\chapter{Data model\label{datamodel}}

\section{Objects, values and types\label{objects}}

\dfn{Objects} are Python's abstraction for data. All data in a Python

program is represented by objects or by relations between objects.

(In a sense, and in conformance to Von Neumann's model of a

``stored program computer,'' code is also represented by objects.)

\index{object}

\index{data}

Every object has an identity, a type and a value. An object's

\emph{identity} never changes once it has been created; you may think

of it as the object's address in memory. The `\code{is}' operator

compares the identity of two objects; the

\function{id()}\bifuncindex{id} function returns an integer

representing its identity (currently implemented as its address).

An object's \dfn{type} is

also unchangeable. It determines the operations that an object

supports (e.g., ``does it have a length?'') and also defines the

possible values for objects of that type. The

\function{type()}\bifuncindex{type} function returns an object's type

(which is an object itself). The \emph{value} of some

objects can change. Objects whose value can change are said to be

\emph{mutable}; objects whose value is unchangeable once they are

created are called \emph{immutable}.

(The value of an immutable container object that contains a reference

to a mutable object can change when the latter's value is changed;

however the container is still considered immutable, because the

collection of objects it contains cannot be changed. So, immutability

is not strictly the same as having an unchangeable value, it is more

subtle.)

An object's mutability is determined by its type; for instance,

numbers, strings and tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and

lists are mutable.

\index{identity of an object}

\index{value of an object}

\index{type of an object}

\index{mutable object}

\index{immutable object}

Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become

unreachable they may be garbage-collected. An implementation is

allowed to postpone garbage collection or omit it altogether --- it is

a matter of implementation quality how garbage collection is

implemented, as long as no objects are collected that are still

reachable. (Implementation note: the current implementation uses a

reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed detection of

cyclicly linked garbage, which collects most objects as soon as they

become unreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage

containing circular references. See the

\citetitle[../lib/module-gc.html]{Python Library Reference} for

information on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage.)

\index{garbage collection}

\index{reference counting}

\index{unreachable object}

Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging

facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.

Also note that catching an exception with a

`\keyword{try}...\keyword{except}' statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to ``external'' resources such as open

files or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed

when the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is

not guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to

release the external resource, usually a \method{close()} method.

Programs are strongly recommended to explicitly close such

objects. The `\keyword{try}...\keyword{finally}' statement provides

a convenient way to do this.

Some objects contain references to other objects; these are called

\emph{containers}. Examples of containers are tuples, lists and

dictionaries. The references are part of a container's value. In

most cases, when we talk about the value of a container, we imply the

values, not the identities of the contained objects; however, when we

talk about the mutability of a container, only the identities of

the immediately contained objects are implied. So, if an immutable

container (like a tuple)

contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes

if that mutable object is changed.

\index{container}

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior. Even the importance

of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types,

operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to

any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable

objects this is not allowed. E.g., after

\samp{a = 1; b = 1},

\code{a} and \code{b} may or may not refer to the same object with the

value one, depending on the implementation, but after

\samp{c = []; d = []}, \code{c} and \code{d}

are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly created empty

lists.

(Note that \samp{c = d = []} assigns the same object to both

\code{c} and \code{d}.)

\section{The standard type hierarchy\label{types}}

Below is a list of the types that are built into Python. Extension

modules written in \C{} can define additional types. Future versions of

Python may add types to the type hierarchy (e.g., rational

numbers, efficiently stored arrays of integers, etc.).

\index{type}

\indexii{data}{type}

\indexii{type}{hierarchy}

\indexii{extension}{module}

\indexii{C}{language}

Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing

`special attributes.' These are attributes that provide access to the

implementation and are not intended for general use. Their definition

may change in the future. There are also some `generic' special

attributes, not listed with the individual objects: \member{__methods__}

is a list of the method names of a built-in object, if it has any;

\member{__members__} is a list of the data attribute names of a built-in

object, if it has any.

\index{attribute}

\indexii{special}{attribute}

\indexiii{generic}{special}{attribute}

\withsubitem{(built-in object attribute)}{

\ttindex{__methods__}

\ttindex{__members__}}

\begin{description}

\item[None]

This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value.

This object is accessed through the built-in name \code{None}.

It is used to signify the absence of a value in many situations, e.g.,

it is returned from functions that don't explicitly return anything.

Its truth value is false.

\ttindex{None}

\obindex{None@{\texttt{None}}}

\item[NotImplemented]

This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value.

This object is accessed through the built-in name \code{NotImplemented}.

Numeric methods and rich comparison methods may return this value if

they do not implement the operation for the operands provided. (The

interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other

fallback, depending on the operator.) Its truth value is true.

\ttindex{NotImplemented}

\obindex{NotImplemented@{\texttt{NotImplemented}}}

\item[Ellipsis]

This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value.

This object is accessed through the built-in name \code{Ellipsis}.

It is used to indicate the presence of the \samp{...} syntax in a

slice. Its truth value is true.

\ttindex{Ellipsis}

\obindex{Ellipsis@{\texttt{Ellipsis}}}

\item[Numbers]

These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by

arithmetic operators and arithmetic built-in functions. Numeric

objects are immutable; once created their value never changes. Python

numbers are of course strongly related to mathematical numbers, but

subject to the limitations of numerical representation in computers.

\obindex{numeric}

Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and

complex numbers:

\begin{description}

\item[Integers]

These represent elements from the mathematical set of whole numbers.

\obindex{integer}

There are two types of integers:

\begin{description}

\item[Plain integers]

These represent numbers in the range -2147483648 through 2147483647.

(The range may be larger on machines with a larger natural word

size, but not smaller.)

When the result of an operation would fall outside this range, the

exception \exception{OverflowError} is raised.

For the purpose of shift and mask operations, integers are assumed to

have a binary, 2's complement notation using 32 or more bits, and

hiding no bits from the user (i.e., all 4294967296 different bit

patterns correspond to different values).

\obindex{plain integer}

\withsubitem{(built-in exception)}{\ttindex{OverflowError}}

\item[Long integers]

These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available

(virtual) memory only. For the purpose of shift and mask operations,

a binary representation is assumed, and negative numbers are

represented in a variant of 2's complement which gives the illusion of

an infinite string of sign bits extending to the left.

\obindex{long integer}

\end{description} % Integers

The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most

meaningful interpretation of shift and mask operations involving

negative integers and the least surprises when switching between the

plain and long integer domains. For any operation except left shift,

if it yields a result in the plain integer domain without causing

overflow, it will yield the same result in the long integer domain or

when using mixed operands.

\indexii{integer}{representation}

\item[Floating point numbers]

These represent machine-level double precision floating point numbers.

You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture and

\C{} implementation for the accepted range and handling of overflow.

Python does not support single-precision floating point numbers; the

savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for using

these is dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so there

is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of floating

point numbers.

\obindex{floating point}

\indexii{floating point}{number}

\indexii{C}{language}

\item[Complex numbers]

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double

precision floating point numbers. The same caveats apply as for

floating point numbers. The real and imaginary value of a complex

number \code{z} can be retrieved through the attributes \code{z.real}

and \code{z.imag}.

\obindex{complex}

\indexii{complex}{number}

\end{description} % Numbers

\item[Sequences]

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers.

The built-in function \function{len()}\bifuncindex{len} returns the

number of items of a sequence.

When the length of a sequence is \var{n}, the

index set contains the numbers 0, 1, \ldots, \var{n}-1. Item

\var{i} of sequence \var{a} is selected by \code{\var{a}[\var{i}]}.

\obindex{sequence}

\index{index operation}

\index{item selection}

\index{subscription}

Sequences also support slicing: \code{\var{a}[\var{i}:\var{j}]}

selects all items with index \var{k} such that \var{i} \code{<=}

\var{k} \code{<} \var{j}. When used as an expression, a slice is a

sequence of the same type. This implies that the index set is

renumbered so that it starts at 0.

\index{slicing}

Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:

\begin{description}

\item[Immutable sequences]

An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is

created. (If the object contains references to other objects,

these other objects may be mutable and may be changed; however,

the collection of objects directly referenced by an immutable object

cannot change.)

\obindex{immutable sequence}

\obindex{immutable}

The following types are immutable sequences:

\begin{description}

\item[Strings]

The items of a string are characters. There is no separate

character type; a character is represented by a string of one item.

Characters represent (at least) 8-bit bytes. The built-in

functions \function{chr()}\bifuncindex{chr} and

\function{ord()}\bifuncindex{ord} convert between characters and

nonnegative integers representing the byte values. Bytes with the

values 0-127 usually represent the corresponding \ASCII{} values, but

the interpretation of values is up to the program. The string

data type is also used to represent arrays of bytes, e.g., to hold data

read from a file.

\obindex{string}

\index{character}

\index{byte}

\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}

(On systems whose native character set is not \ASCII{}, strings may use

EBCDIC in their internal representation, provided the functions

\function{chr()} and \function{ord()} implement a mapping between \ASCII{} and

EBCDIC, and string comparison preserves the \ASCII{} order.

Or perhaps someone can propose a better rule?)

\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}

\index{EBCDIC}

\index{character set}

\indexii{string}{comparison}

\bifuncindex{chr}

\bifuncindex{ord}

\item[Unicode]

The items of a Unicode object are Unicode characters. A Unicode

character is represented by a Unicode object of one item and can hold

a 16-bit value representing a Unicode ordinal. The built-in functions

\function{unichr()}\bifuncindex{unichr} and

\function{ord()}\bifuncindex{ord} convert between characters and

nonnegative integers representing the Unicode ordinals as defined in

the Unicode Standard 3.0. Conversion from and to other encodings are

possible through the Unicode method \method{encode} and the built-in

function \function{unicode()}\bifuncindex{unicode}.

\obindex{unicode}

\index{character}

\index{integer}

\index{Unicode}

\item[Tuples]

The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects.

Tuples of two or more items are formed by comma-separated lists

of expressions. A tuple of one item (a `singleton') can be formed

by affixing a comma to an expression (an expression by itself does

not create a tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of

expressions). An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of

parentheses.

\obindex{tuple}

\indexii{singleton}{tuple}

\indexii{empty}{tuple}

\end{description} % Immutable sequences

\item[Mutable sequences]

Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created. The

subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of

assignment and \keyword{del} (delete) statements.

\obindex{mutable sequence}

\obindex{mutable}

\indexii{assignment}{statement}

\index{delete}

\stindex{del}

\index{subscription}

\index{slicing}

There is currently a single mutable sequence type:

\begin{description}

\item[Lists]

The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects. Lists are formed

by placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square brackets.

(Note that there are no special cases needed to form lists of length 0

or 1.)

\obindex{list}

\end{description} % Mutable sequences

The extension module \module{array}\refstmodindex{array} provides an

additional example of a mutable sequence type.

\end{description} % Sequences

\item[Mappings]

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets.

The subscript notation \code{a[k]} selects the item indexed

by \code{k} from the mapping \code{a}; this can be used in

expressions and as the target of assignments or \keyword{del} statements.

The built-in function \function{len()} returns the number of items

in a mapping.

\bifuncindex{len}

\index{subscription}

\obindex{mapping}

There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:

\begin{description}

\item[Dictionaries]

These\obindex{dictionary} represent finite sets of objects indexed by

nearly arbitrary values. The only types of values not acceptable as

keys are values containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable

types that are compared by value rather than by object identity, the

reason being that the efficient implementation of dictionaries

requires a key's hash value to remain constant.

Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric

comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., \code{1} and

\code{1.0}) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same

dictionary entry.

Dictionaries are \obindex{mutable}mutable; they are created by the

\code{\{...\}} notation (see section \ref{dict}, ``Dictionary

Displays'').

The extension modules \module{dbm}\refstmodindex{dbm},

\module{gdbm}\refstmodindex{gdbm}, \module{bsddb}\refstmodindex{bsddb}

provide additional examples of mapping types.

\end{description} % Mapping types

\item[Callable types]

These\obindex{callable} are the types to which the function call

operation (see section \ref{calls}, ``Calls'') can be applied:

\indexii{function}{call}

\index{invocation}

\indexii{function}{argument}

\begin{description}

\item[User-defined functions]

A user-defined function object is created by a function definition

(see section \ref{function}, ``Function definitions''). It should be

called with an argument

list containing the same number of items as the function's formal

parameter list.

\indexii{user-defined}{function}

\obindex{function}

\obindex{user-defined function}

Special attributes: \member{func_doc} or \member{__doc__} is the

function's documentation string, or None if unavailable;

\member{func_name} or \member{__name__} is the function's name;

\member{func_defaults} is a tuple containing default argument values for

those arguments that have defaults, or \code{None} if no arguments

have a default value; \member{func_code} is the code object representing

the compiled function body; \member{func_globals} is (a reference to)

the dictionary that holds the function's global variables --- it

defines the global namespace of the module in which the function was

defined; \member{func_dict} or \member{__dict__} contains the

namespace supporting arbitrary function attributes;

\member{func_closure} is \code{None} or a tuple of cells that contain

binding for the function's free variables.

Of these, \member{func_code}, \member{func_defaults}, \member{func_closure},

\member{func_doc}/\member{__doc__}, and

\member{func_dict}/\member{__dict__} may be writable; the

others can never be changed. Additional information about a

function's definition can be retrieved from its code object; see the

description of internal types below.

In Python 2.1, the \member{func_closure} slot is always \code{None}

unless nested scopes are enabled. (See the appendix.)

\withsubitem{(function attribute)}{

\ttindex{func_doc}

\ttindex{__doc__}

\ttindex{__name__}

\ttindex{__dict__}

\ttindex{func_defaults}

\ttindex{func_code}

\ttindex{func_globals}

\ttindex{func_dict}}

\indexii{global}{namespace}

\item[User-defined methods]

A user-defined method object combines a class, a class instance (or

\code{None}) and a user-defined function.

\obindex{method}

\obindex{user-defined method}

\indexii{user-defined}{method}

Special read-only attributes: \member{im_self} is the class instance

object, \member{im_func} is the function object;

\member{im_class} is the class that defined the method (which may be a

base class of the class of which \member{im_self} is an instance);

\member{__doc__} is the method's documentation (same as

\code{im_func.__doc__}); \member{__name__} is the method name (same as

\code{im_func.__name__}).

\withsubitem{(method attribute)}{

\ttindex{im_func}

\ttindex{im_self}}

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary

function attributes on the underlying function object.

User-defined method objects are created in two ways: when getting an

attribute of a class that is a user-defined function object, or when

getting an attribute of a class instance that is a user-defined

function object defined by the class of the instance. In the former

case (class attribute), the \member{im_self} attribute is \code{None},

and the method object is said to be unbound; in the latter case

(instance attribute), \method{im_self} is the instance, and the method

object is said to be bound. For

instance, when \class{C} is a class which contains a definition for a

function \method{f()}, \code{C.f} does not yield the function object

\code{f}; rather, it yields an unbound method object \code{m} where

\code{m.im_class} is \class{C}, \code{m.im_func} is \method{f()}, and

\code{m.im_self} is \code{None}. When \code{x} is a \class{C}

instance, \code{x.f} yields a bound method object \code{m} where

\code{m.im_class} is \code{C}, \code{m.im_func} is \method{f()}, and

\code{m.im_self} is \code{x}.

\withsubitem{(method attribute)}{

\ttindex{im_class}\ttindex{im_func}\ttindex{im_self}}

When an unbound user-defined method object is called, the underlying

function (\member{im_func}) is called, with the restriction that the

first argument must be an instance of the proper class

(\member{im_class}) or of a derived class thereof.

When a bound user-defined method object is called, the underlying

function (\member{im_func}) is called, inserting the class instance

(\member{im_self}) in front of the argument list. For instance, when

\class{C} is a class which contains a definition for a function

\method{f()}, and \code{x} is an instance of \class{C}, calling

\code{x.f(1)} is equivalent to calling \code{C.f(x, 1)}.

Note that the transformation from function object to (unbound or

bound) method object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from

the class or instance. In some cases, a fruitful optimization is to

assign the attribute to a local variable and call that local variable.

Also notice that this transformation only happens for user-defined

functions; other callable objects (and all non-callable objects) are

retrieved without transformation. It is also important to note that

user-defined functions which are attributes of a class instance are

not converted to bound methods; this \emph{only} happens when the

function is an attribute of the class.

\item[Built-in functions]

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a \C{} function. Examples

of built-in functions are \function{len()} and \function{math.sin()}

(\module{math} is a standard built-in module).

The number and type of the arguments are

determined by the C function.

Special read-only attributes: \member{__doc__} is the function's

documentation string, or \code{None} if unavailable; \member{__name__}

is the function's name; \member{__self__} is set to \code{None} (but see

the next item).

\obindex{built-in function}

\obindex{function}

\indexii{C}{language}

\item[Built-in methods]

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time

containing an object passed to the \C{} function as an implicit extra

argument. An example of a built-in method is

\code{\var{list}.append()}, assuming

\var{list} is a list object.

In this case, the special read-only attribute \member{__self__} is set

to the object denoted by \code{list}.

\obindex{built-in method}

\obindex{method}

\indexii{built-in}{method}

\item[Classes]

Class objects are described below. When a class object is called,

a new class instance (also described below) is created and

returned. This implies a call to the class's \method{__init__()} method

if it has one. Any arguments are passed on to the \method{__init__()}

method. If there is no \method{__init__()} method, the class must be called

without arguments.

\withsubitem{(object method)}{\ttindex{__init__()}}

\obindex{class}

\obindex{class instance}

\obindex{instance}

\indexii{class object}{call}

\item[Class instances]

Class instances are described below. Class instances are callable

only when the class has a \method{__call__()} method; \code{x(arguments)}

is a shorthand for \code{x.__call__(arguments)}.

\end{description}

\item[Modules]

Modules are imported by the \keyword{import} statement (see section

\ref{import}, ``The \keyword{import} statement'').

A module object has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object

(this is the dictionary referenced by the func_globals attribute of

functions defined in the module). Attribute references are translated

to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., \code{m.x} is equivalent to

\code{m.__dict__["x"]}.

A module object does not contain the code object used to

initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization

is done).

\stindex{import}

\obindex{module}

Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary,

e.g., \samp{m.x = 1} is equivalent to \samp{m.__dict__["x"] = 1}.

Special read-only attribute: \member{__dict__} is the module's

namespace as a dictionary object.

\withsubitem{(module attribute)}{\ttindex{__dict__}}

Predefined (writable) attributes: \member{__name__}

is the module's name; \member{__doc__} is the

module's documentation string, or

\code{None} if unavailable; \member{__file__} is the pathname of the

file from which the module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file.

The \member{__file__} attribute is not present for C{} modules that are

statically linked into the interpreter; for extension modules loaded

dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname of the shared

library file.

\withsubitem{(module attribute)}{

\ttindex{__name__}

\ttindex{__doc__}

\ttindex{__file__}}

\indexii{module}{namespace}

\item[Classes]

Class objects are created by class definitions (see section

\ref{class}, ``Class definitions'').

A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object.

Class attribute references are translated to

lookups in this dictionary,

e.g., \samp{C.x} is translated to \samp{C.__dict__["x"]}.

When the attribute name is not found

there, the attribute search continues in the base classes. The search

is depth-first, left-to-right in the order of occurrence in the

base class list.

When a class attribute reference would yield a user-defined function

object, it is transformed into an unbound user-defined method object

(see above). The \member{im_class} attribute of this method object is the

class in which the function object was found, not necessarily the

class for which the attribute reference was initiated.

\obindex{class}

\obindex{class instance}

\obindex{instance}

\indexii{class object}{call}

\index{container}

\obindex{dictionary}

\indexii{class}{attribute}

Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the

dictionary of a base class.

\indexiii{class}{attribute}{assignment}

A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see

below).

\indexii{class object}{call}

Special attributes: \member{__name__} is the class name;

\member{__module__} is the module name in which the class was defined;

\member{__dict__} is the dictionary containing the class's namespace;

\member{__bases__} is a tuple (possibly empty or a singleton)

containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the

base class list; \member{__doc__} is the class's documentation string,

or None if undefined.

\withsubitem{(class attribute)}{

\ttindex{__name__}

\ttindex{__module__}

\ttindex{__dict__}

\ttindex{__bases__}

\ttindex{__doc__}}

\item[Class instances]

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).

A class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which

is the first place in which

attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found

there, and the instance's class has an attribute by that name,

the search continues with the class attributes. If a class attribute

is found that is a user-defined function object (and in no other

case), it is transformed into an unbound user-defined method object

(see above). The \member{im_class} attribute of this method object is

the class in which the function object was found, not necessarily the

class of the instance for which the attribute reference was initiated.

If no class attribute is found, and the object's class has a

\method{__getattr__()} method, that is called to satisfy the lookup.

\obindex{class instance}

\obindex{instance}

\indexii{class}{instance}

\indexii{class instance}{attribute}

Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance's dictionary,

never a class's dictionary. If the class has a \method{__setattr__()} or

\method{__delattr__()} method, this is called instead of updating the

instance dictionary directly.

\indexiii{class instance}{attribute}{assignment}

Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if

they have methods with certain special names. See

section \ref{specialnames}, ``Special method names.''

\obindex{numeric}

\obindex{sequence}

\obindex{mapping}

Special attributes: \member{__dict__} is the attribute

dictionary; \member{__class__} is the instance's class.

\withsubitem{(instance attribute)}{

\ttindex{__dict__}

\ttindex{__class__}}

\item[Files]

A file\obindex{file} object represents an open file. File objects are

created by the \function{open()}\bifuncindex{open} built-in function,

and also by

\withsubitem{(in module os)}{\ttindex{popen()}}\function{os.popen()},

\function{os.fdopen()}, and the

\method{makefile()}\withsubitem{(socket method)}{\ttindex{makefile()}}

method of socket objects (and perhaps by other functions or methods

provided by extension modules). The objects

\ttindex{sys.stdin}\code{sys.stdin},

\ttindex{sys.stdout}\code{sys.stdout} and

\ttindex{sys.stderr}\code{sys.stderr} are initialized to file objects

corresponding to the interpreter's standard\index{stdio} input, output

and error streams. See the \citetitle[../lib/lib.html]{Python Library

Reference} for complete documentation of file objects.

\withsubitem{(in module sys)}{

\ttindex{stdin}

\ttindex{stdout}

\ttindex{stderr}}

\item[Internal types]

A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user.

Their definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter,

but they are mentioned here for completeness.

\index{internal type}

\index{types, internal}

\begin{description}

\item[Code objects]

Code objects represent \emph{byte-compiled} executable Python code, or

\emph{bytecode}.

The difference between a code

object and a function object is that the function object contains an

explicit reference to the function's globals (the module in which it

was defined), while a code object contains no context;

also the default argument values are stored in the function object,

not in the code object (because they represent values calculated at

run-time). Unlike function objects, code objects are immutable and

contain no references (directly or indirectly) to mutable objects.

\index{bytecode}

\obindex{code}

Special read-only attributes: \member{co_name} gives the function

name; \member{co_argcount} is the number of positional arguments

(including arguments with default values); \member{co_nlocals} is the

number of local variables used by the function (including arguments);

\member{co_varnames} is a tuple containing the names of the local

variables (starting with the argument names); \member{co_cellvars} is

a tuple containing the names of local variables that are referenced by

nested functions; \member{co_freevars} is a tuple containing the names

of local variables that are neither local nor global; \member{co_code}

is a string representing the sequence of bytecode instructions;

\member{co_consts} is a tuple containing the literals used by the

bytecode; \member{co_names} is a tuple containing the names used by

the bytecode; \member{co_filename} is the filename from which the code

was compiled; \member{co_firstlineno} is the first line number of the

function; \member{co_lnotab} is a string encoding the mapping from

byte code offsets to line numbers (for details see the source code of

the interpreter); \member{co_stacksize} is the required stack size

(including local variables); \member{co_flags} is an integer encoding

a number of flags for the interpreter.

The \member{co_cellvars} and \member{co_freevars} are present in

Python 2.1 when nested scopes are not enabled, but the code itself

does not use or create cells.

\withsubitem{(code object attribute)}{

\ttindex{co_argcount}

\ttindex{co_code}

\ttindex{co_consts}

\ttindex{co_filename}

\ttindex{co_firstlineno}

\ttindex{co_flags}

\ttindex{co_lnotab}

\ttindex{co_name}

\ttindex{co_names}

\ttindex{co_nlocals}

\ttindex{co_stacksize}

\ttindex{co_varnames}

\ttindex{co_cellvars}

\ttindex{co_freevars}}

The following flag bits are defined for \member{co_flags}: bit

\code{0x04} is set if the function uses the \samp{*arguments} syntax

to accept an arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit

\code{0x08} is set if the function uses the \samp{**keywords} syntax

to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; other bits are used internally

or reserved for future use; bit \code{0x10} is set if the function was

compiled with nested scopes enabled. If\index{documentation string} a

code object represents a function, the first item in

\member{co_consts} is the documentation string of the function, or

\code{None} if undefined.

\item[Frame objects]

Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback

objects (see below).

\obindex{frame}

Special read-only attributes: \member{f_back} is to the previous

stack frame (towards the caller), or \code{None} if this is the bottom

stack frame; \member{f_code} is the code object being executed in this

frame; \member{f_locals} is the dictionary used to look up local

variables; \member{f_globals} is used for global variables;

\member{f_builtins} is used for built-in (intrinsic) names;

\member{f_restricted} is a flag indicating whether the function is

executing in restricted execution mode;

\member{f_lineno} gives the line number and \member{f_lasti} gives the

precise instruction (this is an index into the bytecode string of

the code object).

\withsubitem{(frame attribute)}{

\ttindex{f_back}

\ttindex{f_code}

\ttindex{f_globals}

\ttindex{f_locals}

\ttindex{f_lineno}

\ttindex{f_lasti}

\ttindex{f_builtins}

\ttindex{f_restricted}}

Special writable attributes: \member{f_trace}, if not \code{None}, is a

function called at the start of each source code line (this is used by

the debugger); \member{f_exc_type}, \member{f_exc_value},

\member{f_exc_traceback} represent the most recent exception caught in

this frame.

\withsubitem{(frame attribute)}{

\ttindex{f_trace}

\ttindex{f_exc_type}

\ttindex{f_exc_value}

\ttindex{f_exc_traceback}}

\item[Traceback objects] \label{traceback}

Traceback objects represent a stack trace of an exception. A

traceback object is created when an exception occurs. When the search

for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound

level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current

traceback. When an exception handler is entered, the stack trace is

made available to the program.

(See section \ref{try}, ``The \code{try} statement.'')

It is accessible as \code{sys.exc_traceback}, and also as the third

item of the tuple returned by \code{sys.exc_info()}. The latter is

the preferred interface, since it works correctly when the program is

using multiple threads.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written

(nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is

interactive, it is also made available to the user as

\code{sys.last_traceback}.

\obindex{traceback}

\indexii{stack}{trace}

\indexii{exception}{handler}

\indexii{execution}{stack}

\withsubitem{(in module sys)}{

\ttindex{exc_info}

\ttindex{exc_traceback}

\ttindex{last_traceback}}

\ttindex{sys.exc_info}

\ttindex{sys.exc_traceback}

\ttindex{sys.last_traceback}

Special read-only attributes: \member{tb_next} is the next level in the

stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or

\code{None} if there is no next level; \member{tb_frame} points to the

execution frame of the current level; \member{tb_lineno} gives the line

number where the exception occurred; \member{tb_lasti} indicates the

precise instruction. The line number and last instruction in the

traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the

exception occurred in a \keyword{try} statement with no matching

except clause or with a finally clause.

\withsubitem{(traceback attribute)}{

\ttindex{tb_next}

\ttindex{tb_frame}

\ttindex{tb_lineno}

\ttindex{tb_lasti}}

\stindex{try}

\item[Slice objects]

Slice objects are used to represent slices when \emph{extended slice

syntax} is used. This is a slice using two colons, or multiple slices

or ellipses separated by commas, e.g., \code{a[i:j:step]}, \code{a[i:j,

k:l]}, or \code{a[..., i:j])}. They are also created by the built-in

\function{slice()}\bifuncindex{slice} function.

Special read-only attributes: \member{start} is the lower bound;

\member{stop} is the upper bound; \member{step} is the step value; each is

\code{None} if omitted. These attributes can have any type.

\withsubitem{(slice object attribute)}{

\ttindex{start}

\ttindex{stop}

\ttindex{step}}

\end{description} % Internal types

\end{description} % Types

\section{Special method names\label{specialnames}}

A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special

syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by

defining methods with special names. For instance, if a class defines

a method named \method{__getitem__()}, and \code{x} is an instance of

this class, then \code{x[i]} is equivalent to

\code{x.__getitem__(i)}. (The reverse is not true --- if \code{x} is

a list object, \code{x.__getitem__(i)} is not equivalent to

\code{x[i]}.) Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an

operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined.

\withsubitem{(mapping object method)}{\ttindex{__getitem__()}}

When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is

important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it

makes sense for the object being modelled. For example, some

sequences may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but

extracting a slice may not make sense. (One example of this is the

\class{NodeList} interface in the W3C's Document Object Model.)

\subsection{Basic customization\label{customization}}

\begin{methoddesc}[object]{__init__}{self\optional{, \moreargs}}

Called\indexii{class}{constructor} when the instance is created. The

arguments are those passed to the class constructor expression. If a

base class has an \method{__init__()} method the derived class's

\method{__init__()} method must explicitly call it to ensure proper

initialization of the base class part of the instance; for example:

\samp{BaseClass.__init__(\var{self}, [\var{args}...])}. As a special

contraint on constructors, no value may be returned; doing so will

cause a \exception{TypeError} to be raised at runtime.

\end{methoddesc}

\begin{methoddesc}[object]{__del__}{self}

Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also

called a destructor\index{destructor}. If a base class

has a \method{__del__()} method, the derived class's \method{__del__()} method

must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class

part of the instance. Note that it is possible (though not recommended!)

for the \method{__del__()}

method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new

reference to it. It may then be called at a later time when this new

reference is deleted. It is not guaranteed that

\method{__del__()} methods are called for objects that still exist when

the interpreter exits.

\stindex{del}

\strong{Programmer's note:} \samp{del x} doesn't directly call

\code{x.__del__()} --- the former decrements the reference count for

\code{x} by one, and the latter is only called when its reference

count reaches zero. Some common situations that may prevent the

reference count of an object to go to zero include: circular

references between objects (e.g., a doubly-linked list or a tree data

structure with parent and child pointers); a reference to the object

on the stack frame of a function that caught an exception (the

traceback stored in \code{sys.exc_traceback} keeps the stack frame

alive); or a reference to the object on the stack frame that raised an

unhandled exception in interactive mode (the traceback stored in

\code{sys.last_traceback} keeps the stack frame alive). The first

situation can only be remedied by explicitly breaking the cycles; the

latter two situations can be resolved by storing None in

\code{sys.exc_traceback} or \code{sys.last_traceback}.

\strong{Warning:} due to the precarious circumstances under which

\method{__del__()} methods are invoked, exceptions that occur during their

execution are ignored, and a warning is printed to \code{sys.stderr}

instead. Also, when \method{__del__()} is invoked is response to a module

being deleted (e.g., when execution of the program is done), other

globals referenced by the \method{__del__()} method may already have been

deleted. For this reason, \method{__del__()} methods should do the

absolute minimum needed to maintain external invariants. Python 1.5

guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single underscore are

deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; if no

other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring that

imported modules are still available at the time when the

\method{__del__()} method is called.

\end{methoddesc}

\begin{methoddesc}[object]{__repr__}{self}

Called by the \function{repr()}\bifuncindex{repr} built-in function

and by string conversions (reverse quotes) to compute the ``official''

string representation of an object. If at all possible, this should

look like a valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an

object with the same value (given an appropriate environment). If

this is not possible, a string of the form \samp{<\var{...some useful

description...}>} should be returned. The return value must be a

string object.

This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the

representation is information-rich and unambiguous.

\indexii{string}{conversion}

\indexii{reverse}{quotes}

\indexii{backward}{quotes}

\index{back-quotes}

\end{methoddesc}

\begin{methoddesc}[object]{__str__}{self}

Called by the \function{str()}\bifuncindex{str} built-in function and

by the \keyword{print}\stindex{print} statement to compute the

``informal'' string representation of an object. This differs from

\method{__repr__()} in that it does not have to be a valid Python

expression: a more convenient or concise representation may be used

instead. The return value must be a string object.

\end{methoddesc}

\begin{methoddesc}[object]{__lt__}{self, other}

\methodline[object]{__le__}{self, other}

\methodline[object]{__eq__}{self, other}

\methodline[object]{__ne__}{self, other}

\methodline[object]{__gt__}{self, other}

\methodline[object]{__ge__}{self, other}

\versionadded{2.1}

These are the so-called ``rich comparison'' methods, and are called

for comparison operators in preference to \method{__cmp__()} below.

The correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as

follows:

\code{\var{x}<\var{y}} calls \code{\var{x}.__lt__(\var{y})},

\code{\var{x}<=\var{y}} calls \code{\var{x}.__le__(\var{y})},

\code{\var{x}==\var{y}} calls \code{\var{x}.__eq__(\var{y})},

\code{\var{x}!=\var{y}} and \code{\var{x}<>\var{y}} call

\code{\var{x}.__ne__(\var{y})},

\code{\var{x}>\var{y}} calls \code{\var{x}.__gt__(\var{y})}, and

\code{\var{x}>=\var{y}} calls \code{\var{x}.__ge__(\var{y})}.

These methods can return any value, but if the comparison operator is

used in a Boolean context, the return value should be interpretable as

a Boolean value, else a \exception{TypeError} will be raised.

By convention, \code{0} is used for false and \code{1} for true.