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0eacf8a60..b231da680 100644 --- a/pyproject.toml +++ b/pyproject.toml @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ [tool.poetry] name = "python-course" -version = "2023.11.dev" +version = "2024.01-dev" description = "Python training course materials" license = "MIT" authors = [ diff --git a/src/appx/busybox.txt b/src/appx/busybox.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b84eac54e --- /dev/null +++ b/src/appx/busybox.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +############################################################################### + BusyBox Commands +############################################################################### diff --git a/src/index.txt b/src/index.txt index 25b428dca..aceb846c2 100644 --- a/src/index.txt +++ b/src/index.txt @@ -33,6 +33,7 @@ appx/wtk spec/blog/index spec/libms/index + appx/busybox .. rubric:: References diff --git a/src/linux/commands.txt b/src/linux/commands.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9cf6aad89 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/linux/commands.txt @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +******************************************************************************* + Commands +******************************************************************************* + +A computer's operation, no matter which operating system it is running, can be +loosely described in three steps: + +#. The computer waits for user input +#. The user selects a command and enters it via keyboard or mouse +#. The computer executes the command + +In a Linux system, the shell displays a "prompt", meaning that commands can be +entered. This prompt usually consists of a user and host (computer) name, the +current directory, and a final character: + +:: + + user@host: /home/user > + +Command structure +================= + +A command is essentially a sequence of characters which is ends with a press +of the **enter** key and is subsequently evaluated by the shell. Many commands +are vaguely inspired by the English language and form part of a dedicated +"command language". Commands in this language must follow certain rules, +a "syntax", for the shell to be able to interpret them. + +To interpret a command line, the shell first tries to divide the line into +words. Just like in real life, words are separated by spaces. The first word +on a line is usually the actual command. All other words on the line are +parameters that explain what is wanted in more detail. + +Parameters starting with a dash (``-``) are called **options**. +These are usually optional -- the details depend on the command in question. +They are "switches" that allow certain aspects of the command to be switched +on or off. If you want to pass several options to a command, they can be +accumulated behind a single dash, i.e. the options sequence ``-a -l -F`` +corresponds to ``-alF``. Many programs have more options that can be +conveniently mapped to single characters or support *long options* for +readability (frequently in addition to equivalent single-character options). +Long options most often start with two dashes and cannot be accumulated: +``--foo --bar --foobar``. + +Parameters with no leading dash are called **arguments**. These are often the +names of files that the command should process. + +The general command structure can be displayed as follows: + +:command: what to do? +:options: how to do it? +:arguments: what to do it with? + +Internal and external commands +------------------------------ + +In shells, there are essentially two kinds of commands: + +- **Internal commands** + + These commands are made available by the shell itself. + The Bourne-again shell contains approximately 30 such commands, + which can be executed very quickly. Some commands (such as ``exit`` or + ``cd``) alter the state of the shell itself and cannot be provided + externally. + +- **External commands** + + The shell does not execute these commands by itself but launches executable + files, which within the file system are found in directories like */bin* or + */usr/bin*. As a user, you can provide your own programs, which the shell + will execute like other external commands. + +What is the shell? +================== + +All kinds of definitions are available, ranging from the simple comparison that +"the shell is the steering wheel of the car", to the vague definition in the +Bash manual which says that "bash is an sh-compatible command language +interpreter", or an even more obscure expression, "a shell manages the +interaction between the system and its users". + +A shell can best be compared with a way of talking to the computer, a language. +Most users do know that other language, the point-and-click language of the +desktop. But in that language the computer is leading the conversation, while +the user has the passive role of picking tasks from the ones presented. It is +very difficult for a programmer to include all options and possible uses of +a command in the GUI-format. Thus, GUIs are almost always less capable than +the command or commands that form the backend. + +The shell, on the other hand, is an advanced way of communicating with the +system, because it allows for two-way conversation and talking initiative. + +.. todo: get most used commands from appendix: + pwd, cd, ls, mkdir, touch, more, less, head, tail diff --git a/src/linux/filesys.txt b/src/linux/filesys.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc8c59b3e --- /dev/null +++ b/src/linux/filesys.txt @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +******************************************************************************* + File system and file management +******************************************************************************* + +Files +===== + +A simple description of the UNIX system, also applicable to Linux, is this: + + "On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, + it is a process" + +This statement is true because there are special files that are more that just +files (named pipes and sockets for instance), but to keep things simple, saying +that everything is a file is an acceptable generalization. A Linux system, just +like UNIX, makes no difference between a file and a directory, since +a directory is just a file containing names of other files. Programs, services, +texts, images, and so forth, are all files. Input and output devices, and +generally all devices, are considered to be files, according to the system. + +.. rubric:: Sorts of files + +:regular files: + most files are just *files*, called *regular* files; they contain normal + data, for example text files, executable files or programs, input or + output from a program and so on. + +:directories: + files that are lists of other files. + +:special files: + the mechanism used for input and output. + Most special files are in ``/dev``. + +:links: + a system to make a file or directory visible in multiple parts of + the system's file tree. + +:sockets: + a special file type, similar to TCP/IP sockets, providing inter-process + networking protected by the file system's access control. + +:named pipes: + act more or less like sockets and form a way for processes to communicate + with each other, without using network socket semantic. + +The ``-l`` option to ``ls`` display the file type, using the first character +of each input line: + ++--------+--------------+ +| Symbol | Meaning | ++========+==============+ +| ``-`` | Regular file | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``d`` | Directory | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``l`` | Link | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``c`` | Special file | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``s`` | Socket | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``p`` | Named pipe | ++--------+--------------+ +| ``b`` | Block device | ++--------+--------------+ + +Linux file system layout +======================== + +For convenience, the Linux file system is usually thought of in a tree +structure. + +.. figure:: /../assets/img/linux-fs-layout.png + :align: center + + RedHat system layout + +The tree of the file system starts at the trunk or *slash*, indicated by +a forward slash (``/``). This directory, containing all underlying directories +and files, is also called the *root directory* or the *root* of the file +system. + +Directories that are only one level below the root directory are often preceded +by a slash, to indicate their position and prevent confusion with other +directories that could have the same name. diff --git a/src/linux/index.txt b/src/linux/index.txt index 2addd6581..0d187fb8a 100644 --- a/src/linux/index.txt +++ b/src/linux/index.txt @@ -3,17 +3,133 @@ :author: Serhii Horodilov :keywords: linux, basics, index -.. todo - -.. attention:: Page is under construction - - .. figure:: /../assets/img/construction.svg - :figwidth: 250 - :align: center - ############################################################################### Linux Basics ############################################################################### +Linux is a powerful, open-source operating system widely used in various +domains, from embedded systems to supercomputers. It is known for its +stability, security, and flexibility, making it a preferred choice for +developers, especially in server environments. + +.. rubric:: What is an Operating System? + +.. _os_overview: + +An operating system (OS) is the primary software that manages all the hardware +and other software on a computer. +It acts as an intermediary between the physical hardware and the user +applications, providing essential services needed for the applications +to execute. + +.. _os_functions: + +The operating system is the fundamental suite of software on a device that +keeps everything together. It interacts with the device's hardware components, +handling everything from input devices like keyboards and mice to output +devices like displays and printers. The OS sits between the applications you +run and the hardware, using hardware drivers as an interface between them. +For instance, when an application wants to print a document, it hands off +the task to the OS. The OS then sends instructions to the printer using printer +drivers to send the correct signals. The printing application does not need +to understand the specifics of the printer or how it works. +The OS handles the details. + +OS includes a variety of software components such as system services, +libraries, and :abbr:`APIs (Application Programming Interfaces)` that +developers use to write applications that run on the OS. + +The OS also manages multitasking, allocating hardware resources among multiple +running programs. It controls which processes are running, distributing them +among various CPUs if you have a computer with multiple processors or cores, +allowing multiple processes to run in parallel. It also manages the system's +internal memory, allocating memory among running applications. + +When we say "computers" run operating systems, we don't just mean traditional +desktop PCs and laptops. Your smartphone is a computer, as are tablets, +smart TVs, gaming consoles, smartwatches, and Wi-Fi routers. An Amazon Echo or +Google Home is a computer device running under the management of an operating +system. + +Familiar desktop operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Apple MacOS, +Google's Chrome OS, and Linux. The primary operating systems for smartphones +are Apple's iOS and Google's Android. + +Other devices, like a Wi-Fi router, may run "embedded operating systems". +These are specialized operating systems with fewer features than a typical +operating system, designed specifically for a single task - like operating +a Wi-Fi router, navigating, or controlling an ATM. + +Operating systems also include other software, including the user interface, +which allows people to interact with the device. This could be the desktop on +a PC, the touch interface on a phone, or the voice interface on a digital +assistant. + +The operating system is a large piece of software made up of many different +applications and processes. The line between what is the operating system and +what is a program can sometimes be a bit blurred. +There isn't a strict official definition of an operating system. + +For instance, in Windows, the File Explorer application is an integral part of +the Windows operating system -- it even handles drawing your user interface -- +and an application running on that operating system. + +.. rubric:: Linux pros + +- Linux is free +- Linux is portable +- Linux was made to keep on running +- Linux is secure and versatile +- Linux is scalable +- The Linux OS and most Linux applications have very short debug-times + +.. rubric:: Linux cons + +- There are far too many different distributions +- Linux is not very friendly and confusing for beginners + +.. rubric:: Linux -- the Kernel and distributions + +The core of an operating system is the kernel. + +At a low level, the "kernel" is the core computer program at the base of your +operating system. This single program is one of the first things loaded when +your operating system starts. It handles memory allocation, converts software +functions into instructions for your computer's CPU, and processes input and +output from hardware devices. The kernel typically runs in an isolated area +to prevent it from being used by other software on your computer. +The kernel of an operating system is crucial, but it's just one part of +the operating system. + +Strictly speaking, the name **"Linux"** only applies to the operating system +kernel, which performs the actual operating system tasks. It takes care of +elementary functions like memory and process management and hardware control. +Application programs must call upon the kernel to, e.g. access files on disk. + +However, Linux is still often referred to as an operating system. + +To accomplish useful work, a multitude of system and application programs, +libraries, documentation etc. is necessary. "Distributions" are nothing but +up-to-date selections of these together with special programs (usually tools +for installation and maintenance) provided by companies or other organisations, +possibly together with other services such as support, documentation, or +updates. Distributions differ mostly in the selection of software they offer, +their administration tools, extra services, and price. + +.. figure:: /../assets/img/linux-distros-tree.svg + :align: center + + Linux distros tree + +.. figure:: /../assets/img/linux-distros-map.png + :align: center + .. toctree:: :name: linux + :caption: Contents + + commands + filesys + users + ssh + symlinks diff --git a/src/linux/ssh.txt b/src/linux/ssh.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27d9c91be --- /dev/null +++ b/src/linux/ssh.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +******************************************************************************* + (SSH) Secure Shell +******************************************************************************* + +The :abbr:`SSH (Secure Shell)` Protocol is a network protocol for secure data +communication and remote command execution. It is a cryptographic network +protocol for operating network services securely over an unsecured network. Its +most notable applications are remote login and command-line execution. + +SSH uses public-key cryptographic to authenticate the remote computer and allow +it to authenticate the user, if necessary. diff --git a/src/linux/symlinks.txt b/src/linux/symlinks.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..438c5761c --- /dev/null +++ b/src/linux/symlinks.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +******************************************************************************* + Symlinks +******************************************************************************* diff --git a/src/linux/users.txt b/src/linux/users.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ded0e4e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/linux/users.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +******************************************************************************* + Users and Permissions +******************************************************************************* diff --git a/src/refs.bib b/src/refs.bib index 8c6a65414..6db981d7b 100644 --- a/src/refs.bib +++ b/src/refs.bib @@ -225,3 +225,29 @@ @misc{medium:db-acid-cap date = {2017.1.12}, url = {https://cinish.medium.com/database-acid-cap-isolation-levels-371b7e06a112} } + +@manual{linux-intro, + title = {Introduction to Linux. A hands on guide}, + author = {Machtelt Garrels}, +} + +@manual{linux-tutorial, + title = {Linux Tutorial}, + author = {Jon Wakelin and Liam Gretton and Gary Gilchrist and Teri Forey}, +} + +@manual{linux-grd1-manual, + title = {Introduction to Linux for Users and Administrators}, + author = {Tobias Elsner and Anselm Lingnau}, + editor = {Anselm Lingnau}, +} + +@misc{busybox, + title = {BusyBox - Command Help}, + url = {https://busybox.net/downloads/BusyBox.html}, +} + +@misc{curl, + title = {command line tool and library for transferring data with URLs}, + url = {https://curl.se/}, +}