The Study of Human Development
Chapter 1
Recurring Issues in Human Development
1.) Nature vs Nurture 2.) Continuity vs Discontinuity 3.) Universal vs Context-Specific Development
Nature vs Nurture
Nature =
biology & genes have a greater effect on development
Nurture =
environment has a greater influence on development
What do we know? What are researchers concerned with now?
Continuity vs Discontinuity
Continuity =
change occurs gradually & smoothly
Discontinuity =
Change occurs suddenly & abruptly
Universal vs Context Specific
Universal: One path of development for all people Context Specific: Development involves an interaction of environment
Biopsychosocial Framework
Combination of 4 interactive forces
1.) Biological Forces
Genetic, Health related
2.) Psychological Forces
Cognitive/perceptual, emotional, personality
3.) Sociocultural Forces
Societal, cultural, ethnic, interpersonal
4.) Life-Cycle Forces
Identical events, different age groups
Pregnant Married 30 yr Pregnant Teen old Biological: lack of Biological: Healthy diet, nutrition in diet vitamins Psychological: worried, Psychological: Excited, anxious, depressed Nervous Sociocultural: perceived as Sociocultural: Supported negative, outcast at school by family and friends
Life Cycle Forces Example
Biopsychosocial Framework Summary
Mutually interactive Development cannot be understood by examining in isolation Encompasses life span yet appreciates unique aspects of each phase of life
Developmental Theories
Ch. 1
What is a theory?
An organized set of ideas designed to explain behavior & development Essential for developing predictions about behavior Predictions result in research that helps to support or clarify the theory
Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development
Psychodynamic
Freud, Erikson
Ecological & systems
Bronfenbrenner, Lawton & Nahemow
Learning
Watson, Skinner, Bandura
Life span
Baltes
Cognitive
Piaget, Vygotsky
Psychodynamic Theories
Development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts at different ages
Sigmund Freud
Founder of psychoanalysis Believed the mind is organized into 2 main parts
1. Conscious 2. Unconscious
Emphasized unconscious mind on
behavior
Contributions of Freuds Theory
Highlighted value of considering unconscious wishes and feelings First to show early experiences have profound impact on development Stressed the influence of early parentchild relationship on development
Erik Erikson
Student of Freud Psychosocial theory - lifelong theory (stages from infancy to late-late life)
Stages of Psychosocial Theory
Stage
Basic Trust vs Mistrust Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt Initiative vs Guilt
Age
0-1 yr 1-3 yrs 3-6 yrs
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity Confusion Intimacy vs Isolation Generativity vs Stagnation Integrity vs Despair
6-Adolescence
Adolescence Young Adulthood Middle Adulthood Late Life
Learning Theory
What is Learning Theory?
Concentrates on how learning influences behavior Emphasizes the role of experience Stresses the influence of consequences on behavior Recognizes that people learn from watching others
Behaviorism
Environment shapes behavior Useless to consider internal mental states Theorists:
Ivan Pavlov John Watson B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning -learning occurs through associations between environmental stimulus & naturally occurring stimulus Example: Pavlovs Dog
John Watson
infants minds =blank slates (tabula rasa) Classical conditioning able to explain all aspects of human psychology Little Albert http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt 0ucxOrPQE&feature=player_embedd ed
John Watson
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors. (Watson, 1924, p. 104)
B.F. Skinner
Behavior depends on what happens after the response Operant Conditioning
The consequences of a behavior determine whether the behavior is repeated in the future
Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Reinforcer
Strengthens the behavior
Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement
Operant Conditioning: Punishment
Punishment =
decreases the likelihood of the behavior
Positive punishment Negative reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning Theory
Observational learning, or imitation People learn by watching others Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior
Albert Banduras Social Cognitive Theory
Cognition emphasizes thinking Based on cognition and experience; we understand our abilities, developing differing degrees of self-efficacy Consequences are insufficient to cause us to repeat behaviors or imitate them High self-efficacy is also needed
Basic Social Learning concepts:
Bobo Doll experiment:
Observational Learning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHD NU&feature=related
3 basic models of observational learning:
1.A live model 2.Verbal instruction 3.Symbolic model
Basic Social Learning concepts:
Mental states important to learning Intrinsic reinforcement - form of internal
Intrinsic Reinforcement
reward Emphasis on internal thoughts & cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories
Basic Social Learning concepts:
Learning does not necessarily lead to a
The Modeling Process
change in behavior Steps involved in observational learning & modeling process:
1. Attention 2.Retention 3.Reproduction 4.Motivation
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Cognitive Development Theory
Stresses development of thought
processes Three approaches
Piaget: we develop in discrete stages Vygotsky: societal expectations of what we should know at different ages and apprenticeship experiences shape development Information-processing theory: like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature
Jean Piaget
Most influential developmental psychologist of the 20th century Revolutionized how we think about child development Believed early cognitive development based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations
Piagets Theory
Children gradually learn more about how the world works by little experiments in which they test their understanding Cognitive development consists of stages in which childrens understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate
Piagets Theory
4 distinct stages in development
1. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs
The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement Develops the ability to hold a mental representation of objects
2. Preoperational Thoughts 2 to 6 yrs
Develops the ability to use symbols Egocentric: understands the world only from his/her own perspective
Piagets Theory
3.) Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence)
Can use logic and reasoning Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical
4.) Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence
and beyond)
Thinks abstractly Deals with the hypothetical concepts
Support for Piagets Theory
Piagets Impact on Education
Many educational programs based that children should be taught at level they are developmentally prepared Instructional strategies have been created from Piagets work (i.e. providing supportive environment, utilizing social interactions & peer teaching)
Criticism for Piagets Theory
Problems with research methods Problems with formal operations Underestimates childrens ability
Information-Processing Theory
Views humans as information processing systems Believes humans process the info they receive rather than merely responding to stimuli Compares the mind to a computer
Information-Processing Theory
Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops Mental hardware: psychological structures, such as memory capacity Mental software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world Both improve with development
Information-Processing Theory
Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory
Emphasizes sociocultural influences on child development Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children Potential for cognitive development depends upon zone of proximal development
Ecological & Systems Approach
Ecological Theory
All aspects of human development are interconnected No single aspect can adequately explain development Need to consider all factors: environmental, family, political, social, etc., and how they interact
Ecological Theory:
Bronfenbrenners Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner developing person is embedded in a series of complex & interactive systems Divided the environment into 4 levels
1. 2. 3. 4.
Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem
Adaptation, or development, depends upon:
Lawton & Nahemows Competence-Environmental Press Theory
A persons abilities or competencies Demands the environment (presses) places on the person Emphasis is on how these factors interact
Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization with Compensation, and LifeCourse Perspective
Current Perspectives
Life-Span Perspective
Many factors influence development; no one factor adequately explains itall must be considered
Selective Optimization with Compensation
Describes choices that determine and regulate development and aging
Current Perspectives
(Cont)
The Life-Course Perspective
Examines how different generations experience and adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces within the historical time-period of their lives
Emphasizes the need to view the entire life-span to understand a persons development The social, environmental, and historical aspects of ones life must be considered Learning about patterns of development influences society
Matilda Rileys Life-Span Perspective
Four Features of the Life-span Approach
Multidirectionality
Development involves both growth & decline
Plasticity
Ones capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone
Four Features of the Life-span Approach
(Cont)
Historical Context
Historical time periods must be considered in examining development
Multiple Causation
Biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be considered
Baltes: Selective Optimization With Compensation (SOC)
Elective Selection
Making choices to reduce involvement in order to concentrate on another
Loss-based Selection
Reducing involvement because of lack of resources or abilities
Compensation
Finding alternate ways of meeting goals due to loss of ability or diminished skills
The Life Course Perspective
Emphasizes how
personal life-events interact with historical influences individual issues integrate with family issues earlier life events and the period of history in which they occurred shaped subsequent events and issues
Developmental Research
Measurement
4 Approaches
1. 2. 3. 4.
Systematic Observation Sampling Behavior with Tasks Self-Reports Physiological Measures
Systematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation
Observed as they behave spontaneously in real life Strength: Captures behavior in natural setting Weakness: Difficult to use with behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings
Systematic Observation
Structured Observation
Observed in a created setting that elicits behavior of interest Strength: Can be used to study behaviors that are rare or typically occur in private settings Weakness: May be invalid if structured setting distorts the behavior
Sampling Behavior with Tasks
Created tasks that sample the behavior of interest Strength: Convenient (can be used to study most behaviors) Weakness: May be invalid if task does not sample behavior as it naturally occurs
Self-Reports
Peoples answers to questions about the topic of interest Written form = questionnaire; oral = interview Strength: Convenient Weakness: May be invalid because of incorrect answers
Physiological Measures
Measuring peoples physiological responses Strength: Provide a more direct measure of underlying behavior Weakness: Highly specific in what they measure and cannot be applied broadly
Evaluating Research Methods
Reliability
Does this method consistently measure what is being studied?
Validity
Does this measure provide a true picture of what is being studied?
Representational Sampling
Populations
Broad groups of people in which researchers may be interested
Sample
A subset of the population chosen to represent the population
Designs for Research
Research Designs: Correlational Studies
Measures relationship between variables as they are observed naturally in the world Provides an index called the correlation coefficient (r) which indicates the strength of the relationship between variables
Research Designs: Correlational Studies
Correlation Coefficient
Ranges from -1.0 to 1.0 Sign indicates direction of the relationship Size indicates the strength of the relationship
Correlation does not prove causation
Research Designs: Correlational Studies
Strengths: Behavior is measured as it occurs naturally Weaknesses: Cannot determine cause & effect
Research Designs: Experimental Studies
Studies the effect of one variable on another Studies possible cause and effect relationship Usually conducted in laboratory-like settings
Research Designs: Experimental Studies
Factors Variables:
An object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure 2 Types 1. Independent variable
The factor being manipulated (i.e. listening to music vs no music)
2.Dependent variable
The behavior that is studied for possible change (i.e. test scores)
Research Designs: Experimental Studies
Random Assignment Each person has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition Conditions 1. Experimental Condition - independent variable present 2.Control condition - independent variable absent
Research Designs: Experimental Studies
Strengths: Control of variables; can conclude cause and effects Weaknesses: Work is often lab based- can be artificial
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Include focus groups, indepth interviews, & reviews Surveys
More subjective
Text based
More objective
Number based
More in depth info on few Less in depth but across cases large number of cases Less generalizable More generalizable
Designs for Studying Development
Longitudinal Studies
Observes or tests one group of individuals over a long period Microgenetic study
Strengths:
Charts individuals development over time
Weaknesses:
Expensive High drop out rate Become Test-wise
Designs for Studying Development
Cross-Sectional Studies
Observes or tests groups of different ages
Issues:
Cohort effects Example: Ability to use web based information
Designs for Studying Development
Ability to use web based information Year studied: 2005 Age of subjects:
1985 - 20 yrs 1965 - 40 yrs 1945 - 60 yrs 1925 - 80 yrs
Cohort effect or development effect?
Designs for Studying Development
Designs for Studying Development:
Cross Sectional Studies
Strengths
Convenient Solves problems with longitudinal studies
Weaknesses:
Cant study stability of behavior Cohort effects complicate interpretation of differences between groups
Designs for Studying Development
Sequential Studies
Combination of cross-sectional & longitudinal designs
Strengths:
Allows for flexibility to collect info in several ways Avoid cohort effects
Weaknesses
Very expensive & time consuming
Integrating Findings from Different Studies
Meta-Analysis
Analysis of many studies to estimate relations between variables Allows scientists to verify findings across many studies
Conducting Research Ethically
Minimize and warn of any risks to participants Informed Consent Avoid deception Individual results or data must be kept anonymous or confidential Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Communicating Research Results
Research results are published in scientific journals To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well-done, & original
Applying Research Results Social Policy
Driving age Stem cell research Adoption policies
