--script",
+        default="examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py",
+        help="Path to the Python contract (relative to repo root).",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument("--input", default="hello", help="Contract input string.")
+    parser.add_argument("--runs", type=int, default=3, help="Number of runs to compare.")
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--decode",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="Decode output hex as JSON for display.",
+    )
+    group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
+    group.add_argument(
+        "--reset-state",
+        dest="reset_state",
+        action="store_true",
+        default=True,
+        help="Reset tmp state between runs (default).",
+    )
+    group.add_argument(
+        "--keep-state",
+        dest="reset_state",
+        action="store_false",
+        help="Keep tmp state between runs.",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--skip-build",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="Skip cargo build if the example binary already exists.",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--trace-imports",
+        help="Write import trace JSON to this path.",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--trace-allow-all",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="Allow non-whitelisted imports during tracing.",
+    )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--print-whitelist",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="Print suggested whitelist from the trace output.",
+    )
+    args = parser.parse_args()
+
+    root = repo_root()
+    exe = root / "target" / "release" / "examples" / "pvm_runtime_chain_demo"
+    env = os.environ.copy()
+    env_build = env.copy()
+    for key in ("DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH", "DYLD_FALLBACK_LIBRARY_PATH", "DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES"):
+        env_build.pop(key, None)
+
+    if not args.skip_build or not exe.exists():
+        ensure_built(root, env_build)
+
+    env_run = env.copy()
+    apply_dyld_fallback(env_run)
+
+    extra_args = []
+    if args.trace_imports:
+        extra_args.extend(["--trace-imports", args.trace_imports])
+        if args.trace_allow_all:
+            extra_args.append("--trace-allow-all")
+
+    outputs = []
+    for idx in range(args.runs):
+        if args.reset_state:
+            reset_state(root)
+        out_hex = run_once(
+            root, exe, args.script, args.input, env_run, extra_args
+        )
+        outputs.append(out_hex)
+        print(f"run[{idx}] output_hex={out_hex}")
+        if args.decode:
+            try:
+                decoded = bytes.fromhex(out_hex).decode("utf-8")
+                parsed = json.loads(decoded)
+                print(json.dumps(parsed, indent=2, sort_keys=True))
+            except Exception as exc:
+                print(f"decode failed: {exc}")
+
+    first = outputs[0]
+    mismatches = [idx for idx, value in enumerate(outputs) if value != first]
+    if mismatches:
+        print(f"determinism check failed: mismatched runs {mismatches}")
+        return 1
+
+    print(f"determinism check ok: {args.runs} runs match")
+
+    if args.trace_imports and args.print_whitelist:
+        trace_path = Path(args.trace_imports)
+        if not trace_path.exists():
+            print(f"trace file not found: {trace_path}")
+            return 1
+        with trace_path.open("r", encoding="utf-8") as handle:
+            data = json.load(handle)
+        missing = data.get("missing", [])
+        suggested = data.get("whitelist_suggested", [])
+        print("missing imports (add to whitelist):")
+        for item in missing:
+            print(f"- {item}")
+        print("whitelist_suggested (Rust vec!):")
+        print("vec![")
+        for item in suggested:
+            print(f'    "{item}",')
+        print("]")
+
+    return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    raise SystemExit(main())
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b6edfb37f90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/determinism_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+import hashlib
+import json
+import random
+import struct
+import time
+
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def _hex(b):
+    return b.hex() if isinstance(b, (bytes, bytearray)) else None
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+
+    # Deterministic state and event usage (idempotent write).
+    state_key = b"demo:state"
+    state_value = hashlib.sha256(input_bytes).digest()
+    pvm_host.set_state(state_key, state_value)
+    current_state = pvm_host.get_state(state_key)
+    pvm_host.emit_event("demo", state_value)
+
+    # Deterministic randomness/time from host context.
+    rand_bytes = random.randbytes(16)
+    timestamp_ns = time.time_ns()
+
+    # Use whitelisted stdlib modules.
+    packed_len = struct.pack("<I", len(input_bytes))
+
+    blocked = {}
+    for name in ("os", "socket", "pathlib", "sys"):
+        try:
+            __import__(name)
+            blocked[name] = "allowed"
+        except Exception as exc:
+            blocked[name] = type(exc).__name__
+
+    try:
+        open("forbidden.txt", "wb").write(b"x")
+        blocked["open"] = "allowed"
+    except Exception as exc:
+        blocked["open"] = type(exc).__name__
+
+    result = {
+        "input_hex": input_bytes.hex(),
+        "timestamp_ns": timestamp_ns,
+        "random_hex": rand_bytes.hex(),
+        "packed_len_hex": packed_len.hex(),
+        "state_hex": _hex(current_state),
+        "event_hex": state_value.hex(),
+        "ctx": {
+            "block_height": ctx.get("block_height"),
+            "block_hash": _hex(ctx.get("block_hash")),
+            "tx_hash": _hex(ctx.get("tx_hash")),
+            "sender": _hex(ctx.get("sender")),
+            "timestamp_ms": ctx.get("timestamp_ms"),
+        },
+        "module_time": getattr(time, "__name__", ""),
+        "module_random": getattr(random, "__name__", ""),
+        "blocked": blocked,
+    }
+
+    return json.dumps(result, sort_keys=True).encode()
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/escrow_marketplace_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/escrow_marketplace_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..22df1df6fe8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/escrow_marketplace_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,448 @@
+import hashlib
+import json
+
+import pvm_host
+
+STATE_KEY = b"escrow_state_v1"
+
+GAS_BASE = 5
+GAS_READ = 5
+GAS_WRITE = 20
+
+
+def _json_dumps(value):
+    return json.dumps(
+        value,
+        sort_keys=True,
+        separators=(",", ":"),
+        ensure_ascii=True,
+    ).encode("ascii")
+
+
+def _json_loads(data):
+    return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _emit(topic, payload):
+    pvm_host.emit_event(topic, _json_dumps(payload))
+
+
+def _state_hash(state):
+    return hashlib.sha256(_json_dumps(state)).hexdigest()
+
+
+def _ok(payload, state=None):
+    payload["ok"] = True
+    if state is not None:
+        payload["state_hash"] = _state_hash(state)
+    return _json_dumps(payload)
+
+
+def _err(code, detail=None):
+    out = {"ok": False, "error": code}
+    if detail is not None:
+        out["detail"] = detail
+    return _json_dumps(out)
+
+
+def _require_int(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be int")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_positive_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be > 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_nonneg_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be >= 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_str(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, str) or not value:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be non-empty string")
+    return value
+
+
+def _ctx_sender(ctx):
+    sender = ctx.get("sender", b"")
+    if isinstance(sender, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        try:
+            return sender.decode("ascii")
+        except Exception:
+            return sender.hex()
+    return str(sender)
+
+
+def _load_state():
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(STATE_KEY)
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    return _json_loads(raw)
+
+
+def _save_state(state):
+    pvm_host.set_state(STATE_KEY, _json_dumps(state))
+
+
+def _balance_get(state, user):
+    return int(state["balances"].get(user, 0))
+
+
+def _balance_set(state, user, amount):
+    if amount <= 0:
+        state["balances"].pop(user, None)
+    else:
+        state["balances"][user] = amount
+
+
+def _order_list(state):
+    orders = state["orders"]
+    out = []
+    for key in sorted(orders, key=lambda k: int(k)):
+        out.append(orders[key])
+    return out
+
+
+def _demo_actions():
+    return [
+        {
+            "action": "init",
+            "params": {"fee_bps": 50, "treasury": "treasury"},
+        },
+        {"action": "deposit", "params": {"user": "alice", "amount": 1000}},
+        {"action": "deposit", "params": {"user": "bob", "amount": 800}},
+        {
+            "action": "list",
+            "params": {
+                "seller": "alice",
+                "item": "camera",
+                "price": 300,
+                "expires_in": 5,
+            },
+        },
+        {"action": "fund", "params": {"order_id": 1, "buyer": "bob"}},
+        {"action": "release", "params": {"order_id": 1, "actor": "alice"}},
+        {
+            "action": "list",
+            "params": {
+                "seller": "bob",
+                "item": "bike",
+                "price": 200,
+                "expires_in": 0,
+            },
+        },
+        {"action": "cancel", "params": {"order_id": 2}},
+        {"action": "info", "params": {}},
+    ]
+
+
+def _handle_init(params, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    if _load_state() is not None:
+        raise ValueError("already initialized")
+    fee_bps = _require_int(params.get("fee_bps", 30), "fee_bps")
+    if fee_bps < 0 or fee_bps > 10000:
+        raise ValueError("fee_bps must be 0..10000")
+    treasury = _require_str(params.get("treasury", "treasury"), "treasury")
+    state = {
+        "version": 1,
+        "fee_bps": fee_bps,
+        "treasury": treasury,
+        "next_order_id": 1,
+        "balances": {},
+        "orders": {},
+    }
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("escrow.init", {"fee_bps": fee_bps, "treasury": treasury})
+    return state, {
+        "action": "init",
+        "fee_bps": fee_bps,
+        "treasury": treasury,
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_deposit(state, params, ctx_sender):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    user = params.get("user")
+    if user is None:
+        user = ctx_sender
+    user = _require_str(user, "user")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    new_bal = _balance_get(state, user) + amount
+    _balance_set(state, user, new_bal)
+    _emit("escrow.deposit", {"user": user, "amount": amount})
+    return state, {"action": "deposit", "user": user, "balance": new_bal}
+
+
+def _handle_list(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    seller = params.get("seller")
+    if seller is None:
+        seller = ctx_sender
+    seller = _require_str(str(seller), "seller")
+    item = _require_str(str(params.get("item", "item")), "item")
+    price = _require_positive_int(params.get("price"), "price")
+    expires_in = _require_nonneg_int(params.get("expires_in", 5), "expires_in")
+    height = int(ctx.get("block_height", 0))
+    order_id = state["next_order_id"]
+    state["next_order_id"] = order_id + 1
+    order = {
+        "id": order_id,
+        "item": item,
+        "seller": seller,
+        "buyer": None,
+        "price": price,
+        "fee": 0,
+        "escrow": 0,
+        "status": "listed",
+        "created_height": height,
+        "expires_at": height + expires_in,
+    }
+    state["orders"][str(order_id)] = order
+    _emit(
+        "escrow.list",
+        {"order_id": order_id, "seller": seller, "price": price},
+    )
+    return state, {"action": "list", "order": order}
+
+
+def _handle_fund(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    order_id = _require_int(params.get("order_id"), "order_id")
+    key = str(order_id)
+    order = state["orders"].get(key)
+    if order is None:
+        raise ValueError("unknown order_id")
+    if order["status"] != "listed":
+        raise ValueError("order not listed")
+    height = int(ctx.get("block_height", 0))
+    if height >= order["expires_at"]:
+        raise ValueError("order expired")
+    buyer = params.get("buyer")
+    if buyer is None:
+        buyer = ctx_sender
+    buyer = _require_str(str(buyer), "buyer")
+    price = int(order["price"])
+    fee = price * int(state["fee_bps"]) // 10000
+    escrow_amount = price - fee
+    if _balance_get(state, buyer) < price:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient balance")
+    _balance_set(state, buyer, _balance_get(state, buyer) - price)
+    treasury = state["treasury"]
+    _balance_set(state, treasury, _balance_get(state, treasury) + fee)
+    order["status"] = "funded"
+    order["buyer"] = buyer
+    order["fee"] = fee
+    order["escrow"] = escrow_amount
+    order["funded_height"] = height
+    _emit(
+        "escrow.fund",
+        {"order_id": order_id, "buyer": buyer, "escrow": escrow_amount},
+    )
+    return state, {"action": "fund", "order_id": order_id, "buyer": buyer}
+
+
+def _handle_release(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    order_id = _require_int(params.get("order_id"), "order_id")
+    key = str(order_id)
+    order = state["orders"].get(key)
+    if order is None:
+        raise ValueError("unknown order_id")
+    if order["status"] != "funded":
+        raise ValueError("order not funded")
+    actor = params.get("actor")
+    if actor is None:
+        actor = ctx_sender
+    actor = _require_str(str(actor), "actor")
+    if actor != order["seller"]:
+        raise ValueError("only seller can release")
+    seller = order["seller"]
+    escrow_amount = int(order["escrow"])
+    _balance_set(state, seller, _balance_get(state, seller) + escrow_amount)
+    order["status"] = "released"
+    order["released_height"] = int(ctx.get("block_height", 0))
+    _emit(
+        "escrow.release",
+        {"order_id": order_id, "seller": seller, "amount": escrow_amount},
+    )
+    return state, {"action": "release", "order_id": order_id, "seller": seller}
+
+
+def _handle_cancel(state, params, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    order_id = _require_int(params.get("order_id"), "order_id")
+    key = str(order_id)
+    order = state["orders"].get(key)
+    if order is None:
+        raise ValueError("unknown order_id")
+    height = int(ctx.get("block_height", 0))
+    if height < order["expires_at"]:
+        raise ValueError("order not expired")
+    if order["status"] == "listed":
+        order["status"] = "cancelled"
+        order["cancelled_height"] = height
+        _emit("escrow.cancel", {"order_id": order_id})
+        return state, {"action": "cancel", "order_id": order_id}
+    if order["status"] == "funded":
+        buyer = order.get("buyer")
+        refund = int(order.get("escrow", 0))
+        if buyer:
+            _balance_set(state, buyer, _balance_get(state, buyer) + refund)
+        order["status"] = "refunded"
+        order["refunded_height"] = height
+        _emit("escrow.refund", {"order_id": order_id, "amount": refund})
+        return state, {"action": "refund", "order_id": order_id}
+    raise ValueError("order not cancellable")
+
+
+def _handle_info(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return state, {
+        "action": "info",
+        "fee_bps": state["fee_bps"],
+        "treasury": state["treasury"],
+        "order_count": len(state["orders"]),
+        "balances": state["balances"],
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_balance(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    user = params.get("user")
+    if user is None:
+        return state, {"action": "balance", "balances": state["balances"]}
+    user = _require_str(user, "user")
+    return state, {
+        "action": "balance",
+        "user": user,
+        "balance": _balance_get(state, user),
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_list_orders(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return state, {"action": "list_orders", "orders": _order_list(state)}
+
+
+def _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx, ctx_sender):
+    if action == "init":
+        return _handle_init(params, ctx)
+    if state is None:
+        raise ValueError("not_initialized")
+    if action == "deposit":
+        return _handle_deposit(state, params, ctx_sender)
+    if action == "list":
+        return _handle_list(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx)
+    if action == "fund":
+        return _handle_fund(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx)
+    if action == "release":
+        return _handle_release(state, params, ctx_sender, ctx)
+    if action == "cancel":
+        return _handle_cancel(state, params, ctx)
+    if action == "info":
+        return _handle_info(state)
+    if action == "balance":
+        return _handle_balance(state, params)
+    if action == "list_orders":
+        return _handle_list_orders(state)
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown_action: {action}")
+
+
+def _run_actions(state, actions, ctx, ctx_sender):
+    results = []
+    for step in actions:
+        if not isinstance(step, dict):
+            raise ValueError("action entry must be object")
+        action = step.get("action")
+        params = step.get("params", {})
+        if params is None:
+            params = {}
+        if not isinstance(params, dict):
+            raise ValueError("params must be object")
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx, ctx_sender)
+        _save_state(state)
+        results.append(summary)
+    return state, results
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_BASE)
+    if not input_bytes:
+        return _ok(
+            {
+                "message": "escrow marketplace demo",
+                "actions": [
+                    "init",
+                    "deposit",
+                    "list",
+                    "fund",
+                    "release",
+                    "cancel",
+                    "balance",
+                    "list_orders",
+                    "info",
+                ],
+                "hint": "pass 'demo' or a JSON object",
+            }
+        )
+
+    try:
+        text = input_bytes.decode("utf-8")
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    ctx_sender = _ctx_sender(ctx)
+
+    if text.strip().lower() == "demo":
+        actions = _demo_actions()
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx, ctx_sender)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    try:
+        request = _json_loads(input_bytes)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_json", str(exc))
+
+    if not isinstance(request, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "input must be object")
+
+    if "actions" in request:
+        actions = request.get("actions")
+        if not isinstance(actions, list):
+            return _err("invalid_input", "actions must be list")
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx, ctx_sender)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    action = request.get("action")
+    params = request.get("params", {})
+    if params is None:
+        params = {}
+    if not isinstance(params, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "params must be object")
+
+    try:
+        state = _load_state()
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx, ctx_sender)
+        _save_state(state)
+        return _ok(summary, state)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/fsm_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/fsm_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..89c62564afc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/fsm_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+import pvm_host
+from pvm_sdk import runner, capture, continuation
+
+
+@runner.continuation
+async def analyze(self, msg):
+    ctx = capture()
+    ctx.value = await runner.llm("hi")
+    return ctx.value
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    if input_bytes == b"start":
+        cid = continuation.new_cid(None, "analyze")
+        pvm_host.set_state(b"cid", cid)
+        analyze(None, {})
+        return b"started"
+    result = input_bytes.decode("utf-8")
+    cid = continuation.new_cid(None, "analyze")
+    msg = {"cid": cid, "result": result}
+    out = analyze__resume(None, msg)
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"fsm_result", str(out).encode("utf-8"))
+    return b"done"
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/main.rs b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8714393fb23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+use std::env;
+use std::fs;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use pvm_alto::{default_options, execute_tx_fs, FsTxConfig};
+use pvm_host::HostContext;
+use pvm_runtime::{ContinuationOptions, DeterminismOptions};
+use rustpython_vm::vm::ContinuationMode;
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
+    let mut args = env::args().skip(1);
+    let mut trace_path: Option<String> = None;
+    let mut trace_allow_all = false;
+    let mut script_path: Option<String> = None;
+    let mut input: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+    let mut deterministic = true;
+    let mut continuation_mode: Option<ContinuationMode> = None;
+    let mut resume_bytes: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+    let mut resume_key: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+    let mut checkpoint_key: Option<Vec<u8>> = None;
+
+    while let Some(arg) = args.next() {
+        match arg.as_str() {
+            "--trace-imports" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                trace_path = Some(value);
+            }
+            "--trace-allow-all" => {
+                trace_allow_all = true;
+            }
+            "--nondeterministic" => {
+                deterministic = false;
+            }
+            "--continuation" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                continuation_mode = Some(parse_continuation_mode(&value)?);
+            }
+            "--resume-bytes" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                resume_bytes = Some(parse_hex_arg(&value)?);
+            }
+            "--resume-key" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                resume_key = Some(parse_hex_arg(&value)?);
+            }
+            "--checkpoint-key" => {
+                let value = args.next().ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+                checkpoint_key = Some(parse_hex_arg(&value)?);
+            }
+            "--help" | "-h" => {
+                println!("{}", usage());
+                return Ok(());
+            }
+            _ => {
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--continuation=") {
+                    continuation_mode = Some(parse_continuation_mode(value)?);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--trace-imports=") {
+                    trace_path = Some(value.to_owned());
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--resume-bytes=") {
+                    resume_bytes = Some(parse_hex_arg(value)?);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--resume-key=") {
+                    resume_key = Some(parse_hex_arg(value)?);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = arg.strip_prefix("--checkpoint-key=") {
+                    checkpoint_key = Some(parse_hex_arg(value)?);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if script_path.is_none() {
+                    script_path = Some(arg);
+                } else if input.is_none() {
+                    input = Some(arg.into_bytes());
+                } else {
+                    return Err(usage().into());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if trace_allow_all && trace_path.is_none() {
+        return Err("--trace-allow-all requires --trace-imports".into());
+    }
+
+    let script_path = script_path.ok_or_else(|| usage())?;
+    let input = input.unwrap_or_default();
+
+    let code = fs::read(&script_path)?;
+
+    let ctx = HostContext {
+        block_height: 1,
+        block_hash: [0u8; 32],
+        tx_hash: [1u8; 32],
+        sender: b"alice".to_vec(),
+        timestamp_ms: 1_700_000_000_000,
+        actor_addr: b"demo_actor".to_vec(),
+        msg_id: Vec::new(),
+        nonce: 0,
+    };
+
+    let config = FsTxConfig {
+        state_dir: PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_state"),
+        events_path: PathBuf::from("tmp/pvm_events.log"),
+        gas_limit: 1_000_000,
+        context: ctx,
+    };
+
+    let mut options = default_options().with_source_path(script_path);
+    if continuation_mode.is_some()
+        || resume_bytes.is_some()
+        || resume_key.is_some()
+        || checkpoint_key.is_some()
+    {
+        let mode = continuation_mode.unwrap_or_else(|| {
+            if resume_bytes.is_some() || resume_key.is_some() || checkpoint_key.is_some() {
+                ContinuationMode::Checkpoint
+            } else {
+                ContinuationMode::Fsm
+            }
+        });
+        options.continuation = Some(ContinuationOptions {
+            mode,
+            resume_bytes,
+            resume_key,
+            checkpoint_key,
+        });
+    }
+    if !deterministic {
+        options.deterministic = false;
+        options.determinism = None;
+    }
+    if let Some(path) = trace_path {
+        let mut det = DeterminismOptions::deterministic(None);
+        det.trace_imports = true;
+        det.trace_allow_all = trace_allow_all;
+        det.trace_path = Some(path);
+        options = options.with_determinism(det);
+    }
+    let output = execute_tx_fs(&code, &input, config, &options)?;
+
+    println!("output_hex={}", encode_hex(&output));
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn encode_hex(bytes: &[u8]) -> String {
+    const HEX: &[u8; 16] = b"0123456789abcdef";
+    let mut out = String::with_capacity(bytes.len() * 2);
+    for &byte in bytes {
+        out.push(HEX[(byte >> 4) as usize] as char);
+        out.push(HEX[(byte & 0x0f) as usize] as char);
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+fn parse_continuation_mode(value: &str) -> Result<ContinuationMode, std::io::Error> {
+    match value {
+        "fsm" => Ok(ContinuationMode::Fsm),
+        "checkpoint" => Ok(ContinuationMode::Checkpoint),
+        _ => Err(std::io::Error::new(
+            std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
+            "continuation mode must be fsm or checkpoint",
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_hex_arg(value: &str) -> Result<Vec<u8>, std::io::Error> {
+    let value = value.strip_prefix("0x").unwrap_or(value);
+    if value.len() % 2 != 0 {
+        return Err(std::io::Error::new(
+            std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput,
+            "hex string must have even length",
+        ));
+    }
+    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(value.len() / 2);
+    let bytes = value.as_bytes();
+    for idx in (0..bytes.len()).step_by(2) {
+        let chunk = std::str::from_utf8(&bytes[idx..idx + 2]).map_err(|_| {
+            std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput, "invalid hex string")
+        })?;
+        let byte = u8::from_str_radix(chunk, 16).map_err(|_| {
+            std::io::Error::new(std::io::ErrorKind::InvalidInput, "invalid hex string")
+        })?;
+        out.push(byte);
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+fn usage() -> &'static str {
+    "usage: pvm_runtime_chain_demo [--trace-imports <path>] [--trace-allow-all] [--nondeterministic] [--continuation fsm|checkpoint] [--resume-bytes <hex>] [--resume-key <hex>] [--checkpoint-key <hex>] <script.py> [input]"
+}
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_checkpoint_demo.sh b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_checkpoint_demo.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..6c21fcc99e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_checkpoint_demo.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+repo_root="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")/../.." && pwd)"
+demo_dir="$repo_root/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo"
+bin="$repo_root/target/debug/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo"
+state_dir="$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state"
+
+cd "$repo_root"
+
+lib_paths=()
+if [ -d "/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib" ]; then
+  lib_paths+=("/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib")
+fi
+if [ -d "/opt/homebrew/opt/libiconv/lib" ]; then
+  lib_paths+=("/opt/homebrew/opt/libiconv/lib")
+fi
+dyld_prefix=""
+if [ "${#lib_paths[@]}" -gt 0 ]; then
+  dyld_prefix="$(IFS=:; echo "${lib_paths[*]}")"
+fi
+
+mkdir -p "$repo_root/tmp"
+ts=$(date +%s)
+if [ -e "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state" ]; then
+  mv "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state" "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state.bak.$ts"
+fi
+if [ -e "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log" ]; then
+  mv "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log" "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log.bak.$ts"
+fi
+
+cargo build --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo
+
+if [ -n "$dyld_prefix" ]; then
+  DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH="${dyld_prefix}${DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH:+:$DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH}" \
+    "$bin" --continuation checkpoint --checkpoint-key 636865636b706f696e74 "$demo_dir/checkpoint_demo.py"
+else
+  "$bin" --continuation checkpoint --checkpoint-key 636865636b706f696e74 "$demo_dir/checkpoint_demo.py"
+fi
+
+export PVM_STATE_DIR="$state_dir"
+python - <<'PY'
+import json
+import os
+from pathlib import Path
+
+state_dir = Path(os.environ["PVM_STATE_DIR"])
+cid = (state_dir / "636964").read_bytes()
+key = b"__runner_result:" + cid
+payload = {"result": "ok"}
+raw = json.dumps(payload, sort_keys=True, separators=(",", ":"), ensure_ascii=True).encode("ascii")
+(state_dir / key.hex()).write_bytes(raw)
+PY
+
+if [ -n "$dyld_prefix" ]; then
+  DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH="${dyld_prefix}${DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH:+:$DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH}" \
+    "$bin" --resume-key 636865636b706f696e74 "$demo_dir/checkpoint_demo.py"
+else
+  "$bin" --resume-key 636865636b706f696e74 "$demo_dir/checkpoint_demo.py"
+fi
+
+python - <<'PY'
+import os
+from pathlib import Path
+
+state_dir = Path(os.environ["PVM_STATE_DIR"])
+step = (state_dir / "73746570").read_bytes()
+result = (state_dir / "726573756c74").read_bytes()
+print("step=", step)
+print("result=", result)
+PY
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_fsm_demo.sh b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_fsm_demo.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..780bc4ad401
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/run_fsm_demo.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+repo_root="$(cd "$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")/../.." && pwd)"
+demo_dir="$repo_root/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo"
+bin="$repo_root/target/debug/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo"
+
+cd "$repo_root"
+
+lib_paths=()
+if [ -d "/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib" ]; then
+  lib_paths+=("/opt/homebrew/opt/libffi/lib")
+fi
+if [ -d "/opt/homebrew/opt/libiconv/lib" ]; then
+  lib_paths+=("/opt/homebrew/opt/libiconv/lib")
+fi
+dyld_prefix=""
+if [ "${#lib_paths[@]}" -gt 0 ]; then
+  dyld_prefix="$(IFS=:; echo "${lib_paths[*]}")"
+fi
+
+mkdir -p "$repo_root/tmp"
+ts=$(date +%s)
+if [ -e "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state" ]; then
+  mv "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state" "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_state.bak.$ts"
+fi
+if [ -e "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log" ]; then
+  mv "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log" "$repo_root/tmp/pvm_events.log.bak.$ts"
+fi
+
+cargo build --example pvm_runtime_chain_demo
+
+if [ -n "$dyld_prefix" ]; then
+  DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH="${dyld_prefix}${DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH:+:$DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH}" \
+    "$bin" --continuation fsm "$demo_dir/fsm_demo.py" start
+  DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH="${dyld_prefix}${DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH:+:$DYLD_LIBRARY_PATH}" \
+    "$bin" --continuation fsm "$demo_dir/fsm_demo.py" ok
+else
+  "$bin" --continuation fsm "$demo_dir/fsm_demo.py" start
+  "$bin" --continuation fsm "$demo_dir/fsm_demo.py" ok
+fi
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/staking_rewards_demo.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/staking_rewards_demo.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..87f8a07c474
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo/staking_rewards_demo.py
@@ -0,0 +1,453 @@
+import hashlib
+import json
+import random
+
+import pvm_host
+
+STATE_KEY = b"staking_state_v1"
+
+GAS_BASE = 5
+GAS_READ = 5
+GAS_WRITE = 20
+
+
+def _json_dumps(value):
+    return json.dumps(
+        value,
+        sort_keys=True,
+        separators=(",", ":"),
+        ensure_ascii=True,
+    ).encode("ascii")
+
+
+def _json_loads(data):
+    return json.loads(data.decode("utf-8"))
+
+
+def _emit(topic, payload):
+    pvm_host.emit_event(topic, _json_dumps(payload))
+
+
+def _state_hash(state):
+    return hashlib.sha256(_json_dumps(state)).hexdigest()
+
+
+def _ok(payload, state=None):
+    payload["ok"] = True
+    if state is not None:
+        payload["state_hash"] = _state_hash(state)
+    return _json_dumps(payload)
+
+
+def _err(code, detail=None):
+    out = {"ok": False, "error": code}
+    if detail is not None:
+        out["detail"] = detail
+    return _json_dumps(out)
+
+
+def _require_int(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, int):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be int")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_positive_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value <= 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be > 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_nonneg_int(value, name):
+    value = _require_int(value, name)
+    if value < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be >= 0")
+    return value
+
+
+def _require_str(value, name):
+    if not isinstance(value, str) or not value:
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be non-empty string")
+    return value
+
+
+def _load_state():
+    raw = pvm_host.get_state(STATE_KEY)
+    if raw is None:
+        return None
+    return _json_loads(raw)
+
+
+def _save_state(state):
+    pvm_host.set_state(STATE_KEY, _json_dumps(state))
+
+
+def _add_reward(state, addr, amount):
+    if amount <= 0:
+        return
+    rewards = state["rewards"]
+    rewards[addr] = int(rewards.get(addr, 0)) + int(amount)
+
+
+def _delegations_by_validator(state):
+    delegations = state["delegations"]
+    by_validator = {}
+    for delegator in sorted(delegations):
+        entries = delegations[delegator]
+        if not isinstance(entries, dict):
+            continue
+        for validator in sorted(entries):
+            amount = int(entries.get(validator, 0))
+            if amount <= 0:
+                continue
+            by_validator.setdefault(validator, []).append((delegator, amount))
+    return by_validator
+
+
+def _validator_weights(state):
+    validators = state["validators"]
+    weights = {}
+    for name in sorted(validators):
+        weights[name] = int(validators[name].get("self_stake", 0))
+    by_validator = _delegations_by_validator(state)
+    for validator, entries in by_validator.items():
+        total = sum(amount for _, amount in entries)
+        weights[validator] = weights.get(validator, 0) + total
+    return weights
+
+
+def _pick_proposer(weights, seed_int):
+    total_weight = sum(weights.values())
+    if total_weight <= 0:
+        return None
+    target = seed_int % total_weight
+    running = 0
+    for name in sorted(weights):
+        running += int(weights[name])
+        if target < running:
+            return name
+    return sorted(weights)[-1]
+
+
+def _seed_from_ctx(ctx, epoch):
+    parts = []
+    block_hash = ctx.get("block_hash")
+    if isinstance(block_hash, (bytes, bytearray)):
+        parts.append(block_hash)
+    else:
+        parts.append(str(block_hash).encode("utf-8"))
+    parts.append(str(ctx.get("block_height", 0)).encode("ascii"))
+    parts.append(str(epoch).encode("ascii"))
+    digest = hashlib.sha256(b"|".join(parts)).digest()
+    return int.from_bytes(digest[:8], "big")
+
+
+def _demo_actions():
+    return [
+        {"action": "init", "params": {"inflation": 1200}},
+        {
+            "action": "register_validator",
+            "params": {"validator": "val1", "stake": 500, "commission_bps": 500},
+        },
+        {
+            "action": "register_validator",
+            "params": {"validator": "val2", "stake": 350, "commission_bps": 300},
+        },
+        {
+            "action": "delegate",
+            "params": {"delegator": "alice", "validator": "val1", "amount": 400},
+        },
+        {
+            "action": "delegate",
+            "params": {"delegator": "bob", "validator": "val2", "amount": 250},
+        },
+        {"action": "distribute", "params": {}},
+        {"action": "distribute", "params": {}},
+        {"action": "info", "params": {}},
+    ]
+
+
+def _handle_init(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    if state is not None:
+        raise ValueError("already initialized")
+    inflation = _require_nonneg_int(params.get("inflation", 1000), "inflation")
+    state = {
+        "version": 1,
+        "epoch": 0,
+        "inflation": inflation,
+        "validators": {},
+        "delegations": {},
+        "rewards": {},
+        "last_proposer": None,
+    }
+    _save_state(state)
+    _emit("staking.init", {"inflation": inflation})
+    return state, {"action": "init", "inflation": inflation}
+
+
+def _handle_register(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    validator = _require_str(params.get("validator"), "validator")
+    stake = _require_positive_int(params.get("stake"), "stake")
+    commission_bps = _require_int(params.get("commission_bps", 0), "commission_bps")
+    if commission_bps < 0 or commission_bps > 10000:
+        raise ValueError("commission_bps must be 0..10000")
+    entry = state["validators"].get(validator)
+    if entry is None:
+        entry = {"self_stake": 0, "commission_bps": commission_bps, "active": True}
+    else:
+        entry["commission_bps"] = commission_bps
+    entry["self_stake"] = int(entry.get("self_stake", 0)) + stake
+    state["validators"][validator] = entry
+    _emit(
+        "staking.register",
+        {"validator": validator, "stake": stake, "commission_bps": commission_bps},
+    )
+    return state, {
+        "action": "register_validator",
+        "validator": validator,
+        "self_stake": entry["self_stake"],
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_delegate(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    delegator = _require_str(params.get("delegator"), "delegator")
+    validator = _require_str(params.get("validator"), "validator")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    if validator not in state["validators"]:
+        raise ValueError("validator not found")
+    entries = state["delegations"].setdefault(delegator, {})
+    entries[validator] = int(entries.get(validator, 0)) + amount
+    _emit(
+        "staking.delegate",
+        {"delegator": delegator, "validator": validator, "amount": amount},
+    )
+    return state, {
+        "action": "delegate",
+        "delegator": delegator,
+        "validator": validator,
+        "amount": amount,
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_undelegate(state, params):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    delegator = _require_str(params.get("delegator"), "delegator")
+    validator = _require_str(params.get("validator"), "validator")
+    amount = _require_positive_int(params.get("amount"), "amount")
+    entries = state["delegations"].get(delegator)
+    if not entries or int(entries.get(validator, 0)) < amount:
+        raise ValueError("insufficient delegation")
+    new_amount = int(entries.get(validator, 0)) - amount
+    if new_amount <= 0:
+        entries.pop(validator, None)
+    else:
+        entries[validator] = new_amount
+    if not entries:
+        state["delegations"].pop(delegator, None)
+    _emit(
+        "staking.undelegate",
+        {"delegator": delegator, "validator": validator, "amount": amount},
+    )
+    return state, {
+        "action": "undelegate",
+        "delegator": delegator,
+        "validator": validator,
+        "amount": amount,
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_distribute(state, ctx):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_WRITE)
+    epoch = int(state["epoch"])
+    weights = _validator_weights(state)
+    total_weight = sum(weights.values())
+    if total_weight <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("no stake available")
+    seed_int = _seed_from_ctx(ctx, epoch)
+    proposer = _pick_proposer(weights, seed_int)
+    inflation = int(state["inflation"])
+    reward_map = {}
+    distributed = 0
+    for name in sorted(weights):
+        reward = inflation * int(weights[name]) // total_weight
+        reward_map[name] = reward
+        distributed += reward
+    leftover = inflation - distributed
+    if proposer is not None:
+        reward_map[proposer] = reward_map.get(proposer, 0) + leftover
+
+    delegations = _delegations_by_validator(state)
+    for name in sorted(reward_map):
+        reward = int(reward_map[name])
+        if reward <= 0:
+            continue
+        validator_info = state["validators"].get(name, {})
+        commission_bps = int(validator_info.get("commission_bps", 0))
+        commission = reward * commission_bps // 10000
+        _add_reward(state, name, commission)
+        remainder = reward - commission
+        entries = delegations.get(name, [])
+        if not entries or remainder <= 0:
+            _add_reward(state, name, remainder)
+            continue
+        total_delegation = sum(amount for _, amount in entries)
+        if total_delegation <= 0:
+            _add_reward(state, name, remainder)
+            continue
+        allocated = 0
+        for delegator, amount in entries:
+            share = remainder * amount // total_delegation
+            allocated += share
+            _add_reward(state, delegator, share)
+        remainder_left = remainder - allocated
+        if remainder_left:
+            _add_reward(state, name, remainder_left)
+
+    validator_names = sorted(weights)
+    rng = random.Random(seed_int)
+    sample_count = min(2, len(validator_names))
+    if sample_count:
+        sample_validators = sorted(rng.sample(validator_names, sample_count))
+    else:
+        sample_validators = []
+
+    reward_list = [
+        {"validator": name, "reward": reward_map.get(name, 0)}
+        for name in sorted(reward_map)
+    ]
+
+    state["epoch"] = epoch + 1
+    state["last_proposer"] = proposer
+    _emit(
+        "staking.distribute",
+        {"epoch": epoch, "proposer": proposer, "inflation": inflation},
+    )
+    return state, {
+        "action": "distribute",
+        "epoch": epoch,
+        "proposer": proposer,
+        "total_weight": total_weight,
+        "validator_rewards": reward_list,
+        "sample_validators": sample_validators,
+    }
+
+
+def _handle_info(state):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_READ)
+    return state, {
+        "action": "info",
+        "epoch": state["epoch"],
+        "inflation": state["inflation"],
+        "validators": state["validators"],
+        "delegations": state["delegations"],
+        "rewards": state["rewards"],
+        "last_proposer": state["last_proposer"],
+    }
+
+
+def _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx):
+    if action == "init":
+        return _handle_init(state, params)
+    if state is None:
+        raise ValueError("not_initialized")
+    if action == "register_validator":
+        return _handle_register(state, params)
+    if action == "delegate":
+        return _handle_delegate(state, params)
+    if action == "undelegate":
+        return _handle_undelegate(state, params)
+    if action == "distribute":
+        return _handle_distribute(state, ctx)
+    if action == "info":
+        return _handle_info(state)
+    raise ValueError(f"unknown_action: {action}")
+
+
+def _run_actions(state, actions, ctx):
+    results = []
+    for step in actions:
+        if not isinstance(step, dict):
+            raise ValueError("action entry must be object")
+        action = step.get("action")
+        params = step.get("params", {})
+        if params is None:
+            params = {}
+        if not isinstance(params, dict):
+            raise ValueError("params must be object")
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx)
+        _save_state(state)
+        results.append(summary)
+    return state, results
+
+
+def main(input_bytes):
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(GAS_BASE)
+    if not input_bytes:
+        return _ok(
+            {
+                "message": "staking rewards demo",
+                "actions": [
+                    "init",
+                    "register_validator",
+                    "delegate",
+                    "undelegate",
+                    "distribute",
+                    "info",
+                ],
+                "hint": "pass 'demo' or a JSON object",
+            }
+        )
+
+    try:
+        text = input_bytes.decode("utf-8")
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+
+    if text.strip().lower() == "demo":
+        actions = _demo_actions()
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    try:
+        request = _json_loads(input_bytes)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_json", str(exc))
+
+    if not isinstance(request, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "input must be object")
+
+    if "actions" in request:
+        actions = request.get("actions")
+        if not isinstance(actions, list):
+            return _err("invalid_input", "actions must be list")
+        try:
+            state = _load_state()
+            state, results = _run_actions(state, actions, ctx)
+            return _ok({"action": "batch", "results": results}, state)
+        except Exception as exc:
+            return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
+
+    action = request.get("action")
+    params = request.get("params", {})
+    if params is None:
+        params = {}
+    if not isinstance(params, dict):
+        return _err("invalid_input", "params must be object")
+
+    try:
+        state = _load_state()
+        state, summary = _apply_action(state, action, params, ctx)
+        _save_state(state)
+        return _ok(summary, state)
+    except Exception as exc:
+        return _err("invalid_input", str(exc))
diff --git a/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo_contract.py b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo_contract.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..184812b13bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/pvm_runtime_chain_demo_contract.py
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+import pvm_host
+
+
+def main(input_bytes: bytes) -> bytes:
+    ctx = pvm_host.context()
+    pvm_host.charge_gas(10)
+
+    current = pvm_host.get_state(b"counter")
+    if current is None:
+        counter = 1
+    else:
+        counter = int.from_bytes(current, "little") + 1
+    pvm_host.set_state(b"counter", counter.to_bytes(8, "little"))
+
+    pvm_host.emit_event("demo", b"ok")
+    payload = input_bytes if input_bytes else b"empty"
+    return b"ok:" + payload + b":h=" + str(ctx["block_height"]).encode("ascii")
+
diff --git a/src/lib.rs b/src/lib.rs
index 8ee22d4eb5a..6505235edef 100644
--- a/src/lib.rs
+++ b/src/lib.rs
@@ -237,7 +237,11 @@ fn run_rustpython(vm: &VirtualMachine, run_mode: RunMode) -> PyResult<()> {
         RunMode::Script(script_path) => {
             // pymain_run_file
             debug!("Running script {}", &script_path);
-            vm.run_script(scope.clone(), &script_path)
+            if let Some(resume_path) = vm.state.config.settings.resume_path.as_deref() {
+                vm.run_script_resume(scope.clone(), &script_path, resume_path)
+            } else {
+                vm.run_script(scope.clone(), &script_path)
+            }
         }
         RunMode::Repl => Ok(()),
     };
diff --git a/src/settings.rs b/src/settings.rs
index a63f1a07ccc..ceffd2ee163 100644
--- a/src/settings.rs
+++ b/src/settings.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use lexopt::Arg::*;
 use lexopt::ValueExt;
-use rustpython_vm::{Settings, vm::CheckHashPycsMode};
+use rustpython_vm::{Settings, vm::{CheckHashPycsMode, ContinuationMode}};
 use std::str::FromStr;
 use std::{cmp, env};
 
@@ -52,6 +52,8 @@ struct CliArgs {
     warning_control: Vec<String>,
     implementation_option: Vec<String>,
     check_hash_based_pycs: CheckHashPycsMode,
+    resume_path: Option<String>,
+    continuation_mode: Option<ContinuationMode>,
 
     #[cfg(feature = "flame-it")]
     profile_output: Option<std::ffi::OsString>,
@@ -100,6 +102,8 @@ Options (and corresponding environment variables):
 --help-all: print complete help information and exit
 
 RustPython extensions:
+--resume path : resume execution from a checkpoint file
+--continuation mode : continuation mode (fsm or checkpoint)
 
 
 Arguments:
@@ -150,6 +154,13 @@ fn parse_args() -> Result<(CliArgs, RunMode, Vec<String>), lexopt::Error> {
             Long("check-hash-based-pycs") => {
                 args.check_hash_based_pycs = parser.value()?.parse()?
             }
+            Long("resume") => {
+                args.resume_path = Some(parser.value()?.string()?);
+            }
+            Long("continuation") => {
+                let mode: ContinuationMode = parser.value()?.parse()?;
+                args.continuation_mode = Some(mode);
+            }
 
             // TODO: make these more specific
             Long("help-env") => help(parser),
@@ -326,6 +337,8 @@ pub fn parse_opts() -> Result<(Settings, RunMode), lexopt::Error> {
     };
 
     settings.argv = argv;
+    settings.resume_path = args.resume_path;
+    settings.continuation_mode = args.continuation_mode;
 
     #[cfg(feature = "flame-it")]
     {