Cover photograph:

Marsaxlokk fishing port, Malta; courtesy of Joseph Alan Sciortino.

Fishing harbour planning,
construction and management

by
J.A. Sciortino
FAO Consultant
Harbour Design and Management
St. Pauls Bay, Malta
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2010
FAO
FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
TECHNICAL
PAPER
539
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ISBN 978-92-5-106696-6
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FAO 2010
iii
Preparation of this document
This manual was prepared by Mr Joseph Alan Sciortino, MICE, M. ASCE, C. Eng., the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Consultant on Harbour
Design and Management. The manual reflects the provisions of the FAO Code of Conduct
for Responsible Fisheries in relation to fishing harbours and is an extension of Annex VI,
No. 1, in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. It contains
proposals and guidelines to be followed with regard to the design, development, management
and maintenance of ports and landing places for fishing vessels. It also provides guidance on
the conduct of environmental auditing in relation to new construction and the upgrading
of existing facilities. It was based on a manual prepared in electronic format in 1999, and
updated and revised to integrate new guidelines, ideas, experiences and lessons from projects
in different parts of the world.
The manual was technically edited by Mr John Fitzpatrick, C. Eng., C. Mar. Eng.,
MIMAREST, former Director of the FAO Fish Products and Industry Division. The
draft of the manual was reviewed by Mr B.N. Krishnamurthy, FAO Consultant on
Harbour Management and Institution Building and Mr V. Venkatesan, FAO Consultant
on Community Participation in Fisheries, both under the Technical Cooperation
Project on Capacity Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India; and
Mr Simon Diffey, Chief Technical Advisor of the project on the Restoration and Improvement
of Fish Landing Centres with Stakeholder Participation in Management funded by the
Canadian International Development Agency in Sri Lanka.
The manual was edited by Maria Giannini. Susana V. Siar, Fishery Industry Officer,
Fishing Operations and Technology Service (FIRO) of the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Department, provided overall supervision in the preparation and publication of this manual.
The publication contributes to the achievement of the following organizational result: the
operation of fisheries, including the use of vessels and fishing gear, is made safer, more
technically and socio-economically efficient, environmentally-friendly and compliant with
rules at all levels.
iv
Abstract
The role of the fishing port may be considered as the interface between the netting of fish and
its consumption. In many cases, the fishing harbour is also the focal point of pollution, both
of the surrounding environment and the fishery products it produces. Many fishing harbours
are also the source of major impacts on the physical and biological coastal environment.
Although the bulk of fish landed in fishing harbours in developing countries is destined
for the local markets, it is every countrys wish to improve the health hazard-free quality of
its landed catch in order to increase exports of seafood products to more lucrative overseas
markets. In the not-too-distant future, the growth in local consumer rights advocacy will
also increase demand for health hazard-free fish.
In todays world of increased environmental awareness, a fishing port must be planned,
designed and managed in harmony with both the physical and biological coastal environments.
At each stage of the process, whether it is planning, design or management, both technical
and non-technical persons become involved in the process. Within government departments,
whether they be technical (fisheries or public works) or non-technical (budget or finance),
it is not uncommon for non-technical persons to affect the outcome of technical decisions.
Fisheries Departments worldwide generally have to manage and maintain harbours and
landing places using non-engineering civil servants. The following manual was produced in
order to tackle fishing harbours in a holistic approach.
This manual is useful to both technical and non-technical planners, both at national
government level and at departmental level. It provides non-engineering staff within such
departments with enough technical knowledge to better understand certain basic design
requirements, which could otherwise be interpreted as superfluous and not cost effective.
The manual is of particular use to local independent consulting engineers and architects
with no ports or fisheries experience involved in the design of locally tendered projects for
the various international funding agencies. To technical staff of such firms, it provides a
handy reference and the means for integrating Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) and European Union Directive recommendations on hazard-free seafood directly
into the fishing ports design.
The fishing industry as a whole can ill-afford the economic losses from lower prices
received for contaminated fish. Recent European Union rulings have even gone one step
further by banning outright all fish imports from certain countries.
Sciortino, J.A.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 539. Rome, FAO. 2010. 337p.
v
Contents
Preparation of this document iii
Abstract iv
Abbreviations and acronyms vi
Executive summary viii
1. Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives 1
2. Infrastructure needs assessment 11
3. Port management 29
4. Environmental auditing 41
5. Hydrographic surveys 49
6. Dredging 65
7. Breakwaters 87
8. Quays and slipways 107
9. Construction materials 133
10. Fittings and navigational aids 181
11. Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 211
12. Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 253
Annex 1 FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries
Fishing Operations 1 (Annex VI)
293
Annex 2 Port hygiene checklist 301
Annex 3 Port hygiene deficiencies checklist 303
Annex 4 Training manual on seafood handling 305
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 325
vi
Abbreviations and acronyms
AC alternating current
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
BOBP Bay of Bengal Programme
CFC community fishery centre
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
COFI Committee on Fisheries
DC direct current
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
EC European Community
EEZ exclusive economic zone
EIA environmental impact assessment
EIS environmental impact studies
EPS Electronic Positioning System
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FMO fisheries management organization
GHG greenhouse gases
GPS Global Positioning System
GT gross tonnage
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
HDPE high-density polyethylene
HHWL Higher High Water level
HHW highest high waters
IALA International Assocation of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse
Authorities
IATA International Air Transport Association
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IMO International Maritime Organization
IPCC International Panel on Climate Change
ISO International Organization for Standarization
ISPS International Ship and Port Facility Security Code
IUU illegal, unreported and unregulated
LAT lowest astronomical tide
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LED light-emitting diode
LLW
LLWS
lowest low waters
Lower Low Water Spring
LUX 1 lumen per square metre
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MCS monitoring, control and surveillance
MLLW Mean Lower Low Water
m/s metres per second
MSL mean sea level
MSY maximum sustainable yield
N/mm
2
Newtons per square millimetre
vii
NGO non-governmental organization
PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
PVC polyvinyl chloride
PVN Private Virtual Network
PV photovoltaic
RO reverse osmosis
SAR search and rescue
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (IMO Convention)
SWL safe working load
UHMW ultra-high molecular weight
UKC under keel clearance
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCLOS
uPVC
UXO
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
unplasticized PVC
unexplored ordinance
W/C water-cement ratio
WGS84 World Geodetic System 1984
WHO World Health Organization
viii
Executive summary
The unrelenting pressure on the worlds coastal resources and its coastal ecosystems is
threatening the viability of fisheries as an industry. By its very nature, an ill-conceived port
or fish landing structure has the potential to place a disproportionately large demand on both
the local physical and biological resources and, in todays world of increased environmental
awareness, a fishing port or fish landing site must be planned, designed and managed in
harmony with these environments.
Fishing ports and fish landing sites are complex dynamic interface zones involving the
mixing of environmental, ecological, economic and social activities and problems. This
heterogeneous mix of activities demands strong cross-sector interaction at the planning
stage to ensure that the resulting infrastructure may be managed in a sustainable manner.
This manual is not the first effort by FAO to set forth a set of cross-sector guidelines for
the planning and/or management of a fish landing site or fishing port. In various forms,
information related to fishing ports design has been available since 1976, the most recent
being FAO Training Series 25 on the construction and maintenance of artisanal fishing
harbours and village landings (1995).
In recent years, world fisheries have become a market-driven sector of the food industry
and many coastal states have striven to take advantage of this new opportunity by investing
heavily, and sometimes haphazardly, in fishing port infrastructure. When, in the early to
mid-1990s various international conventions and importing country directives on food
safety came into force, much of this same infrastructure was found to be non-compliant,
requiring further investment. Also, in the intervening period, the requirement for proper
Environmental Impact Studies became mandatory in most States, further complicating the
added investments required to make such infrastructure compliant.
Why this manual? The manual builds on the earlier work by FAO and introduces for the
first time the international conventions and importing country directives that have a direct
influence on both the planning and design of fishing port infrastructure. It is intended as a
reference not only for engineers and architects involved in the design and rehabilitation of
fishing ports but also for non-technical staff at departmental level in government institutions
that may influence technical decisions in the field. These institutions may comprise, directly
or indirectly, policy and planning, budget and finance, export and public health authorities.
It may also be of use to donor agencies and non-governmental organizations when planning
fisheries-related investments.
The use of this manual should enable consultants, architects and contractors involved in
any stage of design or construction of a fish landing or port to avoid the mistakes of old. This
manual covers all the aspects of fishing port infrastructure, from inception to final design as
well as the construction and management of the fishing port or landing once constructed.
This manual does not replace the textbooks required to design the single elements that
constitute the fishing port, such as the breakwaters, the quay walls, etc. Any costs quoted
in the manual refer to United States dollars and generally apply to any country with good
connections. Operational costs in some developing countries may differ significantly due
to logistics. To technical staff in general, it provides a handy reference and the means for
integrating HACCP and importing country directive recommendations on hazard-free
seafood directly into the fishing ports design.
The previous version of this manual was the basis of a distant-learning course. This edition
is a good handbook based on the authors extensive experience in the design, construction
and operation of fishing ports in many developing countries.
ix
There are twelve chapters and five reference annexes in this manual. Each chapter deals
with a particular topic and is a stand-alone document.
The first chapter presents the technical guidelines to the Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries. It also lists the relevant international conventions to which a State may be a party,
together with third country directives that jointly will have a direct bearing on the overall
design of the port and its components. These include compliance with basic engineering
principles regarding the morphological degradation of the coastal zone in respect of erosion
and siltation (UNCED 92), compliance with the relevant conventions concerning pollution
of the aquatic environment (MARPOL 73/78) and the provision of adequate monitoring of
the effects of operations on the environment (UNCED 92). The Code also addresses post-
harvest practices setting out minimum standards for food safety and quality assurance.
The second chapter describes how to plan shore-based facilities and fishing ports that are
commensurate with the targeted resources, within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of a
coastal State and distant water fisheries, as the case may be, that would be environmentally
sustainable and financially justifiable. It addresses the major issues that influence the size
of a new port and describes in detail the classification of fishing ports, from artisanal beach
landings to coastal fishing ports, offshore fishing ports and distant water fishing ports.
Guidelines on the preferred siting of a fishing port vis--vis land use are also discussed.
The chapter also dwells on post-conflict reconstruction procedures and on overcapacity
(redundant vessels) and potential income diversification for fishermen faced with an ever-
dwindling catch.
The third chapter tackles port management, from the simple fish landing on a beach to
a proper deep water fishing port. It stresses the need for a stakeholder approach to port
management whereby all the port users are represented on the management body. Typical
port management bodies are described in detail covering all scenarios, from the simple village
landing to a sophisticated fishing port. It also highlights the importance of a fish quality
assurance regime inside the port and lists best management practices for port and boatyard
operators and the prevention of pollution.
Chapter four reviews the environmental auditing procedures to be followed for all new
designs. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range of activities
on land. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern. Hence, rational use and
development of coastal areas as well as conservation of the marine environment require
the ability to determine the present state of these ecological systems and to predict future
conditions. Systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters is needed for
an integrated management approach to sustainable development and to predict the effects
of the construction of a port on the marine environment. This chapter should be of use
to government institutions involved in fisheries-related development seeking international
investment funds. The guidelines are also useful for the development or expansion of
commercial ports which may impact fishing operations.
Hydrography is the foundation for all coastal work and chapter five covers the topic in
great detail. In the past, many artisanal shelters and fishing ports were built at convenient
locations, with no particular attention paid to the underwater environment. Many such ports
are now plagued by erosion and siltation problems that could have been identified earlier
had proper hydrographic surveys been conducted. This chapter should provide planners
and engineers with cost-effective options when faced with tight budgetary restrictions and
difficult logistics. It describes the amount of hydrographic detail required for a project from
inception stage to construction phase.
Dredging and underwater excavation, chapter six, are an important aspect in the design
and construction of key elements in a fishing port. Dredging may be required to develop a
port basin or to maintain a navigation channel open, but may also be undertaken for other
purposes such as land reclamation, beach nourishment and environmental remediation of
contaminated sediments. Dredging may be of a permanent nature, also known as capital
dredging, or of a transient nature, also known as maintenance dredging. The nature of the
x
material to be dredged determines the type of dredging equipment required or method
to be adopted but, on the whole, dredging practice is site specific. Also, in recent years,
the screening for the presence of potentially harmful chemical agents in the material to
be dredged has become mandatory in many countries influencing not only the method of
dredging but also the method of disposal. This chapter may be used as a guide to assist in the
decision-making process for the selection of appropriate dredging and disposal techniques.
Chapter seven is dedicated exclusively to breakwaters. The sea is unforgiving and wave
action continually degrades human-made structures erected in the sea and breakwaters form
the bulk of this construction. Therefore, engineers are normally entrusted with the design
and maintenance of large deep water breakwaters. However, cases also arise when artisanal
structures are required at the local level and when engineering assistance is either not available
or not with the right experience. This chapter is intended primarily for non-technical staff
coming to terms for the first time with marine construction and purposely does not include
advanced design aids for structures in deep water, the realm of professional engineers.
Chapter eight covers quays and slipways in detail and should provide the reader with a
wide range of options for both quays and maintenance structures, such as slipways and boat
gantries.
Chapter nine condenses the subject of materials knowledge and suitability into a single
chapter while eliminating superfluous coverage. The chapter is confined to the properties of
those materials and treatments or variations thereof that are applicable to port structures.
Emphasis is placed on full coverage of the basic materials that have proved most durable in
the highly aggressive marine environment inside port structures.
The tenth chapter is a comprehensive overview of all the mechanical fittings and quay
furniture required to run a port efficiently, from bollards and fenders all the way to marker
beacons, winches and fish boxes. It provides an ideal reference guide to both technical and
non-technical readers.
Chapter eleven reviews the shore-based infrastructure typical in a port operation, from
water supply, power, refuelling, ice, port buildings and paved areas. Any reader will find
this chapter useful, either as a reference or as a guide on how to integrate HACCP and third
country directives into a ports infrastructure design.
Chapter twelve provides a holistic approach to public health issues in fisheries ranging
from water and water-borne contaminants to sewage and sewage treatment options. The
comprehensive detail of this chapter will enable the reader to better understand the ease with
which fish, meant for human consumption, is contaminated. The chapter will also assist port
planners in dealing with the prevention of pollution in fishing ports.
The manual also has a list of annexes for use as reference material. Annex 1 reproduces
the text from the FAO Technical Guidelines, No. 1, Fishing Operations, on the procedures
for the development and management of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.
Annexes 2 and 3 are checklists for port hygiene and port hygiene deficiencies, respectively.
The fourth annex is a training manual on seafood handling prepared by Francisco Blaha,
formerly FAO Fishery Industry Officer for the Technical Cooperation Project on Capacity
Building in Support of Cleaner Fishing Harbours in India. The fifth annex is a useful tool
already used with success in public awareness campaigns on the prevention of pollution in
fishing harbours.
1
1. Code of conduct, conventions
and importing country directives
SUMMARY
There are a number of instruments both voluntary and binding that have a
bearing on site selection, construction, facilities, operation, and management
of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels, as well as prevention of
pollution and port security. The intention within this chapter is to set forth
basic principles, some of which are binding, that will be expanded upon in
greater technical detail in successive chapters and annexes. In this regard, the
Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing adopted by the Conference of FAO in
November 2009 will, on entry into force, add to the responsibilities of port
managers and departments of fisheries alike.
In addition, countries that export seafood and seafood products may also
have to address directives of importing countries regarding post-harvest care,
levels of hygiene and general cleanliness within work and storage areas and, in
particular, the application of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
(HACCP) principle.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 2
CONTENTS
1.1 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 3
1.2 FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No. 1 4
1.3 Annex VI of the FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No. 1 4
1.3.1 General provisions 4
1.3.2 Scope and objectives of Annex VI 4
1.4 International conventions 5
1.4.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 5
1.4.2 Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer
5
1.4.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)
5
1.4.4 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and 1996 Protocol Thereto
(London Convention)
5
1.4.5 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 6
1.4.6 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 6
1.4.7 International Ship and Port Facility Security Code 6
1.4.8 Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965 7
1.4.9 Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
7
1.4.10 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary
Context (Espoo, 1991)
7
1.5 Importing country directives 8
1.6 Bibliography and further reading 8
Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives 3
1.1 FAO CODE OF CONDUCT FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES
In accordance with the recommendations of the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) at
its Nineteenth Session in March 1991 and the subsequent International Conference
on Responsible Fishing, held in Cancun (Mexico) in 1992, the Twenty-eighth Session
of the Conference of FAO unanimously adopted the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries, 1995 (hereinafter referred to as the Code). The Code was
formulated so as to be interpreted and applied in conformity with the relevant rules
of international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), as well as with the Agreement for the Implementation of the
Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December
1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and
Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, 1995, in the light of, inter alia, the 1992 Declaration of
Cancun and the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, in particular
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21.
Whereas the Code is voluntary certain parts of it are based on relevant rules of
international law, including those reflected in the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982. The Code also contains provisions that may be or
have already been given binding effect by means of other obligatory legal instruments
among the Parties such as the Agreement to Promote Compliance with International
Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1993.
With regard to harbours and landing places for fishing vessels, Article 6.17 sets
out that States should ensure that fishing facilities and equipment as well as all fishing
activities allow for safe, healthy and fair working and living conditions and meet
internationally agreed standards adopted by relevant international organizations. More
specifically, Article 8.9 addresses harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.
In adopting the Code, the Conference called for the production of technical guidelines
for the implementation of the provisions of the Code. In this regard, this manual draws
on the first in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries,
entitled Fishing Operations, and in particular, Section 7, Energy Optimization and
Protection of the Ozone Layer, and Section 8, Design, Construction and Modification
of Harbours and Landing Places for Fishing Vessels.
In developing the guidelines and its annexes, FAO drew on experience gained over
many years of field activities, and in the case of harbours and landing places, how
increasing problems associated with the construction of new harbours and landing
places for fishing vessels and, in particular, their operation and maintenance, had
reached critical levels in some parts of the world. In many instances, the adverse effects
of harbour pollution from the activities of fishing vessels as well as those of vendors
and processors had been exacerbated by the almost total lack of reception facilities.
Matters had become more serious in the late 1980s with an ever increasing demand
for assistance from developing countries to solve specific problems with existing
harbours as well as for help in designing new installations.
A classic example was within the Bay of Bengal subregion, where the Bay of Bengal
Programme (BOBP), with the cooperation of the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) (within its cleaner seas programme) and FAO, commissioned a series of
important studies. The results of these studies were presented at a workshop hosted by
the Government of Malaysia at Penang, 911 December 1991, at which developments
with regard to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL) were highlighted by IMO.
In parallel, the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development
(UNCED) deliberated the need for a precautionary and anticipatory approach
rather than a reactive approach to prevent degradation of the marine environment.
Consequently, in June 1992, UNCED recommended, inter alia, the adoption of
environmental impact assessment procedures.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 4
Thus, the Code and its Technical Guidelines underline the importance of
environmental auditing, attention to the provisions of MARPOL and Article 21 of
UNCED.
1.2 FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES NO. 1
The first in the series of FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries
(FAO, 1996) refers to fishing operations and in Section 8 it states that, in general,
competent authorities should adopt acceptable standards and follow guidelines for the
design, construction, maintenance and management of harbours and landing places for
fishing vessels (reference 8.9 of the Code) to ensure, inter alia:
safe havens for fishing vessels;
that freshwater supplies are available;
the provision of adequate sanitation arrangements;
that waste disposal systems (including for oil and oily water) are provided;
that there would be no pollution from external sources (non-fisheries activities);
that there would not be any pollution arising from fisheries activities;
the provision of adequate servicing facilities for vessels, vendors and buyers;
that maintenance programmes include the monitoring of the effects of operations
conducted at the facility on the environment;
compliance with relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic
environment;
integration with other users as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for the fishing
industry; and
that arrangements are made to combat the effects of erosion and siltation.
The Technical Guidelines also expand on the provisions of the Code in relation to
the participation of users in the management of ports, harbours and landing places
(Section 8, paragraph 115), as well as the removal of offshore structures (Section 8.10
and Annex V) and the development of artificial reefs (Section 8.11).
1.3 ANNEX VI OF THE FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE
FISHERIES NO. 1
1.3.1 General provisions
Annex VI expands on the principles set out in the Code and the Technical Guidelines,
covering procedures for the development and management of harbours and landing
places for fishing vessels. In addition, within the concepts of responsible fishing
operations and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management, it also
provides guidance on the conduct of environmental auditing with regard to proposal
for new construction and the upgrading of existing facilities.
The annex provides a technical framework for the implementation of procedures as
an aid to the management and development of harbours and landing places for fishing
vessels.
1.3.2 Scope and objectives of Annex VI
The proposed procedures are global in scope and directed towards all persons, whether
in government or the private sector, involved in the planning, design, construction,
maintenance and management of harbours, harbour infrastructure and landing places
for fishing vessels.
The objective is an enhanced capacity of States to ensure the adoption of
environmentally sound development, management and conservation practices
through:
Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives 5
better standards of management in harbours and landing places for existing and
future facilities;
the establishment of environmental auditing procedures and design criteria related
to future fisheries infrastructure projects; and
appropriate training and education in environmental awareness.
It should be recalled, however, that although the Code is voluntary, some provisions
of it may be or have already been given binding effect by means of legal instruments.
The same statement effectively applies to this annex, since it contains references
to legally binding instruments such as UNCLOS 82, the Montreal Protocol and
MARPOL 73/78.
The full text of Annex VI is set out in Annex I.
1.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
1.4.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) sets up a legal regime
for the sea and oceans and thus represents the attempt by the international community
to regulate all aspects of the resources of the sea and uses of the ocean. In terms of the
environment, UNCLOS establishes material rules concerning environmental standards
and enforcement provisions regarding pollution of the marine environment.
The convention addresses ports, baselines, roadsteads and charts, as well as
standards, criteria and indicators for assessing protected areas.
1.4.2 Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer
The Convention recognizes that worldwide emissions of certain substances can
significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to
result in adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Substances that are required to be controlled, referred to as controlled substances,
are listed in Annexes A, B, C or Annex E to the Montreal Protocol, on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, whether existing alone or in a mixture, and provisions are
made for the gradual phasing out of such substances, for example, certain refrigerants.
1.4.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)
The Convention desires to achieve the complete elimination of intentional pollution of
the marine environment by oil and other harmful substances and the minimization of
accidental discharge of such substances. Of particular interest to harbours and landing
places for fishing vessels is Annex V and its guidelines, particularly in relation to
shoreside facilities for operational waste including fishing gear.
1.4.4 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 and 1996 Protocol Thereto (London
Convention)
1
The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter, 1972, the London Convention for short, is one of the first global
1
The Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) is an
advisory body, established in 1969, that advises the United Nations (UN) system on the scientific aspects of
marine environmental protection. At present it is jointly sponsored by eight United Nations organizations
(IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, WMO (since 1968), IAEA (since 1969), UN (since 1971), UNEP (since
1977), and UNIDO (since 2006) with responsibilities relating to the marine environment as a mechanism
for coordination and collaboration among them. GESAMP functions are to conduct and support marine
environmental assessments, to undertake in-depth studies, analyses, and reviews of specific topics, and to
identify emerging issues regarding the state of the marine environment. GESAMP itself consists of ideally 2530
experts, drawn from a wide range of relevant disciplines, who act in an independent individual capacity.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 6
conventions to protect the marine environment from human activities and has been
in force since 1975. Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of
marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by
dumping of wastes and other matter.
In 1996, it was agreed to further modernize the Convention and, eventually, replace
it. Under the Protocol all dumping is prohibited, except for possibly acceptable wastes
on the so-called reverse list. The Protocol entered into force on 24 March 2006.
1.4.5 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The convention on climate change is important in that, along with ozone loss, climate
change is the embodiment of global environmental change. Global warming is what
most scientists currently think will happen as the effect of the additions humankind
has made to the natural mixture of the atmosphere. The International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has presented a series of research reports on the mechanisms of climate
change and the likely rate of future warming. The IPCC has indicated that one likely
result of global warming is an increase in the rate of sea level rise. This is not the result
of melting of the major ice caps, but of the melting of the smaller glaciers and the
thermal expansion of the warming oceans. These two effects will cause the sea level to
rise by about 5 mm per year in the future compared with a rate of a little more than
1 mm per year today. The predicted contribution of the melting ice caps is only about
12 percent. The cumulative predicted sea level rise of about 300 mm by 2050 is not
large, but it will make the problems of erosion and tidal flooding more difficult to
solve and should be addressed when planning harbours and landing places for fishing
vessels.
1.4.6 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
The Conference of Contracting Governments to the International Convention for
the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974 (London, 9 to 12 December 2002), adopted
amendments to the Annex to the Convention, as amended, in particular, new chapter
XI-2 on special measures to enhance maritime security; and, the new International Ship
and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code).
1.4.7 International Ship and Port Facility Security Code
The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) is a two-part
document describing minimum requirements for security of ships and ports. Part A
provides mandatory requirements; Part B provides guidance for implementation. The
ISPS Code applies to ships on international voyages (including passenger ships, cargo
ships of 500 gross tonnage (GT) and upwards, and mobile offshore drilling units) and
the port facilities serving such ships.
The main objectives of the ISPS Code are to:
detect security threats and implement security measures;
establish roles and responsibilities concerning maritime security for governments,
local administrations, ship and port industries at the national and international
level;
to collate and promulgate security-related information; and
to provide a methodology for security assessments so as to have in place plans and
procedures to react to changing security levels.
Whereas the ISPS Code does not specify specific measures that each port and ship
must take to ensure the safety of the facility, it outlines a standardized, consistent
framework for evaluating risk, enabling governments to offset changes in threat with
changes in vulnerability for ships and port facilities.
Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives 7
For port facilities, the requirements include port facility security plans, security
officers and certain security equipment. In addition, further requirements for ships and
for port facilities include monitoring and controlling access, monitoring the activities
of people and cargo and ensuring that security communications are readily available.
Chapter XII-2 of SOLAS and the ISPS Code apply to cargo ships of 500 GT and
upwards engaged on an international voyage, thus ships engaged in unloading or
loading fish or fish products would be covered.
1.4.8 Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965
The purpose of the Convention is to facilitate maritime transport by simplifying and
minimizing the formalities, documentary requirements and procedures associated with
the arrival, stay and departure of ships engaged on international voyages.
1.4.9 Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
The Agreement was adopted by the Conference of FAO in November 2009. The
aim of the Agreement is to provide a mechanism to combat illegal, unreported and
unregulated (IUU) fishing. Key measures that parties to the Agreement will commit
include:
Foreign fishing vessels wishing to dock will be required to request permission
from designated ports ahead of time, transmitting information on their activities
and the fish they have on board.
Port States will conduct regular inspections of ships according to a common set of
standards. Reviews of ship papers, surveys of fishing gear, examining catches and
checking a ships records can often reveal if it has engaged in IUU fishing.
They also must ensure that ports are adequately equipped and inspectors properly
trained.
When a vessel is denied access, port States must communicate that information
publicly and national authorities of the country whose flag the vessel is flying
must take follow-up action.
These measures apply to foreign fishing vessels not flying the flag of the port State;
however, the port State can also apply such measures to their own fishing fleets.
The Agreement sets out that, to the greatest extent possible, Parties shall:
(a) integrate or coordinate fisheries related port State measures with the broader
system of port State controls
2
;
(b) integrate port State measures with other measures to prevent, deter and eliminate
IUU fishing and fishing related activities in support of such fishing, taking into
account as appropriate the 2001 FAO International Plan of Action to Prevent,
Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing; and
(c) take measures to exchange information among relevant national agencies and
to coordinate the activities of such agencies in the implementation of this
Agreement.
1.4.10 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary
Context (Espoo, 1991)
The purpose of the Convention is to enable contiguous countries to either, individually
or jointly, take all appropriate and effective measures to prevent, reduce and control
significant adverse transboundary environmental impact from proposed activities. This
Convention comes into play when contaminated dredged spoil from a fishing port
needs to be dumped offshore close to international boundaries.
2
Such as Memoranda on Port State Control.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 8
1.5 IMPORTING COUNTRY DIRECTIVES
The Code also addresses post-harvest practices and trade within Article 11.
Article 11.1.3 sets out that States should set minimum standards for safety and quality
assurance and to make sure that these standards are effectively applied throughout the
industry. They should promote the implementation of quality standards agreed within
the context of the FAO/World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius Commission
and other relevant organizations or arrangements.
The first edition of a Code of practice for fish and fishery products (2009),
under Codex Alimentarius, will assist all those who are engaged in the handling and
production of fish and fish products or are concerned with their storage, distribution,
export, import and sale in attaining safe and wholesome products that can be sold on
national or international markets and meet the requirements of the Codex Standards.
The issue, however, is how to control the food in international trade. At the point
of entry the regulatory agency may not always know whether the incoming food was
produced under hygienic conditions and the application of HACCP principles. In this
situation some criteria would be needed that would have to be established according
to the principles described in the Codex documents. An alternative approach may be
to allow control of foodstuffs in international trade to be based on signed agreements
between internationally recognized and competent bodies.
Consequently, many importing countries impose conditions for the importation
of fish and fishery products that translate into conditions to be met by the exporting
country and these relate not only to safety in health but also to responsible fishing
practices.
An example in this regard are a number of directives issued by the European
Commission (EC) that set criteria both for the exporting and importing countries and
it maintains an inspection service to monitor and assist exporting countries. Other
major importing countries (not members of the European Community) have also set
criteria to be met by exporting countries.
1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
European Commission. Council Regulation (EC) No. 1005/2008 of 29 September 2008
establishing a community system to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing.
European Commission. Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004 of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 29 April 2004 laying down specific rules for the organization of official
controls on products of animal origin intended for human consumption.
European Economic Community. Council Directive 91/493/EEC of 22 July 1991 laying
down health conditions for the production and the placing on the market of fishery
products.
FAO. 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome.
FAO. 1996. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 1, Fishing Operations.
Rome.
FAO. 1998. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 7, Responsible Fish
Utilization. Rome.
FAO. 2001. International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported
and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.
FAO. 2009. Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.
Huss, H.H., Ababouch, L. & Gram, L. 2004. Assessment and management of seafood
safety and quality. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 444. Rome, FAO.
International Maritime Organization. International Code for the Security of Ships and
Port Facilities (ISPS Code).
Code of conduct, conventions and importing country directives 9
International Maritime Organization. International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea (SOLAS) Chapter XI-2.
International Maritime Organization. MARPOL 73/78 Annex V and Guidelines for the
Application of Annex V.
International Maritime Organization. Resolution A672 (16) of the Assembly of IMO
and the Annex thereto.
ORiordan T. 1995. The threat of global warming. In T. ORiordan (ed). Environmental
Science for Environmental Management, pp. 110130, University of East Anglia.
World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. 2009. Codex Alimentarius Code of practice for fish and fishery products.
Rome, WHO and FAO.
11
2. Infrastructure needs assessment
SUMMARY
The role of the fshing port may be considered as the interface between the
harvesting of a fsh and its consumption; thus the type and size of a fsheries port
and its infrastructure greatly infuence the way and rate at which a countrys
living marine resources can be exploited. The perceived need for a fshing port,
however, is likely to originate from a combination of fsheries management
planning and pressure from the industry to meet local consumption needs and
of the export market.
In order to plan and design a fshing port that is commensurate with the
targeted resources (not too large, not too small, but just large enough), a fshing
port planner needs the full cooperation of fsheries managers, hydrographers
and those responsible for coastal area management, fshing industry leaders and
fshing communities. In particular, the port planner would need to know and
understand the resources that have to be exploited (low-value high-volume or
high-value low-volume), the catch potential, including seasonal variations, the
local or proposed marketing systems, including export potential and consumer
preferences (fresh, frozen, salted, smoked or canned fsh).
This chapter describes how to plan shore-based facilities and fshing ports
that are commensurate with the targeted resources within the EEZ of the
coastal State and distant water fsheries, as the case may be, that would be
environmentally sustainable and fnancially justifable. Attention is also drawn
to the aquaculture/mariculture sector. The overall objective is to make the reader
aware of the decision-making process following a needs assessment.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 12
CONTENTS
2.1 Sizing a port and its facilities 13
2.1.1 General 13
2.1.2 Types of shing ports 14
2.1.3 Safe havens 18
2.2 Site of a shing port 20
2.2.1 Planning requirements 20
2.2.2 Land use 20
2.2.3 Accessibility 21
2.2.4 Water 21
2.3 Post-conict reconstruction procedures 21
2.4 Project justication 22
2.5 Overcapacity in existing ports 22
2.5.1 Alternative uses 22
2.5.2 Port income diversication 22
2.5.3 Vessel income diversication 23
2.6 Bibliography and further reading 23
Appendix 1: Conversion of commercial shing vessels to other activities 24
Appendix 2: Servicing mariculture facilities 27
Infrastructure needs assessment 13
1
Note that the reference to the existing fleet could include vessels used for mariculture activities. Appendix
2 provides an insight to the needs of that fisheries sector.
2.1 SIZING A PORT AND ITS FACILITIES
2.1.1 General
The port planner should bear in mind that sometimes new fshing port facilities are
designed primarily around a specifed fshing vessels characteristics and performance,
as in the case of imported, highly sophisticated and modern trawlers, leading to very
complex and expensive port designs; it might, however, be possible that a countrys
exploitation of its available marine resources would be better achieved by the proper
management of existing, indigenous feets requiring relatively cheaper port facilities.
In some cases, where the costs for the harbour works and associated infrastructure
cannot be borne by the fshery industry alone, port facilities are shared with nearby
commercial harbours. In order to plan and design a fshing port that is commensurate
with the targeted resources, a fshing port planner, in conjunction with the competent
authorities, must:
understand the type of resources and the catch potential of the fish stocks that
have to be exploited (the stocks could be seasonal or in danger of collapse if
overfished);
have access to, and advice regarding the latest and most accurate biological
statistical data available (data of proven resources taken from actual landings by
the existing fleet is preferable to data extrapolated from distant areas) and fisheries
management forecasts; and
obtain knowledge of the size, composition and performance of the existing fleet
1

and fisheries management development plans.
Failure to observe the above three conditions will inevitably result in a port facility
that is either too large or too small. A port facility that is too large will either collapse
fnancially or attract too many vessels to a specifc area. If a port facility is too small,
it too may collapse under the impact of a busy feet. Ideally, a fshing harbour should
be designed for a feet which is just big enough to handle the current, proven and
foreseeable marine resources.
Furthermore, the size of such a feet and anticipated growth or decline should be
specifed beforehand by the appropriate authorities (department of fsheries) and not
by the port planner.
From the above it follows that it is preferable to underdesign a facility by a shade or
two (also known as precautionary design) rather than to overdesign a facility (reactive
design): whereas a slightly underdesigned fshing port may put the visible infrastructure
under strain, an overdesigned fshing port would put the relatively invisible resources
under strain.
In the frst case, the strain may be relieved by expanding the fshing port in a phased
development process, provided of course that this possible need was foreseen at the
design stage, whereas in the second case the effects may be very uncertain and the
remedial solution may be impractical, costly or both.
Whether dealing with small motorized canoes or large fshing vessels, fsheries
infrastructure generally consists of:
a safe mooring area (the cheapest form is beaching, the most expensive a deep-
water port);
provision for utilities and boat servicing (water, fuel, workshops);
fish handling infrastructure (ice, cold storage, sorting areas, processing facilities);
and
marketing infrastructure (local market, road to nearest city market or connection
to a motorway or airport).
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 14
FIGURE 1
Fully developed artisanal landing
2.1.2 Types of shing ports
There are obviously different types of fshery operations, each requiring different
arrangements. As a result, it is diffcult to arrive at clear-cut defnitions that fully and
consistently characterize port infrastructure. However, one solution is to grade ports
according to the type of fshery they serve, i.e. artisanal, coastal, offshore and distant-
waters.
Artisanal fsheries usually involve subsistence and artisanal fshermen operating on
a daily trip basis a short distance from their village. Vessels typically consist of canoes
(paddle, motorized or sail-powered) beached in front of the village (Figure 1).
TABLE 1
Fully developed artisanal landing characteristics
Location of fishing grounds Inshore, steaming distance up to 3 hours.
Typical fishing trip Anywhere from 6 hours to 24 hours.
Type of vessels handled Paddle canoes, motorized canoes and other small vessels.
Fishing gear usually hand line, pole and line and set nets.
Type of landed products A mixture of low-volume high-value and high-volume low-value.
Paddle canoes high value only. Motorized canoes both.
Typical shore processing High value gutting, icing and boxing for onward sale.
Low value drying and smoking.
Minimum water depth required No depth limitations as all vessels are beached for unloading.
Breakwater protection In practice, a beach landing does not require protection.
Breakwaters on beaches are reactive and unsustainable.
Auction sorting hall A sorting hall is required in all cases for icing and boxing.
An auction hall is required if fish is auctioned locally as well.
Utilities Mains power and water preferable. Gensets only suitable in some cases.
Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable.
Ice production Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered
from nearest supplier.
Cold storage Chilled storage on ice (3
o
C) is acceptable even using insulated fish boxes.
Otherwise fish should be moved to a proper cold storage.
Refuelling Small-scale installation (up to 10 000 litres) is the most suitable.
Dry docking slipways Slipways are not normally required. Mechanically operated winches for
the larger boats are enough.
Infrastructure needs assessment 15
FIGURE 2
Coastal fisheries harbour
MAIN BREAKWATER
REFUELLING BERTH
ICE LOADING BERTH
OFFICES
TRUCK LOADING BAYS
PARKING AUCTION HALL COLD STORAGE
NET
REPAIR
WORKSHOPS
TIE-UP
MOORING BASIN 2.50 m
LEE BREAKWATER
FISHING VILLAGE
SLIPWAY
RED BEACON
GREEN BEACON
Coastal fsheries usually involve artisanal fshermen operating on one to two day
trips from home. Vessels typically consist of large motorized canoes and decked and
undecked fshing vessels with a maximum length of about 20 metres. These vessels
would either be beached or moored in calm spots, such as bays and coves. In some
cases, a proper port may be needed if the landings are high volume (Figure 2).
Transport links The success or failure of the landing depends on good, all-weather road access.
Workshops Small engine and timber hull workshops required. May be located in village.
Net repair areas Required in all cases. A minimum of 500 m
2
should be set aside. Area should
drain surface water away.
Fishermens/seamens facilities A fishermens cooperative with full facilities is highly desirable to enable all
stakeholders to participate in the fishing, marketing and procurement activities.
Adequate number of toilets and canteen facilities should be included.
Open storage and parking Enough area should be set aside for parking to enable better connection with
markets.
Ancillary services Some landings also offer sea bus transport to other coastal villages and if
managed properly should be encouraged.
Hinterland A resident fishing village community nearby is desirable.
TABLE 2
Coastal fisheries harbour characteristics
Location of fishing grounds Near coastal, steaming distance up to 6 hours.
Typical fishing trip Anywhere from 1 to 3 days.
Type of vessels handled Large motorized canoes and vessels up to 10 tonnes in weight.
Fishing gear usually mini seine, pole and line, long line, trawl nets and gillnets.
Type of landed products A mixture of low-volume high-value and high-volume low-value.
Typical shore processing High value gutting, icing and boxing for onward sale.
Low value drying and smoking.
Minimum water depth required At least 2.50 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.
Breakwater protection Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on
beaches are reactive and unsustainable.
Auction sorting hall A sorting hall is required in all cases for icing and boxing.
An auction hall is required if fish is auctioned locally as well.
Table 1, continued
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 16
FIGURE 3
Offshore fisheries harbour
MAIN BREAKWATER
ICE
REFUELLING
MOORING BASIN 5.0 m
RED BEACON
TIE-UP
PARKING
PROCESSING FACTORIES
OFFLOADING BERTHS
O
F
F
L
O
A
D
I
N
G

B
E
R
T
H
S
GREEN BEACON
TOWN
GEAR DRYING BOAT YARD
M
A
IN
R
O
A
D
OFFICES
HANDLING HALL
LEE BREAKWATER
Offshore fsheries usually involve both fshermen and non-fsheries-related business
interests who invest in vessel feets. Fishing trips extend to the limit of the extended
economic zone offshore and last anywhere up to four weeks. The vessel sizes are
usually in the 20 to 40 metre range and the vessels generally need proper port facilities
(Figure 3).
Utilities Mains power and water preferable. Gensets only suitable in some cases.
Boreholes and seawater systems acceptable.
Ice production Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered
from nearest supplier.
Cold storage Cold storage required. Chilled storage on ice (3
o
C) is acceptable if fish is moved
to a proper cold storage elsewhere.
Refuelling Medium-sized installation (up to 100 tonnes in weight) is the most suitable.
Bowser service also acceptable.
Dry docking slipways Slipway to handle vessels up to 100 tonnes in weight normally enough.
Transport links The success or failure of the port depends on good, all weather road access. Road
should already exist.
Workshops Proper engine and timber hull workshops required in loco.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.
Net repair areas Required in all cases. A minimum of 1 000 m
2
should be set aside. Area should
drain surface water away.
Fishermens/seamens facilities A fishermens cooperative with full facilities is highly desirable to enable all
stakeholders to participate in the fishing, marketing and procurement activities.
Adequate toilet and canteen facilities to be provided.
Open storage and parking Enough area should be set aside for parking to enable better connection with
markets and for dry boat storage in areas where monsoons are active.
Ancillary services Port may also act as base for coastguard and fishery protection vessels.
Hinterland A resident fishing village or town community nearby is desirable.
Table 2, continued
Infrastructure needs assessment 17
FIGURE 4
Distant-water fisheries harbour
MAIN BREAKWATER
MOORING BASIN 6.0 m
OFFLOADING BERTHS
TOWN
M
A
IN
R
O
A
D
PROCESSING FACTORIES
COLD STORES
F
A
C
T
O
R
Y
V
E
S
S
E
L
S
O
F
F
L
O
A
D
I
N
G

B
E
R
T
H
S
COLD STORES COLD STORES
DRY DOCK
FITTING-OUT BERTHS
RED BEACON
GREEN BEACON
LEE BREAKWATER
TIE-UP BERTHS
PARKING
W
O
R
K
S
H
O
P
S
Distant-water fsheries involve large, modern, factory-type trawlers roaming the
oceans on very long trips, 6 to 12 months at a time. Their home port can be located
at specially provided facilities in commercial ports but are considered more effective
when specifcally designed for the industry within a properly established fshery port
(Figure 4).
TABLE 3
Offshore fisheries harbour characteristics
Location of fishing grounds Offshore and far coastal, steaming distance up to 1 week.
Typical fishing trip Anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks.
Type of vessels handled Large motorized canoes, purse seiners and trawlers. Vessels up to 100 tonnes in
weight. Fishing gear purse seine and trawl nets.
Type of landed products Mainly iced but also frozen pelagics, shrimps and other high-value species.
Typical shore processing Canneries, fishmeal, salting, drying and smoking.
Minimum water depth required At least 5.0 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.
Breakwater protection Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on beaches
are reactive and unsustainable.
Auction sorting hall A sorting hall and auction area is required in all cases.
Utilities Mains power only and town supplied water. Boreholes and seawater systems
acceptable in areas of low rainfall.
Ice production Of primary importance. Should only be mains powered otherwise delivered from
nearest supplier.
Cold storage Cold storage required for buffer stocks. Chilled storage on ice (3
o
C) is acceptable
in some cases.
Refuelling Large sized installation (up to 1 000 tonnes in weight) is the most suitable.
Bowser service also acceptable in some cases.
Dry docking slipways Slipway to handle vessels up to 500 tonnes in weight normally required.
Transport links The port is only feasible if road already exists.
Workshops Proper engine and hull workshops required in loco.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.
Net repair areas Required in all cases. A minimum of 1 000 m
2
required. Area should drain surface
water away and be part covered.
Fishermens/seamens facilities A cooperative with full facilities (banking and wholesale supplies) is required. Full
toilet and shower facilities as well as canteen services must be included.
Open storage and parking Enough area should be set aside for parking and storage of seasonal fishing gear,
as well as for dry boat storage in areas where monsoons are active.
Ancillary services Port may also act as base for coastguard, SAR centre, oil spill combat and fishery
protection vessels.
Hinterland A town community nearby is desirable with full facilities, including hotels,
hospitals, banking, shipping agents.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 18
As a general rule:
The size of the port is governed by the size of the fleet (as indicated by the
competent fisheries authority) operating from the port and the type of vessels that
make up the fleet.
The size of the shore facilities then depends on the throughput of fish through the
port and the amount of value-added processing proposed.
Figure 5 illustrates the fow chart of the design process for a typical fshing port all
the way to fnancial feasibility.
2.1.3 Safe havens
Ports in areas where hurricanes and monsoons are common natural occurrences may
need a safe haven or storm shelter inside the port basin or close by as an added safety
measure for foating vessels. In some Asian countries, whole vessel feets are placed
ashore for the entire monsoon season and need a considerable level area for this purpose.
In the Caribbean, every island has created safe havens (mainly on the leeward side).
However, the subject of safe havens has been given greater attention in recent years in
relation to disaster preparedness programmes. Consequently, a port planner should be
involved in the development of safe havens, particularly in relation to essential facilities
and access.
TABLE 4
Distant water fisheries harbour characteristics
Location of fishing grounds Overseas, steaming distance up to 1 month.
Typical fishing trip Anywhere from 6 to 12 months.
Type of vessels handled Large trawlers (5001 000 tonnes GRT) and factory vessels (5 000 tonnes GRT).
Type of landed products Mainly frozen, in bulk, individually packed or ready processed for direct sale
through commercial outlets.
Typical shore processing Packaging, canneries, fishmeal and other value added processing.
Minimum water depth required At least 6.0 metres below Lowest Astronomical Tide level.
Breakwater protection Generally required unless port is inside a river estuary but breakwaters on beaches
are reactive and unsustainable.
Auction sorting hall A sortingauction area is not required in most cases.
Utilities Mains power only and town supplied water. Boreholes and seawater systems
acceptable in areas of low rainfall.
Ice production Of secondary importance as products are all frozen.
Cold storage Cold storage required for buffer stocks and local processing needs.
Refuelling Large sized installation (in excess of 1 000 tonnes in weight) is generally required.
Bowser service not suitable.
Dry docking slipways Common for vessels to dry dock at established yards, even overseas, hence not
important.
Transport links The port is dependent on road, rail and air transport links.
Workshops Proper engine and hull workshops required.
Steel or GRP hulls may need extra workshop area.
Net repair areas Generally not required as nets are repaired elsewhere due to their size and
complexity.
Fishermens/seamens facilities A proper seamens union with full facilities is required.
Open storage and parking Enough area should be set aside for parking and storage of seasonal fishing gear.
Ancillary services Port may also act as base for coastguard, SAR centre, oil spill combat and fishery
protection vessels.
Hinterland A town community nearby is required with full facilities, including hotels,
hospitals, banking, shipping agents.
Infrastructure needs assessment 19
FIGURE 5
Sizing a port flow chart

HAS SUSTAINABLE CATCH
BEEN VERIFIED BY
FISHERIES AUTHORITY?
SEEK ADVICE FROM FISHERIES DEPARTMENT
BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER
3040 m TRAWLERS
Over 40 m
FACTORY SHIPS
HAS PERMISSIBLE MODEL
FLEET BEEN VERIFIED?
YES NO

PADDLE OR
MOTORIZED
1 5 PERSONS
CANOES
MOTORIZED
5 20 PERSONS
CANOES
12 m TRAWLERS
AND SHRIMPERS
1520 m TRAWLERS
PURSE SEINERS AND
SHRIMPERS
SEEK ADVICE FROM FISHERIES DEPARTMENT
BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER
BEACH 3.0 m 5.0 m

6.0 m

DETERMINE OPERATIONAL DEPTH

7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 m
IF EXPORT TERMINAL IS REQUIRED

SELECT TWO OR MORE POTENTIAL SITES TO DISCUSS WITH STAKEHOLDERS

CARRY OUT ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT STUDIES (EIS)

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

BATHYMETRIC SURVEY

GEOTECHNICAL STUDY

BENTHIC AND WATER QUALITY

PHYSICAL/MATHEMATICAL
MODEL

CARRY OUT SITE SIEVING ANALYSIS AND SELECT BEST SITE FOR DETAILED STUDIES
CARRY OUT A FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY STUDY AND SUBMIT TO FUNDING AGENCY

YES NO

Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 20

2.2 SITE OF A FISHING PORT
2.2.1 Planning requirements
A new fshing port may be built on virgin land or installed in a rehabilitated existing port
environment or even in an urban area. In all cases, the planning process must consider:
the land use of the area proposed;
the general environmental conditions of the site;
the ease of access to the site;
the availability of sanitary water; and
existing and future industrial planning.
2.2.2 Land use
In general, when planning a fshing port, whether it be a small landing jetty on a beach
or a large deep-water port, it is better to design a layout with arrangements fexible
enough to permit adjustment at a future date, if the assumptions on which the needs
assessment were based prove to be different to real life conditions. In other words, a
fshing port and its land-based infrastructure should not be stuck in between fxed land
boundaries (like schools, playgrounds, cemeteries, factory sites, housing, etc.) with no
scope for expansion at a later date. Vice versa, if a new port is planned along a stretch of
virgin coastline, a suitable buffer zone should be included around the port and land-use
master plans should be strictly enforced to ensure that the buffer zone is not settled by
illegal service settlements that generally crop up around such facilities in a matter of a
short time.
In many cases, especially where there has been a low level of communication
between agencies concerned with coastal area management and environment protection
agencies, the incompatibility of heavy industries with the fsheries sector is not always
questioned. As a result, fshing ports have been built next to or downwind from,
inter alia:
large power stations burning coal or heavy oil;
cement manufacturing or bagging plants;
wood or paper mills;
fertilizer and petrochemical plants;
chemical plants
oil storage facilities;
leather tanning facilities; and
ore export terminals.
In some countries, fshing ports may also be located inside ports for merchant
shipping; the reverse may also be true. In some cases, smoke-stack industries have
been allowed a foothold inside urban areas that are too close to the fshing port. It is
also known that these industries may have even started utilizing the fshing port for
their needs. Such practices eventually lead to cross-contamination of the fsh products
through:
settlement of particulate matter (dust) on fish and fish products;
contamination of rainwater collection systems when these are required to
supplement other supplies;
fouling of harbour basin water when this may be required to alleviate the use of
freshwater; and
contamination of the groundwater aquifers themselves.
It is hence of the utmost importance to site fshing ports as far away as possible from
such activities.
Infrastructure needs assessment 21
Clearly, when a new facility for fshing vessels is under consideration there is strong
justifcation for close cooperation between ministries responsible for rural, industrial,
urban and fsheries development issues. Such cooperation should extend to ease of access
to environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports concerning planning permission for
new industrial sites. For those carrying out an EIA they should also take all existing
facilities into consideration (such as fshing vessel port facilities). Once a decision has
been reached regarding the siting of a fshing port, legislation should be enacted to
ensure that all future development in the area would not compromise the fshing port
and its post-harvest facilities.
However, it is also incumbent on the fsheries department and the port planner to
pay special attention to situations of incompatibility between an existing fshing vessel
facility and industrial activities. In such cases where the quality of fsh and fsh products
is adversely affected, a decision must be reached at local or national level as to what
should be moved and to where or how such pollution could be regulated and how
proposed solutions could be fnanced.
Unless this fundamental reasoning is accepted by all the parties involved, from local
planners and engineers all the way up to local and national government, then unsolved
problems of this nature are there to stay and will only lead to more existing fshing
ports being condemned on pollution grounds; in effect, if the pollution is so bad, it may
be that the industrial site has to be condemned for a multitude of reasons.
2.2.3 Accessibility
No matter what size of port is being planned, all-weather accessibility cannot be
ignored or replaced with unpaved roads. Many developing countries tend to regard a
good paved road as optional to the port structure due to the costs involved when the
road should be part and parcel of the port.
Unpaved, or white or laterite roads, are very common in some developing countries,
but in the presence of heavy rainfall these do not last more than one to two years before
they require major maintenance.
2.2.4 Water
The rule of thumb where water is concerned is No Water, No Port. Water is required
at every stage of the fshing process, both on board the vessels (for rinsing and hose-
down), and ashore in the port (for rinsing, ice production and hose-down of work areas
and hygiene). Whereas a town or mains supply is the preferred option, many fshing
ports depend on bore wells. It is now also acceptable to replace up to 80 percent of the
potable water needs with clean seawater if the port structures have been designed to
resist seawater corrosion.
2.3 POST-CONFLICT RECONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
Wars or conficts may also leave a legacy of unexploded ordnance (UXO) contamination
and it is therefore essential that this issue is tackled from the outset and at all stages of
the project via internationally accepted guidelines on de-mining.
At sea, UXO may be the result of unexploded aerial bombs dropped on naval targets,
sea mines or live ammunition dumped overboard in times of distress. In all cases, this
may turn up in dredgers contracted out to dredge coastal areas in or near existing ports.
As most of this UXO is metal based, a magnetometric survey should be commissioned
in conjunction with the bathymetric survey and the position of all the positive hits
by the magnetometer recorded and then inspected by experienced de-mining divers for
presence of actual UXO.
On land, UXO may consist of unexploded aerial or artillery bombs, mortar shells
and land mines. Although many areas in the world have been surveyed with a General
Mine Action Assessment survey and/or a secondary Landmine Impact Survey, a
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 22
2
The reader is reminded that internationally agreed standards for the design, construction and equipment
of fishing vessels, a combined effort between FAO, ILO: International Labour Organization, and IMO
could influence management decisions as and when the provisions of the pertinent instruments are
introduced as regulations in the Fisheries and or the Shipping Act.
Dangerous Area Report, Mined Area Report, and/or a Landmine Impact Survey report
for each Suspected Hazardous Area should be referred to before a project is undertaken
in an area of known past confict. This work must be done before the topographical and
other land surveys are commissioned.
2.4 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION
Any harbour project, no matter what size, needs to be fnancially and technically
justifed if it is going to be planned, designed and managed in a sustainable manner in
harmony with the surrounding environment.
Technically, the justifcation must be backed up with reliable data pertaining to:
the fish stocks to be harvested (current biomass data and not mathematical
extrapolations);
the methods of fishing to be employed (environmentally sustainable);
the technical feasibility of the proposed or chosen site (environmentally
sustainable);
the financial feasibility of the entire project (including port, services, access roads);
and
fisheries management programmes concerning fleet development.
2
Projects with a large social component may not be self-sustaining, but when other
social factors are included, such as the supply of safe drinking water, sewerage, lighting,
roads, etc., some attempt must be made to monetize the projects contribution to the
well-being of the community as a whole.
2.5 OVERCAPACITY IN EXISTING FISHING PORTS
2.5.1 Alternative uses
In many parts of the world, overcapacity in fshing vessels has to be faced by fsheries
managers to limit effort within the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and in many cases
the solution has been to reduce the size of the feet that is allowed to fsh. Such a situation
can lead to hardship for those associated with the vessels having to be decommissioned
(but not necessarily sold or scrapped). This can be particularly traumatic where the
fshing port may also be the hub of village life and cannot be simply dismantled.
2.5.2 Port income diversication
The possibilities to keep a fshing port operational and to offer alternative employment
to fshing vessel crews is to re-engineer the port into a multioperation facility that does
not rely solely on its dwindling fshing feet but rather by hosting a number of marine-
related activities. These activities could include:
marine transport, ferries, etc.;
diving tourism;
eco-fishing tourism;
support to offshore fish farming;
coastguard and search and rescue (SAR) activities; and
offshore industries (oil, gas and minerals).
Infrastructure needs assessment 23
2.5.3 Vessel income diversication
In some parts of the world, the need to drastically reduce fshing capacity has led to
hardship within the industry with many vessels having to be decommissioned and the
crews having to look for alternative employment. In extreme cases it led to death of
fshing villages and the migration of the inhabitants to other areas.
However, the re-employment possibilities become limited in cases where there is
no requirement for the training and certifcation of fshing vessel crews and the most
probable areas to be under the greatest pressure is the small-scale fsheries sector.
This approach suggested under 2.5.2 above has been taken in a number of cases where
the number of active fshing vessels had decreased, although in extreme cases it had not
been found to be the complete solution. Appendix 1 to this chapter highlights the need
to address the relevant national regulations when a change in a sea-going activity is
under consideration.
2.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Ben-Yami, M. & Anderson A.M. 1985. Community fisheries centres: guidelines for
establishment and operation. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 264. Rome, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Bujang, B.H. & Misieng, R.Y. 1993. Environment and development: towards promoting
sustainable development in Sarawak. Proceedings of the Seminar on Environment and
Development, Miri, 1516 December 1993. Sarawak, Angkatan Saman Mansang.
FAO. 1975. Small harbours and landing places on difficult coasts. FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper. No. 136. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities.
IALA Recommendation 0-116 for the Marking of Aquaculture Farms. December 1999.
PIANC Working Group No 18. 1998. Planning of fishing ports, Supplement to
Bulletin 97. Brussels, Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses
(www.pianc.org)
Pizzali, A.F.M. 1988. Small scale fish landing and marketing facilities. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper. 291. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
Sciortino, J.A. Construction and maintenance of artisanal fishing harbours and village
landings. FAO Training Series 25. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.
Verstralen, K.M., Lenselink, N.M., Ramirez, R., Wilkie, M. & Johnson, J.P. 2004.
Participatory landing site development for artisanal fisheries livelihoods. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper. No. 466. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 24
APPENDIX 1: CONVERSION OF COMMERCIAL FISHING VESSELS TO OTHER
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
It is not uncommon to come across fshing ports with laid-up vessels that are un-
proftable to operate or threatened with decommissioning by governments. With the
current trend towards overfshing, this scene may become more common unless sound
fsheries management practices are followed.
However, forcibly removing vessels from an active fshing feet over a short period of
time is perhaps the most traumatic way of reducing fshing capacity, particularly where
the fshing port may also be the hub of village life and cannot be simply dismantled.
In such cases, the frst priority should be to look at alternative fsheries management
systems and alternative opportunities for fshing boat owners and crew in the event that
feet reduction cannot be avoided.
Another aspect of feet reduction would be the impact on the economy of a port due
to reduced income leading to the need to explore other possibilities such as opening
the port to non-fshing vessel potential users. This would imply, of course, further
investment to re-engineer it into a multioperation facility to host a number of marine-
related activities. These activities could include, inter alia:
marine transport, ferries, etc.
diving tourism;
eco-fishing tourism;
support to offshore fish farming;
coast guard and SAR activities; and
offshore industries (oil, gas and minerals).
In this appendix, income diversifcation opportunities for fshing vessel owners and
their crews, in the event of a downturn in commercial fshing activities, are discussed
that may have less impact on the social fabric of a local fshing community, especially in
countries where historic rights exist and vessels are handed down from father to son.
It should be understood, however, that careful consideration must be given by fshing
vessel owners forced to move out of commercial fshing, or by choice, into alternative
vessel activities. For example, owners would be required to apply to the appropriate
ministry for permission to engage in the new activity and, if approved, to apply to
register the vessel accordingly. In some cases this may seem a simple process but in
general there are a number of issues to address. For example, reftting work has to meet
criteria under the relevant act in relation to, inter alia:
the carriage of passengers;
additional safety equipment;
certificate of competence of those in charge of the vessel;
mandatory insurance coverage for third party liability; and
compliance with MARPOL Annex V if to be certified for 15 or more persons on
board.
The carriage of passengers requires that the vessel has adequate accommodation and
toilet facilities and the safety equipment would certainly have to be upgraded.
It should also be kept in mind that in many countries the law may not require the
skippers of small fshing vessels to have a certifcate of competency, but this might not
be the case for other activities and the skipper (and others depending on the size of the
vessel) would have to go back to school or otherwise be examined.
If all goes well it is likely that the vessel would lose its classifcation as a fshing vessel
requiring it to be registered under the appropriate section of the relevant act for which
the owner would have to supply documents attesting to:
Infrastructure needs assessment 25
3
Note that the manning requirement for a sport fishing vessel, dive vessel and ecotourism vessel would be
related to the safety of numbers of sport fishermen/divers/tourists that the vessel is so authorized
to carry. The manning for a dive boat includes members of the crew specialized in diving techniques and
technology.
confirmation that it would be given licence to engage in sport fishing/diving/
ecotourism/passenger carrying;
compliance with the provisions of the national regulations governing the design,
construction and equipment, including safety equipment, of a sport fishing/
diving/ecotourism/passenger carrying vessel;
approval of the provisions for manning;
3
the status of the ownership/manager in compliance with national legislation;
evidence of the bill of sale;
the carving note;
confirmation that the refit had been supervised by the appropriate authority;
the existence of a seaworthiness certificate as a sport fishing/diving/ecotourism/
passenger carrying vessel; and
mortgages and liens.
Thereafter, if all is well and where the authorization to engage in sport fshing/diving,
ecotourism or passenger carrying was conditional on the vessel being registered, the
one thing remaining would be proof of adequate insurance coverage.
Converting to other activities
Transport of passengers or cargo, diving and eco-fshing tourism activities could have
the capacity to absorb some of the excess feet capacity without destroying the livelihood
of the fshermen and this can be obtained through vessel conversions, retooling and
retraining. Note, however, that there would be no guarantee that the vessel would be
allowed to reconvert to a commercial fshing vessel.
Conversion to mammal spotting and inter-island cruising
Essentially these activities would fall under regulations for the carriage of passengers
and these would undoubtedly differ from region to region. Nevertheless, these
regulations are unlikely to fall under the fsheries act. For this reason, conversion to the
role of passenger carrying would mean that the vessel would no longer be a commercial
fshing vessel. Consequently, the existing entry in the register of vessels would have
to be closed and the converted vessel registered anew. In addition, it is likely that the
following would have to be addressed:
certificate of competence of the skipper and crew;
safety equipment;
accommodation and toilet facilities;
authority to carry passengers;
compliance with the collision regulations; and
compliance with the provisions of Annex V of MARPOL (particularly if certified
to carry 15 or more persons).
Conversion to sport shing
Whereas the authorization to fsh (where, when, how, species allowed and quotas)
would normally fall under the Fisheries Act, the regulations covering the vessel and
crew might fall under a different act. Furthermore, since the objective would be to carry
fee paying sport fshers, it is likely that the vessel would fall under the regulations
concerning the carriage of passengers and as such the conditions set out above would
have to be met.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 26
4
The Fisheries Act may have to be addressed if the intention is to carry out sport fishing activities.
Since the vessel would have to be classifed as a sport fshing vessel, it would cease to
be a commercial fshing vessel and this would have to be refected in the process for the
register of fshing vessels or ships as the case may be.
Conversion to a dive boat
Dive boats fall into two basic categories:
(i) commercial fish harvesting; and
(ii) non-fishing activities.
The frst category falls under the Fisheries Act and would be subject to regulations
concerning the design, construction and equipment for dive boats and compliance with
fsheries management.
To convert a fshing vessel to a commercial fshing dive boat means addressing:
the design, construction and equipment standards set out for such vessels;
meeting the operational regulations related to qualifications for the skipper, crew
and divers; and
compliance with the collision regulations.
However, a dive boat for non-fsheries activities is unlikely to fall under the Fisheries
Act in relation to its design and construction.
4
The actual conversion may be relatively
simple but the manning of the vessel and specialized equipment needs to be addressed.
Therefore, provided that a typical small trawler, for example, with wheelhouse
forward and fsh hold aft has a clean bill of health as a fshing vessel, it could be readily
converted to a dive boat provided special attention is given to the operational safety
and facilities. In this regard, it is essential that the person in the wheel house has a
clear uninterrupted view of the working deck and that the diving ladder has to be so
arranged that the diver would be protected from the propeller. Toilets and changing
accommodation would also have to be supplied, as divers might be a combination of
male and female.
All safety equipment would have to be upgraded on the basis of the number of
persons that the vessel would be authorized to carry, bearing in mind that the fee paying
divers would be classifed as passengers.
It should also be noted that the certifcates of competence held by the serving skipper
and crew (when it was a fshing vessel) may not be compatible with the regulations
covering dive boats which would mean retraining (and examination) or replacing with
suitably qualifed persons. In addition, the expert diver in the crew must be suitably
qualifed and the whole crew, including the skipper, should undergo appropriate training
before taking on board fee diver/passengers.
Infrastructure needs assessment 27
APPENDIX 2: SERVICING MARICULTURE FACILITIES
Introduction
Engineering solutions, such as for fsh cages or suspended shellfsh growout systems,
have had to be developed by aquaculturists themselves. They have benefted, however,
from the accumulated knowledge of seafarers in general and fshermen in particular in
the design and operation of mooring and buoyage systems. More recently, when fsh
farmers have turned their attention to how to operate fsh cages in locations further
offshore where seas are rougher, the experience of the oil exploration industry has
proven very valuable.
However, although most fsh farming activities usually take place well away from
a port or harbour facility, that sector is serviced by different types of seagoing craft
that, in turn, require servicing. In addition, the sector also need, land space to prepare
cages and pens for launching that might require cranes and close proximity to a fshing
port or harbour facility is often preferred, particularly where offshore fsh farming is
practiced. Thus, during a harbour planning exercise the mariculture sector should not
be ignored and indeed special attention should be given to the extent of development
within the sector foreseen by fsheries managers.
Nevertheless, there are instances when a hatchery might actually be placed within
the confnes of a harbour facility, as shown in Figure 1, thus calling for space, access,
clean (fresh/sea) water supplies and drainage systems.
Vessel servicing
The servicing of work boats in support of fsh farming run parallel to the capture fsheries
sector, with vessels varying in size from a sturdy canoe to relatively sophisticated vessels
capable of towing large heavy sections and ftted with specialized deck equipment and,
in some cases, diver support capability.
Particular attention must be given to hull cleaning, paint quality and the avoidance
of the use of tributyltin-based antifouling compounds.
FIGURE 1
Hatchery operation located within a harbour facility
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 28
Land space
Cages vary in design from completely spherical shape up to more than 30 metres in
diameter, to the more common tubular or cylindrical shape that may commonly vary
in diameter from 20 metres to over 300 metres
5
, as well as square or oblong cages. All
types, however, require reasonably large areas of fat ground for their construction and
the need for ready access to the sea.
Marking the position of cages in the sea
Cages and fsh pens are a navigational hazard; consequently, they must be marked for
their position in the sea by lights and shapes approved by the appropriate authority
(Figure 2).
When an aquaculture farm is considered to represent a danger to navigation, it
should be marked in accordance with the International Associations of Marine Aids
to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) Maritime Buoyage System, using
special marks, lateral or cardinal marks, or a combination thereof. The use of electronic
aids to navigation such as racons or the Automatic Identifcation System (AIS) may
also be considered. The farm (or group of farms) should be marked depending on their
size, extent and location. In some cases, it may be suffcient to mark only part of the
perimeter or the centre.
The harbour engineers should bear in mind that the following marking
recommendations may be adjusted considering traffc density, proximity to ports,
proximity to dangers, tidal considerations and other factors:
Aquaculture farms are normally marked by special marks.
If there is a requirement for vessel traffic between aquaculture farms, then such a
channel should normally be marked with lateral marks.
If the prevailing situation warrants it, cardinal marking alone may be used to
direct mariners away from the aquaculture farm.
To improve the effectiveness of the lighting, and taking into consideration
background lighting, synchronization of the various lights should be considered.
To improve the radar target and the visibility of the aquaculture farm, radar
reflectors and reflective material should be considered.
Furthermore, charts need updating and notices to mariners issued from time to
time. There is also a need to follow technology development in this sector such as self-
propelled cages that requires the attention of harbour masters, national hydrographers,
fsheries management and may require amendments to appropriate legislation.
FIGURE 2
Marking offshore fish cages
5
The International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA)
lighting and marking requirements cater for radii up to 2 000 metres.
29
3. Port management
SUMMARY
Irrespective of the size of an existing or projected port, whether it is for beach
landing or a conventional port, that facility cannot be abandoned in the belief
that it would run by itself. Experience has demonstrated that this is not so and
that the facility has to be managed to ensure that it is used and maintained
correctly over the period of its useful life and for a government to meet its
responsibilities under international law.
Therefore, this chapter addresses a wide range of issues, from beach landing
sites to integrated port facilities catering for fishing vessels and non-fishing
vessels and ships. Thus various types of port management schemes are illustrated
and how to select an appropriate option commensurate with the size of the port
or landing facility, stressing nevertheless the responsibilities expected of selected
regime and individual members.
The principal objective of this chapter is to ensure that the reader would be
able to relate to specific management structures and issues under discussion and
have a more clear understanding of individual and corporate responsibilities in
the management and use of a facility.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 30
CONTENTS
3.1 Port management structures 31
3.1.1 Size and composition 31
3.1.2 Artisanal landing 32
3.1.3 Coastal sheries port 32
3.1.4 Offshore sheries port 33
3.1.5 Distant sheries port 34
3.2 Management body 34
3.2.1 Harbour master 34
3.2.2 Administrative ofcer 35
3.2.3 Maintenance ofcer 35
3.2.4 Fisheries statistics ofcer 35
3.2.5 Hygiene ofcer 36
3.3 Stakeholder participation 36
3.4 Fish quality assurance 37
3.5 Business plan 38
3.6 Best management practices 38
3.6.1 Port operations 38
3.6.2 Boatyard operations 39
3.6.3 Prevention of pollution 39
3.7 Bibliography and further reading 40
Port management 31
3.1 PORT MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES
The most effective way to run a fishing facility, whether it be for beach landing or a
fully-fledged port, is through the establishment of a management body for the facility,
representing the interests of all stakeholders. The right to do so, however, is not always
resident in national law. The chief duties of a port management body are to ensure:
compliance with the laws, regulations and other environmental directives
governing the fisheries sector (overfishing legislation, sizes of nets, closed seasons,
etc.);
1
compliance with the regulations for the use of the facility (landing fees, bulk
handling charges, sale of potable water, bulk fuel, etc.);
compliance with environmental conservation measures adopted by the planning
authorities (waste recycling, spent-oil recovery, wet wastes disposal, etc.);
compliance with food safety and hygiene requirements;
integration with other users as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for fishing
vessels (landing jetty may double as a passenger landing stage for coastal taxi
boats); and
transparency in the decision-making process (to prevent private interests from
taking over a public facility through unfair practices).
In order for the port management body to perform its duties effectively, it must:
be commensurate with the size of the facility and the responsibilities expected of
it (one person could be enough for a small beach landing but a group of persons
would be necessary inside a harbour with a large fleet of canoes, plank boats and
other types of vessels);
be adequately funded to function as intended (landing fees and handling charges
should reflect current maintenance and running costs);
represent the whole spectrum of users of the facility (if the facility doubles as a
passenger landing, then the interests of the passengers must also be taken into
account);
allow for consultation between the various users (if one of a multitude of user
subjects the landing or port to abnormal stresses, then this should be reflected in
the maintenance charges).
3.1.1 Size and composition
Because of the diversity of situations and circumstances in which fishermen operate,
it is extremely difficult to present ready-made solutions for the size and composition
of a port management body. However, there are four major areas where management
input is required:
the day-to-day management of operations (unloading, sorting, icing and onward
movement plus any other activity that the landing may be used for) and general
maintenance;
financial administration of the facility (fees for services rendered, licensing, sale of
water and fuel, etc.);
landing statistics; and
administration of hygiene standards throughout the facility.
It follows that a typical port management body is generally composed of a
minimum of four persons: a harbour master, an accounting officer or bookkeeper, a
fishery statistics officer and a hygiene/pollution controller. A fifth person may assist
the harbour master with maintenance issues when the need arises. Whereas the harbour
1
Attention is drawn to the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing adopted by the Conference of FAO in November 2009.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 32
masters job is a full-time occupation, the other posts may be either full-time or part-
time, depending on the throughput of fish at the harbour facility and the availability
of trained staff.
At the extreme lower end of the scale, when the landing is an artisanal beach landing,
the harbour master may do all the work himself on a full-time basis and only hires
workers or local village hands for specific jobs, such as repair work, cleaners, etc.,
when the need arises. Fisheries officers would then visit the site occasionally to gather
statistics information. As the facility increases in size and importance, even the five
persons mentioned above would not suffice and additional personnel would be taken
on to monitor port security, fishing practices, auctioning and cleaning operations.
School teachers are often employed as part-time officers in their respective field of
expertise (biology and mathematics or science).
At the extreme upper end of the scale, when the port is an industrial distant fisheries
port, an autonomous, municipal, state or even a private management body may be set
up to run and manage the facility.
3.1.2 Artisanal landing
At the village level, the management body could consist of the community fishery
centre (CFC) or a similar organization of fisherfolk. Although the facilities and services
within a small village landing may be quite modest, there is still need for an organized
form of management (Figure 1).
In developing countries, a master fisherman is normally appointed to run the
landing with the power to hire casual local labour when the need arises. The master
fisherman answers to the chairman of the CFC or directly to the village head. Fisheries
officers may visit the village on a regular basis or local staff may be trained in the
correct methods of recording fish landings.
3.1.3 Coastal fisheries port
A coastal fisheries port, with its myriad of fishing vessel types, which may range from
simple paddle canoes all the way up to 12 metre trawlers and shrimpers, is the first type
of port that requires a proper full-time management body installed in proper office
space in the fishing port.
The minimum of five persons is required for the proper functioning of the port
but generally a few extra staff members are always required, especially during peak
landings (Figure 2). A port of this size is quite frequently run by the department of
fisheries but in some countries a fishermens cooperative is set up under the auspices of
the department of fisheries to run the port on a commercially viable basis.
CHAIRMAN OF CFC

MASTER FISHERMAN

CASUAL LABOUR

OR

VILLAGE HANDS

VISITING STATISTICAL

OFFICERS FROM

FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

FIGURE 1
Managing a beach landing
Port management 33
3.1.4 Offshore fisheries port
The landside facilities of an offshore fisheries port are considerably larger and more
complex than those of a coastal fisheries facility. This type of port is normally within
an urban environment and may also be used for:
exporting fish and fishery products directly to foreign destinations;
basing coast guard assets; and
ferry operations to neighbouring ports or countries.
In such cases, the fisheries port management body would operate within the context
of a port administration where all the stakeholders would be represented, especially the
countrys national port authority (sailings to foreign destinations), immigration and
police (point of entry/exit), coast guard (SAR), fisheries department (landings, hygiene,
and monitoring, control and surveillance [MCS]), and travel operators (ferries). A port
director would normally be appointed from the port authority or the coast guard to
run such a port.
The ownership of this type of port varies from country to country and depends
on the number of activities carried out from the port. Some countries classify ports as
municipal, regional or central government depending on the throughput and source of
funding. Others lump all sea ports under the national ports authority, while others still
place all fishing related ports under the care of a fishing ports authority to distinguish
them from commercial ports. In the former type, the port management body is
commercially oriented while in the latter it is fisheries oriented. Figure 3 illustrates the
hierarchy of a typical mixed-use port.
It is not uncommon for such ports to be run privately or under autonomous trusts
or commissions, in which case the port director answers to an autonomous body.
However, both fisheries and maritime administrations have an impact on the use of
harbours in line with regulations in respective acts as mentioned in Chapter 1.

HARBOUR MASTER
Vessel movements

Berth allocations

ADMINISTRATIVE
OFFICER
Licences, nes

Fuel, ice supplies

Utility billing, charges

FISHERY STATISTICS
OFFICER
Fish landings statistics
Biometric data, etc.



MAINTENANCE

OFFICER

Beacons, utilities,

Standby equipment

Cold stores, ttings

HYGIENE OFFICER
Fish handling practices
Pollution control
Water supply and Hygiene
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
(Port State Measures)
FIGURE 2
Managing a full-scale fisheries-only port
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 34
3.1.5 Distant fisheries port
The landside facilities of a distant fisheries port comprise mainly of fish processing
or forwarding operations and all the products landed at the port are either already
frozen or already processed and packaged aboard factory vessels. Distant fisheries
ports almost invariably sit in an urban environment due to the requirement of factory
workers to run the processing operations.
Ownership and management of distant fisheries ports are similar to offshore
fishing ports except for the fact that only large vessels are handled in the fisheries area,
such as large trawlers, factory trawlers and mother ships and vessels engaged in the
transshipment of fish and fisheries products.
3.2 MANAGEMENT BODY
3.2.1 Harbour master
The harbour master is the single most important person inside a harbour and decides
how a harbour facility is used. Ideally, harbour masters should generally be recruited
from former captains of vessels, who are usually fully conversant with maritime
regulations and the navigational and operational needs of fishing vessels. In addition, a
good harbour master should also be knowledgeable in:
maritime law, seamanship, cartography;
maintenance of infrastructure components (hydrography, dredging, beacons,
fendering and, to a lesser extent, public lighting, cold storage, etc.);
fishery statistics, national licencing arrangements, fishing gear regulations, etc.;
and
public hygiene and pollution prevention.
Generally speaking, the smaller the harbour or fishery landing, the more
knowledgeable the harbour master has to be (to compensate for a smaller management
body with fewer staff). In cases where a number of fish landing places exist a few

HARBOUR MASTER
Vessel movements and berth allocations for shing
vessels, ferries, SAR and cargo ships
FISHERIES
ADMINISTRATION
Licencing
Fishery statistics
Port State measures
FERRIES
OPERATIONS
Sailings
SAR and MCS
OPERATIONS

COMMERCIAL
CARGO
OPERATIONS
Tug services
Cargo handling
DIRECTOR OF PORT (PORT AUTHORITY OR PORT COMMISSION)

PORT ADMINISTRATION
Landing and berthing fees, sale of duty-free fuel and
management of property leasing to private investors
(ice plants, processors, boatyards, chandlers, etc.), port
security, immigration and port health
MARITIME
ADMINISTRATION
FIGURE 3
Managing a full-scale mixed-use port
Port management 35
kilometres apart, such as along big river estuaries or long rectilinear coastlines, one
good knowledgeable harbour master may be employed full time to look after more
than one facility. The principle tasks of the harbour master include:
day-to-day management of the facility (ensuring that all users are following
regulations);
berth allocation and vessel traffic management; and
implementing vessel arrival timetables in line with auction schedules.
3.2.2 Administrative officer
Whether full-time or part-time, the administrative officer has the task of keeping the
harbours books in order. The tasks would include:
keeping a record of all the licenced craft operating from the facility, liaison with
those responsible for the issue of a licence to fish and, where applicable, the
register of the vessels and keep records as may be required.
accounting for the cash receipts for harbour dues and fish handling charges;
sale of potable water and fuel to vessels inside the port facility; and
administer the fines imposed by the harbour master.
In busy ports, the administrative officer usually asks staff to assist in duties. The
administrative officer, whose work generally decides the size of the harbours operating
budget, reports directly to the harbour master.
3.2.3 Maintenance officer
The maintenance officer, whether full-time or part-time, is generally charged with
keeping the harbour infrastructure in good working order. If the harbour is too small
to support even a part-time maintenance officer, the duties fall on the harbour master
himself. Typical duties of a maintenance officer include:
regular maintenance of the harbour beacons (batteries, cables, lamps, etc.), light
fittings, fences, painting of steel structures, maintenance of port boundary; and
occasional maintenance of the harbours water supply system (replacing corroded
pipe work, leaking taps, unblocking water drains, replenishing the chlorinators,
ensuring the waste collection receptacles are in good working order and that the
ports wastes are being handled according to the approved waste disposal plan,
ensuring that the generator or pumping equipment is serviced regularly or that the
right spares are available, etc.).
The maintenance officer reports directly to the harbour master. In cases where a
number of fish landings exist close to one another, a full time maintenance officer may
be employed to look after a number of facilities.
3.2.4 Fisheries statistics officer
The fisheries statistics officer, whether part-time or full-time, is usually a government
employee (fisheries department) seconded to the port management body. The officers
duty is to compile statistics on the resources being harvested. The importance of
accurate fishery statistics cannot be adequately stressed in todays climate of overfishing,
stressed stocks, quotas and habitat degradation. His observations must include:
name of vessel and its licence to fish as well as details of its registration;
quantity of species harvested;
individual fish sizes and/or weights, especially undersized fish; and
wholesale prices fetched at the local auction (unless already computerized).
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 36
The fisheries statistics officer usually fills in data forms supplied by his department
and these are sent to his headquarters for analysis. This work is of the utmost
importance if fisheries are to be developed on a sustainable basis, because if the landed
fish sizes suddenly drop it is this officer who will sound the first alarm bells that the
resources are being overfished. Nowadays, computer programmes are widely available
for this data to be filled in and sent to head office in real time, especially if linked to
a computerized system. With the advent of area-wide WiFi networks running off the
mobile telephony system, Private Virtual Networks or PVNs are easily set up and
enable data to be transmitted in real time. Although vast quantities of data are normally
generated, the use of dedicated statistical software makes the mundane task of reducing
the numbers to valuable reference statistics an easy task.
3.2.5 Hygiene officer
The hygiene officer, whether part-time or full-time, may also be someone from
government (ministry of health) seconded to the port management body. With the
rising importance of fish as a primary source of healthy food, concern on the possibility
of tainted fish entering the food market chain has been rising. The hygiene officer has
to ensure that:
the handling of fish or fish products is carried out according to international
standards of hygiene in order to prevent contamination during handling;
only sanitary standard water is used to wash fish for onward sale and that samples
from the ports water system are regularly tested in an approved laboratory;
the port area and its immediate surroundings are not fouled-up or invaded by
sewage, rats and other vermin;
that the ports hygiene facilities are kept clean and functional; and
that contaminants (diesel, oil, petrol, etc.) do not come into contact with the
fish.
The hygiene officer usually reports to both the harbour master (who acts on the
hygiene officers observations) and to the ministry of health. In many instances, the
hygiene officer is based inside the ministry of health and covers and regularly visits
more than one facility, such as, for example, abattoirs, factories and cold stores in the
vicinity of the port.
3.3 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
Practically all the management strategies used to date to manage fishing ports may
be described as top down, and these have not always resulted in the sustainable
management of the port or landing facility. Nowadays, various participatory styles of
management, commonly referred to as bottom-up or community-based management,
are being introduced to foster a greater involvement of all the stakeholders in the
management process and, as a result, greater transparency. The underlying premise is
that the stakeholders are empowered both by this participation and by the sharing of
responsibilities for the general upkeep and housekeeping inside the port.
In terms of participation, there is a need to describe the participant groups not
only fishermen or owners of vessels, but also other groups that may have a stake in
the operational matters of the port and the extent to which these various stakeholders
should and may participate. Concern is raised regarding the participation of a range of
stakeholders with diverging interests as this might become counterproductive and may
make daily management of the port impractical.
Participation will also expose disagreements among some of the stakeholders that
may require additional discussion, thereby slowing down the decision-making. There
are also concerns about the possibility of conflicts of interest if certain stakeholder
groups are allowed an upper hand in the day-to-day management of the facility.
Port management 37
The stakeholders in a typical artisanal landing may comprise:
owners of individual paddle or small two- to three-person canoes (self-employed
fishermen);
owners of large canoes or trawlers, employing 10- to 20-person crews (normally
investors);
crew associations (local village hands)
unloaders (local formal and informal beach hands);
fish mammies;
fish smokers;
other processors;
ice suppliers;
fuel and fuelwood suppliers; and
transporters.
Further up the scale, in coastal or offshore fishing ports, the fisheries sector may be
sharing the port with other users or the port may be located in an urban area. These
additional stakeholders may comprise:
other institutions (coast guard and police, municipality);
other sectors of the economy (restaurants and hotels); and
transport (ferry operators).
Participatory types of management, where responsibilities for port management
functions are shared between fisheries and various user groups, are generally referred
to as involving some level of co-management. In artisanal landings and coastal fishing
ports, a legally-constituted fisheries cooperative or fisheries management organization
(FMO) could be set up to co-manage the port and specific roles and tasks delegated to
the various participants. The composition, the participatory skills and the capabilities
of the various interest groups involved will affect how the cooperative functions. If
responsibilities are fully devolved to a particular organization such as a cooperative or
an FMO, then the approach may be described as community-based management.
Near the upper end of the spectrum (offshore or distant fishing ports), there may
be arrangements for a forum for dialogue between stakeholders and the management
authorities, but final decisions may still be made by those representing the owners/
operators of the port.
In between the foregoing there may be arrangements where the fisheries authority
has delegated much of the management responsibility to stakeholder groups, but where
the authority retains certain key or basic overall decision-making powers.
Regardless, the objective of these approaches is to increase the participation of
stakeholders and the transparency of the management process.
3.4 FISH QUALITY ASSURANCE
Assuring fish quality and food safety in a fishing harbour is aimed at reducing post-
harvest losses and to ensure the proper handling of fish at sea as well as on shore
so that the fish leaving the fishing port is of an assured quality and safe for human
consumption. There are no specific regulations for the proper handling of fish on board
vessels and at the fishing ports. However, both national and third country notifications
and guidelines exist on food safety regulations covering cleanliness and sanitation of
food contact surfaces, transportation boxes and water used in the processing chain. To
achieve the desired quality assurance, food safety regulations should be integrated into
a best management practice plan.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 38
3.5 BUSINESS PLAN
Each facility, whether it is an artisanal landing or a fully-fledged port, should operate
independently and generate enough revenue that can be used for the day-to-day
maintenance and management operations.
The main part of a business plan is the financial plan, aimed at producing an
economically viable port operation. The financial plan should identify and balance all
maintenance outlays and operational costs with the revenue generated. Traditionally,
investment costs, replacement costs and capital dredging costs are absorbed by the
central government as and when they become due.
Revenue may be generated by:
berthing fees charged for vessel mooring;
fish landing charges, related to volumes handled;
sale of ice, water and fuel;
third party licence fees for commercial activity within the facility such as boat
repair, engine workshops, food and beverage sales, fish stalls, etc.; and
rent or lease of areas for private development, such as fish processing and
packaging.
3.6 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
A fisheries port or landing should be provided with a set of best management practice
guidelines for the proper management of the environment in and around the fishing
port to achieve the desired level of quality assurance of the handled product. Best
management practice guidelines should be drawn up for the following:
port operations;
boatyard operations (when a slipway is present); and
prevention of pollution.
3.6.1 Port operations
In order to avoid, minimize and address potential environmental and management
problems arising from port operations, the port management body should:
comply with national environment and safety legislation to avoid or minimize
potential impacts from vessel movements and operational emissions and wastes;
inform all the port users about the sensitivity of the coastal environment and the
potential impacts certain actions may have on the well-being of this environment.
This may be achieved by strategically placed notice boards, leaflets and running
of regular workshops;
educate, train and encourage staff to avoid and minimize pollution;
ensure that all employees (including crews from visiting vessels) follow simple
good housekeeping practices to minimize the amount and type of wastes
generated;
draw up and display port users code of conduct and fines to be levied in violation
thereof;
consider best incentives to vessel operators to avoid or minimize potential effects
from vessel operations;
consider the zoning of certain activities in space or time to address adverse impacts
through the creation and enforcement of local by-laws;
make data routinely collected by the fishing port available to national agencies
that have the statutory duty to monitor conditions within fisheries; and
liaise closely with national conservation agencies to facilitate early identification
of potential impacts.
Port management 39
3.6.2 Boatyard operations
Vessel repair facilities pose special environmental concerns in a fishing port because of
the processes and chemical materials that they use and their proximity to areas where
fish meant for human consumption is handled. The area of major concern in a boatyard
is hull stripping and painting. The port body should ensure that:
abrasive or sanding is performed under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat
skirts;
abrasive or sanding is performed over a horizontal hard impermeable surface, such
as concrete, to enable proper cleaning of surface and collection of wastes;
whenever possible, vacuum sanders are used to limit the amount of dust
generated;
sanding dust and paint chippings be removed on a daily basis and appropriate
covered waste containers be provided within the facility;
a list of the above work practices be posted at the work area for the benefit of the
do-it-yourself vessel owners who may not be aware of the ports environmental
regulations;
techniques such as brushing and rolling take precedence over spraying to reduce
overspray and solvent emissions;
all painting be performed under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat skirts;
all painting be performed over a horizontal hard impermeable surface;
whenever possible, solvents and coatings with low volatility be used;
waste paints, solvents and rags be stored in covered waste containers to prevent
evaporation to the atmosphere; and
workers under the boat skirt be provided with appropriate full-face masks and
solvent-resistant gloves.
3.6.3 Prevention of pollution
In order to avoid, minimize and address potential contamination problems arising from
the day-to-day running of the port, the port management body, through the services of
the hygiene officer, should ensure that:
all food contact surfaces are cleaned and sanitized as per cleaning and sanitation
schedule prepared in accordance with the required international standards;
all the water (both fresh and seawater) and ice utilized inside the port is free of
contamination and checked along pre-established national guidelines by approved
laboratories;
all hygiene infrastructure inside the port is in perfect working order and that
defects are reported in an orderly fashion and repairs carried out;
enough stockpiles of detergents and cleansing chemicals are kept on site and
stored according to the manufacturers instructions;
the entire port area, including slipway, boatyard and servicing area, is swept and
kept clean at all times;
minor mechanical repairs involving oil or grease are not carried out on the quay
or on the vessel deck;
sewage treatment infrastructure is kept in perfect working order;
the appropriate waste reception facilities are used as specified (bilge water
separator, spent oil tanks, solid wastes bins and wet wastes bins);
no spillage of fuel takes place within the port confines and fuel/oil absorbent
materials are kept ready for use;
a pest control schedule is implemented and monitored on a routine basis; and
fines levied for infringements reflect the true cost of the impact on the
environment.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 40
3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Ben-Yami, M. & Anderson, A.M. 1985. Community fisheries centres: Guidelines for
establishment and operation. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 264. Rome, FAO.
FAO. 2009. Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Rome.
Pollnac, R.B. 1994. Research directed at developing local organizations for peoples
participation in fisheries management. In Pomeroy, R. S. Community management and
common property of coastal fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: concepts, methods and
experiences, pp. 94-106. Manila, ICLARM.
Pomeroy, R.S. (ed). 1994. Community management and common property of coastal
fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: concepts, methods and experiences. Manila, ICLARM.
Singh, N. & Ham, L. (eds). 1995. Community-based resources management and
sustainable livelihoods: the grass-roots of sustainable development. Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada: International Institute of Sustainable Development.
41
4. Environmental auditing
SUMMARY
The marine environment, including the oceans, all seas and adjacent coastal
areas, forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of the global
life-support system and a positive asset that presents opportunities for
sustainable development.
Degradation of the marine environment (loss of marine habitat like coral,
declining fish stocks, polluted seas, disappearing beaches, mangrove destruction)
can result from a wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use,
construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban development,
tourism and industry can all affect the marine environment. Coastal erosion
and siltation are of particular concern. Hence, rational use and development
of coastal areas as well as conservation of the marine environment require the
ability to determine the present state of these ecological systems and to predict
future conditions.
Thus, systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters is
needed for an integrated management approach to sustainable development and
to predict the effects of the construction of a port on the marine environment.
This chapter reviews the marine environmental parameters utilized by
environmentalists to predict the effects of the construction of a port or fishing
vessel landing site on the surrounding marine environment.
Within the decision-making process, regarding where to construct a port or
fishing vessel landing site, the objective is to have ensured that there would be
minimum adverse effects on the surrounding marine environment.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 42
CONTENTS
4.1 Environmental studies 43
4.1.1 Introduction 43
4.1.2 Standard procedures for environmental studies 43
4.1.3 Existing environment 44
4.1.4 Detail required and at what stages in the design 45
4.1.5 Procedures for environmental studies 46
4.2 Bibliography and further reading 46
Appendix 1: Case study 47
Environmental auditing 43
4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
4.1.1 Introduction
In developed countries, environmental audits in support of all applications for the
construction, upgrading or re-engineering of fishing ports are mandatory and planning
permission only granted for successful outcomes.
In developing countries, especially those with less stringent regulations, the sense in
carrying out environmental audits is sometimes not fully understood when planning
a new port or remodelling an existing facility, thus the audit may be considered to be
superfluous or a costly obstacle to development. On the other hand, in some instances,
planning permission may be granted at the highest level of government with the
understanding that environmental studies would be carried out by the developer. This
may seem to be acceptable if it is conditional as to what type of outcome would be
acceptable, but this may not always be the case.
Therefore, in general, an environmental audit should be drawn up in support of all
applications for the construction or improvement of harbours or landing places for
fishing vessels, whether in coastal zones or inland waters. For both small and large
projects alike, the port planner should first seek advice and/or guidelines from the
relevant ministries (environment, fisheries, etc.) before embarking on an environmental
audit. In most day-to-day cases, projects are usually small and by themselves cause
little environmental damage. However, the problems start with multiple small projects
mushrooming along a stretch of coastline without forward planning, which together
may have the same combined destructive power as a large project and may be more
difficult to control.
4.1.2 Standard procedures for environmental studies
Due to their relatively high cost, environmental studies are normally carried out in
steps in increasing detail as a project moves from formulation to final design.
Figure 1 illustrates the steps in the procedures required when a project moves from the
formulation stage to the final design stage. Briefly, the stages comprise:
the initial environmental examination (IEE), where a number of candidate sites are
examined and graded for suitability and potential environmental impact;
the environmental impact studies (EIS), consisting of detailed studies of the prime
candidate site. At the end of these studies, the findings are normally presented at
a public hearing as part of the consultation process and the final design refined
further; and
at the end of the second stage, the national agency responsible for the environment
then prepares an assessment of the impacts and recommendations known
collectively as the environmental impact assessment (EIA), which is then
forwarded to the government for a final decision.
Briefly, the Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) leading to the environmental impact
assessment (EIA) consist of the following stages:
An assessment of the existing environment prior to construction of the port
facility, including the land-use characteristics (recreation areas, dwelling areas,
forested zones, commercial zones, etc.) and socio-cultural activities (population
dynamics, migration, cultural and ethnic preferences, etc.) at the proposed site.
A list of the planned changes to be made to the environment by the proposed
project, globally referred to as the projects footprint (land requirement, size of
harbour basin, including breakwater foundations, dredging of access channels and
turning areas, reclamation for factories, new access roads, power stations, etc.).
An estimate of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing
environment (deeper water, loss of beach, increased road traffic, high water
consumption by factories, smoke and odour emissions from chimneys, etc.).
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 44
Proposed mitigation measures to lessen the anticipated impact on the existing
environment (increase of water production to compensate for higher consumption,
location of chimneys to minimize unpleasant odours or smoke from drifting
across the village, noise abatement around new sources of noise such as generators,
treatment of all sewage, collection and disposal of spent engine oil, etc.).
4.1.3 Existing environment
The existing environment around a project site may be assessed through:
onshore topographic and offshore bathymetric maps (down to 20 metre contour)
of the site, covering at least 1 kilometre in each direction along the coast;
aerial imagery of the above-mentioned area with a resolution not smaller than
1:2000 together with any satellite imagery available;
details of existing or planned coastal structures within 5 kilometres of the proposed
site;
a morphological description of the coastal zone of the site, backed up by a
geological description of important local features such as cliffs, sand dunes,
beaches, reefs, terraces, rivers, dams on nearby rivers, river mouths;
wave, tide or lake level statistical characteristics including probability tables for
extreme conditions;
seasonal variations in rainfall, river flows, water density, water temperature,
nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels;
geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline and
seabed, including source, volume and seasonal changes in littoral transport;
geotechnical investigation of the project site, including borings and laboratory
testing of samples;
maps of onshore and offshore habitats in and around the project site (coral reefs,
lagoon systems, mangroves, sea grass meadows, tidal wetlands, estuaries etc.);
maps of types of habitat in and around the project site (marine protected areas,
areas of refuge, feeding grounds, nursery and spawning);
lists of the species to be harvested, lists of protected or rare species and biological
indicators as well as the methods of fishing;
layouts of nearby settlements, properties, water wells, flood alleviation canals,
cultural places, bathing facilities, archaeological sites, etc.;
layouts, size and capacity of resource networks, such as water supply networks,
power supply and distribution networks, road and other communications
networks, sewerage networks, etc.; and
location maps of any type of activity discharging, directly or indirectly, effluents
into the aquatic environment, including distant but connected water courses,
such as sewer outfalls, onshore fish farms, slaughter houses, logging/saw mill
concessions, wood pulp factories, mines and ore reduction plants and other
industries.
4.1.3.1 Planned changes
The planned changes to the environment should include:
general description of the entire project, including location, type, size and typical
cross-sections of the various components that together make up the project
together with a description of the proposed stages of construction;
the additional demands which would be placed on the locally available resources,
both during construction and operation of the project;
all the effluents and emissions arising from the project; and
the changes in the landscape, including land use characteristics and socio-cultural
activities envisaged in the project.
Environmental auditing 45
4.1.3.2 Anticipated impact
The estimation of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing
environment should include:
topographic, bathymetric and oceanographic changes, including siltation and
erosion, during and after construction, until stable conditions are resumed,
together with their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use, usually achieved
through mathematical or physical models;
changes in water quality (temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen,
nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels) during and after
construction and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;
sources of pollution discharging effluents, emissions or solid wastes during and
after construction until stable conditions are resumed and their effect on habitats,
flora, fauna and land use; and
the visual impact on the seascape and the landscape and general quality of life
around the proposed project site.
4.1.3.3 Mitigation measures
The proposed mitigation measures should be:
technical, i.e. oil reception facilities, waste recycling schemes, sewage treatment
systems, chlorofluorocarbon-free refrigeration equipment and bypass dredging
where applicable;
managerial, i.e. a clearly defined harbour board, commensurate with the size of the
proposed project and the responsibilities expected of it; and
legal and administrative, i.e. frameworks formulated in conformity with national
laws to provide for sanctions in respect of violations.
4.1.4 Detail required and at what stages in the design
All studies connected with port projects are costly as they require the use of vessels and
specialized engineering and diving equipment. It is an established fact that the detail
required at each phase of the project increases as the final design stage is approached.
Table 1 illustrates the increase in detail and the associated rise in costs as the final
design stage is reached for typical hydrographic or bathymetric requirements for a
port project.
Whereas a project may fail to get past the preliminary stage, once it reaches the final
stage it is very likely that it will be constructed; hence, the cost of the bathymetric
survey then becomes part of the design cost. The outline and preliminary costs are
considered as unreimbursable investigative costs. Likewise for other studies, such as
topographic surveys, geological surveys, geotechnical studies, benthic studies, water
quality studies, etc.
TABLE 1
Typical bathymetric requirements
Phase of project Outline Preliminary Final
Phase of studies Formulation IEE EIS/EIA
Standard required Navigation chart in
largest scale available
Spot soundings by
handline from fishing
boat
Full wide-area
bathymetric survey
with echosounder
Typical cost (2009) not
including consultant fees
US$100 US$1 000 US$50 000
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 46
4.1.5 Procedures for environmental studies
4.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 1992. Assessment of the
Environmental Impact of Port Development. AGuidebook for EIA of Port Development.
New York, United Nations.
FAO. 1996. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 1, Fishing Operations.
Rome.
ORiordan T. (ed). 1995. Environmental Science for Environmental Management.
University of East Anglia, United Kingdom.
FIGURE 1
Standard procedure for environmental studies

DECISION IS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT TO BUILD A NEW PORT IN A LOCATION
DESIGN CONSULTANTS FORMULATE OUTLINE DESIGN OF PORT AND
DRAW UP A SHORTLIST OF AT LEAST TWO POTENTIALLY SUITABLE SITES
FIRST ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY IEE INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION
ENVIRONMENTAL/DESIGN CONSULTANTS CARRY OUT IEE
THE SITES ARE GRADED FOR PROs AND CONs USING SWOT* TABLES

THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE OUTLINE
DESIGN ARE LISTED AND THE SCOPE FOR THE DETAILED STUDIES PREPARED
ENVIRONMENTAL/DESIGN CONSULTANTS CARRY OUT EIS
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

BATHYMETRIC SURVEY

GEOTECHNICAL STUDY

BENTHIC AND WATER QUALITY
PHYSICAL/MATHEMATICAL MODEL

SECOND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY EIS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDIES

GOVERNMENT PREPARES TORs FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BASED ON IEE
DESIGN CONSULTANTS REFINE OUTLINE DESIGN INTO FINAL DESIGN
BASED ON THE EIS FINDINGS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANTS FINALIZE EIA ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
CONSULTANTS SUBMIT EIS FOR PUBLIC CONSULTATION (PUBLIC HEARING)
DESIGN CONSULTANTS REFINE FINAL DESIGN AFTER PUBLIC HEARING
GOVERNMENT DECIDES WAY FORWARD ON OUTCOME OF EIA
DECISION MAY REQUIRE CABINET APPROVAL
GOVERNMENT ACCEPTS OR REJECTS OUTCOME
HALTS OR APPROVES PROJECT FOR CONSTRUCTION

SOCIAL IMPACT

*Stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats.

Environmental auditing 47
APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDY
Given situation
At a small fishing village where fishing vessels are presently beached along a stretch
of clean coastline and sewage from houses filters into the shoreline at various points
ensuring that pollution concentration levels are low, construction of a new timber jetty
is proposed and when it is built it is envisaged that a boat-repair slipway will be built
together with a wet market and other shops selling food. It is envisaged that the jetty
will also attract vessels from neighbouring villages to discharge fish there and service
the vessels.
Possible consequences of constructing the jetty
The jetty per se is a simple structure and apart from the fact that timber used for its
construction should be from plantation sources and not from virgin forests, it has little
or no influence on the surrounding environment. The jetty, however, also acts as a
magnet for other types of development which, when taken as a whole, can inflict great
damage on the environment if not planned and then managed properly. Invariably,
workshops, dwellings and businesses start growing up around the jetty and the once
tranquil village may start to suffer from:
increased pollution (oil) from the boat engines in the area of the jetty;
increased road traffic, parking requirements and accidents near the jetty;
water shortages if copious amounts of clean freshwater are diverted to the wet
market;
increased activity around the jetty will increase the amount of sewage discharged
on the beach;
a large volume of fuel for the vessels would then be required, requiring road
tankers to move the fuel and increasing the risk of spillage;
increased noise levels from cars trapped in traffic jams and generators running at
all times of the day and night;
increased pollution from works on the slipway;
overcrowding;
damage to existing road network from heavy vehicles, trucks, fuel tankers; and
increased risk of drinking water pollution if supply is from groundwater.
Pretty soon, the once tranquil village would be turned into a chaotic, smelly and
noisy environment, with polluted beaches and traffic jams (especially around the wet
market area) and polluted air from smoke-belching vehicles, etc. This is exactly the
scenario an environmental audit is meant to identify before the damage is done.
In the valuation of coastal resources, the planner should take into account all
elements of value, not just those elements for which a ready market happens to exist
and to which a financial figure may be attached. The fact that a resource is not traded
in a market does not mean it is of no value. The health implications of fresh air cannot
be ignored if a once tranquil village is turned into a busy fish marketing centre with
fume-belching trucks constantly plying up and down the main street because a bypass
was considered too expensive at the design stage.
Could the market have been placed somewhere else?
Why is the electric generator so close to houses?
Why is the smoke-stack so short that smoke and soot engulf inhabited areas?
The social benefits of a clean beach (weekend family walkabout and permanent
playing ground for children) should not be ignored if a wet market is proposed to be
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 48
built nearby; rotten fish and sewage from such places invariably end up on the beach
rendering it unfit for human use. Therefore, why:
are the effluents not treated or removed for disposal; and
is there no outfall to discharge sewage away from the waterline.
The ecological (and sometimes tourist) importance of intact coral reefs or mangroves
(which provide coastal stability against storms and support mangrove fisheries) should
be borne in mind when deciding on a location for a new coastal structure thus raising
the questions as to:
was road access to an alternative, less-sensitive site considered first before the
mangrove was knocked down;
could the port have been sited opposite a natural break in the coral reef; and
could the structure have been designed in piles to save on coral rock fill.
Furthermore, tranquillity (absence of noise) should never be ignored when deciding
on the location of new roads, generators or pumps, for example:
generators can be sound-proofed;
a water pump can be run on electric power instead of a noisy diesel engine; and
a generator can be moved away from dwellings.
Invariably, both the design and the construction of a project become more expensive
to implement and it is up to the port planner (in conjunction with local authorities) to
decide how green a project should be.
49
5. Hydrographic surveys
SUMMARY
In the past, many artisanal shelters and fishing ports were built at convenient
locations, with no particular attention paid to such environmental factors as
wave heights, sudden changes in water depths, uncharted reefs, currents, tidal
streams, seaweed and mobile beaches (sand drift). Many of the structures were
subsequently expanded and, in countless cases around the world, many of the
problems that used to be considered minor have now developed into major
ones, with some shelters, for example, fouling up with seaweed or silting up
(shelter mouth facing the wrong direction) or just being inaccessible in rough
weather (reefs too close to entrance channel).
A hydrographic survey, also known as a bathymetric survey, is therefore
essential if the correct design decisions are to be made right from the project
inception stage to ensure that the landing is easy to use and free of major
maintenance problems under all conditions.
This chapter (related to Chapter 7) reviews the various types of hydrographic
surveys and equipment that exist in relation to the amount of detail required
during the design stage and illustrates clearly how this can be applied at the
artisanal level. Consequently, the reader will be able to draw up appropriate
terms of reference for hydrographic surveys.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 50
CONTENTS
5.1 Hydrographic standards and classifications 51
5.1.1 Introduction 51
5.1.2 Methodologies 52
5.1.3 Vertical depth measurements 52
5.1.4 Horizontal position fixing 53
5.2 Effects of vessel roll pitch and heave 57
5.3 The WGS84 datum 58
5.4 Specifying hydrographic surveys 59
5.4.1 Outline design and project formulation 59
5.4.2 Preliminary design 59
5.4.3 Final design 60
5.4.4 Construction phase of a port 60
5.4.5 Maintenance dredging and reclamation 60
5.5 Sample surveys 60
5.6 Tide surveys 61
5.6.1 Tides 61
5.6.2 Tide datum 61
5.6.3 Primary tide stations 62
5.6.4 Tidal streams 62
5.7 Bibliography and further reading 64
Hydrographic surveys 51
5.1 HYDROGRAPHIC STANDARDS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
5.1.1 Introduction
The results from a hydrographic survey are normally plotted to produce a bathymetric
contour map, which is a plan of the depth of the sea bed arranged in such a manner as
to show lines of equal depth from the coastline. In a hydrographic survey, the actual
measurement of the water depth is the easy part. The main problem is not knowing
how far the survey boat is from the coastline when the depth is recorded.
Boat A in Figure 1, for example, has no point of reference in relation to the coast.
Boat B, on the other hand, is using a calibrated float line to obtain a FIX or position
with respect to the coastline; in this case, 20 metres away on the straight line between
the peg and the buoy. Hence, for each vertical depth recording, a horizontal position
FIX is also required. Both vertical depth measurements and horizontal position
measurements may be carried out either manually (low tech, low cost) or using
sophisticated depth and position fixing equipment (high tech, high cost), depending on
the end use of the survey.
Hydrographic surveys are required for a wide variety of purposes, ranging from
simple reconnaissance (at project formulation, for instance) to payment for work carried
out underwater, such as dredging or reclamation. The size of the area to be surveyed
also influences the methodology to be used and hence the equipment required. In
ascending order of accuracy, hydrographic surveys may be broadly classified as:
Reconnaissance or Class 3
Project condition or design or Class 2
Contract payment or Class 1
Levels of accuracy for hydrographic surveys are intended to correspond directly
to these three classes (Table 1). Class 3 is the lowest accuracy standard, Class 2 is a
medium accuracy standard, and Class 1 is the highest accuracy standard.
Since expensive horizontal positioning and depth measurement equipment may
be installed aboard a particular survey vessel, this same equipment may be typically
used for all three classes. Any accuracy distinction between the classes is primarily a
function of the field procedures used, along with recognized equipment limitations.
FIGURE 1
Fixing a vessels position offshore
5 m
5 m
5 m
5 m
B
A
TABLE 1
Maximum allowable errors in hydrographic surveys
Type of survey Class 3 Class 2 Class 1
Vertical accuracy 500 mm 300 mm 150 mm
Horizontal positioning 100 metres 12 metres 6 metres
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 52
5.1.2 Methodologies
There are various methodologies in use nowadays to carry out a hydrographic survey,
depending on the end use of the survey and the size of the area to be surveyed. Vertical
depth measurements may be carried out using:
hand-held calibrated lead sounding line;
simple engineering echosounder recording on paper; and
advanced engineering echosounder recording on a data logger and linked to
position fixer via integrated software (fully automated).
Horizontal position fixing measurements may be carried out using:
hand-held optical square in conjunction with a float line;
single theodolite in conjunction with a float line or twin theodolites;
constant range tracking electronic positioning system (EPS); and
differential Global Positioning System (GPS).
5.1.3 Vertical depth measurements
Figure 2 illustrates the hand-held calibrated lead sounding line, right, and on the left,
the simple engineering echosounder (transducer not shown).
Figure 3 illustrates an advanced echosounder of the type used in modern
Class 1 surveys. The echosounder is linked to a software package and yields electronic
contour maps directly. This type of echosounder is also used for real-time monitoring
of dredging works.
FIGURE 2
Echosounder and lead line
Engineering-type echosounder
Detail A
Calibrated
sounding
chain
1
0
0
FIGURE 3
Advanced echosounder integrated with survey software
(www.reson.com)
Hydrographic surveys 53
5.1.4 Horizontal position fixing
5.1.4.1 Method 1
The hand-held optical square in conjunction with a float line method, also known
as the parallel line method (Figure 4), is the most basic and consists in setting out a
straight baseline along the beach, say 100 metres long or more, depending on the extent
of the hydrographic survey, with a ranging rod placed at either end. At every 5 or
10 metres from either end (5 metres for irregular terrain and 10 metres for flat beach),
a steel peg is driven into the ground and, by means of an optical square (or theodolite),
a buoy is dropped offshore at right angles to each peg.
One end of the float line is anchored to the steel peg and the other to its corresponding
buoy offshore. By tying in the baseline to the topographic survey, the depth readings
may be plotted on paper in the right place. It is always a good practice to extend the
survey about 100 metres on either side of the proposed shelter or landing.
The actual depth of the water may be read by simply lowering the calibrated
sounding chain every 5 or 10 metres and the person using the chain calls out the
readings to another person in the boat who records the figures on paper in the correct
order. This type of recording yields a grid with spot levels only. If an engineering
echosounder is available with an experienced operator, the actual soundings may be
recorded on the special thermal paper roll by the instrument itself. In this case, only
the operator need accompany the boat pilot on the survey vessel up and down the
graduated float lines. A continuous bottom profile is thus obtained on a continuous
strip chart and sounding levels scaled off the chart.
When carrying out the hydrographic survey:
The sounding chain must reach the bottom in a vertical line; when using a
sounding chain the vessel must be still when the actual reading takes place. If the
area is subject to strong tidal streams, the weight of the sinker should be increased
by attaching further weights to the chain.
The depth reading must be recorded with the time at which the recording was
made to allow for changes in the level of the tide.
If an echosounder is being used, inbound runs are preferred to outbound runs. By
starting an inbound run, say 50 metres away from the float, the vessel's skipper
will be in a better position to place the boat parallel to the floating line.
In both cases, stormy or windy days should be avoided as should the flood and
ebb periods in strong tidal areas. The sea should be perfectly calm.
FIGURE 4
Parallel line method
5 m
10 m
15 m
20 m
25 m
30 m
35 m
40 m
45 m
10 m
on long
Straight beach
5 m
on rocky
Coastline
O
u
tb
o
u
n
d
ru
n
In
b
o
u
n
d
ru
n
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 54
In rocky areas, before removing the float lines, a swimmer wearing a pair of
goggles (or diver) should then swim up and down the surveyed line looking for
submerged rock outcrops or wrecks. The diver should point these out by placing
small floats near them and measure the depth of water over the obstacle. These
floats should then be plotted on the survey map by taking a series of fixes from
the baseline with the theodolite, Method 2, triangulation.
Figure 5 illustrates the type of plotted soundings derived by this method of survey.
This method is considered acceptable for all three classes of surveys with a maximum
offshore distance of 200 metres and is suitable for fish landing areas, small fishing ports,
breakwater construction, minor reclamation and minor excavation and/or dredging.
FIGURE 6
The calibrated float line maximum length 200 metres
Float line
A
A
5 m
Material Nylon Polyethylene Polypropylene
Stretch (elasticity) High elongation Low elongation Low elongation
Weight of 200 m 20.6 kg 16.0 kg 14.5 kg
Not suitable Suitable Most suitable
FIGURE 5
A soundings plot using the parallel line method
Hydrographic surveys 55
The calibrated float line, illustrated in Figure 6, should be made up from a length
of 12 mm diameter polypropylene rope with coaxial coloured floats at 5 and 10 metre
intervals. One large spherical red float should be installed every 50 metres to ease chain
readings from the survey vessel. The completed float line may be either wound on a
purpose-made plastic drum or stowed inside a large fishermens basket and paid out
over the bow or stern of the vessel.
The float line is rather difficult to keep stretched in a perfect line in the presence of
wind, waves or current. It is therefore recommended that survey work involving float
lines be carried out when the sea is perfectly calm (Figure 7).
5.1.4.2 Method 2
The single theodolite, in conjunction with a float line (ray method) or twin theodolite
intersection (triangulation method), is the second most basic method of fixing positions
offshore. In the past, positioning by these methods from baseline points onshore was
often used to position vessels on near-shore projects.
FIGURE 8
The ray method
FIGURE 7
Recording the soundings manually at 5 m centres
INBOUND
FLOATS AT
5.0 m
CENTRES
CALIBRATED
SOUNDING CHAIN
FLOAT LINE
The ray method
of plotting soundings
This peg tied into the local
topographic survey
Sinker and buoy
a

a
+
5

a
+
1
0

Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 56

Although it is no longer commonly employed, this method is considered acceptable
for all three classes of surveys with a maximum offshore distance of 300 metres for the
ray method, Figure 8, and around 1 000 metres for the triangulation method. Beyond
this distance it may be difficult to collimate the theodolite on small objects, especially
during hot summer days. More often, this method is used to perform EPS calibration
when fixed points are inaccessible to the vessel. Triangulation positioning techniques
are labour intensive. Two shore-based transit or theodolite observers are required,
along with communication equipment with which to transmit the observed angles (or
direction azimuths) to the surveyor. Due to the higher precision and stability of the
instruments, the resultant positional accuracy can be quite good, provided observing
procedures are properly executed.
Simultaneously observed positional fixes are usually radioed over to the survey
boat. Fixes may be at equal time intervals or as called for on a random or as-needed
basis, such as during EPS calibration. Advance warning is made of upcoming fix events
so that observers can initiate precise tracking of the boat. A defined point aboard the
vessel (mast or aerial) is normally tracked. This well-marked point should be centred
over the echosounder transducer.
5.1.4.3 Method 3
The constant range tracking EPS used to be the most commonly employed positioning
method. This method replaced the triangulation theodolites with electronic microwave
ranging EPS which utilize range-range positioning techniques. This method has now
been superseded by GPS techniques.
5.1.4.4 Method 4
Differential GPS is the primary survey reference for all types of present-day
engineering and construction activities. GPS is a continuous, all-weather, worldwide,
satellite-based electronic positioning system. It is available to the general public and is
known as a standard positioning service. Over the past several years, a technique has
been developed to process signals from two GPS receivers operating simultaneously
to determine the 3-D line vector between the two receivers. This technique is known
as differential positioning (DGPS) and can produce real-time positions of a moving
vessel, Figure 9.
FIGURE 9
Differential GPS real-time measurement of position of survey vessel
Hydrographic surveys 57
5.2 EFFECTS OF VESSEL ROLL PITCH AND HEAVE
Correcting observed depths for the superimposed effects of vessel roll, pitch and heave
is perhaps the most difficult aspect of hydrographic surveying since all three conditions
can occur simultaneously and at different periods. Roll and pitch introduce bias error
in depth, resulting in a deeper reading over a level bottom (Figures 10 and 11). On
side-mounted transducers, this bias error is compounded by the random up and down
motion (heave) of the vessel.
Unless reliable motion compensation devices are used, the only practical method of
minimizing vessel motion effects is to limit the maximum allowable sea states under
which a particular class of survey may be performed.
Such limitations are highly subjective and can have significant economic impacts,
due either to delayed survey work or to inaccurate payment when a Class 1 survey is
performed under adverse conditions. Maximum sea state limitations must also factor
FIGURE 11
The effect of vessel pitch and heave on soundings
FIGURE 10
The effect of vessel roll on depth soundings
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 58
in the size and relative stability of the survey vessel (Figure 12), along with the effects
of the prevailing wave direction relative to the survey lines or cross-sections. Thus,
a simple maximum allowable wave height criterion is difficult to specify. Hence,
hydrographic surveys are best performed during calm weather spells.
5.3 THE WGS84 DATUM
In Figure 9, GPS readings of the roving antenna are given above a datum called
the WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984). A cursory look at the topographic and
oceanographic details of the globe indicates that the Earth is a very irregular and
complex shape. To map positions of those details, a simpler model of the basic shape of
the Earth, sometimes called the figure of the Earth, is required.
The science of geodesy, on which all mapping and navigation is based, aims firstly
to determine the shape and size of the simplified figure of the Earth and goes on to
determine the location of the features of the Earths land surface from tectonic plates,
coastlines and mountain ranges down to the control marks used for surveying and
making maps. Hence, geodesists provide the fundamental points of known coordinates
which cartographers and navigators take as their starting point. The first question of
geodesy, then, is What is the
best basic, simplified shape of
the Earth?
The Earth is very nearly
spherical. However, it has a tiny
equatorial bulge that makes the
radius at the equator about 0.33
percent bigger than the radius
at the poles. Therefore, the
simple geometric shape which
most closely approximates the
shape of the Earth is a biaxial
ellipsoid, which is the three-
dimensional figure generated
by rotating an ellipse about
FIGURE 12
Typical small vessel outfitted for hydrographic surveys
FIGURE 13
Best-fitting ellipsoid on the shape of the Earth
Hydrographic surveys 59
its shorter axis. The shorter axis of the ellipsoid approximately coincides with the
rotation axis of the Earth. Because the ellipsoid shape does not fit the Earth perfectly,
there are many different ellipsoids in use, some of which are designed to best-fit the
whole Earth and some to best-fit just one region (Figure 13). The datum used for GPS
positioning is called WGS84. It consists of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system and an associated ellipsoid, so that WGS84 positions can be described as either
XYZ Cartesian coordinates or latitude, longitude and ellipsoid height coordinates. The
origin of the datum is the geocentre (the centre of mass of the Earth) and it is designed
for positioning anywhere on Earth. The WGS84 datum is a set of conventions, adopted
constants and formulae and includes the following items:
The WGS84 Cartesian axes and ellipsoid are geocentric; that is, their origin is the
centre of mass of the whole Earth including oceans and atmosphere.
The scale of the axes is that of the local Earth frame.
The orientation of the ellipsoid equator and prime meridian of zero longitude
coincide with the equator and prime meridian of the Bureau Internationale de
l'Heure at the moment in time 1984.0 (that is, midnight on New Years Eve
1983).
Since 1984, the orientation of the axes and ellipsoid has changed such that the
average motion of the crustal plates relative to the ellipsoid is zero. This ensures
that the Z axis of the WGS84 datum coincides with the International Reference
Pole, and that the prime meridian of the ellipsoid (that is, the plane containing the
Z and X Cartesian axes) coincides with the International Reference Meridian.
5.4 SPECIFYING HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Although hydrographic surveys have become fully automated through the use of
custom-designed software, they are still considered expensive surveys to carry out,
especially when the survey equipment has to be moved in from far afield.
The size of the area to be surveyed depends greatly on the project being attempted
and some basic rules-of-thumb are appropriate (Table 2).
5.4.1 Outline design and project formulation
During project formulation no physical surveys are required. A sea chart at the
appropriate scale is more than enough for selecting potential sites to insert in a shortlist
for further detailed studies.
5.4.2 Preliminary design
At preliminary design or project preparation, a Class 3 survey is adequate. This can
be an all manual survey carried out from a local fishing vessel using locally available
equipment. If the project is located on or near a sandy beach, the area covered by the
survey should extend at least 250 metres on either side of the project and down to the
7 metre contour.
TABLE 2
Class of hydrographic surveys
Project design stage Outline Preliminary Final
Phase of studies Formulation IEE EIS/EIA
Standard required Navigation chart CLASS 3 CLASS 2
Type of construction Port Dredging Reclamation
Standard required Class 1 Class 1 Class 1
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 60
5.4.3 Final design
During the final design of a port project, a physical or mathematical model may need to
be built and run to determine the potential impacts of the port on the adjacent coastline.
A Class 2 survey is required. If the port project is located on a rocky coastline, the area
covered by the survey should extend at least 500 metres on either side of the project.
If the port project lies on a sandy coastline, the survey should extend 1 000 metres on
either side of the project. In both cases, the offshore extent of the survey must reach
the 20 metre contour.
5.4.4 Construction phase of a port
During the construction phase of a port, a new and more detailed survey is required for
the purposes of payment. Monitoring surveys may also be required in areas prone to
erosion or accretion. Class 1 surveys are normally required at this stage and the extent
of the survey does not need to exceed the submarine footprint of the port structures.
5.4.5 Maintenance dredging and reclamation
Only Class 1 surveys are required and the extent does not need to exceed the submarine
footprint of the dredging works.
5.5 SAMPLE SURVEYS
Figures 14 and 15 are examples of the type of precision required at different stages in
the design and construction process of a port. Figure 14 is a Class 2 survey that was
commissioned during the environmental impact studies (EIS) for a new port to determine
the behaviour of waves
impacting the site via
the construction and
operation of a physical
model. The vertical
resolution required at
this stage was 1.0 metre
(with a Class 2 accuracy)
with a horizontal grid
of 100 metres (also with
a Class 2 accuracy).
Figure 15 illustrates a
Class 1 survey utilized
for the final payment of
the contractor for the
excavation work carried
out for the construction
of the breakwater. The
vertical resolution is
now 10 centimetres with
a horizontal grid of 2.50
metres, both well below
the maximum Class 1
accuracy.
FIGURE 14
A Class 2 survey used for the EIS of the breakwater (in red)
Hydrographic surveys 61
5.6 TIDE SURVEYS
5.6.1 Tides
Tides should not be confused with tidal streams, although loose terminology
has undoubtedly come to use the word tide for both. A tide is a periodic vertical
movement in the level of the sea, whereas a tidal stream, even though resulting from a
tide, is a periodic horizontal movement. Tides affect the depth of water at a place; tidal
streams affect navigation courses.
A tide is a periodic vertical movement in the level of the sea. In consequence of the
solar cycle, at times of new and full moon, at a place the highest high waters (HHW) and
the lowest low waters (LLW) of a tide cycle SPRING TIDES will be experienced
and 7- days after these, with the first and last quarters of the moon, the lowest high
waters and the highest low waters of a tide cycle NEAP TIDES will occur.
There are thus two separate tide cycles: height fluctuations from SPRINGS to
NEAPS twice each in a lunar month (29 days), Figure 16, and height oscillations of
each tide from high water to low water twice each in each lunar day.
5.6.2 Tide datum
The hydrographic surveys in tidal areas should be referenced to a base elevation or
chart datum, Figure 16, normally taken as the lowest astronomical tide level, or LAT,
also referred to as LLWS (Lower Low Water Spring) in some countries. This level is the
result of the effect of celestial bodies only and does not include the additional effects
of:
atmospheric pressure (low pressure increases tide level);
storm surge (increases tide level);
wind (landward wind increases tide level); and
heavy rainfall (increased flow in estuaries increases tide level).
FIGURE 15
A Class 1 survey used for the payment of the excavation of the same breakwater
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 62
In areas where this is not possible, hydrographic surveys in tidal areas should
be referenced to a base elevation which has been determined by measuring the tide
heights over the Tidal Datum Epoch. The Tidal Datum Epoch is the specific 19-year
period or Metonic cycle (where the moon returns to exactly the same place at the same
longitude and against the same
constellation in the sky with
the same phase) over which
tide observations are taken and
reduced to obtain mean values
(e.g. Mean Lower Low Water
or MLLW) for tidal datums.
Due to the long-term rise
in global sea level and land
subsidence, tidal datum readings
are constantly changing and
require continuous monitoring
and updating.
To facilitate the process
of establishing tidal datum
readings, tide stations are
operated at various locations
(at all major and secondary
port cities) for long- (primary),
medium- (secondary),
and short-term (tertiary)
durations.
5.6.3 Primary tide stations
Long-term tide stations are referred to as primary control tide stations. These are
tide stations at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum
19-year Metonic cycle. Their purpose is to provide data for computing accepted
datums needed for a project and the predicted tides are normally published as a tide
almanac. Nowadays, with the advent of the Internet, tidal predictions are available for
most parts of the world, Figure 17. Tidal datum readings may also be determined by
recovery of nearby tidal benchmarks from a former datum determination or by new
tidal observations conducted in accordance with the correct procedures, Figure 18.
A length of plastic tape stapled to a length of steel tube makes an ideal tide board.
This may either be buried in a concrete weight on a sandy bed or cemented to a rocky
coast as illustrated in Figure 18. In both cases, the tide board should be installed in
a sheltered area and observations carried out for at least one month. The longer the
observation period, the more accurate the establishment of the tidal datum.
5.6.4 Tidal streams
The tidal phenomenon described above gives rise to tidal streams periodic horizontal
movements of the water. In open ocean this horizontal movement is either non-existent
or negligible, but in inshore and coastal waters where there is any appreciable vertical
movement a horizontal movement also can be expected.
The cause of tidal streams is primarily a change in water levels.
The average velocity of tidal streams depends upon the average height of the
advancing tide wave: in deep ocean where this height is small the stream rate is either
very feeble or negligible; where the height is large the velocity will be correspondingly
great. As a tidal stream encounters any obstruction to its to-and-fro movement, its
direction and velocity are affected.
Land heights
on sea charts
HHWS (SPRINGS)
HW (NEAPS)
MEAN SEA
LEVEL
LW (NEAPS)
LLWS (SPRINGS)
SEA BED
CHART DATUM
ALSO LOWEST
ASTRONOMICAL
TIDE
SOUNDINGS
ON CHARTS
N
e
a
p

r
a
n
g
e
N
e
a
p

r
i
s
e
S
p
r
i
n
g

r
a
n
g
e
S
p
r
i
n
g

r
i
s
e
FIGURE 16
Tide datum
Hydrographic surveys 63
So when a tidal stream meets a headland it is deflected around it, and usually
immediately off the headland its velocity is locally increased. In Figure 19 above, its
direction is deflected round the headland into the bay beyond, causing an indraught of
indefinite direction and velocity. In the bay itself the spreading out of the effect of the
stream, combined with the fact that the real strength runs from headland to headland
leaving comparatively unmoved water in between, causes a diminished velocity.
FIGURE 17
Typical predicted tides for a total station showing the neap tide
FIGURE 18
Re-establishment of tidal benchmarks
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 64
In the absence of tides, feeble sea currents may be experienced during strong sea
storms. These currents, though not very great when compared to tidal streams, should
be observed closely because they usually carry weeds uprooted from offshore areas.
Currents in general make navigation more difficult but not impossible. In the
presence of seaweed or flotsam (including timber and vegetation carried down by
rivers), however, navigation may be hindered by weeds fouling up propellers. Flotsam,
or floating debris, may also prove troublesome if it piles up inside a harbour by a
prevailing tidal stream or sea current. Using a simple can-float, Figure 19 right, with a
counterweight hanging about a metre below water level, the strength of a current may
be measured by timing it to travel a known distance along the coast, or across a bay.
When measuring currents at sea, the following points should be observed:
the general direction and duration of the storm or incoming waves, if the currents
are storm generated;
if seaweed appears, after how many hours of storm does it make its first
appearance; and
if flotsam or driftwood appears, their landfall, in many instances one particular
spot or bay may accumulate more debris than adjacent ones, in which case it
should be discarded as a potential harbour site.
5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), 4 quai Antoine 1er, BP 445 MC 98011
Monaco Cedex.
International Hydrographic Organization (other publications) (www.iho.shom.fr)
Promulgation of Radio Navigation Warnings
General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO)
FIG/IHO International Advisory Board on Standards for Hydrographic Surveyors
Technical aspects of the Law of the Sea
Technical assistance to developing hydrographic offices
US Army Corps of Engineers. 1994. Hydrographic Surveying: Engineering and Design.
Washington DC, US Army Corps of Engineers.
FIGURE 19
Tidal streams and a tidal float used for measuring currents
Almost
slack
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6. Dredging
SUMMARY
Dredging and underwater excavation are an important aspect in the design
and construction of certain key elements of a fishing harbours infrastructure.
Capital dredging may also be an important aspect in the design of a new port
if access channels or water deepening of a basin are required for the first time.
Maintenance dredging is essential to keep certain access channels, fishing port
basins and canals subject to high sedimentation open to navigation.
This chapter reviews the various types of dredging techniques that exist in
relation to the characteristics of the material to be dredged. Thus the reader
will be able to assess the dredging requirements for small ports and be able to
suggest the most suitable method of dredging in whatever type of material.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 66
CONTENTS
6.1 Requirements for dredging 67
6.1.1 Volume estimates 67
6.1.2 Characterization of materials 67
6.2 Dredging techniques 69
6.2.1 Pontoon-mounted grabbing 70
6.2.2 Dragline 71
6.2.3 Pontoon-mounted pumping 71
6.2.4 Trailing suction 72
6.2.5 Blasting 73
6.2.6 Bucket dredging 75
6.2.7 Cutter-suction 75
6.2.8 Backhoe dredgers 76
6.2.9 Chiselling 77
6.2.10 Other methods 77
6.2.11 Dredging adjacent to quay walls 78
6.3 Disposal of dredged sediments 79
6.3.1 Introduction 79
6.3.2 Classification of dredged sediments 79
6.3.3 Environmental impacts of dredging 79
6.3.4 Open water disposal 80
6.3.5 Confined shore disposal 81
6.4 Dredging of fairways 84
6.4.1 Minimum width 84
6.4.2 Minimum depth 85
6.5 Bibliography and further reading 86
Dredging 67
6.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR DREDGING
The basic requirements to assess dredging works are:
an accurate estimate of the volumes to be excavated or dredged; and
an accurate evaluation of the nature of the material to be excavated.
6.1.1 Volume estimates
Accurate volume estimates are important for the choice of dredging plant, production
estimates, times of execution and ultimately project costs. Expressed in quantities, a
dredging operation can extend from a few hundred cubic metres to many millions
of cubic metres. In order to arrive at an accurate dredging volume, the following is
required:
a detailed design layout showing areas to be dredged and the design depths
required together with the relevant cross-sections;
a Class 2 hydrographic survey of the area with bathymetric contours at
1 metre intervals for extensive projects (see Figure 14 in Chapter 5) or a Class 1
hydrographic grid with bathymetric contours at 0.25 metre intervals for isolated
structures (see Figure 15 in Chapter 5); and
a geotechnical survey, including borehole logs, in situ and laboratory test results
and samples.
6.1.2 Characterization of materials
An evaluation of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the sediment
to be dredged is necessary to determine potential dredging methods, beneficial use,
disposal options and potential environmental impact.
6.1.2.1 Physical characteristics
The nature of the material to be dredged decides the type of equipment or method to
be adopted to carry out the work thereby influencing the cost of the project, especially
when mobilizing the plant from a distant site.
In practice, no sea bed material will fall precisely into a certain predetermined
category, so combinations of types must be described accurately. When a specialist soil-
investigation contractor is given the task of classifying the materials to be dredged, soil
classification problems do not arise. Problems do arise, however, with artisanal-scale
projects, where the volumes to be dredged are usually very small and the construction
budgets are very limited.
In the absence of detailed geotechnical studies (i.e. on very small projects), clear
descriptions should be noted down in addition to the collection of the samples in air-
tight glass jars. Typical examples of such descriptions include:
(i) In sand and silt deposits:
compacted, coarse, angular sand mixed with scattered broken sea shells;
loose, rounded, fine to medium sand with coarse gravel;
brown, rounded, slightly compact fine sand;
hard, brown clay containing sand and gravel;
soft, grey/blue, sand silt; and
stiff, fissured, grey clay.
(ii) In clay or clayey deposits:
very soft, may be squeezed easily between fingers;
soft, easily moulded by fingers;
firm, requires strong pressure to mould by fingers;
stiff, cannot be moulded by fingers, indented by thumb; and
hard, tough, indented with difficulty by thumb nail.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 68
In granular deposits, it is useful to remember that if all the sand grains are visible to
the naked eye, then the material is entirely sand. If individual particles are invisible, the
sample is classified as silt or silty sand. Gravel may be described as rounded, irregular,
angular, flaky or elongated. Its texture may be classified as polished, smooth or rough.
The general classification for granular material is as follows (Table 1):
TABLE 1
Classification of granular materials (diameter in mm)
6.1.2.2 Chemical characteristics
In 1972, the general interest in the importance of the environment resulted in the holding
of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden.
As part of the preparatory process for the conference an Inter-Governmental Working
Group on Marine Pollution held its first meeting in London in 1971 and the Stockholm
conference recommended that governments ensure that ocean dumping by their
nationals anywhere, or by any person in areas under their jurisdiction, is controlled and
the governments continue to work towards the completion of and bringing into force
as soon as possible of an over-all instrument for the control of ocean dumping.... In
response to this recommendation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland convened a conference which met in London from 30 October to 13 November
1972 and adopted the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter (the London Convention for short).
The Convention entered into force on 30 August 1975 and the first meeting of
Contracting Parties in December that year agreed to designate the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) to be responsible for the Secretariat duties in relation to
the Convention. The Conventions purpose is to control all sources of marine pollution
and prevent pollution of the sea through regulation of dumping into the sea of waste
materials. It covers materials transported to sea for the purpose of dumping. The
Convention is a living document that responds to new information, pollution issues
and environmental concerns through a process of consultative meeting, scientific and
legal debates, consensus building and the addition of new member nations.
Past amendments and proposed future actions to the Convention reflect our
growing knowledge of or different approaches to waste management or of the potential
harm from certain substances or processes. The London Convention, in October 1996,
adopted revisions resulting in the 1996 Protocol to the Convention. This Protocol
prohibits ocean disposal, except for a few types of wastes. Dredged material is one of
these.
The screening for the presence of chemical agents in the material to be dredged is
required to determine where and how the material will be disposed. The screening for
chemical agents is based on a step-by-step investigation of any number of the following
parameters:
verifiable data from previous chemical tests on material in the vicinity of the
proposed dredging;
known major geochemical characteristics of the sediment;
potential routes by which contaminants could reasonably have been introduced to
the sediment;
probability of contamination from agricultural and urban runoff;
spills of contaminants in the area to be dredged;
industrial and municipal point discharges, past and present; and
prior use and source of the sediment.
Cobbles Gravel Sand
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
256 76 76 19 19 5 5 2 2 0.42 0.42 0.074
Dredging 69
The sampling of the sediments from the proposed dredging site should be
representative of the vertical and horizontal distribution and variability of the
properties of the materials to be dredged. The sampling procedures should also
anticipate the information required for the evaluation and selection of the dredging and
disposal techniques.
6.1.2.3 Biological characteristics
If the potential impacts of the dredged material cannot be assessed on the basis of the
physical and chemical characteristics and available benthic information, biological or
effects-based testing should be considered. It is important to consider information
about species known to occur in the area which may be affected and the potential
effects of the sediments to be disposed on the said organisms. Biological tests should
incorporate species that are considered appropriately sensitive and representative and
should determine, where appropriate:
acute toxicity;
chronic toxicity covering an entire life cycle;
potential for bio-accumulation; and
potential for tainting.
See Section 6.3.2 on the classification of the sediments to be dredged. Within the
London Dumping Convention regulations, dredged material may be exempted from
further testing if it meets one of the criteria listed below:
dredged material is excavated from a site away from existing and historical sources
of appreciable pollution, so as to provide reasonable assurance that the dredged
material has not been contaminated; or
dredged material is composed predominantly of sand, gravel and or rock; or
dredged material is composed of previously undisturbed geological materials.
If any one of the above applies and if the geological records do not indicate the
presence of potential leachates from heavy metal mineral deposits, it may be assumed
that the dredged material has not been contaminated from human sources to an extent
that necessitates further investigation. The evaluation and assessment procedure in
these cases may normally be restricted to proper site selection and evaluation of
physical impacts. Dredged material which does not meet any of the above criteria will
require further investigation.
6.2 DREDGING TECHNIQUES
Dredging is most likely to be in one of the following types of sediment:
cohesionless deposits, such as sand or weakly cemented granular deposits;
cohesive clayey deposits;
silty mud from inside existing port areas; and
rock, ranging from soft coral limestone to the much harder granite;
Depending on the consistency of the deposits, various dredging techniques may be
employed. The most common techniques or equipment are:
pontoon-mounted grabbing;
pontoon-mounted (or shoreline) dragline;
pontoon-mounted pumping;
self-propelled trailing suction dredging;
blasting, using high explosives or low-power explosives;
bucket dredging;
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 70
cutter-suction dredging;
backhoe dredging;
chiselling; and
airlift.
6.2.1 Pontoon-mounted grabbing
Figure 1 illustrates an ocean-going grab dredger, consisting of a self-propelled vessel
with various on-board hoppers with a crane or cranes mounted on the deck. A pontoon
dredger, on the other hand, consists of a barge-mounted crane, propelled by a tug and
assisted by two hopper barges (see Figure 3).
A grab dredger lowers, closes and raises a single grab by means of wire rope. In
operation, the clamshell grab, Figure 2 (left), is dropped to the sea bed in the open
position and bites into the sediment due to its weight and the action of the closing
mechanism. The materials thus dredged are either dumped into the on-board hopper
wells (in ocean-going dredgers) or into adjacent hopper barges, Figure 2 (right), for
transport to the authorized dump site.
The advantages of the grab dredger are:
flexibility of use in maintenance dredging in all kinds of marine sediments, for
which a variety of grabs are available;
efficient to depths of 35 metres, beyond which the free-fall effect of the grab limits
efficiency; and
very suitable for working along quays and in the corners of harbour basins.
FIGURE 2
The standard clamshell grab (left) and the split hopper barge
FIGURE 1
Self-propelled grab dredger
Dredging 71
The disadvantages are:
when stationary in a navigation channel it causes an obstruction to sea traffic;
and
it leaves irregular bottom topography.
6.2.2 Dragline
Figure 4 (right) illustrates the technique of dredging by dragline. This method consists
in dragging an open steel bucket along the sea bed until it fills up. When full, the bucket
is lifted and its load dumped on the shore or into a barge.
The dragline is not used much outside North America. It tends to spill much of the
dredged sediment during operation and gives rise to considerable turbidity. Most of
the functions of a dragline nowadays are performed more efficiently by backhoes, both
from the shoreline as well as mounted on a barge, Figure 4 (left).
6.2.3 Pontoon-mounted pumping
The pontoon-mounted pump dredger consists of a large submersible pump suspended
from a pontoon and dunked into the sea bed (see Figures 5 and 6). The slurry
(11 percent sand by weight) is pumped away via floating pipes. For slurries containing
extremely fine-grained sand particles, the velocity in the discharge pipe should exceed
1.50 m/s and for coarser sands 3 to 4 m/s. The advantage of the pontoon pump is that
FIGURE 3
Pontoon-mounted grab dredging below a quay wall
FIGURE 4
A normal dragline (right) and a barge-mounted backhoe (left)
Flat open scraper
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Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 72
it is capable of a larger output than any other dredger of comparable size. Some pumps
are also equipped with cutter blades to handle sea grass and weeds. This method,
together with the airlift, is also very suitable for dredging in areas known to contain
archaeological remains.
The disadvantages are:
rough seas, especially swell, hamper this kind of dredging due to the fact that the
pump does not always contact the sea bed;
the range of sediments which can be dredged efficiently is very limited;
it leaves an irregular bottom topography; and
when stationary in a navigation channel it causes an obstruction to sea traffic.
6.2.4 Trailing suction
When dredging large volumes of cohesionless sediment, a trailing suction dredger
is normally used. A trailing suction dredger is a hopper vessel with a trailing arm
suspended over the side and dragged over the sea bed, Figure 7 and Figure 8.
The vessel usually steams forward at around 6 knots, automatically compensating
for swell and tidal variations while maintaining the drag head in contact with the sea
bed by means of a computerized hydraulic system.
The water/sand mixture is drawn on board by powerful pumps, passed through a
series of decanters and the solids deposited inside the internal hoppers whose capacity
ranges from 2 000 to more than 25 000 cubic metres. The relatively clear, decanted
seawater is dumped overboard. The maximum dredging depth without intermediate
FIGURE 5
A pontoon-mounted electric pump
Submersible pump
Cohesionless sediment
Electric power
Slurry
FIGURE 6
Very compact pontoon-mounted pumps
Dredging 73
pumps is around 35 metres. With one or even two intermediate pumps the dredging
depth may be extended to 80 and 120 metres. These dredgers are fully automated and
dredging generally takes place over a 24-hour period, non-stop. The dredged sand in
the hoppers is either dumped offshore if clean or pumped onshore for reclamation via
pipes laid out ashore.
The advantages of trailing suction dredgers are:
minimum interference to sea traffic;
versatility in handling both cohesionless and cohesive sediments;
the dredged load may be pumped ashore as reclamation; and
constructed in various sizes to suit most project sizes.
The disadvantages are:
the final dredged depth is less precise, necessitating some overdredging; and
mobilization costs can be considerable.
6.2.5 Blasting
When thick layers of rock or isolated rocky outcrops need dredging, blasting is an
efficient method of excavation. In this method, a series of closely spaced holes is drilled
into the sea bed, charged with explosives and fired. The holes in the sea bed may be
drilled either from above water level, Figure 9, or directly from the sea bed, Figure 10.
The hydraulic power to operate the driller is supplied from a shore-based power pack
via floating or submerged lines. Both systems are generally carried out by specialist
subcontractors.
FIGURE 7
Trailing suction dredger
1
2
FIGURE 8
A suction-trailer approaching the shore discharge pipe (1).
The hopper overflow (2) and trailing arm (3) clearly visible
3
2
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 74
Blasting is a relatively quick method for dealing with small amounts of very hard
rock formations like outcrops. Large quantities of hard rock are nowadays excavated
by rock-cutter suction dredgers or bucket dredgers.
The disadvantages are:
the blasting must be accompanied by grabbing for the removal of the spoil;
unless carried out from the sea bed, both drilling and grabbing cause an obstruction
to sea traffic;
the indiscriminate loss of sea life during blasting;
the percentage of fines generated by the fragmentation of coralline rock are very
hard to predict; and
mobilization costs can be considerable.
FIGURE 9
Drilling blasting holes from a jack-up platform
Winch
Drilling rig
Perforations on
the sea bed
Hydraulic clamps
Waves pass underneath
Platform legs rest on the
sea bed
Rock
FIGURE 10
Drilling blasting holes directly from the sea bed
Rock
Hydraulically-operated
rig on the sea bed
Hydraulic hose from
remote power pack
Floaters
Diver-operated
drilling rig
Dredging 75
6.2.6 Bucket dredging
The bucket dredger, also known as the ladder dredger, consists of an endless bucket
chain scraping the sea bed while the dredger is moved across the area to be dredged by
means of a series of anchor ropes (Figure 11).
Although most bucket dredgers nowadays have been replaced with cutter-suction
dredgers, quite a few of these dredgers are still around. The maximum dredging depth
is normally around 25 metres, although 34 metres is possible with the largest dredger
of this type. The buckets range in size from 50 litres to 1 000 litres.
The advantages of a bucket dredger are:
capability of dredging a level bottom topography;
ability to work in narrow or restricted areas;
versatility in handling a wide range of sediments; and
side loaded barges are generally filled with a high solids-to-water ratio.
The disadvantages are:
when stationary in a navigation channel it causes an obstruction to sea traffic;
rough seas, especially swell, hamper this kind of dredging; and
bucket dredgers are noisy and in urban areas they may be prohibited from
working at night.
6.2.7 Cutter-suction
Cutter-suction dredgers are among the most popular type of dredger, available in a
wide range of sizes ranging from the small portable units that fit on a large road trailer
to ocean-going vessels over 100 metres long.
A small cutter-suction dredger is able to handle small volumes of weakly cemented
sediments as well as weeds (Figure 12). The maximum discharge pipe diameter rarely
exceeds 150 mm for the portable or demountable type of dredger.
FIGURE 11
Bucket ladder dredger
FIGURE 12
Small cutter-suction dredgers
Main pump
Floating pipeline
to discharge site
Multipurpose dredger Spuds
Rotating cutter head
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 76
Figure 13 shows the most popular range of cutter-suction dredgers, consisting of
two demountable pontoons and a centrally hinged dredging ladder capable of dredging
from -3.0 metres to -7.0 metres. The power on the cutting head (Figure 14, left) may
range from 40 hp on the smaller versions to 1 200 hp on the larger models, making
them suitable for dredging in soft limestone. Discharge pipe diameters range from 250
to 800 mm.
Figure 14, right, shows the full-size dredger commonly used for large-scale dredging
operations. Typically, the sand/water mixture is pumped a distance away and longer-
than-normal distances are achieved by the installation of booster pumps along the
discharge line.
The advantage of a cutter-suction dredger is:
suitability for dredging in a wide range of sediments.
The disadvantages are:
in the presence of coralline limestone, the cutter head invariably generates
considerable fines in the 10 micron range that are difficult to settle;
the water-to-sand ratio of the dredged material is so high that it must be pumped
directly to the disposal site;
rough seas, especially swell, hamper the smaller dredgers; and
when stationary in a navigation channel it causes an obstruction to sea traffic.
6.2.8 Backhoe dredgers
Backhoe dredgers are land excavators mounted on a pontoon equipped with spuds like
a cutter-suction dredger (Figure 15). As with land-based excavators, various fittings are
available for tackling different kinds of sediments.
FIGURE 13
Small- and medium-sized cutter-suction dredgers
FIGURE 14
The cutter head and a typical full-size cutter-suction dredger

Dredging 77
The maximum operating depth is limited to around 18 metres.
The advantages of a backhoe dredger are:
ability to work in narrow or restricted areas;
versatility in handling a wide range of sediments; and
side-loaded barges are generally filled with a high solids-to-water ratio.
The disadvantages are:
when stationary in a navigation channel it causes an obstruction to sea traffic;
and
rough seas, especially swell, hamper this kind of dredging.
6.2.9 Chiselling
Rock breaking may be carried out by a steel chisel dropped through a height by a crane.
Normally it is only used in low volume cases where trimming of rock is required.
Production rates are very low.
6.2.10 Other methods
Various other methods may be encountered in practice but they range from specific
experimental adaptations to exotic plant.
Airlifting, for example, is frequently used when clearing buried wrecks, but in
construction, air lifting is only used to clear underwater foundation trenches from silt
drift during construction. An airlift may be used to dredge very small volumes of fine
cohesionless deposits only. In the presence of soft clays or clayey silts, airlifts merely
form a vertical-sided hole and the material does not tend to slump towards the airlift
unless assisted by independent water jets.
Figure 16 shows two types of assisted airlifts typically used in the excavation of
foundations in clayey conditions. The airlift in Figure 16 (left) has been used with
success on the excavation of bridge foundations in the United States of America.
It consists of a 254 mm ejector pipe supplied with air through a 63.50 mm pipe at
FIGURE 15
Backhoe dredgers, from the smallest size (left) to the largest size (bottom)
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11 cubic metres per minute, giving an up-flow velocity of 3 metres per second which is
capable of lifting 60 mm gravel. The soil is loosened by a 150 mm jetting pipe operated
independently of the airlift. The jetting pipe fed 4 swivelling nozzles of 38 mm diameter
fed by two 7 cubic metre per minute pumps delivering water at 34 bar pressure.
6.2.11 Dredging adjacent to quay walls
Maintenance dredging adjacent to existing quay walls in fishing ports requires careful
assessment of both the material to be dredged as well as the human-made rubbish
discarded on the sea bed like tyre fenders, anchors, lengths of chain or wire rope,
polyester rope and nets (Figure 17). In most cases, a visual inspection by divers is
necessary to verify conditions on the sea bed to be dredged prior to deciding on the
type of equipment to be used (cutter-suction versus grab).
In the presence of the aforementioned material, the dredging should be carried out
by a grab dredger as illustrated in Figure 3.
FIGURE 16
Types of airlift in use in construction
Riser
Compressed
air pipe
Clamp
Compressed air supply
Manifold
Air inlet poles
Water jetting pipe
Bell-mouth
Cutting
head
Water jet nozzles
FIGURE 17
Cutter-suction heads fouled by discarded items
Dredging 79
6.3 DISPOSAL OF DREDGED SEDIMENTS
6.3.1 Introduction
The type of material to be dredged will greatly influence the method of disposal.
However, costs can be turned into profits if the dredged material can be used to
reclaim land (a process known as reclamation) for industry, roads, housing or leisure.
Materials vary in their suitability for reclamation. Sand is the most suitable material
for reclamation but all types of granular materials (crushed limestone, gravel, etc.) are
suitable. Silt can be used for reclamation if sufficient time is available for drying out
and settlement. Due to its fine texture, silt does not dry out as quickly as sand. Instead,
before drying out to a fine powdery consistency, it goes through the muddy stage,
which can take anywhere up to a few months to dry. However, mixed with sand,
silty deposits tend to dry out much faster. Sand also improves the consistency of the
reclaimed land. Soft clay, once churned up by a cutter-suction dredger, is not suitable
as a fill unless it is dried out. This material is only suitable as agricultural fill and cannot
be used for foundations or roads. Stiff clay forms into clay balls during the dredging
operation and again it is only suitable as agricultural fill.
6.3.2 Classification of dredged sediments
Before deciding on the method of disposal, the dredged sediments must be first
classified according to their potential to contaminate the environment where they are
due to be deposited. Sediments may be classified under one of three classes:
Class 1 clean material, allowable for placing in any type of open water disposal
site (open placement on sea bed);
Class 2 slightly contaminated, allowable for placing in certain open water
disposal sites but requiring careful placing (inside a pit or depression of the sea
bed); and
Class 3 contaminated material, in principle, not suitable for open water disposal
but to be confined in either very strict or well-controlled disposal sites (capped
atolls or reclamation).
Various tests on the standard of pollution are required by international legislation
and range from the simple water leaching test to multiorganism benthic bioassays or
laboratory-controlled tests on selected marine organisms.
The elutriate test is a water leaching test using one part sediment to be dredged to
four parts water taken from the proposed dump site. This test, in use since 1973, has
been evaluated under an extremely wide range of conditions and is useful for evaluating
the short-term release of contaminants from dredged sediments into open water.
The multiorganism benthic bioassays comprise a range of laboratory tests on such
organisms as algae, zooplankton, filter feeders (bivalves), deposit feeders (crustaceans)
and burrowing species (polychaetes). The tests range from simple physical disruption
to direct toxicity and bioaccumulation and consider the liquid, suspended and solid
phases of the dumping. Even though bioaccumulation may occur from all three phases,
the liquid (or leaching stage) and the suspended (dust plume) phases are of secondary
concern due to their short-term occurrence. The solid phase, however, must be assessed
for its bioaccumulation potential due to the long-term contact between the dumped
sediment on the sea bed and marine organisms.
6.3.3 Environmental impacts of dredging
Strictly speaking, even capital and maintenance dredging in Class 1 sediment
(clean material) are an environmentally disruptive exercise and an environmental
impact assessment should always be carried out prior to any dredging. Dredging is
characterized by three distinct operations:
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 80
the removal of material from an existing environment;
the method of removal of the material; and
the dumping of the unwanted material in another environment.
The removal of the material in itself has many potential impacts on the environment
and great care should be exercised in distinguishing each and every one of these
impacts. For example:
the sea bed may be used by fish for spawning (some fish require soft sand to dig
a nest);
most shellfish live in sand; and
if seaweed is also anchored to the sea bottom, the area may serve as a nursery
ground for juvenile fish.
The method of removal also has many potentially negative impacts and careful
planning is required prior to mobilizing equipment. For example:
A cutter-suction dredger is very fast but under certain conditions (especially in the
presence of coral, coralline limestone and clay) it creates a dust plume visible for
miles around the dredger; this plume blocks out sunlight (not particularly good
for live coral) and chokes fish by depositing fine dust on their gills.
High explosive blasting is a quick method of removing obstacles but it also kills
marine life indiscriminately in the vicinity of the project.
A leaking clam-shell grab is not suitable for dredging in a sensitive environment
(clear water coral environment) due to the dispersion of fines in the water
column.
Finally, the physical and chemical impacts of the actual dumping of the unwanted
sediment must also be investigated. Ideally, if the material is clean material, then it
should be used for reclaiming land or for filling. However, when the material consists
of clay (not suitable for reclamation) mud or silt, it is usual to dump it offshore with a
hopper barge, Figure 2. Dumping of Class 1 sediment, for example, may still:
stifle growth in certain bivalve species through smothering with fine silt; and
indefinitely render the water murky with the slightest wave agitation if the silt
portion is too high.
Dumping of Class 3 sediment, for example, may:
transpose contaminants from one environment to another and contaminate
potentially fertile environments used in fisheries.
Class 3 sediments must be capped whether dumped at sea or on land.
6.3.4 Open water disposal
Since dumping of dredged materials at sea is still a major means of disposal of Class 1
and Class 2 sediments, the selection of dump sites should be carried out by matching
the characteristics of the sediment and the site.
Figure 18 illustrates the four basic types of aquatic disposal of sediments up to
Class 2 level of contamination. Type 1 consists of a human-made depression in the sea
bed (dredged or excavated channel), Type 2 consists of a natural depression in the sea
bed, Type 3 consists of a level sea bed and Type 4 is lateral confinement. In all cases,
the material deposited may need to be capped with a layer of clean material to isolate
it from the surrounding environment.
Permission for the aquatic disposal of dredged sediments at a specific site must be
sought from the delegated competent authority.
Dredging 81
The permit conditions for a site should be designed such that:
only those materials which have been characterized and found to be acceptable by
the environmental impact studies (EIS) are placed at the site;
material is placed within the site boundaries;
that the dredging and disposal management techniques have been identified by the
EIS; and
that monitoring requirements are fulfilled and the results reported to the
competent authority.
The transboundary drift of the dredged sediments plume, Figure 19, during or after
dumping has taken place is a matter of concern when the selected dumping ground is
close to territorial boundaries (see Section 1.4.10 on transboundary impacts). In such
cases, the permit conditions must include the installation of real-time GPS equipment
on the dumping barge and monitoring requirements must ensure that seasonal currents
do not transport the plume across national boundaries.
6.3.5 Confined shore disposal
If dredging (granular material) is being carried out by a grab dredger, hydraulic
excavator or drag line, then the material may be loaded onto trucks, carted away and
tipped behind a retaining structure (a quay wall) as backfill. Typically, such material
will come to a rest at a slope ranging from 1 on 2 to 1 on 6 depending on the size and
roughness of the individual particles; the smaller and smoother the particles, the flatter
the slope, Figure 20.
FIGURE 18
Types of open-water or aquatic disposal
FIGURE 19
Offshore dumping by barge
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 82
If the dredging is being carried out by a suction or a cutter-suction dredger, then
it may be pumped onshore via floating pipes or via a shore connection, Figures 8, 21
and 22.
Land reclaimed by forward tipping should be protected by a geotextile filter mat (to
prevent sand loss and eventual settlement of the reclaimed area) and a layer of at least
2 metres thick of graded stone, as shown in Figure 23. A mass concrete kerb may also
be placed at the summit of the rubble bank to prevent vehicles from driving into the
water and falls built into the paving to drain surface water away to sea.
FIGURE 20
Placing of backfill behind a quay wall by dumping or tipping
FIGURE 21
Placing of backfill behind a quay wall by pumping
FIGURE 22
Placing of backfill behind a quay wall by pumping
Dredging 83
Small-to medium-sized earth retaining structures, such as bunds or quay walls,
may be constructed in a variety of ways. The simplest bund is a rubble or stone
bund, forward tipped by truck and sealed on the landside by an impermeable layer,
Figure 24.
Small quay walls may also be constructed in mass concrete by pumping concrete
inside a sheet pile cofferdam, Figure 25.
Quay walls may also be constructed with conventional rectangular blocks,
Figure 26; I section blocks in-filled with stone (lighter to handle than a rectangular
block), Figures 27 and 28; L shaped units, Figure 29; and annular rings, Figure 30.
Deeper water solutions may be in sheet piles or caissons.
FIGURE 23
Rubble slope protection
FIGURE 24
Rubble bund
FIGURE 25
Sheet pile cofferdam
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 84
6.4 DREDGING OF FAIRWAYS
6.4.1 Minimum width
Access channels or fairways are defined in Figure 31. In many dedicated channels the
navigation markers are placed close to the edge of the channel to indicate the limits for
safe navigation.
In determining the channel width, some or all of the following should be
considered:
basic maneuverability of the vessels intending to use the channel;
cross-winds, which may cause vessels with high windage to drift sideways;
cross-currents, which may also cause deep-draft vessels to drift sideways; and
wave action, which may be heading or following (affecting pitch and heave) or
beam (affecting roll and heave).
FIGURE 26
Rectangular blocks (20 tonnes)
FIGURE 27
I section blocks (10 tonnes)
FIGURE 28
I blocks in-filled with rock
FIGURE 29
L section blocks (12 tonnes)
FIGURE 30
Annular rings filled with rock
Dredging 85
If a two-way channel is proposed, then allowance must be made for vessels to
pass each other safely. Such a distance, Figure 32, must ensure that vessel-to-vessel
interaction is reduced to an acceptable limit and it is usual to allow for a central safety
strip, known as the passing distance.
Bank clearance should be large enough to reduce bank effects to a minimum,
especially in the presence of mobile or unstable deposits such as sand or mud. As a rule
of thumb, the minimum fairway width should not be less than eight times the width of
the largest vessel to enter the fishing port.
In channels with a wide range of traffic, the fairway markers should be positioned
in such a way as to allow the passage of smaller vessels on either side of the dredged
channel. In some cases, both the deep-water dredged channel and the shallower outer
lanes for smaller vessels may be marked.
There may also be a maximum permissible speed imposed to avoid bank erosion due
to backwash from the passage of vessels.
6.4.2 Minimum depth
For a vessel to safely transit the access channel or fairway, it must have adequate
clearance under the keel. The under-keel clearance, also known as UKC, depends on a
variety of different parameters. These parameters are related to the vessel, the type of
sea bed and the water level, Figure 33.
The net under-keel clearance is the minimum margin remaining between the
channel bed level and the keel of the vessel in fully loaded condition and in the most
unfavourable weather condition. The net under-keel clearance should not be less than
0.50 metre for a soft sea bed (silt or sand) and not less than 1.0 metre for a hard sea
bed (rock).
FIGURE 31
Channel and fairway definitions
FIGURE 32
Components of channel width
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 86
6.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
International Maritime Organization. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972 and 1996 Protocol Thereto (available at
www.londonconvention.org).
PIANC. 1977. Final Report of the International Commission for the Study of the
Environmental Effects of Dredging and Disposal of Dredged Materials. Annex to
Bulletin No. 27. Brussels, Belgium.
PIANC. 1989. Working Group No. 14. Economic Methods of Channel Maintenance,
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses, Supplement to Bulletin
No 67. Brussels, Belgium.
Vellinga T. 1984. Dredging and disposal of contaminated dredged material. Dredging and
Port Construction, Vol. XI, No 12.
FIGURE 33
Components of channel depth
87
7. Breakwaters
SUMMARY
A breakwater is a structure constructed for the purpose of forming an artificial
harbour with a basin so protected from the effect of waves as to provide safe
berthing for fishing vessels. There are many different types of breakwaters;
natural rock and concrete, or a combination of the two, are the materials which
form 95 percent or more of all the breakwaters constructed.
This chapter reviews the various cross-sections of the most common types of
breakwaters and their method of construction. It does not go into great detail
with regard to the design of breakwaters as this is best left to the professional
engineers for specific applications. Nevertheless, a brief description of the
design requirements is given for the sake of clarity.
The reader, however, will be well able to understand the different typologies
of breakwaters in use nowadays and appreciate the complexity of choice and
underwater construction.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 88
CONTENTS
7.1 Parameters for the construction of a breakwater 89
7.1.1 Hydrographic survey 89
7.1.2 Geotechnical investigation 89
7.1.3 Wave hindcasting 92
7.1.4 Material needs assessment 94
7.1.5 Cross-sectional design 96
7.2 Construction methods 98
7.2.1 Land-based equipment 98
7.2.2 Floating equipment 101
7.2.3 Methodologies 102
7.3 Floating breakwaters 105
7.4 Bibliography and further reading 106
Breakwaters 89
7.1 PARAMETERS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BREAKWATER
When a breakwater is to be built at a certain location, and the environmental impact of
such a structure has already been evaluated and deemed environmentally feasible, the
following parameters are required before construction can commence:
a detailed hydrographic survey of the site;
a geotechnical investigation of the sea bed;
a wave height investigation or hindcasting;
a material needs assessment; and
the cross-sectional design of the structure.
7.1.1 Hydrographic survey
The hydrographic survey that is described in Chapter 5 is required for the calculation
of the volumes of material required for the breakwater.
7.1.2 Geotechnical investigation
A geotechnical investigation of the sea bed is required to determine the type of founding
material and its extent. The results of this investigation will have a direct bearing on the
type of cross-section of the breakwater. In addition, it is essential to determine what the
coastline consists of, for example:
soft or hard rock (like coral reefs or granite);
sand (as found on beaches);
clay (as in some mangrove areas); and
soft to very soft clay, silt or mud (as found along some river banks, mangroves and
other tidal areas).
In the event that the harbour basin is to be formed by the breakwater itself, a proper
advanced site investigation by a specialist contractor is recommended, particularly
when project cost is expected to be considerable. On the other hand, if the proposed
breakwater structure has no direct bearing on the outcome of a project (for example, if
the breakwater is an added protection to a natural inlet) and if it is to be executed on
an artisanal scale, then simple basic investigations may suffice.
7.1.2.1 Basic geotechnical investigations
Basic geotechnical investigations normally suffice for small or artisanal projects,
especially when the project site is remote and access poor. A basic geotechnical
investigation should be carried out or supervised by an experienced engineer or
geologist familiar with the local soil conditions. The following activities may be carried
out in a basic investigation using only portable equipment:
retrieval of bottom sediments for laboratory analysis;
measurement of bottom layer (loose sediment) thickness; and
approximate estimation of bearing capacity of the sea bed.
The equipment required to carry out the above-mentioned activities consists of
a stable floating platform (a single canoe is not stable enough, but two canoes tied
together to form a catamaran are excellent), diving equipment, a Van Veen bottom
sampler (may be rented from a national or university laboratory), a 20 mm diameter
steel pricking rod and a water lance (a 20 mm diameter steel pipe connected to a
gasoline-powered water pump).
Before the start of any work, the area to be investigated should be marked via a set of
marker buoys or a scaffold pipe frame placed on the sea bed and the exact coordinates
noted for future reference. To retrieve samples from the sea bed, a Van Veen hand-
operated bottom sampler is required, Figure 1. Simply picking up samples from the sea
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 90
bed with a scoop or bucket disturbs the sediment layers with the eventual loss of the
finer material and is not a recommended method. The sediments thus collected should
then be carefully placed in wide-necked glass jars and taken to a national or university
laboratory for analysis. At least 10 kilograms of sediment are normally required by the
laboratory for a proper analysis.
Sometimes, a good hard bottom is overlain by a layer of loose or silty sand or mud.
In most cases this layer has to be removed by dredging to expose the harder material
underneath. To determine the thickness of this harder layer, a water lance is required.
This consists of a length of steel tubing (the poker), sealed at the bottom end with a
conical fitting and connected to a length of water hose at the top end. The water hose
is connected to a small gasoline-powered water pump drawing seawater from over the
side of the platform. The conical end has four 3 mm diameter holes drilled into it.
The diver simply pokes the steel tube into the sediment while water is pumped into
it from above until the poker stops penetrating, Figure 2. The diver then measures the
penetration. This method, also known as pricking, works very well in silty and muddy
deposits up to 2 to 3 metres thick. It is not very effective in very coarse sand with large
pebbles.
FIGURE 1
The Van Veen bottom sampler
WINCH
STABLE PLATFORM
MARKER BUOYS
MARKER BUOYS
MEAN SEA LEVEL
VAN VEEN HAND-OPERATED GRAB

FIGURE 2
The water lance used to prick the sea bed
STABLE PLATFORM
GASOLINE-POWERED WATER PUMP
MEAN SEA LEVEL
SEA WATER PUMPED INTO PIPE
25 mm WATER HOSE
20 mm DIAMETER STEEL PIPE
SCAFFOLD PIPE FRAME
END CONE WITH 4 X 3 mm DIAMETER HOLES
Breakwaters 91
Once the layer of soft sediment has been identified (sampled) and measured (pricked),
it is then necessary to determine the hardness of the underlying layer. The underlying
layer may be rock, clay or compacted sand. If the layer is rocky, the diver should collect
a piece of the material for laboratory analysis using a hammer and chisel. For softer
types of material, the diver (with a submerged weight of around 10 kilograms) should
use a steel probe (1 metre long, 12 millimetres in diameter) or pocket penetrometer,
Figure 3. An area of around 300 mm square should be cleaned of loose sediment and
the probe or penetrometer placed vertically over it. The 10-kilogram exertion on the
probe will cause the probe to penetrate into the material. The diver then notes the
penetration for the engineer to estimate the bearing capacity. If a pocket penetrometer
is used, the bearing capacity may be read off the penetrometer scale directly.
7.1.2.2 Advanced geotechnical investigations
An advanced geotechnical investigation normally requires the retrieval of undisturbed
core samples, Figure 4, taken from the level of the sea bed down to a depth ranging from
10 to 30 metres, depending on the
type of structure envisaged and
the ground conditions obtaining
at the site.
Advanced geotechnical
investigations are normally
carried out by specialist
contractors or soil laboratories
and require a mobile drilling rig.
The drilling rig can travel to
most destinations but must be
installed on a stable platform
before it can be used to drill for
cores over water, Figure 5.
FIGURE 3
Estimating the bearing capacity of the foundation
A POCKET PENETROMETER
MEAN SEA LEVEL
DIVER WEIGHT IN WATER
AROUND 10 KG
20 mm DIAMETER STEEL ROD
SCAFFOLD PIPE FRAME
FIGURE 4
Core samples of hard clay retrieved from
15 metres below sea bed
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 92
7.1.3 Wave hindcasting
The height of wave incident on a breakwater generally determines the size and behaviour
of the breakwater. It is hence of the utmost importance to obtain realistic values of
the waves expected in a particular area. Behaviour of water waves is one of the most
intriguing of natures phenomena. Waves manifest themselves by curved undulations
of the surface of the water occurring at periodic intervals. They are generated by the
action of wind moving over a waterbody; the stronger the wind blows, the higher the
waves generated. They may vary in size from ripples on a pond to large ocean waves
as high as 10 metres.
Wind generated waves cause the most damage to coastal structures and if winds of
a local storm blow towards the shore, the storm waves will reach the shore or beach
in nearly the form in which they were generated. However, if waves are generated by
a distant storm, they travel hundreds of miles of calm sea before reaching the shore as
swell. As waves travel across the sea they decay (they loose energy and get smaller and
smaller) and only the relatively larger waves reach the shore in the form of swell.
Wave disturbance is also felt to a considerable depth and, therefore, the depth of
water has an effect on the character of the wave. As the sea bed rises towards the shore,
waves eventually break. The precise nature of the types of wave incident on a particular
stretch of shoreline, also known as wave hindcasting, may be investigated by three
different methods:
Method 1 On-the-spot measurement by special electronic equipment, such as
a wave rider buoy, which may be hired for a set time from private companies or
government laboratories;
Method 2 Prediction by statistical methods on a computer statistical hindcast
models may be performed on the computer if wind data or satellite wave data are
available for the area; and
Method 3 On-the-spot observation by simple optical instruments the
theodolite.
Methods 1 and 2 give very accurate results but are expensive, especially the hire of
the wave rider buoys; they are usually reserved for big projects where precise wave data
gathered over a period of time is of the utmost importance.
In Method 1, the observer is an electronic instrument capable of recording
continuously on a 24-hour basis far out at sea where the waves are not yet influenced
by the coastline (depth of water). Hiring a wave rider buoy and installing it may take
anywhere up to six months, depending on the method of procurement and water depth
and weather conditions at the site. A minimum of one years observations is required
but generally three to five years provide more accurate data.
FIGURE 5
A mobile rig temporarily installed on a trawler to drill over water
Breakwaters 93
Method 2 is currently the standard worldwide method of establishing the wave
climate along most coastlines. The huge amount of wind and wave data gathered by
specialist agencies worldwide now enables most computer models to zero-in on most
sites. Offshore wave climate data is nowadays compiled from hindcasting methods
using detailed wind records available for most areas from weather information agencies.
Inshore wave climates are then derived on a case-by-case basis from knowledge of the
local bathymetry. At todays prices, the cost of a detailed inshore wave climate is in the
range of US$50 000, excluding the cost of the detailed hydrographic survey required
for the area under study. Depending on how much raw data is already processed by
the specialist agencies and if detailed bathymetry already exists, a good wave hindcast
report takes about one month to produce.
Method 3 is not accurate but is cheaper and lies more within the scope of artisanal
projects. It differs from Method 1 in one respect only, in that the observer is a normal
surveyor with a theodolite placed at a secure vantage point observing waves close to the
shoreline, Figure 6. This method, however, suffers from the following drawbacks:
The wave heights thus recorded will already be distorted by the water depths close
to the shoreline.
A human observer can only see waves during daylight hours, effectively reducing
observation time by a half.
In very bad weather, strong winds and rain drastically reduce visibility making it
difficult to keep the buoy under observation continuously.
The presence of swell is very difficult to detect, especially during a local storm,
due to the very long time (period) between peaks, typically 15 seconds or more.
Hence, this method of calculating wave heights is only suitable for minor artisanal
projects with a very small capital outlay. To set up a wave monitoring station is easy
and the equipment needed consists of two large buoys (one fluorescent and one white),
say 750 millimetres in diameter, a large stone and concrete sinker weighing at least
1 tonne in water, a length of 12 mm nylon rope, a theodolite, a compass and a watch
with a second hand or digital readout. At a vantage point, which should be just high
enough above sea level to be safe and dry during a storm, a stone pillar should be
erected with an anchor screw concreted in at the top so that every time the theodolite
is set up it faces the same way in exactly the same position, Figure 6. Apart from the
time it takes to set up the theodolite station, observations of major waves may only
be undertaken during major storms. Hence this method may take at least one year to
produce enough data to be useful for a study.
The two plastic buoys should then be moored a known distance offshore where the
water depth is exactly 20 metres, the white buoy to the sinker and the red fluorescent
buoy to the white buoy, as shown in the figure. The white buoy keeps the mooring line
taut and vertical while the red fluorescent buoy floats freely on the incoming waves.
To calibrate the station, the theodolite should be pointed at the buoy on a very calm
day. A witness mark should then be placed on something robust (a wall, for example,
is preferable to a tree) in such a manner that the observer can re-point the eyepiece at
the buoy in its rest position (even if the buoy is actually bouncing up and down with
the incoming waves during a storm) at a later date. In this way the theodolite is not tied
up completely with wave height observations but can be used for other work as well
in between storms. During a storm, the buoy will float up and down with the passage
of the waves. By following the base of the buoy with the same centreline hairlines,
the theodolite is made to traverse a small angle, Z, as shown in the figure. Using basic
surveying principles, the distance A and angle Z may be used to calculate the height
H of a wave which, as a rule of thumb, is twice the height of the displacement above
calm water level.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 94
During wave height observations, the following additional information should also
be recorded:
direction of both the incoming waves and wind using the hand-held compass;
the time difference between each successive wave peak, also known as wave period
using the second hand on a watch;
the exact position of the buoy with respect to the coastline; and
time of the year when each storm was recorded.
It must be re-emphasized at this stage that this calculation and the method used are
only very approximate and suitable for minor projects only.
7.1.4 Material needs assessment
Given that most breakwaters consist of either rock or concrete or a mixture of both, it
is evident that if these primary construction materials are not available in the required
volume in the vicinity of the project site, then either the materials have to be shipped
in from another source (by sea or by road) or the harbour design has to be changed to
allow for the removal of the breakwater (the site may have to be moved elsewhere).
To calculate the volume of material required to build a rock breakwater, for
example, equidistant cross-sections are required. Each cross-section consists of the
FIGURE 6
Manual wave height measurement
Red
buoy
View through eyepiece of
theodolite
1

0
0
0

-

1

5
0
0

m
m
X2
X1
500 mm
A about 100 m
B about 100 m also
Observation pillar in stone
and concrete
Solid object
preferred to tree
2 - 3 m
X1
White buoy
Red buoy
Calm sea
MSL
X2
X
Rough sea
3
0
0
m
m
x
Z
View through eyepiece
during the passage of
incoming waves
Breakwaters 95
proposed structure outline superimposed on a cross-section of the sea bed. Figure 7
shows a grid map with five cross-sections. Figure 7 (middle) also shows cross-section
number 2 of the sea bed, with the breakwater cross-section superimposed on it. Each
cross-section may then be divided into known geometric subdivisions, like triangles
(A and F) and trapezia (B, C, D and E), whose areas are given by standard formulae.
In this way, area 2 is given by the sum of areas A + B + C + D + E + F. Similarly, areas
1, 3, 4, 5, etc. may be calculated from the hydrographic chart. The volume of material
required is then the sum of volume 1 + volume 2 + volume 3 + volume 4, etc., as shown
in Figure 7. Each segment of breakwater, say volume 1, is given by the average of the
sum of (area 1 + area 2) multiplied by the distance between sections 1 and 2, in this
FIGURE 7
Calculating the volumes of rock in a breakwater
5 m
-2.15 -1.85
-1.50 -1.05 -0.50
-2.05 -1.70
-1.45 -0.95 -0.30
-1.95
-1.50 -1.05
-0.55 -0.20
-1.85 -1.40 -0.85 -0.65 -0.35
5

o
r

1
0
m
e
t
r
e
s
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 96
case, 5 or 10 metres. Mathematically, this can be expressed as 1/2 [area 1 + area 2] x 5
metres. Once the volume of rock has been determined, the most likely source has to
be investigated for:
supply (must be large enough to supply all the rock);
quality (not all rock is suitable for a breakwater);
environmental impact (removing rock from the source must not cause negative
impact there);
mining methods (depending on the type of rock, it may have to be blasted, ripped
or broken); and
means of transport (if roads do not exist between source and project site, then
other means of transport are required).
7.1.5 Cross-sectional design
Last but not least, a suitable cross-sectional design for the breakwater has to be
produced taking into consideration all the previous data, for example:
water depths (in deep water, solid vertical sides are preferred to save on
material);
type of foundation (if ground is soft and likely to settle, then a rubble breakwater
is recommended);
height of waves (rubble breakwaters are more suitable than solid ones in the
presence of larger waves); and
availability of materials (if no rock quarries are available in the vicinity of the
project, then rubble breakwaters cannot be economically justified).
In general, expert advice should always be sought before embarking on the design
of a breakwater cross-section. As was mentioned earlier, waves are one of natures
least understood phenomena and considerable experience is required when designing
breakwaters. If expert advice is not available, the following rules of thumb may be
applied to very small projects with water depths not exceeding 3.0 metres:
For rubble mound or rock breakwaters:
Unaided breakwater design should not be attempted in waters deeper than
3 metres.
If the foundation material is very soft and thick, then a geotextile filter mat should
be placed under the rock to prevent it from sinking and disappearing into the mud
(Figure 8).
If a thin layer of loose or soft material exists above a hard layer, then this should
be removed to expose the hard interface and the breakwater built on this surface.
FIGURE 8
Rubble mound breakwater on soft ground
Breakwaters 97
The material grading should be in the range of 1 to 500 kilograms for the fine core,
500 to 1 000 kilograms for the underlayer and 1 000 to 3 000 kilograms for the
main armour layer, Figure 9.
Dust and fine particles should not be placed in the core as these will wash away
and cause the breakwater top to settle unevenly.
The outer slope should not be steeper than 1 on 2 and the inner or harbour side
slope not steeper than 1 on 1.5 (Figure 8).
In general, rock breakwaters absorb most of the wave energy that falls on them
and reflect very little disturbance back from the sloping surface.
For solid or vertical breakwaters:
Unaided vertical solid breakwater design should not be attempted in waters
deeper than 2 metres and exposed to strong wave action, Figure 10.
Vertical solid breakwaters are only suitable when the foundation is a firm surface
(rock, stiff clay, coral reef); thick sand deposits may also be suitable under certain
conditions.
In the presence of thick sand deposits, a rubble foundation with adequate scour
protection as shown in Figure 10 is recommended lest strong tidal streams, water
currents or wave turbulence scour away the sand underneath the foundation.
The core of a solid breakwater should be cast in concrete; not more than
50 percent of this concrete may be replaced by pieces of rock or plums.
FIGURE 9
Rubble mound breakwater on hard ground
2.5 m
2

m
1

m
1.5 m
1

m
MSL
3

m
I
d
e
a
l
l
y
Underlayer
Main armour layer
FIGURE 10
A solid vertical breakwater on hard ground
MASS CONCRETE
CORE
TOE PROTECTION IN CONCRETE-FILLED
JUTE BAGS
HEIGHT NOT MORE THAN 2.0 m
>
>
>
>
CONCRETE-FILLED
JUTE BAGS
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 98
Great care should be exercised when deciding the position of a solid breakwater.
Solid vertical breakwaters do not absorb wave energy incident on them and reflect
everything back, usually causing other parts of a harbour to experience choppy-sea
conditions.
7.2 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
There are several types of equipment available for marine construction, both
land-based and floating. The high cost of purchase, however, puts most of this
equipment beyond the reach of village cooperatives, artisanal contractors and small
general-building contractors.
Hence, it is assumed that most of the heavy plant will be made available through
the government or public works department, or local contractors, and this chapter
should be used as a guide to the general type of equipment required for marine work.
Large specialist marine contractors often use floating equipment (all cranes mounted
on barges, for example, and material like the core is often dumped using barges). When
planning the construction of a marine-related project, it would be useful to know
beforehand what type and size of construction plant is available in the vicinity of the
village or landing.
7.2.1 Land-based equipment
Crawler crane
Figure 11 shows a typical crawler crane. As its name implies, a crawler crane moves
forward on its steel tracks. This is the most ideal type of crane for building breakwaters
because it is very stable, requires no outriggers (stabilizers which extend from the crane
chassis of all rubbertyred cranes) and is less likely to bounce off an uneven rubble
surface into the water.
The most important characteristic is the nominal lifting capacity as this will dictate
the maximum outreach that the crane can handle with a given jib size. The nominal
capacity of a crane refers to the maximum safe working load that the crane can lift with
the jib in the near-vertical position as shown in Figure 11. This load is dependent on
the overturning moment of the load and is expressed as:
[Load at the hook] x [the lever arm L
a
] / [Factor of safety] = A Constant
This value is factory-set and is usually displayed in tables inside the crane drivers
cabin. As the jib is lowered thus increasing the outreach (or lever arm L
a
), the working
load at the hook must be decreased to compensate for the greater overturning moment
FIGURE 11
Crawler crane
Slings Rock grapple
Breakwaters 99
of the load. Failure to observe the proportional reduction in the suspended load as
indicated in the cranes tables will result in the crane overturning. Figure 11 also shows
two typical attachments required for lifting and placing rock: slings and grapples.
Most slings are made from steel wire rope and these should terminate in quick-release
shackles to enable the crane driver to release the rock himself once it has been placed.
Rock grapples are the industry standard for handling rock. If a rock grapple is used,
the weight of the grapple (anything from 500 to 3 000 kilograms) must be subtracted
from the safe working load specified for a particular crane.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The crane driver should always wear a hard hat and soundproof earmuffs. Consequently,
it is essential to put in place a signalling system between the load handlers and the
driver. Load handlers should always wear hard hats and gloves. If the loads are handled
with steel-wire ropes, then the appropriate gloves should be worn to prevent injuries.
Hydraulic excavators
Figure 12 shows a hydraulic excavator, which now forms the backbone of most marine
work.
Most models offer interchangeable forearm lengths; for normal marine work, a long
forearm is required to reach as far away as possible, Figure 12, right.
Excavators can be equipped with:
hydraulic-powered chisels (for breaking hard material);
hydraulic-powered rotating cutter-head (for digging in soft material); and
a range of buckets to suit any condition that may be encountered on site (wide
buckets, narrow buckets, small buckets, high-capacity buckets, etc.).
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Hard hats should always be worn around an operating excavator. The operator should
wear soundproof earmuffs and a signalling system set up between the other workers
and the driver.
Bulldozer
Figure 13 shows a typical tracked bulldozer.
Rubber-tyred equipment should not be used on breakwaters; this kind of equipment
is prone to bounce around on dumped rock and likely to lead to fatal accidents (by
falling into the water). The bulldozer, on the other hand, is slower moving and
FIGURE 12
Hydraulic excavator
In
t
e
r
c
h
a
n
g
e
a
b
le
fo
r
e
a
r
m
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 100
more stable. This kind of machine is
essential when building breakwaters
as it is required to level the fine core
material as it is forward dumped
into the sea. Bulldozers may be
equipped with blades (for levelling
the core of a breakwater) or buckets.
The operators cabin may be sealed
or open to the elements as shown in
the figure.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The operator should wear both a hard hat and earmuffs and a signalling system set up
between other workers and the driver.
Tipper trucks
Figure 14 shows the recommended type of truck required for transporting and
dumping of rubble.
If proper tipper trucks are not available for a project, then a farm tractor and trailer
combination may be adapted to carry rock, aggregates and sand from a quarry to a
project site. Considerably more use of direct labour is involved, but at local village level
this should not present any problems. The trailers should preferably be made of steel
and should be protected on the inside with timber planking. The timber prolongs the
useful life of the trailer by absorbing the impacts of individual stones thrown onto the
trailer. Care should be exercised when traversing the uneven surface of a rubble core
with all rubber-tyred vehicles.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
All personnel should wear hard hats.
FIGURE 14
Tipper trucks and forward dumping
Farm tractor
Steel trailer
FIGURE 13
Bulldozer
Breakwaters 101
7.2.2 Floating equipment
Floating crane
Figure 15 shows a typical barge-mounted crane. The crane is either bolted or welded
directly to the hull or driven on to the barge and lashed down with cable stays.
The crane can revolve through 360 degrees and the deck of the barge is usually
lined with timber so that rock may be placed on the deck without damaging it. The
stability of the crane in this instance is dictated by the stability of the barge and field
conversions should always be checked for stability by an experienced naval architect.
Normally, such cranes need a tugboat or fishing vessel to help them move from one
place to another. Exact positioning is usually achieved by anchors.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
All personnel should wear hard hats. The barge should be equipped with the safety
requirements stipulated for shipboard operations (life jackets, flares, raft, etc.),
including MARPOL recommendations for the prevention of pollution at sea.
Tugboat
Figure 15, bottom right, shows a tugboat of the type generally used by marine
contractors. The horsepower of these vessels may be anywhere from 200 to 2 000 hp,
depending on the type of plant to be handled. Common sizes are in the range of 250
to 500 hp.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The tugboat should be equipped with the safety requirements stipulated for shipboard
operations (life jackets, flares, raft, etc.), including MARPOL recommendations for the
prevention of pollution at sea.
FIGURE 15
Floating crane
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 102
Hopper barge
Figure 16 shows a general purpose hopper barge used for the transport and dumping
of material at sea. Commonly, available barges have a capacity in the range of 500 to
1 000 cubic metres and are generally self-propelled. Hopper barges can be used for
dumping the core of a breakwater in deep water (5 metres and deeper) and for dumping
excavated or dredged material offshore.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The hopper barge should be equipped with the safety requirements stipulated
for shipboard operations (life jackets, flares, raft, etc.), including MARPOL
recommendations for the prevention of pollution at sea.
7.2.3 Methodologies
The typical breakwater illustrated in Figure 8 (shallow water only) consists of a mound
of coarse stone, also known as a core, covered or protected by blankets or layers of
heavier stones.
7.2.3.1 The core
The core typically consists of stone weighing between 1 kilogram and 500 kilograms,
without the fine particles (dust and sand) dumped in a heap out into the sea by a dump
truck. To facilitate dumping by truck, the core should be ideally four to five metres
wide at the top and approximately half a metre above mean sea level or, in the presence
of a large tidal range, above high water spring level, Figure 17a. The top of the core
should be kept level and uniform by a bulldozer to enable the dump trucks to travel
the entire length of the breakwater. When tipped into the water, the core rubble comes
to rest at a slope of approximately 1 on 1, i.e. it drops down 1 metre in level for every
1 metre forward. The rubble in the core is very light, so breakwaters should be built
during calm weather only.
Environmentally speaking, the core dumping may have a large negative impact
on the surrounding sea due to the fine dust that gets washed off the rubble. In
environmentally sensitive areas, such as coral reefs, protected fish breeding areas and
nursery grounds rich in certain species of protected vegetation such as Posidonia sea
grass, the core must be sluiced or washed before placing to limit the dust plume that
would otherwise be generated by the fine dust particles. This dust plume usually
persists for many days and can cause a lot of damage by either blocking out sunlight or
depositing fine dust on the gills of fish and suffocating them.
FIGURE 16
The split hopper barge
Breakwaters 103
7.2.3.2 The underlayer
The underlayer of stone that protects the core rubble from being washed away,
Figure 17b, usually consists of single pieces of stone whose weight varies between
a minimum of half a tonne (500 kilograms) to a maximum of one tonne (1 000
kilograms). These are usually laid in a minimum of two layers at a slope which is
generally shallower than that of the core; 2/1 on the outer slope and 1.5/1 on the inner
slope. A slope of 2/1 means that the level drops 1 metre for every 2 metres forward.
FIGURE 17
Rubble mound construction
Minimum size 1 kg
Maximum size 500 kg
Dense limestone
1 m
1 m
1 m
1 m
MSL
Minimum
3 m
MSL
0.5 m
Tipping by truck
Fine core
Cross-section
Nylon string
Sinker
2.5 x H
600 mm
900 mm
Minimum size 500 kg
Maximum size 1 000 kg
A hydraulic excavator placing the
rubble on the crown of the
breakwater
Fine core
Maximum core
length exposed 10 m
900 mm
1 300 mm
N
y
lo
n
p
r
o
file
3
:1
Slope around the head
increased to 3:1
The same machine backtracking
and closing the crown at the
same time
Rubble delivered
by truck
Sinker
This outreach
requires a crane
Minimum size 1 000 kg
Maximum size 3 000 kg
Diver
Placing the main armour layer
17 a
17 b
17 c
17 d
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 104
The first layer of stone may be placed by a hydraulic excavator as shown in Figure 17c.
The excavator should place the heavier stone as quickly as possible without leaving too
much core rubble exposed to wave action. If a storm strikes the site with too much core
exposed, there is a grave danger of the core being washed away and spread all over the
intended port area.
The figure shows the set up for a given stone profile, in this case a slope of 2.5/1:
the distance H is the height of the top of the new sloping layer above the sea bed.
A wooden pole should be conveniently placed at the tip of the underlying core and
cemented into place with mortar. At a distance equal to 2.5 x H, a heavy stone sinker
with a marker buoy should be placed on the sea bed. A brightly coloured nylon
string should then be strung from the sinker to the required height on the pole. This
procedure should be repeated every 5.0 metres to help the crane or excavator operator
with the placing of the top-most layer. A swimmer wearing goggles (and in cold waters
a wet suit) should ensure that each separate rock is placed within the profile outlined
by the nylon string.
7.2.3.3 The armour layer
The main armour layer, as its name implies, is the primary defence of the breakwater
against wave attack. The stone sizes for the cross-section in the shallow water example
should be in the range of 1 tonne (1 000 kilograms) to 3 tonnes (3 000 kilograms). Any
defects in the quality of the rock, grading (size too small) or placing (slope uneven or
too steep) will seriously put the whole breakwater at risk. Hence, great care must be
taken when choosing and placing the stone for the main armour layer.
Figure 17c shows main armour stone being placed by a crawler crane or tracked
crane, which is by far the best equipment for placing large stones. The large stones
should be lifted singly using a sling or stone grapple and placed in the water with the
aid of a diver swimming over the placing area. The armour layer should be placed stone
by stone in a sequence which ensures interlocking; in the figure, for example, stone 2 is
held in place by stones 1 and 3 whereas stone 4 is jammed between stones 3 and 5. This
ensures that waves cannot pull one stone out and cause the upper stones to topple down
the slope, breach the armour layer and expose the smaller rubble underneath. To ensure
proper placing, the swimmer or boat crew should direct the crane operator each time a
stone is placed until the stone layer breaks the surface. As with the first underlayer, two
layers of armour stones are required to complete the main armour layer. Slope profiles
should be set up at regular 5 metre intervals using the same procedure as described
previously. Figure 17d, bottom, shows how the nearly complete breakwater is closed
off layer by layer. It shows the excavator backtracking to the root of the breakwater
closing the top layers simultaneously. The end or head of the breakwater is the most
delicate part of the breakwater and requires extra care. The outer slope of 2.5/1 should
be increased to 3/1 to improve its stability.
7.2.3.4 Solid breakwater
Figure 19 illustrates how a vertical, solid breakwater may be built. A stone rubble
foundation should first be laid on a hard sea bed (rock, coral deposits or stiff clay) using
the appropriate equipment illustrated in Figure 18. If the foundation is a thick deposit
of good sand (no silt or soft clay or mud), then a geotextile filter mat should be placed
under the rubble foundation. The rubble should consist of a well-graded mix of 1- to
5-kilogram stones. A temporary profile of the proposed section should then be erected
every 2 or 3 metres as shown in Figure 19.
Concrete filled jute bags, or locally available dressed stone, should then be laid on
the rubble foundation, in line with the temporary profiles. Mass concrete should then
be poured into the central cavity to form a solid structure. The deck and wave wall may
be built to suit local conditions or as shown in the figure. Finally, after the removal
Breakwaters 105
of the temporary profiles, the sea side face of the breakwater foundation should be
protected against wave scour by the application of concrete-filled jute bags as shown.
In the case of a sandy bottom, these bags should come to rest on the geotextile filter.
Bollards may then be cast into the deck as desired.
7.3 FLOATING BREAKWATERS
To be effective as a breakwater, the motions of a floating structure must be of small
amplitude so that the structure does not generate waves into the protected harbour
side. Although at resonance the oncoming waves can be out of phase with the
transmitted waves (resulting in lower coefficients of transmission), the structure must
respond to a spectrum of incident wave conditions. Hence, the design of a floating
structure for resonance characteristics only is not possible given the wide spectrum of
ocean waves.
FIGURE 18
Preparation of a level foundation bed in stone
Coarse aggregate
Two graduated floats
at each end of
both rails
Graduated floats
Onshore surveyor
with level places
all four floats at
same level
MSL
Floating barge
Plastic tube
150 mm
Diver screeding
aggregate
with heavy
screed
Level of beam adjusted
by reading the level on
the graduated float
To graduated float
2 m
Two joists placed
3 m apart

FIGURE 19
Construction of a small vertical-faced breakwater
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 106
The simplest forms of floating breakwaters are pontoon structures, although various
modifications to their shape have been investigated in an effort to optimize the mass
(and ultimately the cost).
The efficiency of a floating breakwater depends primarily on the ratio of the width
of the pontoon to the wavelength of the oncoming waves (Figure 20) and, given that
ocean swell has a very long wavelength, floating breakwaters are not suitable for
creating protected areas along an exposed coastline and should never be installed.
However, on lake shores, where the waves tend to be very short (choppy) and do not
generally exceed 0.50 metre, floating breakwaters tend to work efficiently.
7.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
US Army Corp of Engineers. 1985. Shore Protection Manual. Washington, D.C., US
Army Corp of Engineers.
US Army Corp of Engineers. 1995. Design of Coastal Revetments, Seawalls and Bulkheads
Engineering and Design. Washington, D.C., US Army Corp of Engineers.
FIGURE 20
Transmission of waves through a floating breakwater
107
8. Quays and slipways
SUMMARY
For the purpose of this chapter, a quay is a general term used to describe a
marine structure for the mooring or tying-up of vessels, and for loading and
unloading of goods and passengers. It is generally contiguous with the shore. A
pier or finger jetty is a quay that projects into the water. In contrast to a normal
quay, a finger jetty may be used on both sides. In areas with a high tidal range,
both quays and jetties are often of the floating type.
The traditional slipway in many small beach-side communities is still the
natural beach where boats are hauled ashore for scrubbing, cleaning and repair.
However, a beach is not always suitable or available for servicing a vessel,
especially vessels larger than small canoes. On the other hand, inside fishing
harbours, the recent technological advances in boat hoists has further widened
the range of options available to a would-be designer of slipways.
This chapter reviews the cross-sections of a wide variety of quays and jetties
to suit an even wider range of applications. The objective being that the reader
will be able to appreciate the different applications of past and more recent
technologies and be better prepared to assess the potential requirements for
berthing and boat maintenance structures.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 108
CONTENTS
8.1 Quays 109
8.1.1 Solid quays minimum draft 1.5 metres 109
8.1.2 Solid quays minimum draft 3 metres 110
8.1.3 Solid quays minimum draft 6 metres and beyond 112
8.1.4 Open quays minimum draft 1.5 metres 115
8.1.5 Open quays minimum draft 3 metres and beyond 117
8.2 Jetties 119
8.2.1 Jetties any draft 119
8.2.2 Floating jetties 120
8.3 Slipways 123
8.3.1 Traditional slipways 123
8.3.2 Slipways on beaches 125
8.3.3 Mechanical slipways all sizes 126
8.3.4 Vessel repair facilities 131
8.4 Bibliography and further reading 132
Quays and slipways 109
8.1 QUAYS
The construction of quays falls broadly into two classifications: quays with a closed or
solid construction, and quays with an open construction, where the deck is supported
on piles. A key element inside a typical fishing harbour, however, is the draft, ranging
from 1.5 metres to 6 metres may be required, depending on the type, size and number
of resident fishing vessels (Table 1). An artisanal fishing port hosting small fishing
vessels having a loaded draft of no more than 1 metre would not normally require a
draft of more than 1.5 metres at low tide unless large vessels visit the port during the
peak fishing season.
8.1.1 Solid quays minimum draft 1.5 metres
Figure 1 illustrates one of the best ways to construct an artisanal quay with a draft of
1 to 1.5 metres. The earth-retaining structure, as the quay wall is known, consists of a
number of layers of concrete-filled jute bags placed on a rubble foundation in a brick-
wall fashion. This structure does not require any major cranage and may be built with
the sole assistance of one or two divers. The major advantage of this type of construction
is that an uneven sea bed or large boulders can be included in the foundation as shown
in the front elevation in Figure 1. The jute bags should be filled with just enough
concrete to form a pillow of uniform thickness, item A in Figure 1. Overstuffed bags,
item B, should not be incorporated into the wall. Prior to commencing such work, a
temporary guide frame should be built as shown in the construction method for solid
breakwaters. The frame can be in scaffold pipes, bamboo or other timber sections.
Granular material only (no silt, mud or clay) should be used as backfill and the
top surface should be blinded or sealed with graded aggregate. The blinding should
be compacted properly using a vibrating plate compactor. The front or toe of the
quay should also be protected against scour by both propellers and tidal streams. This
protection can consist of concrete-filled jute bags laid side by side over the screeded
rubble as shown in the cross-section in the figure. The concrete capping block should
be cast in situ after the granular backfill has been placed. Each capping block should not
be more than 5 metres long and should contain some reinforcement.
TABLE 1
Draft requirements
Draft at low tide Vessels
1
1.50 metres Large canoes to small purse seiners
Maximum loaded draft 1 metre
3.0 metres Trawlers and other coastal vessels
Maximum loaded draft 2.5 metres
6.0 metres Ocean-going distant water trawlers
Maximum loaded draft
1
It should be kept in mind that many fishing vessels have what is known as rake of keel; therefore, the
draft should be measured from the deepest part of the keel. This is particularly important when such a
vessel is trimmed by the stern.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 110
8.1.2 Solid quays minimum draft 3 metres
Figure 2 shows a typical concrete blockwork quay built from concrete blocks placed
by a crane on a screeded bed of stone (see Figure 18 in Chapter 7 on how to prepare
a screeded bed) and rubble. This kind of earth-retaining structure is very common
but requires the use of a suitable crane. The crane can either be the floating type or
terrestrial.
The concrete blocks are first cast in a yard and after 28 days have elapsed, they are
lifted and placed on the sea bed as illustrated in Figure 2. The blocks are placed to
form pillars on the screeded rubble; Chapter 7 describes how the foundation bed is
screeded. The block pillars should be kept about 50 mm apart in such a way that each
pillar may settle without rubbing against adjacent pillars. To achieve this, it is common
to nail wooden spacers, 50 mm thick, to one side of the blocks prior to placing.
Figure 3 shows various lifting arrangements utilized in the block yard. Slings may
either pass underneath the block or lift the block via hooks. The slings may be in wire
rope or chain and the factor of safety in the lifting apparatus for safe working loads
is 8. Some countries require a higher value to take the wear-and-tear of the slings into
consideration.
FIGURE 1
Cross-section and front elevation of artisanal quay
1 000 - 2 000 mm
300 mm thick bending
Backfilling
5 000 mm
+1.2 m
Rocky
MSL
Variable
A
B
Capping block cast in situ
Quays and slipways 111
FIGURE 2
Blockwork quay wall
300 mm thick blinding
Concrete
cap
Upper
block
Lower
block
Backfilling with
small rubble
Concrete-filled
jute bag
Bollard hole
Concrete car
Fender hole
1
0
0
0
m
m
U
p
p
e
r

b
lo
c
k
L
o
w
e
r
b
lo
c
k
1
5
0
0
m
m
1

2
0
0
m
m
FIGURE 3
Casting and lifting precast blocks for a quay wall
Channels must be
cast on sides of
block and underneath
Side view A
1

2
0
0
m
m
1
0
0
0
m
m
To crane hook
Top and bottom
must be perfectly
level
Concrete block
Edges should be
rounded so as not
to nick the lifting
wire ropes
Radius of bend as
large as possible
Crane hook
9
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
30-mm bent
steel bars
Cross-section 8-B
Ground level
60
maximum
B
B
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 112
Whereas rectangular blocks are the simplest to design and to cast, their weight is
also a major disadvantage in remote areas with difficult access for heavy lifting plant
(Figure 4, left). An alternative way to build the quay wall with lighter blocks (the
design has to be wider to compensate for the loss of weight) is to use I section blocks
and then to fill the voids with granular material (Figure 4, right).
Backfill should consist of clean granular rubble. If sand is available, then the rear
of the block wall should be lined with a geotextile filter to prevent sand from leaching
out from in between the block pillars. Silt, clay lumps and mud should never be used
as backfill and all degradable material (timber pieces, logs and other vegetation) should
be removed. The backfill should not be used as landfill for household rubbish because
decaying rubbish causes the backfill to settle unevenly.
The concrete capping block should be cast in situ after the granular backfill has
been placed up to the water level. Graded aggregate should be used to seal or blind the
backfill if large stones were used. The capping block should be cast in lengths to cap
two or three adjacent vertical pillars and should contain some reinforcement to bind it
to the pillars.
8.1.3 Solid quays minimum draft 6 metres and beyond
The cross-section shown in Figure 4 may be adapted for a quay with a draft of 6 metres
by increasing the size and width of the concrete blocks; however, the required size of
the blocks would be so large as to require very large and heavy lifting equipment. A
more economical solution in terms of the equipment required is shown in Figure 5.
The earth-retaining structure in this case is a special corrugated sheet of steel,
known as a sheet pile, which interlocks with adjacent units to form a continuous wall,
Figure 6.
FIGURE 4
Rectangular blocks (left) and I-section blocks with granular fill (right)
FIGURE 5
A steel sheet piled quay wall
Quays and slipways 113
This wall is driven into the sea bed, sheet pile by sheet pile as shown in Figure 7, and
the top tied back to an anchor wall, which may consist of a slab of reinforced concrete
or a length of the same bulkhead. A temporary timber or steel guide frame is generally
erected to help drive the sheet piles vertical and in a straight line. The crane used to
drive sheet piles must have a long jib to enable it to pick entire lengths of sheet pile for
driving. The crane may either be mounted on a barge, in which case the sheet piles are
FIGURE 6
Types of sheet piles in use
FIGURE 7
Driving of sheet piles
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 114
driven from the sea side of the bulkhead, or driven over a temporary reclamation and
driven from the rear of the bulkhead, Figure 8. The temporary reclamation may then
be used as backfill.
Sheet piles are suitable for driving into clay, sand and silt deposits, as well as some
types of coral. Sheet piles cannot be driven in most types of rock and in the presence of
large boulders. Hammers for driving sheet piles may be of two types: impact hammers
or high-frequency hammers. Impact hammers, as their name suggests, are hammers
which impart an impact to the sheet pile. In the presence of soft deposits or clay, impact
hammers do not pose any problem. In the presence of difficult ground, however, such
as when sand contains large boulders, the impact from the hammer may damage or
bend the sheet pile.
Nowadays, high-frequency hammers are generally used to drive sheet piles in
granular deposits. High-frequency hammers are not effective in the presence of clay.
The depth of penetration of a sheet pile depends on the type of material on the
sea bed. The top of the sheet pile is usually anchored via thick steel rods, themselves
anchored to anchor walls placed a safe distance away from the main bulkhead. The
crown of the sheet pile should be finished off in an in situ concrete cope, typically up to
1 metre wide and 2 metres high, to accommodate quay services and allow the bollards
and fenders to be bolted down in place, Figure 9.
Solid quays may also be constructed using reinforced concrete box caissons, cast on
land or inside a dry dock and sunk in place to form a wall (Figures 10 and 11). By their
very nature (wide), caissons exert a lower pressure on the foundation.
FIGURE 8
Driving from a floating barge crane (left) and from the shore side (right)
FIGURE 9
Preparing to cast a concrete cope (left) and a finished cope (right)
Quays and slipways 115
8.1.4 Open quays minimum draft 1.5 metres
The deck of an open quay is supported on piles and the whole structure is open to full
view. In view of this, an open structure is considered to be more delicate than a solid
one and special fendering measures have to be incorporated in the design to prevent
damage to the structure. Open quays may be constructed entirely in timber, concrete
or steel, or a mixture of the three. Timber, however, may be attacked by insects; see
Chapter 9 for more details.
Figure 12 illustrates how an artisanal open quay may be built using mainly locally
available materials, such as timber or steel pipes. Given the small dimensions of the
structure, a crane may not be needed if a light lattice tower or tripod and a piling winch
are available to drive the piles, Figure 13. The figure also demonstrates the manner in
which the pile heads should be prepared to receive the cross-beams.
The timber used in such a structure should be the right kind of timber and treated
against decay and attack by insects as described in Chapter 9.
All fastenings should be either screws or bolts in brass or stainless steel. The heads
of ordinary steel nails corrode very fast and come undone very suddenly as soon as
a load is applied. Nails should not be used anywhere on a jetty. In order to render
the structure shown more stable and readily accessible from the shore, graded rubble
should be placed to a slope as shown in the figure. In the presence of very soft mud, silt
or clay, a geotextile filter should be placed underneath the rubble to hold it in place.
FIGURE 10
Reinforced concrete box caisson
FIGURE 11
Small box caissons cast side-by-side on an existing quay
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 116
FIGURE 12
An artisanal shallow water piled jetty
FIGURE 13
Pile driving for an artisanal quay
Piling winch
Weights
Weight
Pulley
Light lattice tower
Strut
Timber pile
MSL
vertical position
to hold pile in a
Steel brackets
Quays and slipways 117
8.1.5 Open quays minimum draft 3 metres and beyond
Figure 14 shows conventional, deeper water open quays of the type traditionally found
in larger fishing ports. The structures are typically subdivided into two categories: with
and without tidal variation. Figure 14 shows a cross-section without tidal variation,
where the impact load from a vessel is transmitted directly to the deck of the quay via
a simple rubber fender. Figure 15 shows a cross-section with tidal variation. The open
quay, in this case, is fronted by another structure, the rubbing fender pile, which has to
absorb the impact from a vessel mooring at low tide without damaging the main quay
piles immediately behind it. If the quay wall is solid (sheet piles), then timber or rubber
strips are applied to the sheet pile for the vessels to rub against.
Piled quays are particularly effective at absorbing wave energy due to the presence
of the rubble slope underneath the deck. The rubble is normally similar to a breakwater
grading, requiring core material (1100 kilograms), armouring (2001 000 kilograms)
FIGURE 14
Piled quay any depth but no tide
FIGURE 15
Piled quay any depth but with tidal variation
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 118
and toe berm (1 0002 000 kilograms) to prevent scour damage. If the reclamation
behind the piled structure is not sealed properly with a geotextile membrane, fines tend
to leach out of the rubble, leading to uneven settlement of the apron.
The piles may either be in normally reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete,
or steel. Whereas most concrete piles are solid, steel piles are usually hollow pipes.
In most cases, if only small lengths of pile can be handled by the crane, piles can be
jointed in situ to form longer lengths as required. Concrete piles are generally glued
with special epoxy glues, whereas steel piles are commonly welded together via simple
butt-joints. If hollow pipes are used, these may either be filled up with concrete and
reinforcing steel (to prevent corrosion on the inside and add strength to the pile) or, if
the pipe thickness is enough, left as open-ended piles.
Piles in general may be divided into two broad categories: driven and in situ. Driven
piles are piles driven into the ground by a piling or vibrating hammer. In situ piles
are piles formed in the ground by first drilling a large diameter hole and then filling it
with concrete and reinforcement. A combination of the two, also known as a cased or
jacketed pile, is when a steel pipe pile is first driven into the ground and then emptied
of the contents and refilled with reinforced concrete. The bearing capacity of piles may
be increased by the inclusion of a bulb at the foot of the pile. Figure 16 illustrates the
various techniques used to drive piles and their most common applications.
FIGURE 16
Pile driving techniques and their fields of application
Piling hammer Vibrating hammer Rotary coring
Piling rig works on level ground
Floating or jack-up barge
Crane may be on level ground
Floating or jack-up barge
Drilling rig must be on shore
Or made-up ground, reclamation
Suitable in clayey, silty, sandy deposits
as well as soft rock
Suitable for silty to sandy deposits only Suitable for all types of deposits
including most rocks
Suitable for concrete piles, steel H piles,
pipe piles and sheet piles
Suitable for steel H piles, pipe piles and
sheet piles only
Only suitable for cast in situ concrete
piles, with or without steel pipe
jackets
Problems with alignment in presence of
coarse gravel
Not suitable in presence of any but
fine gravel
Not problematic in presence of any
gravel size
Impossible to drive piles over a rubble
mound breakwater
Impossible to drive piles over a rubble
mound breakwater
Possible only from shore line, cannot
be floating
Double hammer noise, very loud,
especially in hard rock
Continuous humming noise, very loud
and piercing
Rumbling noise
Normally no displacement of ground
material unless open pipe piles have to
be filled up with concrete
Normally no displacement of ground
material unless open pipe piles have to
be filled up with concrete
Displacement of the entire volume of
the shaft and ground down to a fine
size, dust
Likely to cause vibrations in adjacent
buildings, leading to damage, especially
in old load bearing structures
May cause tremors in adjacent areas
but not as damaging
Vibrations not normally discernable in
adjacent areas
DIESEL-POWERED
HAMMER
HYDRAULIC VIBRATING HAMMER
ROTARY CORE
DRILLER
Quays and slipways 119
8.2 JETTIES
A finger jetty is a structure that projects out into the water and is generally suitable for
mooring on both sides. The draft alongside a finger jetty may range from 1.5 metres
in an artisanal port to any desired depth in large industrial fishing ports. Since there
is no earth to retain, a finger jetty derives its stability from the type of foundations
utilized. A finger jetty may be constructed in timber, in concrete, in steel, or a mix of
any two. The construction equipment required to build jetties is similar to that used
for solid and piled quays. Solid jetties in concrete or stone rubble should never be
constructed on mobile sediments, like beaches, as they interrupt the littoral flow and
lead to problems with erosion.
8.2.1 Jetties any draft
Unlike quay walls that depend on a gravity structure for their stability, jetties may be
constructed with relatively small equipment. Figures 17, 18 and 19 illustrate typical
small-scale jetties of the types used in many ports. Figures 20, 21 and 22 illustrate
various examples of jetties built in relatively remote areas with small equipment.
FIGURE 17
Traditional timber jetty
FIGURE 18
Timber jetty on concrete trestles
FIGURE 19
Concrete jetty on concrete piles
Timber deck spanning
sideways across
concrete cross-beams
300 mm x 300 mm square
reinforced concrete piles
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 120
FIGURE 20
Precast concrete trestles (left) and concrete jetty under construction (right)
FIGURE 21
Timber jetty (left) and steel jetty (right)
FIGURE 22
Concrete jetty built with modular units from land
8.2.2 Floating jetties
Floating jetties come in a whole range of sizes and shapes to cater for vessels ranging
from a small canoe to an ocean-going trawler.
Figure 23 illustrates a jetty in timber which may be manufactured from locally
available materials like plastic or oil drums, timber and fibre rope. Figure 24 illustrates
the Jetfloat unit, a commercially available system, consisting of modular floats in plastic
that join up to form a floating platform of any desired shape.
Quays and slipways 121
Ready-made pontoons in concrete or a combination of timber, metal, concrete
or plastic may be purchased from a variety of sources (Figure 25). Sizes range from
6 metres to 12 metres and widths vary from 1.5 metres to 3.5 metres. All pontoons
should be installed in sheltered waters with little or no current.
FIGURE 23
Floating jetty in timber local artisanal manufacture
FIGURE 24
Floating jetty in off-the-shelf modular plastic float units
2

0
0
0
REINFORCED CONCRETE
JETFLOAT ANCHOR
BLOCK
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 122
Floating jetties may also be of the heavy duty type, suitable for the mooring of
heavier vessels and able to withstand greater impact loads (Figure 26). The floating
element in this case is a reinforced concrete caisson, built on a river bank and launched
at high tide.
Due to the size and weight of the caisson, proper piled anchoring systems are
required, especially in the presence of high tidal streams or river currents. The anchor
system may consist of a reinforced concrete beam held in place by anchor piles driven
into the river bank. The caisson is held away from the river bank by two outrigger
lattice girders perpendicular to the caisson. Two further inclined girders absorb the
transverse loads imparted to the caisson by the water current. The girders are anchored
to both beam and caisson by stainless steel hinges bolted to the concrete. If longer
lengths of quay are required, extra, independently anchored and restrained caissons
should be placed adjacent to each other. Loose caissons should not be hinged together
to anchored caissons to form a single long jetty. The caissons should be internally
divided to provide separate water-tight compartments. Each compartment should be
equipped with a manhole and water-tight manhole cover for internal inspection. The
gangway should be hinged to the anchor beam and allowed to roll over a 5 mm steel
wearing plate bolted to the caisson. Depending on the tidal range, the gangway should
have timber battens at half-metre intervals to improve foot grip at high slopes during
low tide. It is important to equip the caisson with proper fenders. A floating tree trunk,
if available, provides very good defence against impact; otherwise, large, truck-size
tyres should be employed. Due to the rather permanent nature of such structures, they
are usually equipped with water and electricity.
FIGURE 25
Typical off-the-shelf floating pontoons
All concrete pontoon Timber and aluminium deck with
polyethylene floats
Timber and steel deck with lightweight concrete floats
Quays and slipways 123
8.3 SLIPWAYS
8.3.1 Traditional slipways
Traditional slipways in use all over the world still make use of greased timber skids
as a means of retrieving and launching vessels, Figure 27. This kind of slipway has
no mechanical parts and no maintenance and the vessel occupies the slipway until it
is relaunched after maintenance work. Typically, the slipway can handle boats up to
5 tonnes in weight. It usually cuts through the quay as shown in Figure 27. The width
should not be less than 5 metres and the depth of water at the toe should not be less
than 1.5 metres. The portion above mean sea level may be cast in situ and should not
be less than 250 mm in thickness in Grade 35 concrete. The submerged portion should
consist of precast units, also in Grade 35 concrete, such as the ones shown, laid to a
FIGURE 26
A heavy-duty caisson-type floating jetty in plan (top) and section (bottom)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 124
slope on a bed of screeded stone chippings or aggregate. The toe should always be
protected with heavier stone armour or concrete-filled jute bags. The timber skids,
100 mm x 100 mm in section, may then be bolted to the concrete as shown in the figure.
In some countries, fishermen construct their own custom-made trailers and timber
skids may not be required.
FIGURE 27
Artisanal slipway
A
N
o
t
le
s
s
t
h
a
n
5
m
Grout-filled
bags
Precast concrete plates
1
1.5 m
Cast in situ
1:10
Section A-A
10
,
V
V
Inside harbour or river basins, it is recommended to install a flotsam barrier as
shown in Figure 28 to prevent floating rubbish from fouling up the slipway.
There is no ideal slope for a slipway; slopes may be anything from 4 percent to
17 percent steep (a 4 percent slope falls 4 metres vertically in 100 metres horizontal).
Compound slopes, with the submerged part at 17 percent and the dry part at 9 percent,
are also common. However, one must remember that the steeper the slope the more
Quays and slipways 125
powerful the winch has to be and that the submerged part may be steeper (the vessel
weighs less when in the water) for the same type of winch. Slipway equipment is
illustrated in Chapter 10.
8.3.2 Slipways on beaches
It is not uncommon for heavy boatyards, which handle vessels above 5 tonnes, to be
located out of town in the vicinity of a sandy coastline. Ideally, no obstructions should
be constructed on a sandy beach as these give rise to erosion. Such a structure will
invariably need constant dredging to keep the axis free of accumulated sand. Decked
boats, including small trawlers, may be safely beached on sand if this method had been
taken into consideration at the vessel design stage. Where bilge keels are attached to the
sides of the hull to keep it upright they should be so designed to support the weight
exerted by the vessel and the keels of wooden hulled and fibreglass vessels should
be protected by a skid bar. This might be a stainless steel rubbing plate bolted to the
bottom of the keel on a wooden vessel or more probably hard wood in the case of a
fibreglass vessel. The end of the skeg may be curved to avoid digging in on launching.
A small tractor or winch may be used to haul the vessels ashore (Figure 29).
Launching is clearly a reverse process with the same winch or tractor hauling the
boat against a secure anchoring point in the water. In both landing and launching,
wooden skids or rollers below the keel are often used; see section 10.7 of Chapter 10.
FIGURE 28
Flotsam barrier
FIGURE 29
Beaching a vessel
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 126
8.3.3 Mechanical slipways all sizes
Mechanically operated slipping facilities may be divided into three categories for all
vessels up to 500 tonnes displacement. The three methods are:
mechanized slipway;
mobile gantry or travelift; and
synchrolift or ship lift.
8.3.3.1 Mechanized slipway
A mechanized slipway is a large slope with two or three parallel beams running down
4 to 5 metres below sea level, each carrying a heavy-duty steel rail (Figure 30). A steel
cradle, Figure 31, runs up and down the rails by means of a special winch.
The vessel to be slipped is floated over the cradle and secured. The cradle is then
winched up the slope until it is clear of the water and then locked in the desired
position. The vessel stays on the cradle throughout the maintenance period and all
servicing is carried out at the waters edge. Some mechanized slipways cover the work
area with a permanent building, while others with sliding or even inflatable structures
to protect the work area from the harshest weather conditions only (Figure 32).
FIGURE 30
The principle of a mechanized slipway
Vessel stays on cradle
Minimum 4.0 m
Cradle assembly
Slope 4 to 17%
Winch
Work area may be covered
FIGURE 31
The steel cradle used on a mechanized slipway
Keel blocks
To winch
Rail beams
Horizontal frame
Steel bogies
Sliding racks
<
<
<
<
Quays and slipways 127
The steel cradle runs on foundation beams laid to the appropriate slope. Figures
33, 34 and 35 illustrate a typical plan and cross-section for a slipway utilizing precast
beams bedded on a rubble bed. The precast beams are laid on a screeded bed of ballast
FIGURE 32
Examples of mechanized slipways
FIGURE 33
Typical plan of slipway
FIGURE 34
Typical cross-section across foundation beams (mm)
SIDE RESTRAINTS
FOR BOGIES
CROSSSECTION
RUBBLE
PACKING
SELECT BALLAST SCREEDED TO LEVEL
DREDGING IN CORAL REEF
PRECAST
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
BEAMS
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 128
or coarse aggregate and the adjoining spaces packed with 5 to 50 kilogram rock. A
wheel side-restraint in galvanized angle ensures that the cradle does not run off the
concrete surface. The wheel or group of wheels or bogies are normally in solid steel
coated with rubber. Steel rails may also be used over the beams.
8.3.3.2 Mobile gantry or travelift
A mobile gantry or travelift facility typically consists of a rubber-tyred gantry running
over a twin pier construction (Figures 36, 37 and 38). The vessels to be slipped are
floated in between the piers and then hoisted out of the water by the mobile gantry or
travelift using polyester straps.
FIGURE 35
Typical precast beams
5
0
0
0
m
m
HOLES FOR MS
20 mm ANCHOR BOLTS
VERTICAL KEYS
FIGURE 36
Mobile gantry
Front elevation
across vessel pen
Capacity 500 tonnes max
To open work
area or covered
workshops
Wheel stop
<
Quays and slipways 129
2
The sketches do not show in detail the arrangements to keep the wheels from running off track and for
the wheel stops.
The piers may protrude from the quay out into open water or the vessel pen may be
incorporated in the quay structure as illustrated in Figure 37.
2
Boat servicing is carried
out some distance away from the waters edge at an open work area or inside a covered
workshop. The number of vessels handled at any one time is only a function of the size
of the work area, whether covered or open. No cradles are utilized as the vessels are
placed directly on timber frames or special steel props and often by laying their keel
on the ground. There should always be an arrangement in the repair area with sumps
in the ground as an aid to repairing/replacing the keel of wooden hulled boats.
8.3.3.3 Synchrolift or shiplift
Until the advent of high-capacity mobile gantries, synchrolifts were the standard
equipment of established boatyards (Figures 39 and 40). Synchrolifts, however, have the
capacity to lift up to 1 000 tonnes and this makes any yard equipped with a synchrolift
able to offer its services to a wider range of vessels. In a synchrolift the vessels are
floated over the transfer cradle that sits on the elevating platform. The platform with
the cradle and vessel on top is then hoisted out of the water and brought level with the
transfer rails. A tractor can then push the cradle down the line to a repair bay which
may be an open work area or a covered workshop.
The number of vessels handled at the yard at any one time is a function of the
number of cradles and/or work area available.
FIGURE 37
Mobile gantry 250-tonne capacity
FIGURE 38
Mobile gantries 50- and 100-tonne capacity
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 130
8.3.3.4 Fixed or mobile cranes
Fixed or mobile cranes at the quayside may also be used for launching or recovering
vessels (Figure 41). In this case, the vessel workshops may be located a distance away
from the port.
FIGURE 39
Synchrolift or shiplift

Repair bay
Repair bay
Side transfer
rails for
moving
vessels
sideways
Transfer cradle
Quay face
Elevang plaorm
with cradle on top
Synchronized electric
hoists
FIGURE 40
A large synchrolift (foreground) and floating dock
(background)
Quays and slipways 131
8.3.4 Vessel repair facilities
8.3.4.1 Best management practice
Vessel repair facilities pose special environmental concerns in a fishing port because of
the processes and chemical materials that they use and their proximity to areas where
fish meant for human consumption is handled. The area of major concern in a boatyard
is hull stripping and painting.
When a vessels hull is prepared for painting the process typically starts with
pressure or mechanical (hand brush) washing to remove the marine organisms and
slime accumulated between maintenance intervals, Figure 42.
Next, depending on whether the hull is metal or timber or glass reinforced plastic
(GRP), the antifouling paint is stripped by grit blasting or mechanical sander. Both grit
blasting and sanding tend to raise particulate matter into the surrounding environment
and in windy conditions the entire port may be enveloped in a cloud of potentially
harmful particulate matter.
Similarly, if it rains, the dust settled under the vessel may be washed back into the
sea. Figure 43 illustrates how a covered work area around the vessel may be set up
using simple plastic sheeting clamped to the vessels coaming and held down at ground
level with simple upright poles driven into the ground.
FIGURE 41
Mobile or fixed cranes used to launch or recover vessels
FIGURE 42
Power washing hull
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 132
The following recommended work practices should be observed at the slipway:
Hull cleaning
perform abrasive or sanding under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat skirts;
perform abrasive or sanding over a horizontal hard impermeable surface, such as
concrete, to enable proper cleaning of surface and collection of wastes;
whenever possible, use vacuum sanders to limit the amount of dust generated;
sanding dust and paint chippings must be removed on a daily basis and appropriate
covered waste containers should be provided within the facility;
workers under the boat skirt should be provided with appropriate full-face masks;
and
a list of the above work practices should be posted at the work area for the
benefit of the do-it-yourself vessel owners who may not be aware of the ports
environmental regulations.
Hull painting
techniques such as brushing and rolling are preferred to spraying to reduce
overspray and solvent emissions;
all painting should be performed under covered tarpaulin enclosures or boat
skirts;
all painting should be performed over a horizontal hard impermeable surface;
whenever possible, solvents and coatings with low volatility should be used;
waste paints, solvents and rags should be stored in covered waste containers to
prevent evaporation to the atmosphere; and
workers under the boat skirt should be provided with appropriate full-face masks
and solvent-resistant gloves.
8.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
British Steel. 1988. Piling Handbook. British Steel, PO Box 30, Motherwell ML1AA,
UK.
Committee for Waterfront Structures. 1982. Recommendations of the Committee for
Waterfront Structures. Berlin, Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 1989. Marine Railways. Alexandria, Virginia,
NavFacEngCom.
Quinn, A.D. 1972. Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures. McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York.
FIGURE 43
Covered work area around a vessel, also known as a boat skirt
CLAMPED TO
COAMING
TARPAULIN OR
PLASTIC SHEET
WEIGHTS UPRIGHT
STRUTS
KEEL BLOCK
COVERED
WORK AREA
133
9. Construction materials
SUMMARY
Construction materials for port and coastal structures may be classified into
five general categories: steel, timber, concrete, stone and synthetics. However,
subject of materials and their suitability for application within a port facility is
very wide and, for this reason, the intention is to condense the subject into a single
chapter covering the basic principles while eliminating superfluous coverage.
The chapter is confined to the properties of those materials and treatments or
variations thereof that are applicable to port structures. Nevertheless, emphasis
is duly placed on full coverage of the basic materials that have proved most
durable in the highly aggressive marine environment inside port structures. The
overall objective being the provision of sound advice to the reader regarding
the selection of materials for port structures and acceptable practices as well as
other less suitable materials and practices that should be avoided.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 134
CONTENTS
9.1 Metals 137
9.1.1 Ferrous metals 137
9.1.2 Non-ferrous materials 137
9.2 Corrosion 137
9.2.1 Introduction 137
9.2.2 Corrosion and steel 139
9.2.3 Influence of design on corrosion 140
9.3 Anti-corrosion metallic coatings 140
9.3.1 Introduction 140
9.3.2 Hot-dip galvanizing 141
9.3.3 Metal spray coatings 143
9.3.4 Electroplated coatings 143
9.3.5 Sherardizing 144
9.3.6 Stainless steel 144
9.4 Paint coatings 144
9.4.1 Introduction 144
9.4.2 Paint systems 145
9.4.3 Main generic types of primers 146
9.4.4 Main generic types of paint 147
9.4.5 Methods of applying paint 147
9.4.6 Preparing a steel surface for coating 148
9.4.7 Typical compatible paint cycles 149
9.4.8 Painting on galvanized surfaces 150
9.4.9 Painting of sheet piles 150
9.5 Cathodic protection 150
9.6 Timber 152
9.6.1 Introduction 152
9.6.2 Infestation 154
9.6.3 Durability 154
9.6.4 Timber preservatives 156
9.7 Concrete 157
9.7.1 Introduction 157
9.7.2 Cement 157
9.7.3 Aggregate 158
9.7.4 Mixing water 161
9.7.5 Batching 162
9.7.6 Reinforcement 167
9.7.7 Placing, vibrating and curing 168
9.7.8 Admixtures 170
9.7.9 Polymer-modified cement mortars 171
9.7.10 Non-shrink grouts 172
9.7.11 Epoxy flooring compounds 172
9.7.12 Epoxy concrete coatings 173
9.7.13 Bituminous coatings 173
9.7.14 Site practice and safety 173
9.8 Rock 175
9.8.1 Introduction 175
9.8.2 Quarries 175
9.8.3 Geological characteristics of rock 176
Construction materials 135
9.9 Plastics, rubber and bituminous compounds 177
9.9.1 Polyvinyl chloride 177
9.9.2 Polypropylene 177
9.9.3 Polycarbonates 177
9.9.4 Low-density polyethylene 177
9.9.5 High-density polyethylene 177
9.9.6 Polyurethane 178
9.9.7 Polyesters 178
9.9.8 Rubber 178
9.9.9 Bituminous compounds 178
9.10 Bibliography and further reading 179
Construction materials 137
9.1. METALS
9.1.1 Ferrous metals
Many ferrous (iron) alloys are used for engineering purposes. Despite this, iron alloys
are used in larger quantities than the alloys of any other metal. This arises from the
relative cheapness with which steels (an iron alloy) and cast iron can be produced
with a variety of useful properties, by variations of composition, heat treatment and
heat working. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, silicon, phosphorus, manganese and
sulphur. Inclusion of nickel and chromium produces stainless steel.
Wrought steel components are produced by hot- or cold-working processes,
although some machining may be involved. In civil engineering, the largest use of
wrought steels goes into making reinforcement steel and structural sections such as
beams and channels, sheet piles and pipes.
Forged steel involves hot shaping between dies and the deformation sequence is
chosen so that adequate deformation is given to all parts of the component and the
metal flow direction is controlled to give optimum fibre structure and properties. A
limitation on the shape of forgings arises from the need to remove them from the
dies. Forged steel is used in making chains, shackles, boat moorings, as well as other
products.
Cast iron provides an alternative to forging for the production of complex shapes.
Instead of working the metal in a die, casting is achieved by pouring molten metal into a
recyclable sand mould. In general, forgings have better properties than castings because
the properties of castings are determined by the solidification characteristics of casting
alloys. Typical products in cast iron are manhole covers and bollards.
9.1.2 Non-ferrous materials
Non-ferrous metals and alloys are available for engineering and building purposes.
Pure non-ferrous metals (like aluminium) have properties that make them suitable for
engineering applications and as a building material.
However, care must be taken when, for example, aluminium is to be used in
conjunction with steel in order to ensure that cathodic action will not take place.
9.2 CORROSION
9.2.1 Introduction
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with its environment (Figure 1). Rusting applies to the corrosion of iron or iron-base
alloys with formation of corrosion products consisting mainly of hydrous ferric oxides.
Non-ferrous metals, therefore, corrode as well but do not rust.
Most corrosion of steel can be considered as an electrochemical process which
occurs in stages. Initial attack occurs at anodic areas on the surface, where ferrous ions
go into solution. Electrons are released from the anode and move through the metallic
structure to the adjacent cathodic sites on the surface where they combine with oxygen
and water to form hydroxyl ions. These react with the ferrous ions from the anode to
produce ferrous hydroxide which itself is further oxidized in air to produce hydrated
ferric oxide: red rust.
The sum of these reactions is described by the following equation:
4Fe + 3O
2
+ 2H
2
O = 2Fe
2
O
3
H
2
O
(Iron and steel) + (oxygen) + (water) = rust
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 138
Two important points emerge:
For iron or steel to corrode it is necessary to have the simultaneous presence of
water and oxygen; in the absence of either, corrosion does not occur.
All corrosion occurs at the anode; no corrosion occurs at the cathode.
However, after a period of time, polarization effects such as the growth of corrosion
products on the surface cause the corrosion process to be stifled. New, reactive anodic
sites may then be formed thereby allowing further corrosion. Over long periods the
loss of metal is reasonably uniform over the surface and so this case is usually described
as general corrosion. Nevertheless, various types of localized corrosion can also
occur such as:
Pitting corrosion occurs in some circumstances where the attack on the original
anodic area is not stifled and continues deep into the metal, forming a corrosion
pit. Pitting more often occurs with mild steels immersed in water or buried in soil
rather than those exposed in air. Pitting can also occur on stainless steels in certain
environments.
Crevice corrosion leads to crevices that can be formed by design-detailing, welding,
surface debris, etc. Available oxygen in the crevice is quickly used by the corrosion
process and, because of limited access, cannot be replaced. The entrance to the crevice
becomes cathodic since it can satisfy the oxygen-demanding cathode reaction. The tip
of the crevice becomes a localized anode and high corrosion rates occur at this point.
Bi-metallic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are joined together in an
electrolyte, like seawater, an electrical current passes between them and corrosion
occurs on the anoxic metal. Some metals (e.g. nickel and copper) corrode preferentially
themselves, thereby protecting the steel. The tendency of dissimilar metals to bi-
metallic corrosion is partly dependent upon their respective positions in the galvanic
series (in descending order, the galvanic series for seawater lists magnesium zinc
aluminium cadmium mild steel wrought iron cast iron stainless steel lead/
tin solder). The further apart the two metals are in the series, the greater the tendency.
In the presence of seawater, cadmium, aluminium, zinc and magnesium all corrode
preferentially to mild steel, with magnesium corroding the fastest and cadmium the
slowest. Other aspects which influence bi-metallic corrosion are the nature of the
FIGURE 1
The corrosion process
Construction materials 139
electrolyte and the respective surface areas of the anodic and cathodic metals. Bi-
metallic corrosion is most serious for immersed or buried structures but should also be
considered for steel in the atmosphere.
Stress-corrosion cracking occurs under the simultaneous influence of a static
tensile stress (the metallic element is under load), which may be well below the yield
strength of the steel and a specific corrosive environment. This type of corrosion is not
common with ferrous metals, though some stainless steels are susceptible in chloride
environments and mild steels can exhibit stress-corrosion cracking in the presence of
nitrates or in highly alkaline solutions.
Bacterial corrosion can occur in soils and water as a result of microbiological
activity. The most commonly encountered is that arising from the presence of sulphate-
reducing bacteria. These reduce sulphates in the soil to sulphides and cause corrosion
under anaerobic conditions (i.e. in the absence of oxygen). They are characterized
by black corrosion products having the distinctive rotten-egg smell of sulphide.
Bacterial corrosion is most commonly encountered in pipelines, sheet piles and other
buried structures.
9.2.2 Corrosion and steel
The principal factors that determine the rate of corrosion of steel in air are:
type and amount of pollution;
time of wetness, i.e. the proportion of total time during which the surface is wet;
and
temperature.
Within a given local environment corrosion rates can vary markedly. For example,
steel may corrode more on a particular side of a building because it is in the shade and
so remains wet for longer periods. Prevailing winds may carry airborne contaminants
(e.g. exhaust from a power station or sea spray from the coast) predominantly on to
one face of a structure. It is therefore the microclimate immediately surrounding
the structure which determines corrosion rates for practical purposes. Steel is most
commonly used in the following environments:
rural atmospheric essentially inland, unpolluted environments;
industrial atmospheric inland polluted environments;
marine atmospheric the 2 kilometre strip around the coast is broadly considered
as being a marine environment;
marine/industrial atmospheric polluted coastal environments;
seawater immersion:
(i) the splash zone, immediately above high-tide level, is usually the most
corrosive zone;
(ii) the tidal zone, between high tide and low tide, often covered with marine
growth; and
(iii) the low-water zone, a narrow band just below the low-water level;
the permanent immersion zone, from low-water level down to the sea bed;
freshwater immersion corrosion rates are lower in freshwater than in saltwater;
soils the corrosion process is complex and very variable; various methods are
used to assess the corrosivity of soils, such as resistivity (generally high-resistance
soils are least corrosive), redox potential (to assess the soils capability of anaerobic
bacterial corrosion), pH (highly acidic soils, e.g. pH less than 3.0, can be corrosive),
water content (corrosion depends upon the presence of moisture in the soil and
the position of the water table has an important bearing).
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 140
Long-buried steel structures, e.g. pipelines, are most susceptible to corrosion. Steel
piles driven into undisturbed soils are much less susceptible due to the low availability
of oxygen.
9.2.3 Influence of design on corrosion
Design can have an important bearing on the corrosion of steel structures. The
prevention of corrosion should therefore be taken into account during the design stage
of a project. The main design points to be considered are:
Entrapment of moisture and dirt:
avoid sharp edges, sharp corners, cavities, crevices;
welded joints are preferable to bolted joints;
avoid or seal lap joints;
provide drainage holes for water, where necessary;
seal the ends of hollow sections, such as pipe piles, box sections, etc.; and
provide free circulation of air around the structure.
Contact with other materials:
avoid bi-metallic connections or insulate the contact surfaces;
provide adequate depth of cover and quality of concrete; and
separate steel and timber by the use of coatings or sheet plastics.
Coatings application:
design should ensure that the selected protective coatings can be applied
efficiently;
radius all edges and corners;
provide vent-holes and drain-holes for items to be hot-dip galvanized;
do not drill or cut through items that have already been galvanized; and
provide adequate access for metal spraying, paint spraying, etc.
In general:
large flat surfaces are easier to protect than more complicated shapes;
ideally, locate load-bearing members in the least corrosive locations;
provide access for subsequent maintenance; and
provide lifting lugs in the design to reduce damage during handling and erection.
9.3 ANTI-CORROSION METALLIC COATINGS
9.3.1 Introduction
Anti-corrosion coatings for steel fall into two broad categories:
metallic coatings, and
paint coatings.
Due to their very thin nature, the coating thickness is measured in microns:
1 000 microns = 1.0 millimetre or 1 micron is equivalent to one thousandth of a
millimetre.
The term galvanizing has its origin with the concept of galvanic or electrochemical
corrosion, which is demonstrated by placing two dissimilar metals in contact with each
other in an electrolyte, such as seawater.
The principle is the same as that in an electrochemical cell or battery of cells,
corrosion being the chemical attack that occurs at the anode. Conversely, batteries
make use of the electrical energy produced by such a reaction. Applying this principle
to galvanic protection, metals have individual electrical characteristics known as
Construction materials 141
electrode potentials. The difference between these potentials is the driving force for
electrochemical action such as corrosion. When dissimilar metals are connected in the
presence of an electrolyte, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is released and
electronic conduction (with no mass transfer) occurs by the route of least resistance
through the metals from the electropositive to the most electronegative. To satisfy
the requirement for more electrons at the electronegative metal interface with the
electrolyte mass transfer occurs by dissolution of the metal of most electropositive
potential, creating ions in the solution.
The main advantages of using zinc are the low melting point (around 420

C) and
the fact that zinc is anodic to steel: that is, when in contact with iron or steel in the
presence of an electrolyte, zinc will corrode in preference to the iron or steel. The zinc
acts as a sacrificial anode, Figure 2, and corrodes by the mass transfer of zinc ions
into the electrolytic solution, releasing electrons to travel the electrically conducting
path through the metals to the steel/electrolyte interface where they are consumed in
a reverse cathodic reaction, forming compounds with the positively charged ions from
the solution. In some instances these deposit as a chemically stable film on the exposed
steel surface, thereby protecting it from further corrosion and limiting reaction.
There is another factor of importance when considering the corrosion activity of
zinc. The inherent corrosion resistance of zinc relies mainly on the formation on its
surface of insoluble carbonates, which act as a protective film against further corrosion
activity.
There are four commonly used methods of applying metal coatings to steel
surfaces:
hot-dip galvanizing;
metal spraying;
electroplating; and
sherardizing.
Hot-dip galvanizing and metal spraying are best suited for large items, whereas the
latter two processes are used for fittings, fasteners and other small items.
9.3.2 Hot-dip galvanizing
The most common method of applying a metal coating to structural steel is by
galvanizing. The galvanizing process involves the following stages:
The steel is cleaned properly; surface preparation of steels is described in detail
further on in this text.
FIGURE 2
Galvanic protection
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 142
The cleaned steel is dipped into a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of about
450

C at which the steel reacts with the molten zinc to form a series of zinc/iron
alloys on its surface, Figure 3.
As the steel item is removed from the bath a layer of relatively pure zinc is
deposited on top of the alloy layers.
As the zinc solidifies it assumes a crystalline metallic lustre, usually referred to
as spangling. The thickness of the galvanized coating is influenced by three major
factors:
size of the component;
surface roughness of the steel; and
chemical composition of the steel.
In general, thicker, heavier sections tend to produce heavier coatings.
The greater the surface roughness of the steel, the heavier the coatings (Table 1). The
surface of a component may be purposely abraded by different means such as grit or
shot blast to increase the surface area of the component by as much as 50 percent.
Silicon, a major chemical component of steel, can have a marked effect on the
coating weight deposited. The thickness of the coating varies with an increase in the
silicon content of the steel and, sometimes, these coatings may have a dull dark-grey
appearance and can be brittle and less adherent.
Since this is a bath-dipping process there is obviously some limitation on the size of
the components which can be galvanized. Generally, filling, venting and draining holes,
with a diameter of at least 10 mm, must be provided in hollow items such as tubes to
allow rapid access for the molten zinc, venting of hot gases and subsequent draining
of the zinc.
FIGURE 3
A microsection through a galvanized coating
-
TABLE 1
Zinc coatings
Base sheet thickness
(mm)
Minimum average coating
(grams/mm
2
)
Coating thickness
(microns)
Over 5 mm 610 85
Between 2 and 5 mm 460 65
Between 1 and 2 mm 335 47
Cast iron 610 85
Centrifuged components 305 43
Construction materials 143
For most applications, galvanized articles do not need to be painted. Where, for
reasons of decorative effect, there is a need to paint, then special etch primers are
normally required.
In seawater immersion, zinc coatings are effectively resistant for protecting steel
against rusting, with each 0.03 mm of zinc roughly equivalent to about one year of
useful life.
9.3.3 Metal spray coatings
An alternative method of applying a metallic coating to structural steelwork is by
metal spraying of either zinc or aluminium. The metal, in powder or wire form, is fed
through a special spray gun containing a heat source which can be either an oxy-gas
flame or an electric-arc. Molten globules of the metal are blown by a compressed air
jet on to the previously blast-cleaned steel surface. No alloying occurs and the coating
which is produced consists of overlapping platelets of metal and is porous. The pores
are subsequently sealed, either by applying a thin organic coating which soaks into the
surface, or by allowing the metal coating to weather, when corrosion products block
the pores. The adhesion of sprayed metal coatings to steel surfaces is considered to be
essentially mechanical in nature.
It is therefore necessary to apply the coating to a clean roughened surface for which
blast cleaning with a coarse grit abrasive is normally specified, usually chilled-iron
grit. Coating thickness varies from 100250 microns for aluminium to 75400 microns
for zinc. The metals perform similarly in most environments but aluminium is more
durable in highly industrial environments.
Metal spray coatings can be applied in workshops or at site and there is no limitation
on the size of the component, as there is with hot-dip galvanizing. Since the steel
surface remains cool there are no distortion problems. However, metal spraying
is considerably more expensive than hot-dip galvanizing. For many applications
metal-spray coatings are further protected by the subsequent application of paint
coatings. A sealer is first applied which fills the pores in the metal-spray coating and
provides a smooth surface for application of the paint coating.
9.3.4 Electroplated coatings
Together with galvanizing, electroplating is the second most important method of
applying a metal coating to a steel item (Figure 4). The method consists in suspending
steel articles from a cathode in an aqueous electrolyte of the metal to be plated to
FIGURE 4
Electroplating process
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 144
the article. A current is then passed through the solution and the positive metal ions
migrate to the cathode and hence the article in steel to be plated. Physically, a very thin
layer a few microns thick is deposited; thicker layers are obtained by prolonging the
electrolyte bath. Due to its simplicity, this method can also be utilized to electrodeposit
a number of noble metals such as tin, nickel, chromium and gold. This system, however,
is best suited to small engineering components where precision in film thickness is of
the utmost importance.
9.3.5 Sherardizing
A sherardized coating is produced by a process called sublimation. In this process,
heat is applied to steel components in contact with zinc powder, which then deposits
itself on the steel. Sherardizing gives a hard and wear resistant surface and is generally
reserved for small components like nuts and bolts.
9.3.6 Stainless steel
Stainless steels are alloys of iron, chromium and other elements that resist corrosion
from many environments. In general, steel cannot qualify for a stainless prefix unless
it has at least 10 percent chromium. Stainless steels can be very complicated from the
metallurgical standpoint because they can contain significant concentrations of eight or
more elements and the properties of the various alloys vary from alloy to alloy.
The most popular stainless steel used in marine applications is the 316 series, known
as AISI 316 (American Iron and Steel Institute).
The basic AISI 316 has extra molybdenum added to the basic alloy to improve its
corrosion resistance, whereas the AISI 316L has a lower carbon content to improve its
welding characteristics (Table 2). AISI 316 LN has less carbon and more nitrogen to
improve its strength.
Wrought stainless steel components for the fabrication of mooring rings, step
ladders and railings should be specified in AISI 316L. Fittings may be in AISI 316.
Stainless steel reinforcement is also commercially available. Stainless steels in the
series AISI 304 and AISI 308 are not suitable for a marine environment and should be
avoided.
9.4 PAINT COATINGS
9.4.1 Introduction
Paints are made by mixing and blending three main components:
Pigments: finely ground inorganic or organic powders which provide colour
opacity, film cohesion and sometimes corrosion inhibition;
Binders: usually resins or oils but can be inorganic compounds such as soluble
silicates. The binder is the film-forming component in the paint; and
Solvents: used to dissolve the binder and to facilitate application of the paint.
Solvents are usually organic liquids or water.
TABLE 2
Properties of some stainless steels
Steel
types
C
max
Si
max
Mn
max
S
max
Cr Ni Mo P
max
N
AISI 304L 0.07 1.0 2.0 0.03 17.0/19.5 8.0/10.5 - 0.045 <0.11
AISI 316L 0.05 1.0 2.0 0.015 16.5/18.5 10.5/13.0 2.5/3.0 0.045 <0.11
AISI 316LN 0.03 1.0 2.0 0.015 16.5/18.5 11.0/14.0 2.5/3.0 0.045 0.12/0.22
Construction materials 145
Since, in the broadest terms, paint consists of a particular pigment, dispersed in
a particular binder, dissolved in a particular solvent, the number of generic types of
paint is limited. The most common methods of classifying paints are either by their
pigmentation or by their binder type.
Primers for steel are usually classified according to the main corrosion-inhibitive
pigments used in their formulation, e.g. zinc phosphate, zinc chromate, red lead or
metallic zinc. Each of these inhibitive pigments can be incorporated into a range of
binder resins, e.g. zinc phosphate alkyd primers, zinc phosphate epoxy primers, zinc
phosphate chlorinated rubber primers.
Intermediate coats and finishing coats are usually classified according to their
binders, e.g. vinyl finishes, urethane finishes. Paints are applied to steel surfaces by
many methods but in all cases they produce a wet film. The thickness of the wet film
can be measured, before the solvent evaporates, using a comb gauge, Figure 5.
As the solvent evaporates, film formation occurs, leaving the binder and pigments
on the surface as a dry film. The thickness of the dry film can be measured usually
with a magnetic induction gauge. The relationship between the applied wet film
thickness and the final dry film thickness (d.f.t.) is determined by the percentage
volume of solids of the paint, i.e.
d.f.t. = wet film thickness x % vol. solids
In general, the corrosion protection afforded by a paint film is directly proportional
to its dry film thickness.
9.4.2 Paint systems
Paints are usually applied one coat on top of another, each coat having a specific
function or purpose. The primer is applied directly on to the cleaned steel surface.
Its purpose is to wet the surface and to provide good adhesion for subsequently
applied coats. Primers for steel surfaces are also usually required to provide corrosion
inhibition. The intermediate coats (or undercoats) are applied to build the total film
thickness of the system. This may involve the application of several coats. The finishing
coats provide the first-line defence against the environment and also determine the final
appearance in terms of gloss, colour, etc., Figure 6. The various superimposed coats
FIGURE 5
A wet film comb gauge
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 146
within a certain system have, of course, to be compatible with one another. They may
be all of the same generic type or may be different, e.g. chlor-rubber-based intermediate
coats may be applied on to an epoxy primer. However, as a first precaution, all paints
within a system should normally be obtained from the same manufacturer.
9.4.3 Main generic types of primers
Shop primers (also referred to as blast primers, temporary primers, weldable primers,
temporary primers or holding primers) are used on steel, immediately after cleaning, to
hold the reactive cleaned surface in a rust-free condition until the final painting cycle
can be undertaken. The main requirements for a primer are:
The primer should be capable of airless-spray application (see text on cleaning
further on) to produce a very thin even coating. Dry-film thickness is usually
limited to 1530 microns. Below 15 microns the peaks of the blast profile are not
protected and rust-rashing occurs on weathering. Above 30 microns the primer
affects the qua1ity of welds and produces excessive weld fume.
The primer must dry very quickly. The interval between priming and handling is
usually keep as is 110 minutes and hence the primer film must dry within this
time.
The primer coating should provide adequate protection. It should be noted
that many manufacturers make misleading claims about the durability of their
blastprimers and suggested exposure periods of 612 months are not uncommon.
In practice, such claims are never met except in the least arduous conditions, e.g.
indoor storage. In aggressive marine conditions, durability can be measured in
weeks rather than months.
The primed surface, after weathering, should require the minimum of preparation
for subsequent painting and must be compatible with the intended painting
system.
Many proprietary blast primers are available but they can be classified under the
following main generic types:
Etch primers are based on polyvinyl butyral resin reinforced with a phenolic
resin to uprate water resistance. The curing agent contains phosphoric acid or
alkyl phosphates and can be added as a separate component immediately before
application. Alternatively, the primer can be supplied in a single-pack form. In
general, two-pack etch primers provide better durability than the one-pack types
which are usually preferred because of their handling convenience.
Epoxy primers are two-pack materials utilizing epoxy resins and usually either
polyamide or polyamine curing agents. They are pigmented with a variety of
inhibitive and non-inhibitive pigments. Zinc phosphate epoxy primers are the
most frequently encountered and give the best durability within the group.
FIGURE 6
Paint cycle (first and second undercoats sometimes applied
as one thick coat)
Top coat or finish
Second undercoat
First undercoat
Primer
Construction materials 147
Zinc epoxy primers can be subdivided into zinc-rich and reduced-zinc types.
Zinc-rich primers produce films which contain about 90 percent by weight of
metallic zinc powder. These primers provide the highest order of protection of all
primers. Reduced-zinc primers are formulated with metallic zinc content as low as
55 percent by weight on the dry film, the remainder of the pigmentation usually
being made up with siliceous extenders. This reduces the cost of the primer, avoids
possible difficulties with intercoat adhesion in marine environments, but slightly
reduces the standard of protection that can be achieved. Zinc epoxy primers all
produce zinc oxide fumes during welding and gas cutting which can cause a health
hazard. When exposed in marine environments, zinc epoxy primers are prone to
the formation of insoluble white zinc corrosion products which must be removed
from the surface before subsequent overcoating.
Zinc silicate primers can be based upon either ethyl silicate or inorganic silicates
e.g. sodium or potassium. Only the ethyl silicate primers are suitable as primers.
Ethyl zinc silicate primers produce a level of protection which is comparable
with the zinc-rich epoxy types and they suffer from the same drawbacks, e.g.
formation of zinc salts and production of zinc oxide fumes during welding. They
are however more expensive and usually are less convenient to use.
9.4.4 Main generic types of paint
The main generic types of paint are:
Air-drying paints, e.g. oil-based, alkyd, epoxy-ester, dry and form a film by an
oxidative process which involves absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere.
They are therefore limited to relatively thin films. Once the film has formed it has
limited solvent resistance and usually poor chemical resistance.
One-pack chemical-resistant paints, e.g. chlor-rubbers, vinyls, form a film by
solvent evaporation and no oxidative process is involved. They can be applied as
moderately thick films, although retention of solvent in the film can be a problem
at the upper end of the range. The film formed remains relatively soft and has
poor solvent resistance but good chemical resistance. Bituminous paints also dry
by solvent evaporation. They are, essentially, solutions of either asphaltic bitumen
or coal-tar pitch in organic solvents.
Two-pack chemical-resistant paints, e.g. epoxy and urethane, are supplied as two
separate components, usually referred to as the base and the curing agent. When
the two components are mixed, immediately before use, a chemical reaction
begins. These materials therefore have a limited pot life by which the mixed
coating must be applied. The polymerization reaction continues after the paint
has been applied and after the solvent has evaporated to produce a densely cross-
linked film which can be very hard and has good solvent and chemical resistance.
Liquid resins of low viscosity can be used in the formulation thereby avoiding the
need for a solvent. Such coatings are referred to as solvent-less or solvent-free
and can be applied as very thick films.
9.4.5 Methods of applying paint
The standard methods used for applying paint to steel are brush, roller, conventional
air-spray and airless-spray.
Brush. The simplest and also the slowest and therefore most expensive method.
Nevertheless, it has certain advantages over the other methods, e.g. better wetting
of the surface; can be used in restricted spaces; useful for small areas; less wastage;
less contamination of surroundings; and can be used for application of certain
toxic materials like lead-based primers which cannot be sprayed.
Roller. Much quicker than brushing; useful for large flat areas; demands suitable
fluidity of the paint.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 148
Air-spray. The paint is atomized at the gun-nozzle by jets of compressed air;
application rates are quicker than for brushing or rolling; paint wastage by
overspray is high.
Airless-spray. The paint is atomized at the gun-nozzle by very high hydraulic
pressures; application rates are higher than for air-spray and overspray wastage is
greatly reduced.
9.4.6 Preparing a steel surface for coating
Structural steel is a hot-rolled product (that is, it is rolled into sections while it is still
hot). Sections leave the last rolling pass at about 1 000 C and as they cool the steel
surface reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce mill scale, a complex oxide
which appears as a blue-grey tenacious scale completely covering the surface of the
as-rolled steel section. Unfortunately, mill scale is unstable. On weathering, water
penetrates fissures in the scale and rusting of the steel surface occurs. The mill scale
loses adhesion and begins to shed.
Mill scale is therefore an unsatisfactory base and needs to be removed before
protective coatings are applied. As mill scale sheds, further rusting occurs and this also
needs to be removed before protective coatings are applied. Surface preparation of steel
is therefore principally concerned with removal of mill scale and rust. Various methods
of surface preparation are available:
Manual preparation: The simplest form of surface preparation involving chipping,
scraping and brushing with hand-held implements. This method is not very
effective (although only about 30 percent removal of rust and scale can be achieved
it is nevertheless often used, usually for economic reasons). The degree of cleaning
achieved can be specified by reference to photographic standards included in ISO
8501 (International Organization for Standardization No. 8501).
Mechanical preparation: Similar to manual preparation but utilizes power-driven
tools, e.g. rotary wire brushing. A marginal improvement in efficiency can be
achieved (up to 35 percent), and the same photographic standards can be used.
Care must be taken to avoid confusing burnished scale with clean steel, both of
which have a similar appearance. The above methods are used on site, usually
after a weathering period to promote loosening of mill scale. A suitable primer
must then be applied which is tolerant of poor surface preparation. Many modern
primers are quite unsuitable for such surfaces and, indeed, the old tried and
trusted red lead in oil primers cannot be bettered for manually cleaned surfaces.
Flame cleaning: Not used extensively. An oxy-gas flame is applied to the surface.
Differential thermal expansion and steam generated behind the mill scale serve to
loosen the mill-scale layer, which can then be removed by mechanical scraping.
Acid pickling: The steel is immersed in a bath of suitably inhibited acids which
dissolve or remove mill scale and rust but do not appreciably attack the exposed
steel surface. It can be 100 percent effective. Acid pickling is always used on
structural steel intended for hot-dip galvanizing but is now rarely used as a
pretreatment before painting.
Blast cleaning: Abrasive particles are projected at high speed on to the steel
surface. The abrasive can consist of either spherical particles, described as shot,
or angular particles, described as grit. The abrasive is projected towards
the surface either in a jet of compressed air or by a centrifugal impeller wheel.
The particles impinge on the steel surface removing scale and rust, producing
a rough, clean surface. The size and shape of the surface roughness produced
is largely dependent upon the size and shape of the abrasive used; angular grits
produce angular surface profiles, round shots produce a rounded profile. Grit-
blast abrasives can be either metallic (e.g. chilled iron grit) or non-metallic (e.g.
slag grit). The latter are used only once and are referred to as expendable.
Construction materials 149
They are used exclusively for site work. Metallic grits are expensive and are used
only where they can be recycled. Grit blasting is always used for metal-sprayed
coatings, where adhesion is at least partly dependent upon mechanical keying. It
is also used for some paint coatings, particularly on site and for primers where
adhesion may be a problem (e.g. zinc silicates). Shot-blast abrasives are always
metallic, usually cast steel shot, and are used particularly on shot-blast plants,
utilizing impeller wheels and abrasive recycling. They are the preferred abrasive
for paints, particularly for thin film coatings (e.g. prefabrication primers). Blast-
cleaned surfaces are normally specified in terms of surface cleanliness and surface
roughness. A number of standards have been used in the past but these are now
superseded by ISO 8501-1: 1988, which utilizes photographic replicas of four
grades of surface cleanliness after blast cleaning: Sa1, Sa2, Sa2 1/2 and Sa3. Surface
roughness of blast-cleaned surfaces is defined in ISO 8503-1: 1988 and Parts 2, 3
and 4 of this standard describe methods of measuring surface roughness.
Wet blasting: A further variation on the blast-cleaning process. In this process,
a small amount of water is entrained in the abrasive/compressed air stream.
This is particularly useful in washing from the surface soluble iron salts that are
formed in the rust by atmospheric pollutants (e.g. chlorides and sulphates) during
weathering. These are often located deep in corrosion pits on the steel surface and
cannot be removed by conventional dry blast cleaning methods. Wet blasting has
proved to be particularly useful in marine environments.
9.4.7 Typical compatible paint cycles
Paint cycles should be designed for compatibility and Table 3 illustrates some typical
cycles used in a marine environment.
To avoid mistakes with incompatible paint cycles, paints should always be purchased
from the same manufacturer.
TABLE 3
Typical compatible paint cycles
Surface preparation Paint cycle Total thickness Method of application
Manual or mechanical Primer: 140160 microns Brush or roller
Oil-based alkyd (red lead)
Undercoat:
Oil-based alkyd
Finish:
Oil-based alkyd
Blast cleaning Primer: 120140 microns Brush, roller or spray
Zinc epoxy
Undercoat:
Chlor-rubber
Finish:
Chlor-rubber
Blast cleaning Primer: 120140 microns Brush, roller or spray
Epoxy polyamide
Undercoat:
Epoxy vinyl
Finish:
Vinyl
Blast cleaning Primer: 300350 microns Brush, roller or spray
Zinc epoxy
Undercoat:
Epoxy tar
Finish:
Epoxy vinyl
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 150
9.4.8 Painting on galvanized surfaces
Whether thermally sprayed or hot dipped, the zinc coating can provide several years
of protection by itself. Components may need to be painted or it may be necessary to
apply a paint system to extend corrosion protection after the zinc is consumed. Quality
painting after erection is both difficult and expensive, so it is always best to apply organic
coatings beforehand, preferably in a shop setting. Surface preparation and painting of
components in a shop can be accomplished under controlled conditions to provide
optimum protection of the metal. Shop cleaning of zinc-coated surfaces is normally
limited to detergent washing to remove loose contaminants and/or solvent cleaning to
remove grease or oil. Sometimes, a thin film of grease or oil is applied at the factory to
protect galvanizing from corrosion during exterior storage. Also, new galvanizing is
sometimes treated with chromate corrosion inhibitors for corrosion protection during
storage. Such treatment should specifically be excluded in specifications for galvanized
steel components to be coated.
Galvanized steel components are best protected with one coat each of epoxypolyamide
and aliphatic polyurethane coatings. If a delay of over four days occurs before the top
coat is applied, the finish coat of polyurethane may not adhere because of the solvent
resistance of the nearly fully cured epoxy coat. A thin film of the epoxy primer applied
and allowed to cure to a tacky finish (e.g. four hours) will provide a suitable surface
for the polyurethane finish coat. Epoxy and urethane coatings must have at least a
six-hour pot life for practical coating. Oil-based paints (including oil/alkyds) are not
recommended because of the inherent incompatibility of oil-based paints with the
alkaline surface of galvanizing. Premature failure by peeling is predictable.
A two-coat latex system can also be used on galvanizing, but the protection and
gloss and color retention may not be quite as good as with the epoxy/polyurethane
system. The corrosivity of the exposure environment should be considered when
choosing between the two systems.
9.4.9 Painting of sheet piles
Sheet-pile surfaces are subjected to abrasion from direct and indirect sources which
may damage a normal coating. For long-term performance immersed in seawater, the
coating system must be of high quality and is often specified in combination with a
cathodic protection system (see further on). The recommended paint cycle for sheet
piles is shown in Table 4.
9.5 CATHODIC PROTECTION
The corrosive effect on steel and other metals when submerged in seawater is known
as galvanic corrosion and is analogous to the conditions prevalent in a battery, i.e. the
presence of two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte. In the case of immersed steel (like
a jettys steel piles or a quays sheet piles), the dissimilar metal consists of the non-
TABLE 4
Painting of sheet piles
Surface
preparation
Paint cycle Total thickness Method of
application
Blast cleaning Primer: 500 microns Airless spray
Polyamide cured
Epoxy primer
Undercoat:
Polyamide cured
Coaltar epoxy
Finish:
Polyamide cured
Coaltar epoxy
Construction materials 151
uniformities or non-ferrous impurities in the steel. These impurities establish a flow of
current from the steel (positive pole or anode) through the electrolyte (seawater) to the
impurity (negative pole or cathode).
Cathodic protection consists in reversing this current flow, i.e. to the steel and not
from the steel, thus preventing the iron ions from flowing out of the steel and causing
its corrosion (galvanic action).
Cathodic protection is accomplished by establishing a direct current (DC) voltage
between the pile or sheet pile and an auxiliary anode suspended in the water in the
vicinity of the structure, Figure 7. The density or strength of the current required
depends on the rate of corrosion (specified in millimetres per year) and differs from
place to place. Corrosion rates for a given type of steel generally depend on the salinity
of the seawater, the ambient temperature and other environmental factors. If the steel
has been coated, the efficiency of the coating, will also have a major effect on the
rate of corrosion (the better the paint coating, the slower the corrosion rate). Various
experiments worldwide indicate that typical current densities are of the order of
15 to 50 mA/m
2
(milliamperes per square metre of steel surface to be protected). This
impressed current may be achieved in one of two ways:
by using a galvanic anode or sacrificial anode, made of zinc, aluminium, magnesium
or their alloys; and
by forcing an external DC current through the auxiliary anode which may consist
of a soluble metal, such as iron, or an insoluble material, such as graphite.
Galvanic anodes are generally supplied as ingots (weights from 2 to 100 kilograms)
with cast-in suspension brackets which may be bolted or welded directly to the steel
piles to be protected. Typical characteristics of galvanic anodes are listed in Table 5.
FIGURE 7
Impressed-current cathodic protection system
TABLE 5
Characteristics of sacrificial anodes
Metal Zinc Aluminium Magnesium
Specific gravity 7.14 2.91 1.84
Potential in millivolts -1 100.0 -1 150.0 -1 500.0
Current ampere/hour/kg 780 2 700 1 103
Current efficiency 95% 95% 50%
Kilogram of metal consumed to produce 1 ampere/year 11.23 3.24 7.94
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 152
On large structures, however, to gain better control of the current and regulate the
magnitude thereof more accurately, an impressed external source of current is usually
applied. Figure 7 illustrates a schematic diagram of an impressed-current cathodic
protection installation, consisting of an alternating current (AC) supply, a rectifier (to
convert the AC to DC) and the suspended graphite anode slung underneath the jetty
in between the steel piles. Graphite anodes also become decomposed in time, primarily
due to electrochemical oxidation, and must be replaced every 5 to 15 years, depending
on the quantity, size and location of the anodes. Theoretically, when applying the
recommended current density, the graphite anode life is of the order of 44 000 to
176 000 ampere hours per kilogram. Assuming the lower value of 44 000 ampere hours
as a conservative value, a 30-kilogram graphite anode submerged in seawater would be
completely consumed only after providing 7 amperes continuously for [(44 000 x 30)
divided by (7 x 24 x 365 days)] or 22 years. In practice, however, replacement must be
made before the anode is greatly reduced in size in order to avoid an excessive current
density as the exposed surface of the anode diminishes. The realistic useful life of a
30-kilogram graphite anode described above would be between 5 to 15 years.
Although the initial cost of the external impressed-current system is greater than
that for galvanic anodes, the long-range economics over a ten-year period indicate
that overall costs for impressed-current systems are considerably less than for galvanic
anode systems.
The step-down transformer and rectifier are usually mounted inside a weatherproof
building not far from the structure to be protected.
9.6 TIMBER
9.6.1 Introduction
Timber is cut and machined from trees, themselves the product of nature and time.
Humans have found timber to be a cheap and effective material and continue to use it
in vast quantities.
However, criticisms levelled at timber as a material are a consequence of humankinds
misuse of one of natures most important products. Unlike so many other materials,
especially those used in construction, timber cannot be manufactured to a particular
specification; instead, the best use has to be made of the material already produced,
though it is possible to select timbers with the most desirable range of properties.
FIGURE 8
Cross-section of a trunk
PITH
LATEWOOD
CAMBIUM
EARLYWOOD
OUTER BARK
INNER BARK
RAYS
SAPWOOD
HEARTWOOD
R
a
d
i
a
l

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
Cross-section
T
a
n
g
e
n
tia
l
s
e
c
tio
n
Construction materials 153
A tree trunk consists of two distinct sections: the inner section or heartwood,
and the outer section, or sapwood, Figure 8. The periphery of the trunk is formed
of bark or, more correctly, an outer bark and an inner bark. The outer bark is rough
in texture and dense enough to provide a protective coat covering the vital growth
areas immediately inside it. The inner bark is soft, moist and spongy and transports the
converted sap from the leaves to the growing parts of the tree. Between the inner bark
and the actual growing timber is a thin layer of cells called the cambium.
It is here that growth takes place by the splitting of single cells into two cells, each
of which grows and splits in a process which continues throughout the growing season,
eventually forming a sheath of cells which in cross-section appears as a ring, referred to
as an annual ring. These cells, which make up the wood tissue on the inner side of the
cambium, are tubular in shape with diameters between about 0.02 mm and 0.50 mm,
and vary in length from about 1 mm in hardwoods to 6 mm in softwoods.
The inner layer consists of cells with comparatively large cavities and thin walls. This
cellular structure is due to a more rapid spring growth and, not illogically, is referred
to as springwood or earlywood. Later in the year, cells grow more slowly and have
thicker walls and smaller cavities, resulting in heavier, harder and stronger material
called summerwood or latewood. The amount of summerwood may vary in different
species of tree and as a result of different weather and soil conditions. This affects the
overall density of the timber, which has a direct relationship with the strength of the
timber. A group of cells known as the medullary rays run at right angles to the main
cells from the outer layers inward. These carry food material by transporting the excess
towards the centre of the tree, where it is stored in cells in the inner rings which cease
to function as a live part of the tree. This older timber is known as heartwood and is
usually dark in colour as well as being drier and harder than the living layer, known as
sapwood.
Heartwood is composed of dead tissue, its cells being completely filled, and its
function is the mechanical support of the tree. Sapwood, containing more moisture,
is not as strong in the green state as heartwood but, after seasoning, when both
heartwood and sapwood are reduced to the same moisture content, the difference in
density and strength is very small.
Sapwood is inferior to heartwood in respect of durability, containing starches which
may attract insects and fungi. Sapwood, however, is very permeable and more easily
impregnated with preservative and, where the service conditions demand treatment, it
may be beneficial to use sapwood as a deliberate choice.
The botanical name for those plants which grow outwardly, acquiring a new sheath
of cellular tissue during each growing season, is exogens and this classification can be
subdivided into:
angiosperms, or dicotyledons, which have broad leaves shed in the autumn and
which are normally classed as hardwoods; and
gymnosperms, or conifers, which have needlelike leaves, broadly evergreen, and
which are generally classed as softwoods.
It should be noted that the terms hardwood and softwood in relation to species
of tree do not necessarily indicate relative hardness or density; balsa, for example,
although soft in texture, is a hardwood by classification whereas yew, softwood by
classification, has a density six times that of balsa.
In the living tree, water is to be found not only in the cell cavity but also within the
cell walls. Consequently, the moisture content of green wood (newly felled) is high,
varying from about 60 percent to nearly 200 percent. Green or newly felled timber will
yield moisture to the atmosphere with consequent changes in its dimensions and, with
moisture contents above 20 percent, the timber is also subject to attack by fungi. For
these reasons it is necessary to dry or season timber following felling of the tree.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 154
9.6.2 Infestation
Although all timbers are susceptible to attack by at least one species of insect or fungus,
in practice only a small portion of the timber in service actually becomes infested. The
major types of attack are:
Insect attack can take one of two forms. In certain insects the timber is consumed
by the adult form and the best known example of this mode of attack are the
termites. Few timbers are immune to attack by these voracious eaters. They
are found principally in the tropics but certain species are also present in the
Mediterranean region. The other mode of attack is by the grub or larval stage of
certain beetles. The adult beetle lays its eggs in superficial cracks on the surface
of the timber; the eggs hatch and produce grubs which tunnel their way into the
timber, remaining there for periods up to three years.
Fungal growth may be of two types: destructive or non-destructive. Some fungi,
such as moulds, are present only on the surface and do not affect the strength
of timber. Sapstain fungi live in the sugars present in the ray cells and impart a
distinctive coloration to that region of the timber and may cause a considerable
reduction in the strength of the timber. By far the most dangerous to timber are
the fungi that cause decay by chemical decomposition; this is achieved by the
digesting action of enzymes secreted in the fungi. The best known examples
are dry rot or Merulius lacrymans and wet rot or Coniophora cerebella. Dry
rot is the most destructive; during attack the wood usually darkens and in the
advanced stages tends to break up into cubes and crumbles under pressure. A
moisture content of 30 to 40 percent with an ambient temperature of 23
o
C and
lack of ventilation are required for growth. In temperatures above 26
o
C, the
fungus remains inactive. Wet rot may occur in timber which is excessively wet,
whether located inside or outside a building. The fungus attacks all the chemical
constituents of the cell wall and, unlike attack from dry rot, timber attacked by
wet rot does not crumble under pressure but separates into a fibrous mass.
Marine borers such as the shipworm (Teredo sp.) and the gribble (Limnoria sp.),
Figure 9, are marine-boring animals that attack timber used in sea or brackish
(salty) water. Marine borers are widely distributed, but they are particularly
destructive in tropical waters. Most timbers do not have sufficient resistance to
marine borers to be used untreated. Figure 9 also illustrates how the gribble and
the shipworm destroy timber structures.
9.6.3 Durability
Durability is a term which has different meanings for many people: it is defined here in
the broadest sense to embrace the resistance of timber to attack from weathering, salt
water, corrosion of fastenings, fungi and insect attack.
FIGURE 9
Marine borers
WOOD GRIBBLE AND THE HOUR-GLASS
EFFECT ON TIMBER PILES
TEREDO SHIPWORM AND AN INTERNALLY
BORED PILE
APPROXIMATELY
3-5 mm LONG SHELL AT HEAD
TIDE ZONE
Construction materials 155
In weathering, the action not only of light (especially ultraviolet radiation) but also
of rain and wind render the timber silvery-grey in appearance: part of the process
involves the degradation of the cellular fibres by ultraviolet radiation. However, the
same cell walls that are attacked act as a filter for the intact cells below and the rate of
erosion from the combined effects of ultraviolet radiation, light and rain is very slow
indeed.
As a general rule, timber is highly resistant to a large number of chemicals. When
in contact with steel in the presence of seawater, timber gives rise to a condition often
known as nail sickness. Porous timbers absorb seawater, an electrolyte, and assume
the role of an electrical conductor. Alkalis are produced at the cathodic surfaces and
soluble metallic salts at the anodic areas. The metallic salts so formed degrade timber.
The principal factor conferring resistance to biological attack (insect, fungi and
marine borers) is undoubtedly the presence of extractives in the heartwood. The far
higher durability of the heartwood of certain species compared with the sapwood is
attributable to the presence in the former of toxins (many of which are phenolic in
origin), decreased moisture content, increased density and deposition of gums and
resins. The decay resistance of most timbers varies a great deal and even pieces cut
from the same tree will often show wide differences. For this reason, timbers have
been classified into five broad grades based on the performance of their heartwood in
contact with the ground. Table 6 illustrates the five grades.
Untreated timber in direct contact with sea or brackish water (jetty piles for
example) should be heartwood of one of the species listed as very durable. Durable
and moderately durable timbers should only be used if treated.
Table 7 presents a list of timbers suitable for marine construction. The heartwood
is naturally resistant to marine borers and does not need treatment. The sapwood,
however, is perishable unless treated.
TABLE 6
Grade of durability
Grade of durability Useful life in contact with ground
(Years)
Very durable More than 25
Durable 15 to 25
Moderately durable 10 to 15
Non-durable 5 to 10
Perishable Less than 5
TABLE 7
Typical timber species suitable for marine construction
Botanical name Common name Origin Density
(kg/m
3
)
Resistance
Pericopsis elata Afromosia Ghana, Ivory Coast 710 Very durable
Mezilaurus itauba Itauba Brazil 820 Very durable
Chlorophora excelsa Iroko Sierra Leone, Ghana 660 Very durable
Homalium species Aranga Philippines 881 Very durable
Ocotea rodiaei Mez Greenheart Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela 1 040 Very durable
Dialium species Keranji Malaysia 1 120 Very durable
Eucalyptus species Ironbark Australia 1 120 Very durable
Note: These and other hardwood species suitable for marine construction are now strictly controlled to limit
indiscriminate deforestation. In general, the design of a port should contain as little tropical timber as possible
and that used should be sourced from plantations only. The species used should not be on the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild fauna and Flora (CITES) list.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 156
9.6.4 Timber preservatives
As stated above, not all timbers require treatment with a preservative to enable them
to resist infestation and decay. Many timbers, like the ones mentioned in Table 7, owe
their natural resistance to attack to the presence of toxic oils and resins. However,
environmental considerations (most species come from virgin tropical rain forests) and
cost mean that it is sometimes necessary to use timbers not so well endowed naturally
and to subject them to some form of preservative treatment which will increase their
durability. Timber preservatives must, by nature, be poisonous to the agents of decay:
they must also satisfy conditions of permanency, economy, availability, penetrability
and be non-corrosive and non-toxic to humans, animals and plants. Preservatives are
generally classed into three groups, depending on the solvent used:
tar-oil preservatives;
water-soluble preservatives; and
organic solvent preservatives.
9.6.4.1 Tar-oil preservatives
Tar-oil preservatives consist essentially of mixtures of distillate oils from coal tar (an
aromatic hydrocarbon) and are known as coal tar creosotes or creosote and are the
most widely used. Its efficacy as a preservative lies not in any natural toxicity, but
rather in its supreme water repellence. It has a very distinctive odour, stains timber, and
once treated timber cannot be painted unless primed with a metallic paint. The major
drawback with this type of preservative is that it is a polycylic aromatic hydrocarbon
(PAH) which is a highly toxic compound. This product is gradually being phased out
due to the pollution of the water environment.
9.6.4.2 Water-soluble preservatives
Water-soluble preservatives are generally odourless and non-staining. Because of
the waterborne nature of this type of preservative it may be necessary to re-dry the
timber to an acceptable moisture content. These preservatives function as toxins
and commonly contain formulations of copper, chromium and arsenic salts. These
chemicals are fixed in the timber and cannot leach out.
9.6.4.3 Organic solvent preservatives
These preservatives tend to be more expensive than the previous two, and are generally
formulations of pentachlorophenol, tributyltin oxide or chlorinated naphtalenes. These
preservatives also function as toxins and have good penetration characteristics. As with
tar-oil creosotes, however, these preservatives are toxic to humans and should not be
used.
Timber which has been treated with both water soluble and solvent type preservatives
can be painted; it is also possible to glue together treated components. Preservatives may
be applied by brush, by steeping or by pressure. Brushing is the least effective method
but is better than none and, provided that the preservative is flooded over the surfaces
to encourage absorption, reasonable penetration is possible in very permeable timbers.
Steeping or dipping involves placing the timber sections inside a bath of preservative for
a number of days. In this method of application, the timber section to be treated should
be prepared in its final form, with all chamfers, holes and recesses cut. Some preheating
of the preservative may be necessary to assist penetration. Pressure application is by far
the most efficient and controllable method of preservation. Pressure application is the
timber industry standard. In the process, the timber section is placed in a large enclosed
pressure vessel and subjected to a vacuum for about an hour. While the vacuum is
maintained the preservative is introduced into the vessel until it is filled. Pressure is
then gradually increased until the required amount of preservative has been introduced
into the timber. A further vacuum is applied for a brief period only long enough to
Construction materials 157
clean the surface of the timber from excess preservative. This method assumes that
timber seasoning has taken place beforehand to ensure that during subsequent storage
cracks do not expose untreated timber.
9.7 CONCRETE
9.7.1 Introduction
Concrete is a human-made composite, the major constituent of which is natural stone
aggregate such as gravel, sand or crushed rock. The other principal constituent of
concrete is the binding medium used to bind the aggregate particles together to form
a hard composite material. The most commonly used binding medium is the product
formed by a chemical reaction between cement and water. When this chemical reaction
takes place (also known as hydration), heat is given off (also known as heat of hydration).
In its hardened state concrete is a rock-like material with a high compressive strength
but a low tensile strength. Compressive and tensile strengths in concrete are measured
in N/mm
2
(Newtons per square millimetre) or MPa (Mega Pascals).
1 MPa = 1 N/mm
2
The tensile strength of normal concrete is low and this can be improved by
incorporating steel bars to resist tension (reinforced concrete). The density of concrete
is measured in Tonne/m
3
(Tonne per cubic metre) or kN/m
3
(kilonewtons per cubic
metre).
1 Tonne/m
3
= 10 kN/m
3
It is not the intention here to teach concrete mix design but rather the site practice
involved in producing good-quality concrete that is durable in time and compatible
with the marine environment. Almost all the topics discussed are dealt with in greater
detail in national or international standards for quality control, use of which requires
access to a well-equipped concrete testing laboratory.
9.7.2 Cement
Portland cement is a finely ground powder developed in 1824 and derives its name
from Portland limestone because of its close resemblance to this rock after hydration
has taken place. The basic components used in the manufacture of Portland cement
are calcium carbonate (found in limestone rock) and iron oxide, alumina and silica
(found in clay). As a result of the chemical changes which take place inside a cement-
making kiln, these constituents give rise to several compounds, only four of which are
considered to be important:
tricalcium silicate, also known by its chemical abbreviation as C
3
S for short;
dicalcium silicate or C
2
S;
tetracalcium aluminoferrite or C
4
AF; and
tricalcium aluminate or C
3
A.
Over time, a variety of cements have been developed to ensure good durability
of the concrete under different conditions and these cements each contain different
amounts of the above constituent compounds. The main types of cement currently
available in practice are:
ordinary Portland cement;
rapid hardening cement;
low heat Portland cement;
sulphate resisting cement; and
portland blast furnace cement.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 158
Marine works require a concrete which is durable in a marine environment and to
achieve this only cement which performs well in this environment should be used.
Both sulphate resisting cement and Portland blast furnace cement have these required
characteristics.
During the process of hydration, the chemical reaction between the tricalcium
aluminate and gypsum (CaSO
4
.2H
2
O) produces a compound called calcium
sulphoaluminate. In hardened cement, calcium aluminate hydrate can react with a
sulphate salt from outside the concrete in a similar manner: the product of addition
is calcium sulphoaluminate, forming within the framework of the concretes cement
paste. Since the increase in volume of the solid phase is over 200 percent, gradual
disintegration of the concrete results.
A second type of reaction is that of base-exchange between calcium hydroxide and
the sulphates, resulting in the formation of gypsum with an increase in volume of the
solid phase of 124 percent.
These reactions are known as sulphate attack. The salts particularly active are
magnesium and sodium sulphate. Sulphate attack is greatly accelerated if accompanied
by alternate wetting and drying, as in the case of marine structures. The remedy lies in
the use of cement with a low content of C
3
A and such cement is known as sulphate
resisting cement. Portland blast furnace cement is also low in C
3
A and suitable for
marine concrete.
When large volumes of concrete are being poured, in excess of around 15 m
3
, the
heat of hydration in ordinary Portland cement and rapid hardening cement will give
rise to thermal cracking in the cast, depending on the shape of the cast, the ambient
temperature and the temperature of the batched materials. Both sulphate resisting
cement and Portland blast furnace cement have low heat characteristics and should be
the preferred choice in the mix design.
9.7.3 Aggregate
Aggregate is much cheaper than cement and maximum economy is obtained by using
as much aggregate as possible in a concrete mix. Its use also considerably improves
both volume stability and durability of the resulting concrete. The properties of the
aggregate known to have a significant effect on concrete behaviour are:
shape and surface texture;
grading;
strength;
deformation (toughness and hardness);
porosity;
specific gravity or the ratio of its unit weight to that of water; and
impurities.
9.7.3.1 Shape and surface texture
The shape and surface texture of an aggregate can affect the properties of concrete
in both its plastic (fresh) and hardened states. These external characteristics may be
assessed by observation of the particles and classification of their particle shape and
texture as shown in Boxes 1 and 2.
The best aggregate for concrete is one that is irregular and angular. Rounded
aggregate provides a smaller mechanical bond with the hydrated paste, whereas the
flaky and elongated aggregate tends to have little strength across the thinner sections,
influencing the strength of the concrete.
The most suitable mechanical bond is obviously achieved with rough surfaces,
followed by granular, smooth, crystalline and glassy. Honeycombed aggregate is
generally very porous and is not suitable for good quality concrete.
Construction materials 159
9.7.3.2 Grading
Grading of an aggregate defines the proportions of particles of different size in the
aggregate. The size of the aggregate particles normally used in concrete varies from
0.15 mm to 37.5 mm. Generally, fine aggregate or sand has particles the majority of
which are smaller than 5 mm. The rest are known commonly as the coarse aggregate.
The grading of an aggregate can have considerable effect on the workability and
stability of wet concrete and is a most important factor in designing a concrete mix. A
mix with too little fine particles is defined as harsh and does not place easily because
the main aggregate tends to segregate away from the cement paste. A mix with too
many fine particles on the other hand requires more water, resulting in a concrete with
inferior properties.
9.7.3.3 Strength
Strength of an aggregate limits the attainable strength of concrete only when its
compressive strength is less than or of the same order as the required strength of the
concrete. In other words, the strongest and not the most convenient aggregates should
be used in the concrete mix. Typically, coral, which only attains strengths of the order
of 20 N/mm
2
cannot be used to produce concrete with strength of 30 N/mm
2
, which
is considered to be the minimum strength suitable for a marine environment. Typical
values of strength for good parent rock (from which the aggregates are extracted) are:
Granite 181 N/mm
2
Basalt 200 N/mm
2
Limestone 159 N/mm
2
Sandstone 131 N/mm
2
Quartzite 252 N/mm
2
Porphyry 230 N/mm
2
BOX 1
Classification Description of shape
Rounded Fully water-worn such as beach shingle or pebbles
Irregular Naturally irregular such as breccia and having rounded edges
Angular Possessing well-defined edges such as crushed from rock
Flaky Having a thickness considerably smaller than its length or width
Elongated Usually angular but very long
Flaky and Elongated A combination of the above two conditions
BOX 2
Surface texture Characteristics
Glassy Conchoidal fracture such as in broken basaltic rock
Smooth Water-worn such as found on beach pebbles
Granular Fracture showing more or less uniform rounded grains, as in sand
Rough No visible crystalline constituents, such as crushed limestone
Crystalline Visible crystalline structure such as in granite aggregate
Honeycombed Visible pores and cavities such as in some types of coral stone
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 160
9.7.3.4 Deformation
Deformation characteristics of an aggregate are seldom considered in assessing its
suitability for concrete work although they can easily be determined from compression
tests on specimens from the parent rock. A commonly used standard is toughness
or brittleness, i.e. its resistance to failure by impact. Another common standard is
hardness, i.e. its resistance to wear or abrasion. Soft rock such as coral, for instance,
abrades very quickly and a concrete surface made with coral aggregate ruts very easily.
A good guide in the field for hardness is the penknife scratch; a steel penknife should
not easily scratch the surface of a piece of aggregate.
9.7.3.5 Porosity
Porosity is an important factor which influences the amount of water required for a
given mix and makes it very difficult to obtain good quality concrete. Porous aggregate
tends to absorb the mixing water quickly, depriving the cement paste, and in the
process rendering the wet concrete too dry to handle and place in the process. More
water has to be added to make up for this loss thereby reducing the quality of the
finished concrete.
For this reason, porous aggregate stockpiles should not be exposed to rain.
Direct measurement of porosity is difficult and in practice a related property, water
absorption, is measured.
9.7.3.6 Specific gravity
Specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. Generally
speaking, the higher the specific gravity of the parent rock from which the aggregate
has been extracted (e.g. limestone, granite, basalt, etc.), the denser the concrete and
hence the more durable.
Figure 10 illustrates the various terms used in defining the weights of the various
components. The basic unit for specific gravity is water and everything else is referred
to unity. For example, a cube measuring 1 metre cubed (1 m
3
) of solid granite weighs
2 630 kilograms; granite is a very dense material. Its specific gravity is 2.63. The
following provides the average specific gravity for parent rock.
FIGURE 10
Relationship between specific gravity and density
Construction materials 161
Parent rock Average specific gravity
Basalt 2.793
Granite 2.636
Hard limestone 2.60
Soft limestone 2.20
Porphyry 2.73
When a 1 cubic metre cube of solid granite is crushed to make aggregate, the bulk
or the overall volume of the resulting aggregate occupies more than 1 cubic metre.
The reason for this is that inside the aggregate there are now also voids and the
volume occupied by these voids is the amount of leftover aggregate that will not fit
inside the 1 cubic metre. The 1 cubic metre of granite aggregate typically weighs only
1 800 kilograms and the weight or more appropriately the bulk density of granite
aggregate is specified as being 18.0 kN per cubic metre (1.8 t/m
3
). The density of other
types of aggregate depends mainly on the specific gravity of the parent rock, the shape
of the particles (some particles fit tightly together making the aggregate denser) and the
relative size of the particles (if an aggregate has a lot of fine particles, i.e. dust, it weighs
more). Dry cement powder typically weighs 18.0 kN/m
3
or 1.80 Tonnes/m
3
.
9.7.3.7 Impurities
Natural aggregates may be sufficiently good in themselves and yet they may not be
satisfactory for concrete making if they contain organic impurities which interfere with
the chemical reactions of hydration. The organic matter found in aggregate consists
usually of products of decay of vegetable matter and such materials are more likely
to be present in sand than in coarse aggregate, which is easily washed. Clay may be
present in aggregate in the form of surface coatings which interfere with the bond
between aggregate and the cement paste. Another type of fine material present in some
fine aggregates (i.e. in the sand) is silt and crusher dust. Both silt and fine dust (particle
diameters in the range of 1 to 60 microns) may form coatings on the aggregate similar
to those of clay. The presence of loose silt and dust in a mix necessitates the use of more
water in the concrete, thereby decreasing the strength.
Sand from the seashore or from a river estuary also contains salt. This has to be
washed away using freshwater. Due to their porosity, coral aggregates generally contain
high levels of salt and should not be used, especially with reinforcing steel. A concrete
surface containing coral also exhibits efflorescence and cannot be painted or rendered.
Other types of unsound materials, such as coal, mica and iron pyrites (iron sulphide),
should also be removed or limited to trace levels. Some forms of aggregate are totally
unsuitable for inclusion in concrete in that they react over a length of time with the
hydrated cement paste causing the concrete to deteriorate.
9.7.4 Mixing water
The quality of the mixing water also plays a vital role in the strength of the concrete
because impurities in the water may interfere with the hydration of the cement paste.
In many specifications worldwide, the quality of water for mixing concrete is covered
by a clause saying that water should be fit for drinking. Such water rarely contains
dissolved solids in excess of 2 000 ppm or parts per million (i.e. 2 000 grams of
dissolved salts per cubic metre of water), and as a rule less than 1 000 ppm. While the
use of potable water is generally safe, water not fit for drinking may often be used to
make concrete. As a rule, water with a pH of 6.0 to 8.0 which does not taste saline or
brackish is suitable for use, but dark colour or bad smell does not necessarily mean
that organic substances are present. A very good way of determining the suitability of
dubious water is to compare the setting time of cement made with say, tap or distilled
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 162
water (the control test) and the dubious water. Brackish water contains chlorides and
sulphates. When chlorides do not exceed 500 ppm and sulphates (SO
3
) do not exceed
1 000 ppm, the water is harmless.
Seawater has a total salinity of around 35 000 ppm (i.e. 35 000 grams or 35 kilograms
of dissolved salts per cubic metre of seawater) and 78 percent of these salts is sodium
chloride (NaCl) and 15 percent magnesium sulphate (MgSO
4
) and magnesium chloride
(MgCl
2
). When used for mixing concrete, seawater:
may lower the long-term strength of concrete by about 15 percent;
will increase the risk of corrosion of steel inside the concrete; and
will cause persistent dampness and surface efflorescence.
9.7.5 Batching
Concrete is made up from the various constituents mixed together according to a
specific mix; the mix may either be a standard mix or a designed mix. Designed mixes
are usually reserved for use on large projects and the science of designing a mix to suit
local conditions is beyond the scope of this manual.
Concrete mixes are generally quoted by weight of the constituent materials but,
knowing the densities of the constituents (remembering that cement always comes in
50-kilogram bags), mixes may also be converted to volumetric proportions; volumetric
proportions are easier to follow in artisanal situations and will be dealt with in greater
detail. A standard volumetric mix may be any one of those shown in Table 8.
The above table gives the volumetric dosage
of the constituent materials referred to a 50-
kilogram bag of cement. The recommended
minimum grade or strength for marine concrete
is 30 N/mm
2
as this provides a good all-round
mix with good durability. This mix is generally
known as a one one two mix.
Batching is the term used for preparing
the various dry constituents for mixing.
To batch the aggregates by volume, a
wooden measure box should be constructed
with inside dimensions of 400 mm by
400 mm by 200 mm high as illustrated in Figure
11.
Each such level box contains 0.035 cubic
metre of aggregate. Therefore, for each 50-
kilogram bag of cement loaded into the concrete
mixer, one box measure of sand (0.035 m
3
) and
two box measures of aggregate (0.070 m
3
) are
required. This hence completes the batching of
the dry constituents.
TABLE 8
Batching volumes
Nominal proportions Quantities of aggregate Typical strength measured
(per 50-kg bag of cement after
28 days in N/mm
2
)
Fine (Sand) Coarse
1 : 2 : 4 0.07m
3
0.14m
3
20.0 (general mass concrete)
1 : 1 : 3 0.05 0.10 25.0 (not in much use)
1 : 1 : 2 0.035 0.07 30.0 (minimum marine concrete)
FIGURE 11
Batching by hand using a standard
measuring box
Construction materials 163
The nominal mix table purposely leaves the water dosage out. In engineering
practice, the strength of the concrete at a given age (28 days are generally prescribed
as the minimum for testing) is assumed to depend primarily on two major factors in
the field:
the amount of water in the mix (known as the water-cement ratio or W/C ratio);
and
the degree of compaction.
Assuming that the concrete is fully compacted (by mechanical vibration, as described
later on in the text), the strength is a function of the W/C ratio (i.e. the amount of water
introduced into the mix divided by the weight of the cement in the mix), Figure 12.
This means that the less water is added to the mix (beyond the necessary minimum
to turn the cement into a paste, albeit a stiff one), the stronger the concrete is. However,
very stiff concrete is difficult to pour from a mixer and difficult to place inside a given
mould and, generally speaking, more water has to be added beyond the minimum to
make the mix workable.
In practice, if the aggregates have been chosen carefully, the W/C ratio can be set
at around 0.35 to 0.40 as a starting point. A W/C ratio of 0.35 means that for every
50 kilograms of cement present in the mix, 17.50 litres (0.35 x 50 = 17.50) of water
should be added. This will undoubtedly result in a very stiff mix and further amounts
of water will be needed to make the mix workable. Generally, water in the concrete
consists of that added to the mix and that held by the aggregate at the time it enters
the mixer (for example, aggregate which has been exposed to rain will automatically
introduce more water into the mix, increasing the given W/C ratio). Conversely, when
the aggregate is very dry (i.e. left exposed to the mid-day sun), a part of the water added
to the mix will be taken away from the cement paste and absorbed by the hot aggregate
during the first few minutes after mixing, decreasing the W/C ratio and resulting in a
very stiff mix.
The workability of concrete has never been precisely defined. For practical purposes
it generally implies the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from the mixer
to its finally compacted shape. The three main characteristics of the property are:
consistency (a measure of the wetness or fluidity);
FIGURE 12
The effect of increasing the water/cement ratio
on the strength of concrete
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 164
mobility (the ease with which a mix can flow into and completely fill the
formwork); and
compactability (the ease with which a given mix can be fully compacted).
In this context, the required workability of a mix depends not only on the
characteristics and volumetric proportions of the constituent materials but also on:
the methods employed for conveyance and compaction;
the size, shape and surface roughness of the formwork; and
the quantity and spacing of any reinforcement.
A simple test devised to measure the consistency and workability of fresh concrete
is the slump test and the apparatus involved is inexpensive, portable and robust.
Figure 13 illustrates the dimensions of the steel cone required for the test. Figure 14
shows how a slump test is carried out.
When just enough water has been added to the concrete mixer to make the concrete
appear wet but stiff, the cone should be filled with three layers of concrete from the
mixer, each compacted by hand using a 20 mm diameter steel poker. The top of the
cone should then be towelled level and the cone lifted off. As soon as the steel cone is
lifted off, the concrete will slump or settle down as shown in Figure 15. The ideal slump
FIGURE 14
The slump test
FIGURE 13
The slump cone
Construction materials 165
for most practical work is 50 mm. Should the concrete not slump by 50 mm, a bit more
water should be added to the mixer with a measuring can, half a litre at a time (and not
directly through a water pipe). The test should then be repeated until the desired slump
is achieved. This test is suitable for the quality control of consistency. It is not suitable
for stiff mixes and very wet mixes.
Figure 15 illustrates the three types of slump usually observed; true, shear and
collapse slumps. A true slump is observed with cohesive and rich mixes for which the
slump is generally sensitive to variations in workability (the ideal case). The shear slump
tends to occur more often with leaner mixes and indicates a lack of cohesion generally
associated with harsh mixes (low on fines). A collapse slump is an indication of a very
wet mix and is generally taken to indicate poor workmanship or poor concrete.
The standard slump apparatus is only suitable for concretes in which the maximum
aggregate size does not exceed 37.5 mm. It should be noted that the value of the
slump changes with time after mixing owing to the normal hydration processes and
evaporation of some of the free water and it is desirable, therefore, that tests are
performed within a fixed period of time, Figure 16.
FIGURE 15
Types of slump
True slump Shear slump Collapse slump
FIGURE 16
Change of workability with time
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 166
On a larger scale, concrete is batched by concrete mixers and concrete mixers come
in many sizes and shapes but generally fall into three main categories:
portable, tilting drum, mini-mixers, capacity not exceeding about 150 litres
(0.15 m
3
);
transportable, fixed horizontal drum mixers, capacity not exceeding 1.0 m
3
; and
pan mixers, used mainly by ready-mixed operators, with much larger capacities.
Portable mixers, Figure 17, are available with
a wide range of power options, such as petrol,
diesel and electricity. They are small enough to
be loaded on a light truck or towed behind a
suitably equipped vehicle. The capacity of the
tilting drum is usually enough to hold the batch
for a 50-kilogram cement bag.
Allowing for loading and a minimum mixing
time of about five minutes, a crew of five people
can produce an average of about 1 m
3
of fresh
concrete per hour (suitable for small pours,
jute-bag filling, etc.). Petrol-powered versions
tend to be lighter than diesel-powered ones.
Electric-powered mixers are the lightest and
easiest to maintain.
The fixed horizontal drum mixer is quite large and heavy and when towed to a site
it is generally set up on a prepared concrete platform to ease loading and discharging of
concrete, Figure 18. Modern horizontal drum mixers are quite sophisticated, generally
incorporating a load cell on the tipping hopper (so that the mix can be batched by
weight instead of by volume) and an automatic water dosimeter for dispensing the
exact volume of mixing water directly into the drum. The drum capacity can range
from 0.50 m
3
to 1.0 m
3
and needs a fairly large crew to operate. A fleet of wheelbarrows
is generally needed to haul enough aggregate to keep it working at full capacity and
enough wheelbarrows or a motorized skip or tipper to haul away the concrete to
the formwork. The wheelbarrows loading the aggregate may be replaced by a small
pay-loader and the wheelbarrows loading the batched concrete may be replaced by a
tipper.
Pan mixers are generally used by ready-mix companies for discharging concrete
into truck mixers. Pan mixers are the most efficient way to mix concrete and need
mechanized feeding of all the dry constituents.
FIGURE 17
Petrol-driven portable
concrete mixer
FIGURE 18
Horizontal drum concrete mixer
Construction materials 167
9.7.6 Reinforcement
As mentioned earlier, the tensile strength (resistance to pulling) of concrete is very
low and reinforcing steel in the form of bars or mesh is used to increase this strength.
Reinforcing bars are manufactured as deformed or ribbed bars to better grip the
concrete as illustrated in Figure 19. Commonly available sizes are illustrated in Table 9
and the common types of steel mesh are illustrated in Figure 20.
TABLE 9
Commonly available sizes of steel bars and steel mesh
SQUARE STEEL MESH FABRIC
STRUCTURAL STEEL MESH FABRIC
FIGURE 19
Steel reinforcement showing steel mills identification marks
FIGURE 20
Common types of steel mesh
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 168
When exposed to a marine environment, the steel bars inside the concrete may
corrode if:
The concrete is of poor quality
(porous) and not very dense.
The concrete cover to the steel bars
is too small, allowing salt to reach
the steel.
The concrete (aggregates or mixing
water) contains too much salt.
Assuming that the concrete has been
manufactured to the right standard (i.e.
good quality, dense and salt-free), the
minimum cover to the steel should not be
less than 50 mm as shown in Figure 21.
9.7.7 Placing, vibrating and curing
Placing, vibrating and curing complete the cycle of concrete construction. The
formwork should be sturdy and properly anchored to prevent it from moving during
the placing of concrete. It should be free of dust or organic matter (vegetation, cigarette
butts, timber) and it should be properly oiled on the inside with an appropriate, water-
based formwork release agent. Diesel is not suitable for this purpose and should
not be used. The steel should be kept clean and free of oil-based compounds, such as
diesel and oil. The reinforcement should be tied firmly to the sides of the formwork
and workers should not be allowed to walk over it. Suitable planks should be provided
across the formwork for this purpose. Concrete should not be dropped from a
height exceeding 1.50 metres as this will lead to segregation of the aggregate and, if
reinforcement is present, it may push the steel bars out of position. When concrete has
to be placed underwater, a tremie pipe should be used, Figure 22 (left). The concrete
should be made richer (cement content increased by about 25 percent from the standard
nominal mix) and slightly wetter as no vibration of the concrete is allowed underwater.
The flexible pipe should be raised along with the pour until the concrete breaks the
surface of the water. Concrete should never be tipped into water, Figure 22 (right), as
this will cause the cement to wash out. If a concrete pump is available, concrete may be
pumped directly underwater.
The process of compacting the concrete consists essentially of the elimination of
entrapped air bubbles. The use of vibration as a means of compaction makes it possible
to use drier mixes than can be compacted by hand. Of the several types of vibrators,
FIGURE 21
The minimum cover to any steel bar (Z)
should not be less than 50 mm
FIGURE 22
Placing of concrete under water using a tremie (left)
Construction materials 169
the poker vibrator, illustrated in Figure 23,
is perhaps the most common one in use.
It consists essentially of a poker, housing
an eccentric shaft driven through a flexible
drive by a small petrol-driven engine. The
frequency of vibration varies up to 12 000
cycles per minute, whereas 3 500 to 5 000
is considered as desirable minimum. The
poker is easily moved from place to place,
and should be applied every half a metre.
The poker should be withdrawn from
the concrete very gradually and in fresh
layers of concrete not exceeding 300 mm
in thickness. To achieve the best results
it should be worked into the concrete at
regular intervals in an orderly fashion,
as illustrated in Figure 24. The actual
completion of compaction can be judged
by the appearance of the surface of the concrete, which should neither be honeycombed
nor contain an excess of mortar, which is generally due to overvibration. For heavily
reinforced sections, a 50 mm to 60 mm diameter poker should be used. Mass concrete
pours, such as quay wall blocks, should be vibrated with pokers at least 80 mm in
diameter.
In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix must be followed
by curing during the early stages of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedures
used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature
FIGURE 23
Petrol-driven poker vibrator with a
60-mm diameter poker
FIGURE 24
The correct way of using a poker vibrator to compact fresh concrete
Incorrect use of concrete vibrator
Correct use of concrete vibrator
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 170
and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. Specifically, the object of
curing is to keep concrete saturated with water until the original water-filled space in
the fresh cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration
of the cement. The necessity for curing arises from the fact that the hydration of cement
can take place only in water-filled capillaries. This is why a loss of water by evaporation
from the capillaries must be prevented at all costs. Furthermore, water lost internally
by self-desiccation (hydration of cement releases a lot of heat which in turn increases
the rate of desiccation of the fresh concrete) has to be replaced by water from outside.
Loss of water from the surface of freshly-poured concrete depends on:
the ambient temperature (the higher the temperature, the greater the
evaporation);
the relative humidity (the drier the air, the faster the water evaporation);
the wind speed (fast moving wind dries the surface very rapidly); and
the speed at which the formwork is removed (early removal increases the exposed
surface area).
Depending on the shape of the cast, curing may be achieved in a number of ways,
such as:
by flooding (suitable for large areas such as paving slabs, which can be flooded by
surrounding them with an impermeable bund);
by spraying or misting (requires a fine-mist sprinkler system and a good supply
of freshwater);
by covering the cast concrete, with damp hessian or plastic sheeting; and
by impermeable curing membrane, a rubber latex emulsion sprayed over the cast.
The membrane, provided it is not punctured or damaged, will effectively prevent
evaporation of water from the concrete but will not allow ingress of water to
replenish that lost by self-desiccation.
The period of curing cannot be prescribed by theory but it is usual to specify a
minimum of seven days. The formwork should not be removed until at least 24 hours
have elapsed since the casting operation and only if measures are taken immediately to
establish a curing regime.
9.7.8 Admixtures
Nowadays, instead of using special cement, it is possible to change some of the
properties of the cement in a mix by the use of a suitable additive. A vast range of
proprietary products is available and these fall into three major groups:
accelerators (they accelerate the setting of the concrete);
retarders (they slow down the setting of the concrete); and
water-reducers (they decrease the amount of mixing water, thereby increasing the
strength of the concrete by virtue of lowering the W/C ratio).
There are other, less commonly used admixtures, such as air-entraining and water-
proofing agents. An important feature of the majority of admixtures for concrete is that
they are used primarily on the basis of experience or ad hoc tests: this is largely due to
the marketing of admixtures as proprietary products.
9.7.8.1 Accelerators
The addition of calcium chloride to a concrete mix increases the rate of development
of strength, and this accelerator is, therefore, sometimes used when the concrete needs
to be hardened quickly, such as when concrete has to be placed underwater. Calcium
chloride increases the rate of heat liberation during the first hours of mixing, but the
normal process of hydration of cement is not changed. A calcium chloride content in
Construction materials 171
a mix of 1 percent of the cement by weight (i.e. 0.50 kilogram per 50-kilogram bag) is
generally sufficient for most purposes. Using commercially available calcium chloride
flakes, the admixture should be prepared in a concentrated aqueous solution and added
to the concrete in the mixer. Calcium chloride must not be used in reinforced concrete
as this will increase the risk of corrosion of the steel from the chloride ions. Chloride-
free proprietary formulations also exist for use with reinforced concrete.
9.7.8.2 Retarders
A delay in the setting time of the cement paste can be achieved by the addition to
the mix of a retarding admixture. These admixtures slow down also the hardening of
the concrete. Retarders do not alter the composition of the products of hydration.
Retarders are useful in concreting in hot weather, when the normal setting time is
usually shortened by the high ambient temperatures. Retarding action is exhibited by
sugar, carbohydrate derivatives, soluble zinc salts, soluble borates and others. Great
care is necessary in using retarders as in incorrect quantities they can totally inhibit the
setting and hardening of concrete. Sugar content in a mix of 0.05 percent of the cement
by weight (i.e. 0.025 kilogram or 25 grams per 50-kilogram bag) is sufficient to delay
setting by about four hours. In important concrete work, the performance of sugar as
a retarder should be determined by trial experiments with the actual cement which is
to be used in construction. Sugar may also be used to advantage in the event of a mixer
breaking down; a 1 percent addition by weight of cement will kill the mix inside the
drum, allowing repairs to be carried out without the risk of seizure.
9.7.8.3 Water-reducers
As their name implies, these admixtures allow concrete to be mixed with less water,
thereby decreasing the W/C ratio. The reduction in quantity of the mixing water that
can be achieved varies between 5 and 15 percent. A part of this is in many cases due to
the entrained air introduced by the admixture. The actual decrease in the mixing water
depends on the cement content and the type of aggregate used. Lignosulphonic acids
and their salts are water-reducing admixtures only; hydroxylated carboxylic acids and
their salts are water reducing and set retarders at the same time.
High-range water reducers are a modern type of water-reducing admixture and
commonly know as a superplasticizer. Chemically, they are sulphonated naphtalene
formaldehyde condensates, and at a given W/C ratio they typically increase the slump
from 75 mm to 200 mm without compromising the cohesiveness of the mix. The
plasticizing action of superplasticizers only lasts about 10 minutes: after about 30 to
90 minutes the workability returns to normal.
9.7.9 Polymer-modified cement mortars
Polymer-modified cement mortars are special proprietary formulations for the repair
of spalled concrete. These cement mortars are generally supplied as a one-pack or
a two-pack product. This type of mortar has increased mechanical strength, is very
resistant to abrasion and chemical attack, and does not shrink during setting, making
it ideal for repairing reinforced concrete. Its adhesive properties to old concrete are
superior to those of a normal sand-cement mortar.
Spalled sections of a reinforced concrete member should be thoroughly cleaned of
any residual cracked concrete, Figure 25 (middle), a tight-fitting formwork applied to
the damaged sections and the cement mortar poured in from the top. Certain cement
mortars are very stiff, in which case they need to be applied with a trowel.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 172
9.7.10 Non-shrink grouts
Non-shrink grouts are generally used for
grouting in of anchor bolts and bearing
plates, such as bollards, as illustrated in
Figure 26. These grouts actually expand on
setting and provide a very good mechanical
bond with the base concrete. They are free-
flowing (pourable), harden very rapidly,
and can reach strengths of the order of
60 N/mm
2
. They are all sold as proprietary
products and generally come prebatched in
25-kilogram waterproof bags, needing only
mixing water.
9.7.11 Epoxy flooring compounds
An exposed concrete finish is not suitable as a floor inside wet fish markets and fish
processing halls in general for the following reasons:
Some fish oils attack concrete and lead to pitting in the surface texture of a
concrete floor, Figure 27.
Concrete is not waterproof and as blood soaks in it gives rise to bad odours.
A concrete floor has to be laid in bays or sections to prevent it from cracking
due to shrinkage; the resulting joints are difficult to clean and generally harbour
bacteria.
FIGURE 25
Repair of damaged or spalled reinforced concrete using
polymer-modified cement mortar
FIGURE 26
Grouting of bollards
FIGURE 27
Pitted concrete floor inside a wet fish market
Construction materials 173
Current food hygiene legislation in many countries stipulates that the floor finish
in such cases should be:
resistant to chemical attack, including the bleaching agents used to disinfect the
premises;
waterproof; and
of seamless construction.
The only floor finish (the base is still concrete, in the form of a slab 200 mm to
250 mm thick) that satisfies the above requisites is that made from solvent-free epoxy
resins. Typically, epoxy-resin flooring compounds are self-levelling and available in
two-pack or three-pack form and come in grey, green, red and yellow pigment. Epoxy-
resin flooring compounds are very strong and durable; after 14 days the compressive
strength typically reaches values in the region of 80 N/mm
2
and their bond to the
underlying concrete is superior to that of concrete over concrete. The components
are usually mixed just prior to use (the pot life being in the region of 30 minutes
depending on the ambient temperature) and applied by roller or trowel in a thickness
not exceeding 3 mm to 4 mm. The finish may be rendered non-skid or non-slip by the
application of a second roller just before the final setting takes place and has excellent
resistance to abrasion. Ideally, epoxy-resin floor finishes should be applied to newly-
laid concrete floor slabs. In the event that the epoxy floor needs to be retrofitted to
a floor inside an existing market, and assuming that the concrete floor slab is still
homogenous, the existing floor must first be scabbed (the upper 15 mm to 20 mm of
the existing concrete removed by grit blasting to expose a fresh concrete surface) and a
suitable solvent-free epoxy primer applied prior to the flooring compound. All epoxy
flooring compounds are marketed as proprietary products and specifications vary from
one manufacturer to the other.
9.7.12 Epoxy concrete coatings
Epoxy concrete coatings are specifically designed to prolong the life of reinforced
concrete sections exposed to a harsh marine environment by rendering the surface
waterproof. Most coatings are two-pack, water-based epoxy paints, which may be
applied by brush, roller or airless spray. Both grey and colourless paints are available.
These coatings may be applied to either dry or damp concrete surfaces in two to three
separate coats. All coatings in this category are marketed as proprietary products.
9.7.13 Bituminous coatings
When the concrete surface to be waterproofed is not visible to the eye (such as the
underside of a piled jetty, concrete piles, the inside of a concrete potable water tank,
etc.) and not exposed to direct sunlight (i.e. ultraviolet radiation), bitumen provides
the most cost-effective surface-sealing treatment. Prior to treatment, concrete surfaces
must be thoroughly dry and free of dust particles. Bituminous coatings may be applied
by brush, roller or airless spray. These coatings are suitable for waterproofing surfaces
that come in contact with potable water, such as water reservoirs. Sunlight degrades
bitumen.
9.7.14 Site practice and safety
Careful housekeeping on site ensures that all building materials remain suitable for
construction purposes. In particular:
Building materials should not be stored in areas subject to flooding.
Some materials must not be exposed to direct sunlight.
Cement should be purchased sealed in good quality bags; punctured bags should
not be accepted.
Cement should not be stored on site for more than six weeks.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 174
Cement should be stored indoors, 150 mm off the ground; if stored outside, it
should be covered with plastic sheeting with plenty of space for air to circulate.
Steel bars should not be stored in contact with the ground.
Aggregates should be shaded from direct sunlight with netting or plastic sheets to
keep them cool.
If rain is forecast for the day, concreting should be postponed.
Concreting should be avoided during hours of peak temperatures; early morning
is ideal.
Although concrete mixing may be considered by some as a hazard-free activity,
safety on site is in fact quite a serious matter. Cement, concrete, concreting and the
various epoxy formulations in use nowadays do present a hazard to human health; for
example:
Airborne cement powder is toxic to human health.
Skin bleeds when it comes into contact with cement and fresh concrete.
Most epoxy formulations are toxic to human skin.
FIGURE 28
Basic safety equipment on site
Some safety equipment
Construction materials 175
Figure 28 shows basic safety equipment to be used on site. In particular, persons
handling cement (breaking bags and pouring out the contents into the mixer) should
always wear goggles, a proper face mask, gloves and boots. People handling concrete
should wear gloves and boots. Everybody on site should wear a safety helmet.
9.8 ROCK
9.8.1 Introduction
Stone for coastal structures should be sound, durable and hard. It should be free
from laminations and weak cleavages, and should be of such character that it will
not disintegrate from the action of air, seawater and undesirable weathering, or from
handling and placing. In general, stone with a high specific gravity should be used to
decrease the volume of material required in the structure and to increase the resistance
to movement by the action of waves or currents. Characteristics that affect the
durability of stone are texture, structure, mineral composition, hardness, toughness,
and resistance to disintegration on exposure to wetting and drying and to freezing
and thawing. Ordinarily, the most durable stone is one that is dense or fine textured,
hard and tough, but exceptions to this general rule occur. The character of the stone
for any project depends on what is available, and often the choice of material involves
weighing the relative economy of using a local stone of lower quality against using a
better quality stone from a distance.
Where the local stone is markedly inferior, the greater cost of transporting durable,
high-quality stone from outside the immediate area may be justified and advisable.
9.8.2 Quarries
Rock is generally obtained from quarries but quarries do not normally supply rock in
the sizes required for the construction of breakwaters, Figure 29.
This is generally due to the fact that blasting systems, drilling patterns and equipment
are tailored to produce only small-size aggregates for concrete or road construction.
Retooling a quarry to produce breakwater-type rock sizes is very expensive and should
only be carried out if the potential yield of the quarry is deemed sufficient for the
purpose; experienced geologists should be called in to carry out such investigations.
FIGURE 29
Typical rock sizes for breakwater construction
13 tonnes
50500 kg
0.51 tonne
600 mm 900 mm
1 300 mm 900 mm
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 176
The potential yield in terms of breakwater-sized rock of a quarry depends almost
entirely on the geological formation and the natural bedding of the deposits.
Figure 30 illustrates some commonly encountered geological formations or
rock outcrops. The left figure illustrates regular block formation, heavily fractured,
producing regular sizes of rock. The middle figure illustrates an irregular outcrop and
the right figure shows heavily bedded layers that produce tabular rocks. Therefore,
prior to constructing a rubble breakwater it is necessary to:
Collect or obtain information on the geological formation of the quarry site,
including faults, natural bedding of layers, etc., Figure 30;
Obtain details of the vertical extension of the overburden (the rock strata may be
underneath a top soil, which may be fertile and cannot be discarded); and
Carry out laboratory tests to determine the geotechnical characteristics of the
rock.
In addition, the quarry must be accessible without too much investment in access
roads; and have adequate storage space for stockpiling and sorting of the rock into the
required sizes.
9.8.3 Geological characteristics of rock
The strength of the parent rock essentially decides the degradation mechanisms of the
individual armour rock. These mechanisms may be grouped into:
spalling, commonly associated with salt attack, alteration of minerals within the
rock and expansion or decay of clay minerals;
fracture, linked to incipient planes of weakness in the rock deposit; and
abrasion, caused by adjacent stones rubbing together under wave action or by
much smaller particles of sand and rock thrown against the stone during wave
action.
Typical deposits suitable for the production of breakwater rock are granite, basalt,
limestone, sandstone, quartzite and porphyry. In the laboratory, the geotechnical
characteristics of the rock are usually defined by the parameters, shown in Table 10,
details of which are found in various national standards.
It is a generally accepted fact that all marine structures will degrade with time and
that only adequate monitoring during the lifetime cycle will prevent serious damage
from occurring to the structure.
The evaluation of a potential stone source should consider the extent that a quarry
development might detract from natural beauty and otherwise cause environmental
concern during and after operation. The quarry area should be graded and landscaped
as practicable to restore a natural appearance and to control erosion upon closure.
FIGURE 30
Quarry deposits
Construction materials 177
9.9 PLASTICS, RUBBER AND BITUMINOUS COMPOUNDS
Nowadays, both plastics and rubber compounds play an ever-increasing role in
marine works, typically replacing steel articles such as pipes, pipe fittings, gratings and
covers.
9.9.1 Polyvinyl chloride
This material is available in two forms plasticized or unplasticized. Both types are
characterized by good weathering resistance, excellent electrical insulation properties,
good surface properties and they are self-extinguishing. Plasticized PVC is flexible
and finds applications in wire covering. Unplasticized PVC (uPVC) is a hard, tough
material which is widely used for pipes and gutters.
PVC has a specific gravity of 1.38 to 1.45 and a surface hardness (Shore D) of 70 to
90, equivalent to that of aluminium.
9.9.2 Polypropylene
Polypropylene is an extremely versatile plastic and is available in many grades and also
as a copolymer (ethylene/propylene). It has the lowest density of all thermoplastics
(plastics that deform with an increase in temperature) in the order of 900 kg/m
3
and this
combined with strength, stiffness and excellent fatigue and chemical resistance make it
attractive in many situations. Current uses of this plastic is in making fish boxes and
fibre ropes.
9.9.3 Polycarbonates
The outstanding feature of these materials is their extreme toughness. They are
transparent and have good temperature resistance but are attacked by alkaline solutions
and hydrocarbon solvents. Typical applications include vandal-proof street lamp
covers and lenses in marine lanterns.
9.9.4 Low-density polyethylene
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is one of the most widely used plastics. It is
characterized by a density in the range 918 to 935 kg/m
3
and is very tough and flexible.
Major applications include pipes and cold water tanks.
9.9.5 High-density polyethylene
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has a density in the range 935 to 965 kg/m
3
and
is more crystalline than LDPE. It has a surface hardness (Shore D) of 63. It is slightly
more expensive than LDPE but it is much stronger and stiffer and applications include
waste bins and pipes.
TABLE 10
Geological characteristics of rock
Property Suggested limit
Specific gravity 2.60 minimum
Water absorption 2.50 maximum
Particle shape Angular
Surface texture Crystalline
Impact value %
[1]
25 maximum
Abrasion value %
[2]
25 maximum
Magnesium sulphate
Soundness test
[3]
12 maximum
1
Standard test for resistance to chipping from impact loads.
2
Standard test for resistance to abrasion by other particles.
3
Standard chemical test for resistance to chemical alteration of the minerals.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 178
9.9.6 Polyurethane
This material is available in three forms: rigid foam, flexible foam and elastomer. They
have high strength and good chemical and abrasion resistance. Foams find applications
in insulation and elastomers in solid tyres.
9.9.7 Polyesters
The main application of this material is as a matrix for glass fibre reinforcement. The
fibres (E-glass) are generally calcium aluminium borosilicate with a specific gravity of
2.05.
9.9.8 Rubber
Rubber is a unique engineering material possessing an ability to deform elastically by
several hundred percent without failure. Raw rubber would in most cases be relatively
unstable, so for engineering applications it is generally cross linked or vulcanized with
a chemical such as sulphur. Rubber components are thus normally manufactured by
means of a cure process in a metal mould. Most types of rubber used in engineering
also incorporate at least one type of filler, such as carbon black or soot. Fillers generally
reinforce rubber, improving its resistance to tear, abrasion.
The life and performance of a rubber component may be strongly influenced by its
service environment (sunlight, weathering, ozone cracking), which can cause changes
in stiffness and surface texture. Normally, effective protection against sunlight is given
by the carbon black filler incorporated in the rubber; this acts by filtering out the
ultraviolet radiation. If rubbers are not protected by the incorporation of appropriate
antioxidants and antiozonants, then atmospheric ozone, sunlight and oxygen can
damage rubber.
Nitrile rubber has the best resistance to petroleum products and is generally used for
refuelling hoses. Neoprene rubber is used in the form of pads under precast concrete
structural elements such as beams, lintels or roofing slabs to avoid concrete-to-concrete
abrasion.
9.9.9 Bituminous compounds
All bituminous materials are for the most part used in mixtures with aggregates as
binders. Binders all have certain valuable properties in common: they are water-
resistant, have good adhesive properties and can withstand ordinary weathering.
All binders, whether tars or bitumen, are exceedingly complex materials chemically.
Different tars and bitumens have been characterized by separating them into fractions
according to their solubility in a series of solvents of increasing dispersing power.
Tars are obtained from the destructive distillation of coal or shale, where for
engineering purposes all the lighter oils are distilled off leaving a hard, semi-solid
residual material pitch. Pitch is in itself too hard and viscous to use so lighter oils
are fluxed back into the pitch to produce tar.
Bitumens are obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum (crude oil). In
some cases this process occurs naturally, producing rock or lake asphalt, but
the bulk of the worlds bitumen is produced by refining crude oil. Chemically,
bitumens are similar to tar and are also highly resistant to weathering agents.
Cutbacks are mixtures of binders with light volatile oils, the resultant mixture
having a much lower viscosity than the original binder, allowing various handling
operations to be carried out at a much lower temperature than would otherwise
be the case.
Emulsions are mixtures of bituminous binders and water in a dispersant.
The dispersant may consist of sodium stearate, soap or trimethyl-ammonium
bromide.
Construction materials 179
Rubberized binders consist of unvulcanized rubber powder, 0.50 to
5.0 percent, dispersed in bitumen. Rubberized bitumens are less susceptible to
temperature changes and are more elastic.
Trinidad Lake Asphalt is a natural asphalt. This asphalt has superior drying
properties to those of refinery bitumens but is considerably more expensive.
The very term binder used to describe bituminous materials suggests an ability to
act as adhesive and bind other materials together. As with all adhesives when tars
or bitumens are used it is important that the materials to be bound together by these
binders should be clean, dry and free from dust. If, for example, in coating stones for
road mixes the binder is too thick or viscous, then it will not wet or coat the stone
efficiently. If the stone is dusty, then the binder may not reach the stone surface. If
there is water on the stone, then the binder will not adhere to the stone. Bituminous
materials are used in engineering in a wide variety of consistencies or viscosity. For
practical purposes, the viscosity may be measured empirically and expressed in terms
of a simple unit, usually either seconds or degrees Celsius, when the liquid has been
tested in a standard apparatus under specific standard conditions.
The standard test for ordinary bitumens is the penetration test. In this test a loaded
needle is allowed to penetrate a sample of bitumen; the viscosity is then a measure of
the depth of penetration at that temperature and under those loading conditions.
For normal test conditions in the penetration test, a 1 mm diameter needle is used,
ground to a sharp point and loaded with 100 grams. The needle just touches the surface
of the bitumen sample at the start and is allowed to fall under gravity for five seconds,
the ambient test temperature being 25
o
C. The penetration is measured in tenths of a
millimetre.
If a bitumen is referred to as 70 pen, it is understood that a penetration of 70 tenths
of a millimetre was obtained under the above conditions.
At ordinary temperatures most binders are much too stiff and hard to handle. In
order that they may be sprayed, pumped and mixed, or compacted in a stone-binder
mixture, their viscosity must be greatly reduced.
9.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Dinwoodie J.M. 1981. Timber: Its nature and behaviour. New York, Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Hornsby M.J. 1995. Hot-dip galvanizing: A guide to process selection and galvanizing
practise. London, Intermediate Technology Publications.
Jackson N. 1981. Civil engineering materials. UK, Macmillan Press Ltd.
Moffat & Nichol Engineers. 1983. Construction Materials for Coastal Structures. Virginia,
USA, US Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Center.
Neville A.M. 1981. Properties of concrete. UK, Longman Scientific & Technical.
181
10. Fittings and navigational aids
SUMMARY
Once the basic infrastructure (breakwater, quays, slipway, etc.) has been
constructed, various minor mechanical components are required to render the
harbour efficient and safe. These components include safety equipment, fenders
and fendering systems, mooring systems, chains, anchor systems, winches,
hydrants, access ladders, marine lanterns, floating marker buoys, fixed marker
beacons or lighthouses and power supply.
This chapter reviews the various types of fittings required to complete
a port. The objective is to enable the reader to understand the multitude of
essential components that together with the main infrastructure are required to
run a port safely and efficiently.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 182
CONTENTS
10.1 Fendering 183
10.1.1 Artisanal fenders 183
10.1.2 Other fender types 184
10.1.3 Anchor bolts 186
10.2 Bollards 188
10.3 Chains 190
10.4 Access ladders 192
10.5 Hydrants 192
10.6 Capstans and winches 194
10.6.1 Artisanal winching systems 194
10.6.2 Mechanized winching systems 195
10.7 Trolleys 196
10.7.1 Rollers 196
10.7.2 Trailers 197
10.7.3 Steel cradles 197
10.8 Ropes 198
10.8.1 Wire rope 198
10.8.2 Fibre rope 200
10.8.3 Fibre slings 201
10.9 Rope and chain fittings 201
10.9.1 Sheaves and snatch blocks 201
10.9.2 Shackles 203
10.10 Lanterns and marker buoys 204
10.10.1 Lanterns 204
10.10.2 Buoys 205
10.11 Fisheries equipment 207
10.11.1 Fish boxes 207
10.11.2 Scales 208
10.11.3 Trolleys and forklifts 208
10.11.4 Sorting tables 208
10.12 Bibliography and further reading 209
Fittings and navigational aids 183
10.1 FENDERING
Basically, fenders are installed to protect both vessel and quay during berthing
operations; they also function as a rubbing surface during mooring to protect the
vessels sides against undue damage to its paint system.
10.1.1 Artisanal fenders
For solid quays, the basic fender system is the used car tyre, which can be effectively
recycled into quayside fenders as shown in Figure 1. Used car tyres function properly
as rubbing surfaces if the method of suspension, which may be fibre rope, chain or
wire rope, does not come into contact with the vessels hull. Figure 1 illustrates the
correct way to suspend tyres for use as fenders and rubbing surfaces. If one tyre is not
enough for large vessels, two tyres may be bolted together to form a thicker fender.
Tyre fenders may also be placed one below the other under certain tide and weather
conditions.
If the tidal variation is negligible, the cope line of a quay may also be protected by
strips of timber placed along the outer edge as shown in Figure 2. The timber may be
bolted directly to the concrete or inserted in between galvanized angles, themselves
bolted to the concrete, Figure 3.
FIGURE 1
Rubber tyre fender
HIGH YIELD STRENGTH
GALVANIZED FORGED
HANGER
DRILLED ONTO COPE
FIGURE 2
Timber coping and strip fender
60 mm 22 mm
Bolt recess
Timber section
150 x 150 mm
About
300 - 500 mm
1
0
0
0
m
m
1
0
0
0
m
m
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 184
In some tropical countries where large timber plantations may be available, forest
brushwood or whole log fenders may also be used, Figure 4. Log fenders (left) are
particularly useful on floating structures. The brushwood fenders (right) may be rolled
into a fascine (with natural or man-made fibres) with a minimum diameter of 500 mm
(no metals) and suspended in front of the quay.
10.1.2 Other fender types
Open piled jetties also need protection against accidental impact. In a piled structure,
not all the structural components may be designed to absorb side impacts, especially
in the presence of a large tidal variation. The vertical piles holding up a jetty deck, for
example, must not be impacted sideways as this will result in permanent damage to
the structure. Piled jetties are generally designed in such a way that the heavy concrete
deck absorbs the impact from the fender system and then transmits this energy to the
raked piles situated along the rear of the deck (see Figure 15 in Chapter 8). However,
with lighter structures, especially finger jetties, a separate timber pile must be installed
to transmit the side impact to the deck and protect the supporting piles, Figure 5.
FIGURE 3
Timber strip fender on a sheet-piled quay
FLOATING JETTIES
FIGURE 4
Other types of fenders in natural materials
Fittings and navigational aids 185
Nowadays, moulded rubber sections have become the industry standard in most
ports. These fenders may be solid plain square sections, hollow cylindrical sections, flat
slabs or VEE-type sections, Figures 6.
The most common section in use is the VEE-type moulded section. This section
incorporates a sheet of steel sealed inside the rubber base as an aid to anchoring. The
section is bolted straight onto the concrete surface via stainless steel bolts.
The VEE-type fenders may be placed horizontally as illustrated, or vertically
when the tidal variation exceeds about 500 mm. This fender comes in a range of cross
sectional sizes and may be ordered to any length up to 6 metres. Although this type
of fender is more expensive than other types of fenders, it is maintenance-free and has
a long useful life. When installing fixed rubber fenders, careful consideration must be
given to areas where:
the moored vessels carry exposed riggings, as these may damage the fender; and
the vessels have their own steel belt fenders just above the waterline as these may
also damage the fender.
The suspended hollow cylindrical rubber sections, illustrated in Figure 7, are no
longer used due to their high maintenance costs. The chains and chain anchor points
tend to corrode and snap.
FIGURE 5
Open piled structures
FIGURE 6
VEE-type rubber fender
-
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 186
Sliding fenders, as opposed to soft rubber fenders, consist of relatively thin slabs of
UHMW polyethylene (ultra-high molecular weight) plastic. This hard plastic is very
tough and has a very low coefficient of friction, enabling vessels to slide along without
sustaining damage. It affords the best protection to the concrete cope. The slabs are
bolted directly to the concrete and cover most of the exposed vertical surface of the
deck, Figure 8.
10.1.3 Anchor bolts
Most fittings are anchored into the concrete with bolts. Anchor bolts may consist
of permanent bolts embedded in concrete (which cannot be removed) or fixed bolts
(which may be undone at a later stage). Figure 9 illustrates the standard type of fixings
generally used, both during construction and post-construction.
Figure 9 illustrates the cast-in plug, the expanding rawl socket and the chemical
resin anchor plug, respectively. The cast-in plug (steel or high-density polyethylene
[HDPE]) is generally included in the cast during concreting by a bolt passing through
the formwork. The rawl socket is placed inside a hole predrilled in the concrete. The
chemical resin plug is a glass vial with a polyester compound. It is inserted into a
predrilled hole and a bolt pushed through it, rupturing the vial and setting off the
chemical reaction to cement the plug.
FIGURE 7
Suspended hollow cylindrical sections
FIGURE 8
Sliding slab fenders
BLACK SLAB WITH GREY TOP
ULTRA-HIGH
MOLECULAR
WEIGHT POLY-
ETHYLENE
2

0
0
0

m
m
50 mm
1 000 mm
100 400 400 100
Fittings and navigational aids 187
Typical characteristics of drilled expanding rawl sockets are shown in Figure 10.
The pull-out values of the sockets in this figure refer to a base concrete strength of
30 N/mm
2
and tightening torques as specified by the manufacturer. No factor of safety
included.
FIGURE 9
Anchor bolts
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 188
Typical characteristics of chemical resin sockets are shown in Figure 11.
The pull-out values of the chemical plugs in the above table are breakout values
without a factor of safety and refer to a base concrete strength of 30 N/mm
2
. The
setting time at an ambient temperature of 20

C is 30 minutes; at 15
o
C the setting time
is 60 minutes.
10.2 BOLLARDS
Vessels require bollards to moor alongside a quay; bollards may also be replaced with
mooring rings for small- to medium-sized vessels. Mooring rings offer the following
advantages over the more conventional bollards:
they are cheaper than bollards;
they keep the quay free of mooring lines; and
mooring lines do not chafe on the cope edge.
FIGURE 10
Typical pull-out strengths of expanding rawl sockets (courtesy Fischer)
Diameter of bolt
(mm)
Diameter of hole for
socket
(mm)
Depth of hole or
socket length
(mm)
Typical pull-out
strength
(kg)
6 12 60 1 600
8 15 70 1 800
10 18 80 2 370
12 22 100 3 520
16 29 130 7 360
20 36 170 9 830
24 42 210 15 050
FIGURE 11
Typical pull-out strengths of polyester resin plugs (courtesy Wurth)
Diameter of stainless
steel bolt
(mm)
Diameter of hole for
glass vial
(mm)
Depth of hole or
length of vial
(mm)
Typical pull-out
strength
(kg)
6 10 80 2 300
10 12 90 3 470
12 14 110 5 500
16 18 125 9 700
20 24 145 12 600
24 28 180 20 800
Fittings and navigational aids 189
Ideally, mooring rings should be set in the concrete cope during construction as
illustrated in Figure 12. Mooring rings may be cast proud of the cope line (not suitable
for harbours with appreciable tidal variations) or recessed into the cope (suitable for
areas with tidal variations).
For medium to large vessels, the mooring rings should be manufactured to specific
standards regarding pull-out strength, as illustrated in Figure 13.
Mooring rings should be installed every 2.50 metres or less. In areas where sea swell
is predominant, vessel surge often leads to failure of the eye bolts by fatigue and proper
vertical bollards should be considered.
Berths which are heavily used by large vessels and where swell is predominant
should be equipped with proper bollards or a combination of bollards and mooring
rings. Bollards may be constructed from welded pipe sections or purchased in cast
iron, Figure 14. Figure 15 presents an illustration of 5- and 10-tonne pipe bollards and
Figure 16 of mushroom bollards.
FIGURE 12
Artisanal mooring ring (0.5 tonnes)
2
0
0
m
m
A
20 mm
diameter
steel bar
I

=

1
0
0

m
m
A
Quay
Anchor cast
in capping
during
construction
FIGURE 13
Heavy-duty mooring ring (1 to 2 tonnes)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 190
10.3 CHAINS
Mooring chain is manufactured from four different internationally accepted qualities
of steel, designated grade 2, grade 3, oil rig quality (ORQ) and grade 4. Chain of
grades 2, 3 and 4 is manufactured to Classification Societies Specification, like Lloyds
Register, and ORQ chain is based on the American Petroleum Institutes specification.
Grade 1 chain is no longer manufactured. Grade 2 chain is the lowest quality chain
FIGURE 15
5-tonne and 10-tonne pipe bollards
300
3
0
0
2
5
0
250
6
0
1
0
0
20 mm diameter
6
0
500
6
0
6
0
1
0
0
400
20 mm diameter
6
0
0
2
5
0
30 mm
diameter
127 x 8 mm
30 mm
diameter
300 x 12 mm
FIGURE 16
25- to 50-tonne cast iron mushroom bollards, also produced in
the 1- to 5-tonne range for small vessels
FIGURE 14
Artisanal pipe bollards
Fittings and navigational aids 191
manufactured. Grade 3 chain is the most common grade used in marine construction
and is only marginally more expensive than grade 2. Grade 2 chain is significantly
heavier than a grade 3 chain for a comparable breaking load.
Chain is manufactured in lengths of 27.5 metres, also known as shots. Chain can
be ordered with or without inserted studs (studless). In order to maintain the same
strength, the diameter of studless chains (i.e. open links) needs to be 20 percent greater
than that of stud link chains.
Chain fittings to connect lengths of each or other items, such as anchors or buoys,
are illustrated in Figure 18.
FIGURE 17
Studless chain (top) and stud link chain (lower)
Typical characteristics of studless chain
Diameter d
(mm)
a
(mm)
b
(mm)
q
(mm)

Breaking load

Weight
5 28 17 18 0.9 tonnes 0.52 kg/m
6 33 20 21 1.30 0.74
8 44 27 28 2.30 1.33
10 55 34 35 3.60 2.08
12.5 69 43 44 5.50 3.25
14.5 80 49 51 7.50 4.37
16 88 54 56 9.10 5.32
17.5 96 60 61 10.90 6.36
20.5 113 70 72 14.90 8.77
22 121 75 77 17.20 10.00
24 132 81 84 20.40 11.90
FIGURE 18
Standard chain fittings
3.4D 1,6D
0.8D
7.1D
4D
6D
4
.
1
8
D
5
D
2
.
2
D
1.7D 3.15D
9.2D
1.8D
1
.
4
D
4
D
14.16D
1.8D
4D 1.9D
0.9D
8.2D
5
D
7.4D
4
.
7
D
3
.
6
D
6.3D
9.7D
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 192
10.4 ACCESS LADDERS
Where required, access ladders should be provided for pedestrian access to the quay
from a rowing boat, small fishing vessel or vessel tender, especially inside harbours
with a large tidal variation. Figure 19 shows a typical ladder made from welded steel,
which should be recessed inside the cope line to prevent it from being damaged by
moored vessels. Each ladder point should also be equipped with two mooring rings,
one on either side of the ladder, to enable rowing boats or canoes to be moored from
inside the vessel.
Maintenance (scrubbing) and underwater inspections (sacrificial anodes) of vessels
are very often carried out by divers offering such services. It is hence useful to also
install a divers exit ladder to enable fully-kitted divers to exit the water safely. Such
ladders should also be recessed inside the cope. If this is not possible, then they should
be tucked away in a quite corner away from vessel movements.
The stringers (the vertical members) should be 180 mm wide x 20 mm thick in
mild steel. The length should be equal to the height of the cope from lowest tide level.
The rungs should be made from 30 mm diameter steel bars welded to the stringers
at 300 mm intervals. The width of the ladder from stringer to stringer should be at
least 500 mm. Mild steel cleats should be provided at both ends. If the ladder is longer
than 3 metres, intermediate cleats are also required. The whole ladder assembly should
be heavily galvanized just prior to placing, i.e. when all surface work on the ladder
(welding and drilling) has been terminated.
Access ladders are also produced in 40 mm diameter stainless steel pipe, polyester
resin (PE) and HDPE.
10.5 HYDRANTS
Water hydrants should be provided at the quay side for the hosing down of boxed
fish, vessel decks, equipment, etc. The hydrants may be freshwater or seawater,
depending on the local water supply conditions. Freshwater hydrants should supply
drinking-quality water whereas the seawater hydrants should supply clean seawater
drawn from a borehole outside the port basin area. Harbour basin water should never
be used on-board moored vessels.
All seawater systems should be separate from freshwater systems and the pipework
clearly marked and colour coded. All pipework for both systems should be in HDPE
FIGURE 19
Simple access ladder (left) and a divers exit ladder (right)
Fittings and navigational aids 193
plastic and all fittings (swivel joints, quick-release couplings, ball valves, hydrants)
suitable for seawater operating conditions and made from HDPE with stainless steel or
bronze components. All exposed HDPE plastic should be resistant to ultraviolet.
Figure 20 top, shows an above-ground hydrant. Above-ground hydrants should not
be placed too close to the cope line as this would interfere with mooring and unloading
FIGURE 20
Above-ground hydrant (top) and quay-side hydrant (bottom)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 194
operations. This type of hydrant consists of a strong square cage in 60 mm diameter
galvanized pipe (not welded) embedded in a concrete foundation block. The standpipe
is fixed but can rotate through 360

by means of a swivel joint attached to the ball valve.

The end terminates in a quick-release coupling to which various hoses may be attached
(shipboard hose, market hose, auction hall hose, etc.) for hose-down operations. The
supply may be metered. Figure 20, bottom, shows a simple quay-side hydrant suitable
for small harbours serving small artisanal vessels. In this case, the hydrant is placed at
the edge of the quay inside a small recess. A quick-release coupling engages directly to
the ball valve. The flexible hoses leading from the hydrants to the various work areas
should be sturdy enough to withstand abrasion and direct sunlight. Plastic garden-hose
types are not suitable on both counts. Although more expensive, reinforced rubber
hoses should be used as these last much longer and are unlikely to split open as plastic
ones do.
10.6 CAPSTANS AND WINCHES
Mechanical winches are required in ports and landing areas to haul vessels out of the
water, whether on to a simple beach or up on a slipway.
10.6.1 Artisanal winching systems
In areas where vehicles have easy access to the beach area, a four-wheel drive vehicle or
agricultural tractor plus a length of rope passed through a snatch block tied to a tree is
the easiest and most economical way to haul a vessel on to the beach, Figure 21.
If the beach is in a remote area or not accessible to vehicles, artisanal capstans should
be installed. These range from the very simple type, Figure 22 left, to the more advanced
type constructed from steel sections welded together, Figure 22 right. The simple type
depends on its own self weight (normally a concrete block) for stability, whereas the
FIGURE 21
Beach accessible to vehicles
FIGURE 22
Simple winch (left) and a workshop-manufactured frame capstan
Fittings and navigational aids 195
advanced frame capstan is very light (can be moved from one area to another) but digs
itself into the sand and may be anchored by pegs.
The simple capstan may be constructed from locally available materials, such as
oil drums, large diameter tree trunks, oars and concrete. Frame capstans, on the other
hand, should be constructed in a proper workshop equipped with welding and cutting
equipment. Figure 23 illustrates the technical details of the frame capstan.
10.6.2 Mechanized winching systems
Mechanical winches generally consist of a horizontal drum coupled to a set of reduction
gears via a powered drive (Figure 24). The type of power drive is entirely dependent
on the availability of electricity at the site of the slipway. Electric and hydraulic motors
are the preferred systems as they are generally low in maintenance (Figure 25); diesel
or petrol require considerably more maintenance and stocks of spare parts. The winch
comes with a sturdy mounting which should be bolted to a concrete foundation block
according to the manufacturers instructions.
FIGURE 24
Mechanical winches
FIGURE 23
Technical details of a frame capstan
Bar attachment
Drum
Steel rear base
Anchor chain
connection
Lower plate teeth
Pawl
Galvanized steel
pipewinch bar
Base side
Base front
Steel wire
Fair lead
Base front
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 196
10.7 TROLLEYS
Beached vessels can be pulled straight up a beach by a strong winch with the keel
sliding directly on the sand. The pulling power required can however be drastically
reduced by using rollers under the vessels keel to reduce the friction of the keel on the
sand and the abrasion on the paint finish. Large vessels on slipways require a cradle or
trolley and cannot be hauled up on their keel.
10.7.1 Rollers
The simplest type of artisanal roller is a section of tree trunk. However, the larger the
diameter of the roller, the less effort is required to move a vessel on sand. To overcome
this problem, balloon wheels in rigid plastic are now available, Figure 26.
The wheels can be attached by a rope or by a rigid pipe to form a cradle as shown
in the figure.
FIGURE 25
Electric-powered 10-tonne pull winch awaiting installation
Typical characteristics of heavy-duty hydraulic winches
Pull
(tonnes)
Low speed
(metres/minute)
High speed
(metres/minute)
Rope size
(mm)
Rope length
(metres)
Weight
(kilograms)
9.0 21 42 24 200 2 000
11.5 21 42 28 220 2 300
14.0 21 42 28 220 2 400
18.0 21 42 32 280 3 200
FIGURE 26
Balloon wheel rollers
Fittings and navigational aids 197
10.7.2 Trailers
Boat trailers able to travel on a paved road are normally used for vessels of intermediate
size up to a length of around 20 metres. Trailers may be purpose built or converted
from old truck chassis. Figure 27 illustrates a fisheries patrol vessel on a custom-built
trailer. A major problem with trailers is the corrosion of the wheel axle bearings and it
is not uncommon for trailers to lose wheels during long road journeys.
10.7.3 Steel cradles
The boat cradle or trolley, illustrated in Figure 28, consists of a frame made up from
steel channels, typically 300 mm high, welded back-to-back with cast-steel wheels
fixed in between. On top of this frame sits another frame, rendered horizontal by
means of spliced channels. On top of this horizontal frame sit the sliding racks which
slide inwards and outwards to adjust to the vessels dimensions.
Timber keel blocks are bolted to the horizontal frame to permit the vessels keel to
come to rest in contact with timber. The typical length of the lower frame may be up
to 25 metres and the width varies with the local vessel sizes. The wheel axles should
not be placed more than 2 metres apart. The rear end of the lower frame should be
provided with a pawl and rack arrangement in order to stop the cradle running back
into the water should the hauling wire rope break during a slipping operation. The wire
rope should be attached to the cradle via an appropriate shackle connected to a bolted
anchor point on the lower frame. Depending on the size and weight of vessels to be
serviced, the cradle wheels may be in steel or UHMW polyethylene. With vessels not
heavier than 5 tonnes, solid plastic wheels running on a smooth concrete surface may
be used. For heavier vessels, steel bogies running on steel rails anchored to concrete
beams should be used.
FIGURE 27
Rubber-tyred boat trailers
FIGURE 28
Steel cradles
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 198
10.8 ROPES
Both wire and fibre ropes are utilized around a fishing port. Wire ropes are normally
used on slipways and on hauling drums aboard trawlers whereas fibre rope is used to
moor vessels.
10.8.1 Wire rope
Wire ropes generally consist of a number of bundles made up of individual steel strands
of differing diameters and bundled together to form a thick rope. The central core may
consist either of an oil-impregnated fibre or more steel strands or a mixture of both.
Winches generally require what is known as a 216 + 1 wire rope (rope diameters up
to 26 mm) or a 216 + 49 wire rope (rope diameters from 28 mm to 40 mm and used
on most powered winches). A 216 + 1 wire rope consists of 6 bundles of strands + 1
fabric core; each bundle, in turn, consists of 37 strands of steel of varying diameters,
which together form a very compact cross-section. A 216 + 49 wire rope consists of 6
bundles of strands + 1 central bundle; each bundle consisting of 36 strands of steel of
varying diameters; the central bundle is made up of 49 strands. Wire ropes meant for
use in a slipway should be made of galvanized steel strands.
Wire rope is very expensive and requires good care in handling and maintenance.
The correct size of the rope must be used when ordering attachments such as pulleys
and Figure 29 illustrates the correct way to measure rope diameter.
A new wire rope should be unreeled from an idle spool holder as shown in
Figure 30. It should never be unwound from a static spool.
To ensure that the wire rope spools on to the drum without chafing, the distance of
the winch drum from the first static pulley should be such that the subtended angle at
the pulley does not exceed 2

as shown in Figure 31.

FIGURE 29
Measuring the diameter of a wire rope
216 + 1
FIGURE 30
Unwinding a reel of wire rope
Fittings and navigational aids 199
To ensure maximum durability, the minimum diameter of a winch drum or pulley
should not be less than 25 times the diameter of the wire rope as measured in Figure 29
(that is, a 28 mm rope should not be wound round a drum or pulley with a diameter
less than 25 x 28 = 700 mm). To use a drum that is, for example, half the recommended
size (say, only 12.5 times the diameter of the rope), the rope should be subjected to only
80 percent of its recommended maximum load. Wire rope should never be allowed
to scrape the ground or chafe over metallic objects, such as rails or metallic sleepers;
timber sleepers or rollers should always be placed under wire ropes.
Wire rope should never be threaded through shackles without thimbles and the
thimble size should be adequate for the rope diameter, Figure 32.
Figures 33A and 33B show unseated strands resulting from wire ropes being twisted
or warped by pulleys that are too small.
Figure 33C shows kinks in a wire rope developed by abrupt loads or jerks.
Figure 33D shows the result of a rope that was overloaded and Figures 33E and 33F
wire ropes that were bent around very small diameters such as shackles.
FIGURE 31
The minimum winching distance
2

FIGURE 32
Correct use of thimbles
FIGURE 33
Damaged wire rope
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 200
Corroded ropes should be replaced immediately as should wire ropes showing
definite signs of fatigue, such as broken strands, pulled strands, uneven wear, strongly
visible kinks.
Wire ropes are supplied with specific strength characteristics, the most important
of which is the safe working load, or SWL. The safe working load is the maximum
load that the wire rope can carry without damage to the steel fibres divided by a factor
of safety. The factor of safety for wire ropes ranges between 5 and 8 and depends on
a number of factors, such as the equipment using it (winch, crane, elevator) and the
countrys national health and safety code requirements (Table 1).
The typical equivalent SWL for a 216 + 1 wire rope is much smaller than that for
216 + 49 shown in the above table; this means that for the same load requirements,
using a 216 + 1 wire rope implies using a thicker rope, which in turn means using a
larger diameter pulley, drums and fittings in general.
10.8.2 Fibre rope
Fibre ropes come in a vast range of materials each with differing mechanical
characteristics (Table 2). The materials available are nylon, polyester, polypropylene
and polyethylene.
Nylon rope is very elastic and when under load it stores considerable energy. This
characteristic makes it ideal for use as springs in mooring lines in the presence of ocean
swell, avoiding jerking, and sudden loads on the bollards or mooring rings.
Polypropylene rope is not elastic and is not affected by seawater. Polyethylene
rope has very good abrasion and does not absorb water. It is not as strong as
polypropylene.
Polyester rope displays excellent fatigue life and has a low water absorption rate.
Polyester rope is moderately elastic.
TABLE 1
Typical safe working load for a 216 + 49 wire rope
Diameter
(mm)
Safe working load
(tonnes)
Weight
(kg/metre)
20 6.80 1.68
22 8.20 2.05
24 9.40 2.40
26 11.20 2.83
28 13.0 3.28
30 15.0 3.75
32 16.40 4.25
TABLE 2
Characteristics of commonly used fibres
Property Nylon Polyester Polypropylene Polyethylene
Specific gravity 1.14 1.38 0.91 0.95
Floats No No Yes Yes
Continuous fibres Common Common Not available Common
Short fibres Not common Not common Not available Not common
Monofilament Not common Not common Common Not common
Combustion Melts and
forms yellow
droplets
Melts and
burns bright
Melts and burns
pale blue
Melts and burns
pale blue
Colour of smoke White Black White White
Smell Fishy Oily Candle wax
Residue Yellow droplets Black
droplets
Solid
droplets
Brown
droplets
Fittings and navigational aids 201
Table 3 presents the breaking strengths generally quoted as the minimum strength of
the rope, excluding any factors of safety that may be applicable locally.
10.8.3 Fibre slings
With the advent of the mobile gantry, fibre slings are widely used in most boatyards
(Figure 34 and Table 4).
10.9 ROPE AND CHAIN FITTINGS
10.9.1 Sheaves and snatch blocks
Sheaves (or pulley blocks with two to four pulleys inside the same block) and snatch
blocks are required to increase the pull from a winch to cover a whole range of vessel
sizes (Figure 35). A small 5-tonne vessel may be hauled directly on a 10-tonne pull
winch, but a 100-tonne vessel (which may need a 20-tonne pull) has to be hauled
through a system of sheaves if the winch cannot produce more than 10 tonnes of pull.
TABLE 3
Typical breaking strengths of some sizes of rope
Material Diameter
(mm)
Weight
(kg/100 metre)
Breaking strength
(kg)
Polyethylene monofilament 24 27.40 6 100
Polypropylene split fibre 24 26.0 7 600
Nylon 24 37.50 12 000
Polyethylene monofilament 28 37.30 8 030
Polypropylene split fibre 28 35.50 10 100
Nylon 28 51.0 15 800
Polyethylene monofilament 32 48.70 10 400
Polypropylene split fibre 32 46.0 12 800
Nylon 32 66.50 20 000
TABLE 4
Typical characteristics of fibre slings
Material Width
(mm)
Safe working load
(factor of safety of 6)
(kg)
Polyamide 50 1 080
Polyamide 100 2 000
Polyamide 150 2 600
Polyamide 225 3 600
Polyester 50 720
Polyester 100 1 440
Polyester 150 1 800
Polyester 200 2 160
FIGURE 34
Fibre slings
D
D
H
A
B
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 202
Utilizing the appropriate wire rope diameter, ropes should seat properly in a pulley
as shown in Figure 36 below. The throat diameter D of the pulley should correspond
to the rope diameter as measured in Figure 29.
FIGURE 35
Snatch block (left) and a sheave (right)
FIGURE 36
Throat diameter of pulley
D D D
YES NO NO
35/55
FIGURE 37
One winch serving more than one slipway
Fittings and navigational aids 203
Figure 37 illustrates how a maintenance yard may be organized around a single
winch. The yard may have a covered work area and an open work area. The wire rope
from the winch may be rerouted to either area by a snatch block anchored to a mass
concrete block. Sheaves and snatch blocks are usually anchored to blocks of concrete
using lengths of heavy chain coupled to embedded shackles. When light vessels are
handled, a single direct rope may suffice as shown on slipway No. 1. A 3-pulley sheave
will multiply the pull from the winch by a factor of 6, allowing heavier vessels to be
hauled out of the water. In some cases (especially when timber cradles are equipped
with skids instead of wheels), slipways may also be equipped with a single pulley at the
far end of the slipway, under water, to pull the cradles back into the water.
10.9.2 Shackles
Shackles are multipurpose connections used to connect all kinds of rope and chain to
other fixtures, Figures 38 and 39.
FIGURE 38
Commercially available Dee shackles
Dee shackles
Higher tensile steel
shackles
to BS3032:1958 tested
d
S
W
D
d
FIGURE 39
Commercially available Crosby shackles
Small Dee
SWL
(tonnes)
d
(inches)
D
(inches)
W
(inches)
S
(inches)
e
(inches)
Weight each
(kg)
0.30 1/4 3/8 3/8 7/8 3/4 0.06
0.60 3/8 1/2 5/8 1.3/8 1 0.15
1.00 1/2 5/8 7/8 1.7/8 1.1/4 0.33
1.75 5/8 3/4 1 2.1/4 1.1/2 0.61
2.50 3/4 7/8 1.1/4 2.3/4 1.3/4 0.93
3.50 7/8 1 1.3/8 3.1/4 2 1.80
4.50 1 1.1/8 1.1/2 3.5/8 2.1/4 2.15
5.50 1.1/8 1.1/4 1.3/4 4.1/8 2.1/2 3.02
7.00 1.1/4 1.3/8 1.7/8 4.1/2 2.3/4 4.20
8.00 1.3/8 1.1/2 2.1/8 5 3 5.34
10.75 1.1/2 1.3/4 2.3/8 5.1/2 3.1/2 8.36
13.00 1.5/8 1.7/8 2.1/2 5.7/8 3.3/4 9.35
14.75 1.3/4 2 2.3/4 6.3/8 4 12.39
16.75 1.7/8 2.1/8 2.7/8 6.3/4 4.1/4 15.30
19.00 2 2.1/4 3 7.1/4 4.1/2 18.40
20.00 2.1/8 2.3/8 3.1/4 7.3/4 4.3/4 23.60
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 204
10.10 LANTERNS AND MARKER BUOYS
10.10.1 Lanterns
On almost all coasts, landmarks and off-lying hazards are illuminated at night. These
lights may be divided into three broad groups:
landfall lights, including lighthouses, which are invariably very powerful and are
usually clearly visible from a great distance;
position lights, generally less powerful, their primary function being to indicate
the position of a harbour mouth; and
lighted aids to navigation, including light buoys that mark offshore shoals, rocks
or navigable channels. Channel marker buoys come in two different shapes and
colours for use during daylight.
All lights, buoys and signs should conform to the specifications contained in
the laws of harbours and pilotage of the country concerned. Lights or beacons are
distinguishable from each other by their character, colour and period.
Character: A light can be fixed, flashing or occulting (occulting lights are steady
lights which are eclipsed or blanked-out at regular intervals). Light buoys nearly
always carry flashing or occulting lights to distinguish them from the lights of moored
vessels.
Colour: Lights should normally be white unless they are for a specific purpose.
Position lights are usually red (port or left side) and green (starboard or right side).
Period: The period of a light is the interval between the beginning of one phase and
the beginning of the next one. In a simple flashing light, the period is the length of time
between one flash and the next; in a group
flashing system, it is the interval between the
beginning of one complete phase of flashes
and the beginning of the next.
Before any lights are installed, the
appropriate agency (maritime authority or
coast guard) should be consulted so that
current sea charts of the area may be updated.
Figure 40 illustrates the basic type of lantern
currently in use. It consists of a sturdy
plastic housing in HDPE, an automatic lamp
changer which automatically replaces burnt
lamps from the lens focal plane, a solar
switch, and holes for bolting the lantern to
a structure. When a lamp burns out, a motor
relay is closed and a small electric motor is
set in motion actuating the lamp changer.
As soon as the new lamp is in position, the
current again flows into this lamp and the
motor relay deactivates.
Solar switches are generally incorporated into the body to activate the lanterns at
sunset. At dusk, the solar switch switches the lantern off to conserve power. The power
required for position lights is measured in candles and Table 5 illustrates typical ranges
for various candle powers. Figure 41 illustrates the typical installation for a position
beacon.
FIGURE 40
Basic marine lantern
Fittings and navigational aids 205
TABLE 5
Typical ranges of marine lanterns
Power of lantern
(Candles)
Range limpid condition
(Nautical miles)
Range light mist
(Nautical miles)
0.40 1.0 0.50
1.05 1.5 1.0
1.95 2.0 1.5
3.45 2.5 1.5
5.34 3.0 1.5
8.20 3.50 2.0
11.50 4.0 2.5
13.70 4.25 2.5
16.20 4.50 2.5
19.0 4.75 2.5
21.85 5.0 2.5
Current lanterns use state-of-the-art, high flux, light-emitting diode (LED) units.
The LEDs are mounted in a cluster to approximate a marine signal lamp located at the
focal point of the lens. The life expectancy of a single LED cluster is in excess of
100 000 hours depending on the current, rendering the old lamp changer units obsolete.
Many of the existing lanterns can be retrofitted with LED units.
10.10.2 Buoys
Buoys can be lighted or unlighted and used for daylight purposes only as in the case of
channel markers. Nun buoys, Figure 42a, are unlighted with a conical top projecting
above the water and are generally positioned on the starboard side (right) of an access
channel when entering a harbour. They are normally painted red and numbered with
even numbers. Can buoys, Figure 42b, are unlighted with a flat top projecting above
the water and are generally positioned on the port side (left) of an access channel when
entering a harbour. They are normally painted green or black and numbered with odd
numbers.
Spar buoys, Figure 42c, are unlighted long thin masts generally placed inside
channels where high velocity currents or tidal streams are present. Spherical buoys,
Figure 42d, have a domed top projecting above the water line and are generally used to
mark special positions in the channel, such as shoals or wrecks. They may be lighted
and the colour usually depends on their use.
FIGURE 41
Typical installation for a position beacon
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 206
Currently, buoys are made almost exclusively from plastic materials (HDPE or
polyester skin-filled with polyurethane foam) to better resist the effects of corrosion,
Figure 43, left.
Buoys are generally anchored to the sea bed via a suitable chain connected to a proper
anchor or heavy concrete block. Figure 43 shows a typical anchoring arrangement for
a small buoy in 6 meters of water. A 32 mm diameter bottom chain anchored to a
concrete block is joined to a 22 mm rising chain connected to the buoys anchor pin
via two swivel joints. The bottom chain should be at least three times the depth of the
water plus any variation in tide level. All fittings should be in the appropriate grade of
steel.
FIGURE 42
Unlit buoys
42 a 42 b 42 c 42 d
FIGURE 43
Buoy in polyurethane (left) and mooring assembly (right)
Fittings and navigational aids 207
10.11 FISHERIES EQUIPMENT
10.11.1 Fish boxes
Proper fish boxes are required for the packaging of fish in a fish hall for onward
transport. The basic requirements for a fish box are sturdiness, stackability and ease
of cleanliness; the box must be sturdy to avoid damage to the fish, it must also be
stackable without damaging the fish in the underlying box, and it must be made of a
material which does not harbour bacteria and is easy to clean.
There are many types of boxes available, both improvised versions from other uses
and custom-made for the fisheries industry. Fish boxes must be perforated to drain
melt water away.
Figure 44 shows a very lightweight box made of polystyrene and meant only for
the transport of fish by air. This box is very fragile and is meant for single use only
(polystyrene is not impermeable and may harbour bacteria if the same box is used
repeatedly). Polystyrene boxes need large storage areas because unlike other types they
are not nestable. They are also not recyclable and are cause for concern when discarded
into the environment, Figure 44 right.
Timber crates, Figure 45, make good fish boxes if no other means are available. They
are cheap to make and may be recycled as fuelwood; they stack five or six high and, like
the polystyrene boxes, they are not nestable and take up a lot of storage space. They
are ideal for single species, such as sardines or anchovies, but repeated use of the same
box may prove unhygienic as timber absorbs blood very easily.
FIGURE 44
Single-use polystyrene boxes
FIGURE 45
Wooden crate
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 208
Figure 46 illustrates fish boxes and tubs in HDPE. They are produced specifically
for fish and come in a number of sizes ranging from 100 to 1 000 litres. HDPE also
comes in a number of colours making it easier to keep track of ownership. These boxes
are all nestable when empty and by turning them backward front when full they stack
without damaging the fish. They are easy to clean and disinfect. HDPE boxes are
expensive in capital outlay but their initial cost is outweighed by their long lifetime.
10.11.2 Scales
Weighing scales should be heavy duty, platform-type
scales with a tare adjustment to compensate for the
weight of the fish boxes (Figure 47). Scales should
be made of stainless steel and kept in clean operating
conditions at all times. They should be graduated in
100-gram increments and capable of weighing loads
up to 200 to 300 kilograms. Electronic load-cell digital
scales are also available but purely mechanical units are
recommended for most outdoor situations.
10.11.3 Trolleys and forklifts
Depending on the size of the landed catch and the number
of daily sortings, the speed with which fish boxes have to
be transported between the quay and the sorting area is
governed by the means of transportation. Boxes may be
moved on manual trolleys, on pallets or by forklift (Figure 48).
The normal platform trolley is still the mainstay of many fishing ports and halls. The
trolley should be steerable and built from stainless steel and have large diameter rubber
wheels. Small diameter metal wheels should be avoided as these may cause damage to
the paving and gutter drains. Only electric powered forklifts are suitable for use inside
a fish hall. Diesel, petrol, kerosene or gas-powered forklifts should not be permitted
to enter the building.
10.11.4 Sorting tables
Rinsing and sorting tables should be made of stainless steel. However, concrete or
masonry tables built from locally available materials may also suffice in remote areas
provided that the workmanship is of a good standard.
FIGURE 46
Plastic boxes and tubs
FIGURE 47
Platform scales
Fittings and navigational aids 209
10.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Committee for Waterfront Structures. 1982. Recommendations of the Committee for
Waterfront Structures. Berlin, Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn.
International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities
(IALA). IALA AISM, St Germain-en-laye, France ([email protected]).
Londahl, G. 1981. Refrigerated storage in fisheries. Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 214.
Rome, FAO.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 1989. Marine Railways. Alexandria, Virginia,
NavFacEngCom.
Quinn, A.D. 1972. Design and construction of ports and marine structures. New York,
McGraw-Hill Inc.
FIGURE 48
Forklift and platform trolley
211
11. Shore-based infrastructure and
renewable energy
SUMMARY
Fishing ports, large and small, need a whole range of supporting infrastructure
to function and this includes the water supply system, refuelling facilities, cold
rooms, landing and sorting halls, office space, electricity supply and a host of
other small-scale civil works.
This chapter reviews the various infrastructure requirements in civil and
mechanical works to render the port functional. It also reviews many of the
specifications against which the components should be designed in line with
international guidelines.
Whereas guidance is primarily given to those engaged in port planning, those
responsible for making policy decisions in relation to fisheries management
would also benefit through a better understanding of the intricacies and
implications of port planning and operation.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 212
CONTENTS
11.1 Water supply and storage 213
11.1.1 Peak daily demand 213
11.1.2 Sourcing water supply 213
11.1.3 Sterilization 218
11.1.4 Storage 220
11.2 Ice supply and storage 220
11.2.1 Refrigerants 221
11.2.2 Block ice 222
11.2.3 Flake ice 224
11.2.4 Tube ice 225
11.2.5 Plate ice 226
11.2.6 Ice and space requirements 226
11.2.7 Ice storage 227
11.2.8 Ordering an ice plant 228
11.3 Refuelling 229
11.3.1 Design 229
11.4 Power and lighting 233
11.4.1 Introduction 233
11.4.2 Photovoltaic systems 234
11.4.3 Wind-powered systems 235
11.4.4 Generators 236
11.5 Buildings 236
11.5.1 Designing for durability 236
11.5.2 Designing for a low carbon footprint 237
11.5.3 Administration buildings 238
11.5.4 Market or sorting hall 238
11.5.5 Cold rooms 241
11.5.6 Cold stores 242
11.5.7 Hygiene facilities 242
11.5.8 Workshop facilities 243
11.5.9 Net Repair and social meeting platforms 244
11.6 Parking areas 245
11.6.1 Parking densities 245
11.6.2 Parking radii 246
11.6.3 Paved areas 247
11.7 Port security 249
11.7.1 Perimeter wall 249
11.7.2 Main gate 250
11.7.3 Cattle grid 250
11.7.4 Billboard 250
11.7.5 Closed-circuit television 251
11.8 Bibliography and further reading 252
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 213
11.1 WATER SUPPLY AND STORAGE
11.1.1 Peak daily demand
Fishing harbours, small and large, need clean water to function. The adage or rule of
thumb stating that No water No port is often taken too lightly by planners and
fishing ports have been known to be missing a water supply system in their shore-
based infrastructure. To plan the water supply system for a harbour, it is first necessary
to estimate the peak daily demand for water for which good landing statistics are
required. These statistics should include:
peak (seasonal) fish landings, in kilograms or tonnes;
number, size and type of vessels likely to use the harbour during peak landings;
size of the crews on board the vessels and the maximum number of port workers;
and
demand for water from secondary sources (processors, intermediaries, food
outlets, etc.).
Table 1 shows how the water requirement may be calculated.
In the table:
The gross daily volume for fish rinsing should be 1.25 times the peak daily
landing.
The volumes of water required for hosing down the auction hall and washing of
fish boxes may be reduced by over 50 percent if high-pressure cleaning machines
are used instead of a plain water hose.
The volume for personal hygiene also includes allowance for showers.
11.1.2 Sourcing water supply
Internationally accepted guidelines on water supply in fishing ports stipulate non-
contaminated water; this water may be either freshwater or raw seawater. Table 2
illustrates the applications that may safely use clean seawater if adequate supplies of
freshwater are not available. Chapter 12 describes the quality of the water required.
TABLE 1
Daily water requirement
Activity Quantity of water required
Fish rinsing 1 litre per kg of fish landed every day
Auction hall hose down 10 litres per square metre of covered area
Fish box washing 10 litres per fish box
Personal hygiene 100 litres per person (including crews, unloaders, port staff)
Canteen 15 litres per person
Vessel bunkering Dependent on type of vessels
Ice Peak daily requirement sales records
TABLE 2
Replacement of freshwater with seawater for certain operations
Activity Freshwater Raw seawater
Fish rinsing Yes Yes
Auction hall hose down Yes Yes
Fish box washing Yes Yes
Personal hygiene Yes No
Canteen Yes No
Vessel bunkering Yes No
Ice Yes Not recommended
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 214
Freshwater may be sourced from a towns supply or a borewell and may be
augmented by a rainwater harvesting system if environmental conditions permit. In
extreme cases, it may also be desalinated on site from brackish or seawater.
Raw seawater may be sourced from a nearby clean beach or a distant clean beach,
but in both cases it must be drawn from inside the sand and not directly from the water
column.
11.1.2.1 Town water mains
Many fishing ports in developing countries lie within or close to a towns water supply
network and, in theory, hooking up the ports network to a water main should not
present any problems. In practice, however, many such supplies often prove to be
very erratic, with water trickling in at a very low rate or none at all for days on end. In
such cases, the supply may need to be augmented or adequate buffer storage provided,
Figure 1.
11.1.2.2 Borewells
Borewells may be drilled in and around the port or some distance away. The geological
investigation of the substrata is generally carried out by a specialist subcontractor.
This investigation consists in the drilling of a small diameter borehole (80 mm to
100 mm diameter) and the recovery of water samples (Figure 2). Samples are then
FIGURE 1
Buffer tanks to even out fluctuations in town
mains supply
FIGURE 2
Drilling an exploratory borewell
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 215
taken for analysis. More than one borehole may be required for a complete assessment.
The depth to which the borehole is driven does not depend on the local water
table. Instances frequently occur when a shallow waterbody (easily contaminated)
overlies a submerged freshwater reservoir several metres below it. The porosity
or permeability of the water-bearing deposits will determine the maximum rate of
extraction of water. Figure 3 shows diagrams of an artisanal borewell and a typical
borewell with vertical pump.
11.1.2.3 Rainwater harvesting
In areas with high precipitation, rainwater harvesting is the best way for augmenting
the freshwater supply, especially if large roof surfaces are available.
The rainwater thus collected should be pumped to the ports reservoirs (see further
on) where it can be chlorinated before use. To prevent the potential for the roof runoff
FIGURE 3
Artisanal borewell (top) and typical borewell with vertical pump (bottom)
Fibreglass tank
25 mm pipe
3

0
0
0

m
m
Hand pump
Safe water supply
from borehole or
tanker
To tap on quay
T
o
fish
sta
ll
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 216
to pick up contaminants from bird droppings, the initial runoff during a precipitation
should be channelled off into the floor drainage collector, Figure 4.
11.1.2.4 Desalination
Desalination is a process that removes dissolved minerals (including but not limited to
salt) from seawater, brackish water or treated wastewater. A number of technologies
have been developed for desalination but the most commonly used system nowadays
is reverse osmosis (RO). In reverse osmosis, feed water is pumped at high pressure
through permeable membranes, separating salts from the water, Figure 5. The feedwater
is pretreated to remove particles that would clog the membranes. The quality of the
water produced depends on the pressure, the concentration of salts in the feedwater,
and the salt permeation constant of the membranes. Product water quality can be
improved by adding a second pass of membranes, whereby product water from the
first pass is fed to the second pass.
Desalination plants may use seawater (directly from the sea through offshore
intakes or from wells located on a beach), brackish groundwater, or reclaimed water as
feedwater. Since brackish water has a lower salt concentration, the cost of desalinating
brackish water is generally less than the cost of desalinating seawater. Intake pipes for
desalination plants should be located away from sewage treatment plant outfalls to
FIGURE 4
Rainwater harvesting from roof areas
CORRUGATED ALUMINIUM SHEETING
uPVC GUTTER
FLOOR DRAINAGE COLLECTOR
RAINWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM
TO PORT RESERVOIRS FOR CHLORINATION
VENTILATION
FIGURE 5
Flow diagram of a reverse osmosis system
FEED
WATER
PRETREATMENT
HIGH-PRESSURE PUMP
MEMBRANE ASSEMBLY
BRINE
FRESH
WATER
TO RESERVOIR
POST-TREATMENT
Pretreatment to post-treatment
Pretreatment Pressurization Separation Post-treatment
Conventional filtration High-pressure pump Reverse osmosis pH adjustment
Cartridge filtration Sterilization
Chlorine and anticoagulant
Antiscalant
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 217
prevent intake of discharged effluent. If sewage treatment discharges or other types of
pollutants are ingested in the intake, however, the pre- and post-treatment processes
should remove the pollutants.
RO desalinators produce a water product that ranges from 10 to 500 ppm in total
dissolved solids (tds). The recommended World Health Organization (WHO) drinking
water standard for maximum tds is 500 mg/l, which is equivalent to 500 ppm. In
desalination plants that produce water for domestic use, post-treatment processes are
often employed to ensure that the product water meets the health standards for drinking
water as well as recommended aesthetic (organoleptic) and anti-corrosive standards
(pH value). The desalinated product water is usually more pure than drinking water
standards, so when water product is intended for domestic use, it is mixed with water
that contains higher levels of total dissolved solids. Pure desalination water is highly
acidic and is thus corrosive to pipes, so it has to be adjusted for pH value, hardness and
alkalinity before being piped to a domestic reservoir.
Pretreatment processes are needed to remove substances that would interfere with
the desalinating process. Suspended solids and other particles in the feedwater must be
removed to reduce fouling of the membranes.
Sand is removed by sand or fine bag filtration methods and suspended solids are
removed by special wound cartridge filters. Algae and bacteria can grow in RO plants,
so a biocide (usually less than 1 mg/l chlorine) is required to clean the system. Some
RO membranes cannot tolerate chlorine, so dechlorination techniques are sometimes
required. Ozone or ultraviolet light may also be used to remove marine organisms. If
ozone is used, it must be removed with chemicals before reaching the membranes. The
filters for the pretreatment of feedwater must be cleaned every few days (backwashed)
to clear accumulated sand and solids. The main membranes must be cleaned
approximately four times a year and must be replaced every three to five years.
The product water recovery relative to input water flow is 15 to 50 percent for
most seawater desalination plants. For every 100 litres of seawater, 15 to 50 litres of
pure water would be produced along with brine water containing dissolved solids.
The recovery of freshwater varies from plant to plant, partly because plant operations
depend on site-specific conditions. In several locations, a small pilot project is proposed
first to test plant operations before a full-scale plant is installed. Table 3 illustrates
typical power requirements for commercially available RO systems. The figures refer
to brackish water with 2 000 ppm and seawater with 35 000 ppm of sodium chloride
and an operating temperature of 25 C. For every 1 C below 25 C, efficiency drops
by 3 percent. Figure 6 shows a 1 000 m
3
/day RO assembly.
TABLE 3
Typical characteristics of RO systems
Feedwater Operating pressure
(bar)
Power requirement
(kW)
Water production
(cubic metres per day)
Brackish 45 5.0 12.50
Brackish 45 5.5 25.10
Brackish 45 5.8 37.60
Brackish 45 6.8 50.10
Brackish 45 11.0 100.20
Seawater 56 9.8 17.10
Seawater 56 18.2 45.60
Seawater 56 37.1 91.20
Seawater 56 59.5 136.80
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 218
11.1.2.5 Raw seawater
Raw seawater may be drawn off a beach using a sandbox drain or via a proper bore
well (Figures 7 and 8).
11.1.3 Sterilization
A towns water mains would normally supply chlorinated water and hence no
extra sterilization precautions would be needed. However, all water derived from
augmentation schemes (rainwater harvesting, groundwater bore wells, desalinated
water and raw seawater) needs to be sterilized prior to being pumped into storage
as a safeguard against pathogenic bacteria. Chlorine has been found to be the most
satisfactory chemical for this purpose. The efficiency of chlorine for disinfection
purposes depends upon the following six factors:
The nature of the organisms to be destroyed, their concentration and condition in
the water to be disinfected.
The nature and concentration of the disinfectant employed in terms of the
products that it releases when it comes into contact with water.
The nature of the water to be disinfected. Suspended matter shelters embedded
organisms against chemical disinfection.
The ambient temperature of the waterbody. The higher the temperature, the more
rapid the disinfection.
FIGURE 6
A 1 000 m
3
/day RO assembly
(courtesy Graham Tek PTY)
FIGURE 7
An artisanal raw seawater supply
Fibreglass tank
Stainless steel
ball-valve
Fish-cleaning stall
Hand pump
P
la
s
t
ic
t
u
b
in
g
Concrete block
Armoured PVC hose
Sand drain required
on sand beach only
3

0
0
0

m
m
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 219
The time of contact. The longer the time, the greater will be the extent of
disinfection.
The pH value of the water. Lower pH values require smaller contact period to kill
the same percentage of organisms.
Commercially available automatic chlorinators (Figure 9) utilize a wide range
of disinfectants, such as elemental chlorine (chlorine gas in a cylinder), calcium
hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid.
The percentage of available chlorine in the most common compounds is:
From the above it is evident that elemental chlorine or pure chlorine gas is the most
efficient disinfectant in terms of weight considerations. The disadvantage, however,
is that a gas chlorinator requires a steady supply of chlorine gas cylinders which may
pose supply and logistics problems. Calcium hypochlorite is also efficient but comes in
powder or tablet form. Hypochlorous acid is in liquid form and is traditionally utilized
in small, inexpensive chlorinators.
Dissolved chlorine remains as a residual in treated water and is a safe check against
bacteria. Residual chlorine levels should be between 0.05 to 0.20 ppm (parts per
million).
FIGURE 8
A mechanized raw seawater supply
seawater
Flexible
armour
PVC hose
Coarse
gravel
and sand
Sub-sand
filter
Weights
Fine gravel
PVC pipe
(main supply)
12-15 cm
Overflow pipe
washout valve
Delivery main
Overflow
Float switch
Chlorination or
ultraviolet sterilization
Compound Chemical composition % chlorine by weight
Chlorine gas Cl
2
100.0
Hypochlorous acid HOCl 135.4
Calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)
2
99.2
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 220
11.1.4 Storage
Water storage on site may consist of one of a number of solutions, depending on
the quantity of water to be stored. Table 4 shows the recommended water storage
structures and Figures 10, 11 and 12 show examples of those structures.
11.2 ICE SUPPLY AND STORAGE
The first step in planning ice production is to confirm whether an ice plant is actually
required inside the port area. Other ice plants in town may be a reliable source of
suitable ice and, even with the additional transport cost, they may still be more
competitive. Ice may be produced in blocks of 50 kilograms or less, in flakes, in tube
form and plate form. Other than by description of the ice produced, there is no simple
way to classify the different types of ice.
FIGURE 9
Liquid chlorinator (courtesy Oppo) and pellet chlorinators (courtesy G.E.)
TABLE 4
Recommended water storage structures
Stored capacity Recommended structure
Up to 5 cubic metres Interconnected 1 cubic metre plastic drums, sometimes used as header
tanks, gravity feed, suitable for artisanal landings
Up to 10 cubic metres Low-density polyethylene tanks, gravity feed or pumped feed
Up to 100 cubic metres Reinforced concrete water tower or steel modular tanks, gravity feed
Over 100 cubic metres Above or below ground reinforced concrete reservoirs
FIGURE 10
Interconnected HDPE 5 m
3
tanks and 50 m
3
elevated concrete tank
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 221
11.2.1 Refrigerants
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international
treaty designed to protect the worlds ozone layer by phasing out the production of a
number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. Table 5 shows
the environmental characteristics of industrial refrigerants. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) are used as refrigerants in some refrigeration systems. CFCs are considered
to be 100 percent ozone depleting, meaning that they are the standard for efficiency
in the catalytic breakdown of ozone. Trichlorofluoromethane, commonly known as
FIGURE 11
Modular steel tanks, elevated (top) and at ground level (bottom)
BALL VALVE
3 mm STEEL PLATE ROOF COVER
1 000 X 1 000 mm
BRAITHWAITE
STANDARD HOT
PRESSED STEEL
TANK PANELS
GRADE 35 DWARF WALLS
FOUNDATIONS
500 x 250 x 6 000
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
5
3
6
1

0
0
0
1

0
0
0

m
m
mm
mm
FIGURE 12
Underground reservoir in reinforced concrete,
plan (top) and section
OUTLET
PUMP
OVERFLOW
INTERNAL
PARTITIONS
SUMP
ACCESS
INLET
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 222
Freon 11, was for a time utilized extensively as a refrigerant. Its production has been
halted in line with the Montreal Protocol because of its role in the destruction of
atmospheric ozone.
In many refrigeration systems R-22 or Freon, a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC),
is utilized. HCFCs are considered to be only 5 percent ozone depleting and are less of
a danger to the ozone layer. However, non-ozone layer depleting refrigerants are the
most desirable. The refrigerants with the required characteristics under the Montreal
Protocol are ammonia and R-404a, both with a zero ozone depleting and global
warming potential. R-404a is an HCFC and consists of a blend of 52 percent R-143a,
44 percent R-125 and 4 percent R-134a and is designed as a replacement for R-22
Freon. Ammonia is not as popular due to the danger of inhalation of toxic fumes in
case of leakage. However, the port planner should take into consideration agreements
made by his or her government under the schedule for phasing out HCFC since the
requirements differ for developed and developing countries.
11.2.2 Block ice
The traditional block ice factory makes ice blocks in steel cans which are submerged
in a tank containing circulating refrigerated sodium or calcium chloride brine. The
dimensions of the can and the temperature of the brine are usually selected to give a
freezing period of between 8 and 24 hours. Too rapid freezing results in brittle ice.
The block weight can vary from 12 to 150 kilograms, depending on requirements;
150 kilograms is considered the largest size of block one man can conveniently handle.
Blocks less than 150 mm thick are easily broken and a thickness of 150 mm to 170 mm
is preferable to prevent the block from toppling. The size of the tank required is related
to the daily production. A travelling crane lifts a row of cans and transports them to
a thawing tank at the end of the freezing tank, where they are submerged in water to
release the ice from the moulds.
The cans are then tipped to remove the blocks, refilled with freshwater and replaced
in the brine tank for a further cycle. This type of plant often requires continuous
attention and a shift system is operated by the labour force which may be 10 to 15
workers for a 100 tonne/day plant. Block ice plants require a good deal of space
and labour for handling the ice. The latter factor has been the main reason for the
development of modern automatic ice-making equipment. Block ice still has a use, and
sometimes an advantage, over other forms of ice in tropical countries. Storage, handling
and transport can all be simplified if the ice is in the form of large blocks; simplification
TABLE 5
Environmental characteristics of industrial refrigerants
Refrigerant Type Ozone depletion potential Global warming potential
R-11 CFC
1
1.0 1.0
R-12 Freon CFC 1.0 2.1
R-22 Freon HCFC
2
0.05 0.43
R-142b CFC 0.06 0.46
R-32 HFC
3
0 0.14
R-125 HFC 0 0.71
R-134a HFC 0 0.34
R-500 CFC - -
R-503 CFC - -
Ammonia - 0 0
R-404a HFC 0 0
1
CFC = Chlorofluorocarbon.
2
HCFC = Hydrochlorofluorcarbon.
3
HFC = Hydrofluoorocarbon.
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 223
is often obligatory in small-scale fisheries and in relatively remote situations. With
an appropriate ice-crushing machine, block ice can be reduced to any particle size,
Figure 13, but the uniformity of size will not be as good as that achieved with some
other forms of ice, particularly flake ice. In some situations, block ice may also be
reduced in size by a manual crushing method. The rapid block ice plant can produce
blocks in only a few hours and this means that the space requirements are considerably
reduced compared with a conventional block ice plant. Block sizes vary with 25, 50 and
150 kilograms each being typical. In one type of machine, the relatively quick freeze
is obtained by forming the block in a tank of water, around tubes through which the
refrigerant is circulated. The effective thickness of ice to be frozen is a good deal less
than in a conventional block ice plant. The tubes are arranged so that as the ice builds
up it fuses with the ice on adjacent tubes to form a block with a number of hollow
cores. These blocks are released from the tubes by a defrost procedure and they can
then be harvested automatically from the surface of the tank.
Some manual effort is required for storage or feeding to a breaker if the ice is required
in the crushed form. In another type of rapid ice machine, the refrigerant is circulated
through a jacket around each can of water and also through pipes running through the
centres of the cans. Ice then forms simultaneously both at the outside and at the centre
of the can. After a hot gas defrost, blocks are then removed by gravity. An advantage
of a rapid block ice plant is that it can be stopped and started in a relatively short time,
since there is no large tank of brine to be cooled initially as in the conventional block
ice machine in which the refrigeration system is often kept in continuous operation
even when ice production has ceased.
FIGURE 13
Cross-section of a block ice plant and block ice crushers in use (top). Both the ice
cans and the ice crushers should be in stainless steel
Brine tank with ice cans
Thawing tank
Tipping
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 224
11.2.3 Flake ice
This type of machine forms ice 2 mm to 3 mm thick on the surface of a cooled cylinder
and the ice is harvested as dry subcooled flakes usually 100 mm to 1 000 mm
2
in area
(Figure 14). In some models, the cylinder or drum rotates and the scraper on the outer
surface remains stationary. In others, the scraper rotates and removes the ice from the
surface of a stationary drum, in this case, built in the form of a double-walled cylinder.
It is usual for the drum to rotate in a vertical plane but in some models the drum rotates
in a horizontal plane. One distinct advantage of the rotating drum method is that the
ice-forming surfaces and the ice-release mechanism are exposed and the operator can
observe whether the plant is operating satisfactorily. The machine with the stationary
drum has the advantage that it does not require a rotating seal on the refrigerant supply
and take-away pipes.
However, this seal has been developed to a high degree of reliability in modern
machines. The ice is subcooled when harvested, the degree of subcooling depending on
a number of factors but mainly the temperature of the refrigerant and the time allowed
for the ice to reach this subcooled temperature. The subcooling region of the drum is
immediately before the scraper where no water is added for a part of the drums rotation
and the ice is reduced in temperature. This ensures that only dry subcooled ice falls into
the storage space immediately below the scraper. The refrigerant temperature, degree of
subcooling and speed of rotation of the drum are all variable with this type of machine
and they affect both the capacity of the machine and the thickness of the ice flakes
produced. Other factors such as ice make-up water temperature also affect the capacity
of the machine. Thus, the optimum operating conditions will depend on both the local
conditions and the thickness of ice preferred. The normal refrigerant temperature in a
flake-ice machine is -20 to -25 C, a good deal lower than in other types of ice makers.
The low temperature is necessary to produce higher ice-making rates, thus keeping the
machine small and compact. The extra power requirement resulting from operating
with a lower temperature in the ice maker is somewhat compensated for by the fact that
the method does not require defrosting. There is, therefore, no additional refrigeration
load incurred by the method of releasing the ice from the drum.
The range of unit sizes for this type of machine now extends from units with a
capacity of 0.5 to 60 tonnes/24 hours. However, rather than use a single unit, it is often
expedient to use two or more. This gives a better arrangement for operating at reduced
capacity and also provides some degree of insurance against complete breakdown. This
advice is also applicable to other types of automatic ice makers. Flake-ice plants have
FIGURE 14
A flake-ice machine
Water supply pipe
Ice freezing drum
Ice breaking device
Subcooling zone
Rotation
Ice to store
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 225
the added advantage that they may be placed at the waters edge and the ice loaded
directly into fishing vessels (Figure 15).
11.2.4 Tube ice
Tube ice is formed on the inner surface of vertical tubes and is produced in the form
of small hollow cylinders of about 50 mm x 50 mm with a wall thickness of 10 mm to
12 mm (Figure 16). The tube-ice plant arrangement is similar to a shell and tube
condenser with the water on the inside of the tubes and the refrigerant filling the space
between the tubes. The machine is operated automatically on a time cycle and the tubes
of ice are released by a hot gas defrost process. As the ice drops from the tubes a cutter
chops the ice into suitable lengths, nominally 50 mm, but this is adjustable. Transport
of the ice to the storage area is usually automatic, thus, as in the flake-ice plant, the
harvesting and storage operations require no manual effort or operator attendance.
Tube ice is usually stored in the form it is harvested, but the particle size is rather
large and unsuitable for use with fish. The discharge system from the plant therefore
incorporates an ice crusher which can be adjusted to give an ice particle size to suit the
customers requirement. The usual operating temperature of this type of plant is -8 C
to -10 C.
The ice will not always be subcooled on entering the store but it is usually possible
to maintain the store at -5 C since the particle size and shape allow the ice to be readily
broken up for discharge, especially with a rake system.
FIGURE 15
Typical flake-ice plants located at the waters edge
FIGURE 16
Tube-ice machine (schematic and actual shape)
Refrigerant
in shell
Ice formed
on inside
Rotary ice
cutter
Tube ice
Reservoir
Water
recirculates
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 226
11.2.5 Plate ice
Plate ice is formed on one face of a refrigerated vertical plate and released by running
water on the other face to defrost it. Other types form ice on both surfaces and use an
internal defrost procedure (Figure 17).
Multiple plate units are arranged to form the ice-making machine and often these
are self-contained units incorporating the refrigeration machinery in the space below
the ice maker.
The optimum ice thickness is usually 10 mm to 12 mm and the particle size is
variable. An ice breaker is required to break the ice into a suitable size for storage and
use. Water or defrost requires heating if its temperature is less than about 25 C; below
this value the defrost period is too long, resulting in a loss in capacity and an increase
in cost. This machine, like the tube-ice machine, operates on an automatic timed cycle
and the ice is conveyed to the storage area, or if the machine can be located directly
above the storage space harvesting can be achieved using gravity flow.
11.2.6 Ice and space requirements
Table 6 presents the approximate ice requirements for various activities.
The on-board figures may be reduced by 30 to 50 percent if the hold is refrigerated.
The space requirement for machinery depends largely on the type of plant. Modern
ice makers are compact compared with conventional block ice plants, but a direct
comparison of the space requirements of the various types cannot be readily made. The
capacity varies with the operating conditions and it is usual to quote a capacity range
when referring to ice-manufacturing capabilities. Some types of plants are more suited
to high rates of production than others and are made in large units whereas others are
made in small unit sizes only. Table 7 gives some idea of the space requirements for a
number of the more widely-used types of ice makers, producing 50 tonnes of ice per
day.
FIGURE 17
Plate-ice machine (schematic and actual shape)
Ice make-up
water sprayed
on outer surface
Ice layer
built up on
outer surface
Water recycled
FREEZING CYCLE
Ice breaking
away from
defrosted plate
DEFROST CYCLE
Water to waste
or reheated
Defrost water
sprayed on
inner surface
CONTROL PANEL CONTROL PANEL
TABLE 6
Ice requirements
Activity Quantity required
On-board, trip greater than 1 week 1.0 tonne of ice per 2 tonnes of fish (temperate waters)
On-board, trip less than 1 week 0.7 tonne of ice per 2 tonnes of fish (temperate waters)
On-board, short duration 1.0 tonne of ice per 1 tonne of fish (tropical waters)
Auction hall, repacking 1.0 tonne of ice per 1 tonne of fish (hot waters)
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 227
The space requirements given in Table 7 are for the ice maker only. Since the ice
maker is comparatively compact in modern types of plants (plate, tube and flake ice),
the requirements for refrigeration machinery
and handling and storage space are far in excess
of the above figures. Like most machinery of
this type there is an effect of scale, with larger
sizes generally requiring less space per unit of
ice-making capacity. In some plants it is also
possible to stack the units over-and-under
and both floor space and height can be varied
to suit individual requirements, especially if
the plant is installed at the waters edge to
discharge directly into vessel holds, Figure 15.
Self-contained units with a rating of up to 10 to
20 tonnes/24 hours can be located within the
floor space required for storage, with the ice
maker and refrigeration equipment on top,
Figure 18.
11.2.7 Ice storage
Ice manufacture and demand rates are seldom in phase. Storage is therefore necessary
to ensure that the plant caters for peak demand. Storage allows the ice maker to be
operated 24 hours per day. It also acts as a buffer against any interruption to the ice
supply due to minor breakdowns and routine maintenance procedures.
Therefore, a potential buyer should
calculate the storage capacity necessary to
satisfy the above requirements (Table 8).
Account should be taken of both short-
term and seasonal variations and also
variations in the capacity of the ice maker.
Peak demand for ice in the warmer seasons
also coincides with adverse plant operating
conditions when make-up water and condenser cooling water temperatures are
higher. There is no general rule for estimating ice-storage capacity requirements. This
is normally done by plotting the likely pattern of ice production and ice usage over
a period of time, and selecting a storage capacity which will ensure that ice will be
available at all times. In most cases, ice-storage capacity is never less than twice the
daily rate of production and more usually it is four or five times this value. Storage
space requirements for different types of ice vary in relation to their bulk density.
Although flake ice requires more storage space for a given weight, this subcooled ice
can be stored to a greater depth in a silo, thus floor space requirements will be much
the same as for more compact types of ice.
TABLE 7
Typical space requirements
Type of ice plant Output
(tonne/24 hours)
Floor space
(m
2
)
Height
(m)
Block ice 50 190.0 5.0
Rapid ice block 50 30.0 3.5
Plate 50 15.0 1.8
Tube ice 50 3.3 6.6
Flake ice 50 2.7 3.7
FIGURE 18
Containerized ice maker and store
TABLE 8
Typical storage parameters for ice
Type of ice Floor space m
2
/tonne
Flake ice 2.22.3
Tube ice 1.62.0
Crushed blocks 1.41.5
Plate ice 1.71.8
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 228
Silo storage is generally used with a free-flowing subcooled ice such as flake ice
and, in order to be effective, it must have an independent cooling system to maintain
the ice in this subcooled condition. The cooling is usually by means of an air cooler
in the jacket space between the silo and the outer insulated structure. The air cooler
is normally placed at the top of the jacket space adjacent to the ice maker and the air
space is cooled by gravity or fan circulation. Ice is collected by gravity flow with the
aid of a chain agitator which scrapes the ice from the walls of the silo. The silo allows
for a first-in-first-out (FIFO) system of storage but, if the storage space is not cleared
periodically, only the central core of ice is used, leaving a permanent outer wall of
compacted ice. An access hatch should therefore be provided at the top of the silo so
that a pole can be inserted to collapse the outer wall of ice into the central core at least
once daily. Silo storage is expensive for small quantities of ice and although units are
made for as little as 10 tonnes, this method of storage is more suited for storing 40 to
100 tonnes of ice.
Bin storage may mean anything from a box holding no more than 500 kilograms
to a large installation of 1 000 tonnes or more. Bin storage can be used for any type
of ice and may incorporate a separate cooling system. Whatever the size of system
used, ice storage should always be within an insulated structure since the saving
made by reducing ice melt, particularly in warmer climates, is always worth the extra
cost of the insulation. An insulation thickness of 50 mm to 75 mm of polystyrene is
suggested. Small bins may be arranged with the ice maker above the storage space;
the bin is filled by gravity and a FIFO system is operated by removing the ice at a
low level. This simple bin system is suitable for processors making and using their
own ice, such as that in Figure 18. Large bins require considerable floor space because
the recommended maximum depth of storage is limited to about 5 metres, due to the
fact that excessive storage depth increases pressure and results in fusion of the ice. A
large-capacity storage bin will require a mechanical unloading system.
11.2.8 Ordering an ice plant
The general rule when ordering an ice plant is that the buyer should supply as much
information as possible. The more facts the buyer supplies, the easier it will be for
ice-plant manufacturers to submit competitive tenders which can be compared on a
common basis. At this stage of planning, some decisions should have been made and
specific instructions given on such things as type of ice required, site location, building
layout and services available. The following is a checklist of the information the buyer
should provide when ordering an ice plant, and Tables 9, 10, 11 and 12 provide useful
information for decision-making.
Main purpose for which ice is intended:
type of ice required (block, flake, tube, plate, freshwater, seawater ice, etc.);
ice production capacity (tonnes of ice/24 hours); and
local maximum ambient temperature and humidity or exact location of plant.
Information on ice make-up water:
purity (details of hygienic quality, hardness, etc.);
temperature range (C); and
pressure (kg/cm
2
).
Information on condenser cooling water:
type available (tap, well, river, sea, etc., with details of quality);
quantity available;
cost;
temperature range; and
pressure.
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 229
Information on electricity supply:
reliability;
voltage;
frequency (Hz);
phase;
maximum installed power (kW);
maximum starting current allowable; and
details of separate power source if required, generator, direct drive, engine, etc.
General characteristics:
refrigerant preferred (ammonia);
ice-storage capacity (tonnes of ice or m
3
);
type of storage preferred (silo, bin, bin with mechanical unloading of ice);
whether a prefabricated or site-built store is required;
preferred method of discharging ice (gravity, rake, bucket or screw);
rate of discharge required (tonnes of ice/hours); and
details, with sketch, of any existing plant and store buildings.
11.3 REFUELLING
11.3.1 Design
Fuel and oil are the commonest constituents of water pollution and this is due to
either incorrect storage methods or improper handling of fuel at the quay side. Safety,
security, access and maintenance needs should all be considered when designing fuel
and oil storage facilities, irrespective of size. Table 13 shows the characteristics of
common fuels.
TABLE 9
Weight of ice needed to chill 10 kilograms of fish to 0 Celsius
Starting temperature of fish (in C) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Weight of ice required (kg) 0.7 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.8
TABLE 10
Effect of temperature on ice production
Ice make-up water temperature (in C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ice production (in tonnes) 4.3 4.2 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5
TABLE 11
Energy consumption in ice production
Type of ice Energy consumption
(kWh/tonne)
Energy consumption
(kWh/tonne)
Temperate climate Tropical climate
Flake ice 5060 7585
Tube ice 4050 5570
Block ice 4050 5570
TABLE 12
Useful constants
Density of freshwater at 15 C 1 kg per litre
Density of seawater 0 C salinity of 3.5% 1.027 kg per litre
Latent heat of fusion 80 kcal/k freshwater
77-80 kcal seawater
Freezing point of seawater salinity of 3.5% -1.9 C
1 horsepower 0.736 kW
1 kcal/h 1.163 kW
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 230
Ideally, fuel should not be stored in significant risk locations (that is, within
10 metres of a quay or watercourse or 50 metres of a well or borehole).
Fuel should be stored in a tank of sufficient strength, shape and structural integrity
to ensure that it is unlikely to burst or leak in ordinary use. The tank or tanks should
be in steel and above ground. Figure 19 shows an artisanal refuelling facility. For
facilities up to 10 000 litres, Figure 20, consideration should be given to prefabricated
proprietary tanks tested to a recognized standard and produced to that standard
under a quality assurance system. Larger facilities should be in custom-welded tanks,
Figure 21, installed by technicians registered within a professional scheme, Figure 22.
Secondary containment should be provided to prevent fuel escaping to the
environment in the event of leakage from the tank or ancillary equipment, Figure 19.
All tanks and their ancillary equipment should be situated within an oil-tight secondary
containment system such as a bund. The potential escape of fuel beyond the bund area
by jetting can be minimized by keeping the primary container as low as possible and
increasing the height of the bund wall.
The secondary containment structure should be impermeable to fuel and water
and there should be no direct outlet to any drain, sewer or watercourse. The oily
water collected from inside the secondary containment must be treated via an oily
water separator before being discharged into a sewer or watercourse. The secondary
containment system must provide storage of at least 110 percent of the tanks maximum
capacity. If more than one container is stored, the system must be capable of storing
110 percent of the biggest containers capacity or 25 percent of their total capacity,
whichever is the greater. The 10 percent margin is intended to take into account a range
of factors. These include:
loss of the total contents, for example, due to vandalism;
sudden tank failure;
overfilling;
containment of fire-fighting agents;
overtopping caused by surge following tank failure; and
an allowance for rainwater in the bund.
TABLE 13
Characteristics of common fuels
Product Specific gravity
Diesel 0.830.86
Kerosene 0.770.84
Petrol Volatile at ambient temperature
FIGURE 19
An artisanal refuelling facility
Dip valve
Vent pipe Fill pipe
Fuel storage tank
Welded 6.4 mm thick
steel plate
Plug cock
sediment cleaning
Valves
Filter
Tank installed with
a fall of 50 mm/metre
Reinforced concrete
Suction pipe
Manual fuel pump
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 231
Any valve, filter, sight gauge, vent pipe or other ancillary equipment should be
situated within the secondary containment system and arranged so that any discharges
of oil are contained. A filter or isolating valve fitted in a gravity feed to protect the
draw-off pipe or downstream equipment is not considered to be ancillary to the
container. These should be located within the secondary containment. To prevent
the risk of the tank contents draining from a leak in a gravity-feed system, the outlet
should be a top draw-off pipe.
A security fence with controlled access should be constructed around the fuel tank
if the secondary containment bund is too low.
All pipework should be properly supported and should be sited above ground to
make inspection and repair easier. Fill pipes, draw-off pipes and vent pipes should
be positioned away from any vehicle traffic to avoid collision damage. Pipework
should be adequately protected against corrosion. Underground pipework should be
clearly marked and adequately protected from physical damage such as that caused by
excessive surface loading or ground disturbance. If mechanical joints have to be used,
they should be readily accessible for inspection under a manhole cover. Underground
pipework should have adequate facilities for detecting leaks. Continuous leak detection
devices should be maintained in working order and tested at appropriate intervals.
Work areas should be illuminated to the minimum intensity required by national
legislation.
Tanks, pipes, fences, canopies, motor cabinets, transformers, generators, metallic
switchgear panel boards and all other exposed conductive items should be grounded to
protect them against fault current and lightning.
FIGURE 21
Custom-designed facility in cross-section
150 mm DIAM VENT 1 000 X 1 000 CLEAR OPENING MANHOLE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RETAINING WALL
CONTAINMENT STRUCTURE
LEVEL INDICATOR
8 mm WELDED STEEL
FLANGED OUTLETS
SEALING MEMBRANE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RING BEAM
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RING BEAM
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RETAINING WALL
CONTAINMENT STRUCTURE
FIGURE 20
Prefabricated proprietary fuel tanks
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 232
Marine refuelers or fuel dispensers, Figure 23, should have a flow rate of between
100 to 300 litres per minute depending on the type of vessels calling at the port. They
should be positioned to minimize the risk of collision damage, be fitted with a non-
return valve in the feed line and protected from unauthorized use. Roadside fuel pumps
or gravity-fed mobile tanks, Figure 24, are not suitable for vessels requiring in excess of
100 litres fuel. Figure 25 shows examples of improper storage of fuel.
FIGURE 22
Typical 100-tonne facilities
FIGURE 23
Marine refuelers with a flow rate of 300 litres/minute
FIGURE 24
Unsuitable fuel pumps for trawlers
(flow rate 40 litres/minute)
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 233
11.4 POWER AND LIGHTING
11.4.1 Introduction
When designing a new port or upgrading an existing facility, the first step in the electrical
engineering design process should be the energy audit. An energy audit is required to
calculate the power requirements of the port. Briefly, the power requirements may
range from a few kilowatts for an artisanal landing to several hundred kilowatts for a
medium-sized fishing harbour complete with ice-producing facilities and cold storage.
Power may be required for:
water extraction (borehole pumps) and storage (header tank pumps);
ice production facilities;
cold storage (chill rooms and cold stores);
slipway winch;
workshop equipment;
hygiene facilities if hot water showers are provided;
lighting and security;
commercial outlets, if present on site; and
cathodic protection of immersed steel structures when present.
The energy audit should be followed by a breakdown of the power sources to
be tapped in relation to their carbon footprint. The carbon footprint of a port is the
total set of greenhouse gas emissions, caused directly and indirectly, expressed as
CO
2
equivalent. In the case of port operations, both direct and indirect greenhouse
gas emissions are of concern. This encompasses direct emissions from any standby
generators inside the port as well as emissions from vessel engines. The indirect
emissions cover the electricity usage to run lighting, heating, cooling and powering of
equipment inside the port.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels are suitable for water extraction and storage, office
equipment and all lighting needs inside the port, and solar water heaters are suitable for
providing hot water in showers. The rest of the equipment requires a disproportionately
large amount of energy and should be sourced from the mains supply.
Micro-wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with solar PV panels to
augment the charging of batteries if the local annual average wind speed is 6 m/s or
more.
Generators should only be installed as a backup to the mains supply or a solar
PV system (to charge batteries during long overcast spells) and never as the primary
source of power, especially for ice production. In many remote areas, generator spares,
maintenance and fuel logistics render the whole operation unsustainable.
FIGURE 25
Examples of improper storage of fuel
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 234
11.4.2 Photovoltaic systems
Photovoltaic (PV) systems use cells to convert solar radiation into electricity. The PV
cell consists of one or two layers of a semiconducting material, usually silicon. When
light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers, causing electricity to
flow; the greater the intensity of the light, the greater the flow of electricity.
PV systems generate no greenhouse gases and now come in a variety of shapes
and colours, ranging from grey solar tiles that look like roof tiles, to panels and
transparent cells that can be used to provide shading as well as generating electricity. If
the roof surface is in shadow for parts of the day, the output of the system decreases.
Solar panels are heavy and the roof must be strong enough to support their weight,
especially if the panel is placed on top of existing trussed roofs with light galvanized
sheeting. Solar PV installations should always be carried out by a trained and
experienced installer. The average cost of a PV system at 2009 prices is approximately
US$8 000 per kW of power installed. This figure can vary according to the geographical
latitude (insulation coefficient) and number of days of sunshine per year for a particular
site. Expert advice is required when dimensioning PV systems.
The four primary components for producing electricity using solar power are the
solar PV panels, the charge controller, storage batteries and the inverter, Figure 26.
The PV panels charge the battery, the charge controller ensures proper charging of the
batteries and the converter converts the output to 220 or 120 V in alternating current.
11.4.2.1 Water supply systems
Solar-powered water pumps typically consist of a PV array connected directly to an
electric motor via a charge controller. The water is pumped into an overhead storage
tank that provides a gravity feed for the entire port area, Figure 27. There are two basic
types of solar pumping systems:
lower-flow deep-well direct current submersible pumps; and
higher yield alternating current surface pumps.
Solar pumps are equally suited to any off-grid application, whether as a stand-alone
system or part of an off-grid energy solution.
FIGURE 26
The four primary components for producing solar electricity
SOLAR
PV PANELS
DEEP-CYCLE
BATTERIES
INVERTER
CHARGE
CONTROLLER
220/120 v
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 235
11.4.2.2 Lighting systems
Solar-powered lights, both wired indoor systems and autonomous outdoor systems,
are also commercially available worldwide.
Typical indoor lighting systems consist of roof-mounted PV panels feeding a
four-component circuit like the one illustrated in Figure 26. An independent indoor
circuit then distributes the power to all the light fittings inside the building. The light
fittings may be of the energy-saving type or LED units.
Typical outdoor systems are fully independent, stand-alone systems. They consist
of flat PV panels mounted above the luminaire and the maintenance-free gel battery
as illustrated in Figure 28. All fittings are in aluminium and stainless steel and, when
mounted on timber piles, they are ideal for port applications (no corrosion potential).
No cables are required.
11.4.3 Wind-powered systems
Small-scale wind-powered systems are particularly suitable for remote off-grid
locations where conventional methods of supply are impractical. Most small wind
turbines generate direct current electricity, which may be used to top-up the charge in
the batteries during long overcast spells but only if the local annual average wind speed
is 6 m/s (metres per second) or more. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the
wind speed, so relatively minor increases in speed result in large changes in potential
output. Individual turbines vary in size and power output.
FIGURE 27
Solar-powered water supply
PV PANELS CHARGE
CONTROLLER
SUBMERSIBLE
PUMP
FIGURE 28
A 2.50 kW array for office lighting and solar-powered outdoor lighting
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 236
The electricity generated at any one time by a wind turbine is highly dependent on
the speed and direction of the wind and the wind speed itself is dependent on a number
of factors, such as location, height of the turbine above ground level and nearby
obstructions. Ideally, a professional assessment of the local wind speed for a full year at
the exact location of the port should be undertaken. Wind speed increases with height,
so it is best to have the turbine high on a mast or tower. Generally speaking, the ideal
siting is a smooth flat coastline with clear exposure, free from excessive turbulence and
obstructions such as large trees or other buildings.
Systems up to 1 kW will cost around US$2 000 at 2009 prices whereas larger systems
in the region of 2.5 kW to 6 kW would cost between US$12 000 to US$22 000 installed,
inclusive of the turbine, mast, inverters, battery storage (if required) and installation.
Final costs, however, depend on location and the size and type of system. Turbines
can have a useful life of up to 22.5 years but require service checks every few years to
ensure they work efficiently.
11.4.4 Generators
Diesel-powered electric generators are very dependable, have good efficiency ratings,
simple maintenance and relatively low capital cost for small ratings. Generators can
supply two kinds of power: standby power (for continuous electrical service during
interruption of normal power) and prime power (for continuous electrical service).
As a general rule, generators should not be installed as prime power but only as
standby power to a grid or solar PV supply. Experience has demonstrated that the
spares and fuel logistics for remote sites renders generators unreliable as prime sources
of power. The fuel consumption ranges from 0.20 to 0.30 kg/kWh.
11.5 BUILDINGS
Buildings are required within the port boundary to house the different operations
required to make the fishing port functional. Typically, the following buildings are
required:
administration building;
market or sorting hall;
cold storage (chill rooms and cold stores);
hygiene facilities;
ancillary buildings (workshop, crate washing facility, guardhouse, generator
room, pump room, winch room, gear stores, food stalls, restaurants, etc.); and
fishermens rest and net repair platforms.
11.5.1 Designing for durability
As a general rule, all buildings should conform to the national architectural and sanitary
standards, irrespective of the size of the port. However, due to the aggressive nature
of the salty environment in and around a port or fisheries landing, buildings should be
designed for durability by:
specifying higher grades of concrete than normal in columns, beams and
foundations (Grade 35 minimum recommended);
using special admixtures in the external rendering to make it resistant or
impervious to sea spray or salt;
avoiding the use of untreated mild steel in external applications, see Chapter 9 for
more details;
preventing galvanic corrosion by avoiding dissimilar metals from coming into
contact (screws holding fittings should be of the same metal), see Chapter 9 for
more details;
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 237
specifying heavy-duty PVC to replace the use of timber and metal for door and
window frames; and
ensuring that all plumbing is in HDPE plastic.
Coupled to these specifications, a strict quality assurance programme should be
adopted during the construction phase.
11.5.2 Designing for a low carbon footprint
Port buildings should be designed for a low carbon footprint at the inception stage,
both through design features as well as installed equipment.
In hot climates, the design features should include:
correct orientation of buildings to make the best use of shade to cut down on
cooling requirements;
if not possible, application of appropriate eaves or shades to prevent the build up
of heat from direct sunlight;
large windows with white internal paint schemes to cut down on lighting
requirements, Figure 29; and
abundant landscaping to absorb reflected light, provide shaded areas and absorb
treated wastewater.
The equipment features should include:
installation of roof-mounted solar PV panels to power lights and most office
equipment;
installation of two separate power circuits, one for heavy loads and one for solar-
powered loads;
energy saving light bulbs or LED units applied directly to fittings (no ballast);
use of laptops as workstations (easier to recharge and do not emit the same
amount of heat as a tower personal computer [PC];
installation of ceiling fans to reduce the use of air-conditioning systems (except for
monitoring, control and surveillance rooms [MCS] with radar screens);
installation of smart energy systems to conserve power, like trip switches on
windows and doors to shut down air-conditioning automatically if windows or
doors are opened;
installation of rainwater harvesting coupled to large water reservoirs to augment
water supply for hygiene services; and
installation of sewage treatment for use in the landscaping.
FIGURE 29
Fisheries management organization offices small windows versus
large windows with eaves
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 238
11.5.3 Administration buildings
Irrespective of the size of a fish landing or fisheries port, an administration building
should always be included in the layout. An administration building may consist of
a single room with one desk for the harbour master to a proper building with offices
for the harbour master, statistics officers and other key personnel. Generally speaking,
the larger the port, the more management staff are required and, hence, the larger the
building required.
Figure 30 illustrates a typical ground-floor plan for a two-storey building suitable
for port administration. The top floor should be reserved for the management staff,
whereas the ground floor should include all types of interface services, such as police,
customs and immigration, if required, and bank or post office. Office space destined for
the installation of MCS radar screens should have adequate air-conditioning facilities.
11.5.4 Market or sorting hall
In designing new fish marketing or sorting premises, a smooth sequence of operations
from the receipt of the fish to its loading and transportation should be achieved. All
operations should be conducted off the floor, at a height convenient for workers to
perform their tasks in a standing position. In some Asian countries where workers
prefer to crouch, low integral sorting platforms, about 150 mm high, and draining melt
water to a dish channel should be included in the design, Figure 31.
FIGURE 30
Typical layout of a large two-storey administration building (left) and a small
administration building run by a fisheries management organization (right)
POLICE IMMIGRATION CUSTOMS
BANK
POST OFFICE
STORE
FINANCE
PORT
CAPTAIN
CONFERENCE ROOM
GROUND FLOOR
E
N
G
I
N
E
E
R
DIRECTOR
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 239
The structure should be a single-storey building a short distance from the landing
area to enable fast handling of fish along the quay and marketing operations inside
the market hall. This type of design will also allow easy access to vehicles for loading
purposes. Figure 32 illustrates a small artisanal auction hall.
Ample, natural air circulation should be provided for covered halls. In hot climates
hollow-brick walls or chain-link fences are often used. Properly designed long eaves
for protection against direct sunlight and rain are essential. An adequate pitch of the
roof serving a rainwater collection system is also an important factor in areas with high
rainfall. Vehicles waiting to load fish should be under cover to prevent spoilage of fish
from heat. Orientation in relation to the prevalent direction of the elements (sunlight
and wind) should also be taken into consideration.
Floors
Floors should ideally be hard-wearing, non-porous, washable, seamless, easy to drain,
non-slip and resistant to possible attack from brine, weak ammonia, fish oils and
offal.
The choice of the flooring materials will depend on the characteristics of the materials
available in the area and their cost. In artisanal situations, granolithic concrete, terrazzo
and clay tiles can be used, but clay tiles are preferable. Generally speaking, the harder
the tiles, the less absorbent but the more slippery they are. Tiles with slightly abrasive
surfaces are less slippery. All paving should be light coloured to reflect light and show
up dirt. Tile laying on a cement mortar requires professional supervision to ensure that
FIGURE 31
Crouching-only sorting platforms under construction
FIGURE 32
A small artisanal auction/market hall
1 200 10 000 5 000 1 200
GALVANIZED CORRUGATED SHEETING
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM AND COLUMNS
SOLAR-POWERED
LIGHTING
SLOPE 100
12V BATTERY BANK
COUPLED TO SOLAR PANELS
WATER STANDPIPES FOR RINSING
STAINLESS STEEL TABLE
SLOPE 100 SCALES
SEAMLESS EPOXY FLOOR
SLOPE 100
LEVEL +1.0m ABOVE
HIGHEST ASTRONOMICAL TIDE
RAINWATER
HARVESTING
SOLAR PV PANELS
FOR LIGHTING
mm
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 240
all the joints between the tiles are complete and permanently sealed. The junctions with
the walls should be curved for ease of cleaning. A slope of 2 percent from the highest
point of the floor to the drainage channel around the hall should be adequate. Steeper
slopes may be required in small halls to drain water away faster. If finances permit, an
epoxy floor should be considered as this is the only kind of floor finish that satisfies all
the requisites of functionality, hygiene and low maintenance. Epoxy floor finishes are
described in detail in Chapter 9.
Drainage
The floor should drain sideways into appropriate dish channels and the runoff
channelled to a plastic or stainless steel basket drain where solids (wet wastes) may
be collected prior to the effluent entering any pipework (Figure 33). Drainage pipes
should not be smaller than 100 mm in diameter. Sharp bends in the drainage system
(pipework or deep channels) should be avoided as these are difficult to clear in case of
blockages (from waste paper, vegetation and plastic bags, etc., that occasionally find
their way into the system). The roof drainage system should incorporate a rainwater
collection network.
Walls
Walls should be constructed of materials that have smooth, washable and impervious
surfaces. Walls should be painted in light colours to increase the brightness inside the
building and make dirt more visible. For easy cleaning, they should be rounded at the
junctions with other walls, and ceilings should be kept as free as possible from ledges,
projections or ornamentation to avoid dust collection. If walls are not tiled, then
they should be finished in plaster and good-quality, washable paint. Walls which are
intended primarily as partitions should be strong enough for fish boxes or other light
equipment to be piled up against them. The lower part of all walls should preferably
consist of a solid in situ concrete wall, as this area receives the most impacts (from
equipment). Hollow block walls, once punctured and not immediately patched up, are
prone to infestation by vermin. Modern fish halls are built entirely in steel without side
walls, especially in hot climates. Internal partitions for box storage areas, for instance,
may be in chain-link fence.
Doors
Doors should be of simple and functional design. The main doors should be sufficiently
high and wide to permit circulation by internal transport vehicles such as box trolleys,
forklifts, etc.
When forklifts are in use a 2.8-metre-high door will be required with a width of
between 1.5 to 2.5 metres. Internal doors should be self-closing and fitted with metal
FIGURE 33
A modern, all-steel construction fish hall no side walls
CORRUGATED ALUMINIUM SHEETING
PVC GUTTER
VENTILATION
SOLAR PV
LIGHTING LIGHTING
OVERHEAD WATER PIPES
IMPERVIOUS SEAMLESS
FLOOR IN EPOXY
RAFTERS
STEEL COLUMN
STEEL COLUMN
PVC GUTTER
RAINWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM
FLOOR DRAINAGE COLLECTOR
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 241
kick plates at the bottom. Due to the wet nature of the working conditions inside a fish
hall, it is preferable to use light metal doors in aluminium or polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Timber doors are not recommended as they absorb water, need a lot of maintenance
and may be subject to attack by wet rot.
Lighting
The building should provide adequate natural light for most operations to be carried
out. Adequate windows and skylights should be provided to reduce the need for electric
lighting. Artificial overhead lighting should be provided in order to allow personnel to
work early in the morning before sunrise. Fluorescent lighting is particularly suitable
(daylight type) for fish-market areas where a shadowless light with very little glare
is required continuously for a long time; even though the initial costs are relatively
higher than other lighting systems, operational costs are lower. A light level of
220 lux as minimum is considered adequate. All lighting fixtures should be watertight.
Metal fittings, conduits, etc., should be avoided. Cabling should be adequate for
peak demands and suitable for the environment. Given the size of most roofs, due
consideration should be given to installing solar PV panels on the roof in order to run
the building lights on solar power. Additional strengthening of the roof to support the
PV panels is normally required.
Sanitary facilities
Adequate sanitary facilities should be provided for the staff, fishers, handlers and
merchants working in or around the fish hall. Chapter 11 describes this topic in
detail. In particular, toilets should be constructed to the highest possible standards to
guarantee the maximum working life of the facilities with the lowest maintenance costs.
Bad design (cheap materials) and lack of supervision during construction generally lead
to facilities with a working life measured in weeks or months. This situation gives rise
to toilets of opportunity elsewhere, exacerbating hygiene conditions inside the port.
Hygiene blocks should be equipped with an adequate number of wash-hand basins.
Signs and billboards spelling out sanitary regulations should form part of the
infrastructure. Sanitary facilities should not open onto a working area lest a blocked
drain causes flooding.
11.5.5 Cold rooms
Refrigerated chill rooms are required for the temporary storage of freshly iced fish
(Figure 34). The operating temperature inside a chill room is around 1 C. Chill rooms
are expensive and need to be designed properly by an expert.
FIGURE 34
Small sorting hall with a 2-tonne chill room
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 242
The design should take into account:
total maximum weight of products to be stored;
handling methods to be employed;
ambient temperature of the products entering the chill store; and
availability and cost of electricity, labour and servicing facilities.
Standby equipment should also be provided for emergencies.
11.5.6 Cold stores
Cold stores generally consist of a single-storey building having a single or a multiple
number of cold rooms operated at temperatures in the range -24 C to -30 C
(Figure 35). Cold stores are very expensive items in a ports inventory and due to their
complexity it is recommended that cold storage specialists handle such projects, all
the way from feasibility to commissioning, including supervision and training of the
local management responsible for the future operation of the cold store. For further
information on cold stores, the reader is referred to other more specialized texts; see
bibliography.
11.5.7 Hygiene facilities
Hygiene facilities are required inside the administration building, the market/sorting
hall and as stand-alone facilities spread around the port area, Figures 36 and 37.
In areas around the sorting or market hall, the ratio of male to female facilities needs
to be adjusted to reflect local employment customs.
FIGURE 35
Typical cross-section through a simple prefabricated cold store
Roof panel
Roof truss
Wall panel
Steel or concrete column
Concrete curb
Floor wearing
surface
Floor insulation
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 243
The building should be simple in layout, airy, brightly coloured with plenty of
ventilation and light. All the floor drains inside the building should be bar drains placed
centrally across the room with water draining away from the walls to prevent flooding.
The drains should be in plastic and easily removed to clear blockages.
The provision of showers in small- to medium-sized ports is important for crews
returning from long fishing trips. Hot water is very desirable and should be provided
by solar water heaters.
11.5.8 Workshop facilities
Workshops are an integral part of a fishing port
(Figure 38). Both engine and hull workshops
are normally required, the one dealing with
the inboard or outboard engines and the other
with timber or metal hulls.
The workshop building may be built in
an all-metal construction as illustrated in
Figure 39 or in concrete and masonry as
illustrated in Figure 40. Both single-phase
and three-phase power is normally required
to run equipment. Compressed air lines fed
from a central compressor are also an added
advantage.
FIGURE 36
Typical layout for toilets near offloading areas
12 000 mm
5

0
0
0
FIGURE 37
Wash-hand basins and showers
FIGURE 38
Workshop building
10 000 mm
ROLLER DOOR
3 m x 2.50 m
WINDOWS 2.0 m x 1.0 m
1
5

0
0
0

m
m
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 244
11.5.9 Net repair and social meeting platforms
Artisanal fish landings located on beaches require a clean level platform for the repair
of nets. This platform often incorporates small gear stores for the storage of bulky
equipment, Figure 41.
Platforms should be designed to drain runoff away from the work areas and should
be located away from all sources of pollution, like oils and fuel (Figures 42 and 43).
Fishers also use the platforms as social meeting points during their time between
fishing trips.
FIGURE 39
All-metal workshop under construction
FIGURE 40
Workshops in concrete (outboards only, left, inboard, right)
FIGURE 41
Typical small-scale net repair platform with integral stores (mm)
2

5
0
0
2

5
0
0
REINFORCED CONCRETE PLATFORM 300 mm thick
300 X 300 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN
3 000 HIGH
PLAN
WORKSHOP
ON STORE
WORKSHOP
ON STORE
VENT
VENT
2 500 2 500 2 500 2 500
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 245
11.6 PARKING AREAS
A detailed picture of vehicle traffic movements would have emerged from the
environmental impact assessment study if one was performed for the fishing harbour;
otherwise, a traffic study assessment should be performed before planning any parking
areas, and the ports as well as the towns master plan, should be consulted.
11.6.1 Parking densities
The parking density is a measure of how many vehicles may be squeezed into a parking
lot without loss of access to any one vehicle. Typical car dimensions may vary from
one country to another depending on local preferences. The dimensions illustrated
in Figure 44 to Figure 47 may have to be increased by 15 percent to allow for large
vehicles, insulated vans or pick-ups.
FIGURE 42
Small-scale net repair platform and an ad hoc shade on a quay
FIGURE 43
Large-scale net repair structures
FIGURE 44
In-line parking area per vehicle 20 m
2
against a kerb or 23.8 m
2
against a wall
metre
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 246
11.6.2 Turning radii
In addition to the actual areas occupied by the vehicles and the clear zones for
manoeuvring, vehicle turning radii are also important, Table 14.
FIGURE 45
Individual standard vehicle parking bay
metre
FIGURE 46
Echelon parking (45
o
), area per car 22 m
2
or 9.2 m
2

where interlocking in adjacent rows
metre
FIGURE 47
Head-on parking, area per vehicle 18.8 m
2
metre
TABLE 14
Turning radii
Type of vehicle Turning radius
(outer wheel) in metres
Swept radius
(truck body) in metres
Cars and pick-ups 3.0 3.0
Small 1 tonne van 6.1 6.4
Long 2 tonne van 6,55 7.0
2-axle lorry or truck-mixer 9.15 9.45
2-axle 16 tonne flatbed lorry 10.5 11.0
3-axle tractor with ISO cargo container 12.0 15.0
5-axle articulated with refrigerated body 12.0 15.0
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 247
11.6.3 Paved areas
Depending on the size of the fishing port and the landings, various types of vehicles will
call at the port to either deliver supplies, such as fuel, ice, etc., or to pick up fish. The
vehicle sizes may range from a simple half-tonne pick-up to a full-sized, containerized
refrigerated articulated truck. Even in small artisanal harbours, it is not uncommon to
find large containerized refrigerated trucks, Figure 48, parked by the quay for a number
of days to collect a full payload of around 40 tonnes of fish. Paving is an expensive but
necessary cost in a fishing port and the type and quality of the pavement will depend
on the type (and hence the weight or axle load) of vehicles intending to use the facility,
the typical use for the pavement (main access, parking area, lay-by, quayside, refuelling
area, etc.) and the type of existing ground (sandy cohesionless reclaimed land, cohesive
clayey land, etc.).
Figure 49 shows four different kinds of pavement, precast concrete rafts or slabs,
interlocking precast concrete blocks, rigid concrete and asphalt. The respective thickness
and characteristics of the materials employed depend on design considerations;
however, interlocking precast concrete block pavements are now an accepted industry
standard due to their flexible nature and ease of placing. Interlocking concrete block
paving may be designed to take the full range of axle loads (by increasing the thickness
of the block), can easily be re-laid if settlement has occurred, does not rut and if laid
properly it is practically maintenance-free.
FIGURE 49
Typical types of pavement inside a harbour area
PRECAST CONCRETE RAFTS
BEDDED IN SAND
GRANULAR SUB-BASE
MATERIAL
SUBGRADE
RIGID PAVEMENT QUALITY
CONCRETE
GRANULAR SUB-BASE
SUBGRADE
PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
BEDDED IN SAND
LEAN CONCRETE
GRANULAR SUB-BASE
SUBGRADE
ASPHALT
LEAN CONCRETE
GRANULAR SUB-BASE
SUBGRADE
FIGURE 48
A large truck picking up fish from a small fishing vessel
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 248
The typical standard rectangular block, Figure 50 left, is 200 mm long and
100 mm wide with a thickness range of 60 mm to 100 mm, depending on the end use
of the pavement. Blocks are available in various colours, including grey, red, yellow
and green. The blocks are bedded on a graded layer of sand (5 mm maximum size)
50 mm thick, laid over a layer of lean concrete laid to the levels and cross-falls required
for drainage. Various laying patterns are possible, both with the standard rectangular
block and the non-traditional designs shown in Figure 50. Block paving should not be
used in wet market areas.
All paved areas should be laid to cross-falls draining into appropriate channels.
Typical falls are 1 to 2 percent (a 1 percent falls 1 metre in 100 metres) and it is common
to break cross-falls at least every 10 metres, depending on the local intensity of rainfall
(the longer the distance between the breaks, the longer the rainwater has to travel to
drain away). Drainage channels should be appropriate and suitable for a particular
location. Drainage channels may be of the open type, also known as dish channels,
Figure 51, or of the covered type, as illustrated in Figure 52.
Covered channels should not be used in areas where mobile sand is a problem,
especially where wind occurrences are very frequent. In these cases, dish channels should
be used as these are easy to maintain. Covers over drains may consist of perforated
concrete slabs, cast iron bar drains, galvanized steel grilles or glass reinforced polyester.
Inside market and processing halls, lightweight glass reinforced polyester grilles should
be used as these may be lifted easily by one person to clear clogged drains.
FIGURE 51
Open dish channel
FIGURE 52
Heavy-duty covered drains in precast concrete
FIGURE 50
Typical shapes of interlocking concrete blocks
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 249
11.7 PORT SECURITY
With the exception of open beach landings, fishing ports should be designed as secure
areas. Perimeter or boundary walls provide security against theft and vandalism but
they also keep out unwanted pests which may otherwise pose a health hazard. When
fish and fishery products are exported directly from a fishing port to overseas markets,
the standard of the ports security must follow the International Ship and Port Facility
Security (ISPS Code).
11.7.1 Perimeter wall
Whenever possible, perimeter walls should be built in concrete or brick and provided
with adequate manned access gates (Figure 53). Simple wire netting is not satisfactory
for this purpose as it is easily breached at road level to gain access. Chain-link fences,
on the other hand, are useful for segregating specific areas inside the port boundary,
thus limiting access, such as the auction hall area, fish box storage area, open-air net
stores, net repair areas, etc.
The perimeter wall in mass concrete or masonry should sit on a mass concrete
foundation and rise up to 1 metre above finished road level. From 1 metre to 2.5 metres
above road level, the wall should consist of galvanized wrought iron railings or sturdy
angles bent to shape to hold galvanized chain-link in place. Whenever possible, the
perimeter wall should be illuminated at night, especially in the vicinity of the main gate
and around the cattle grid.
FIGURE 53
Typical cross-section across boundary wall
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 250
11.7.2 Main gate
The main gate is required to control the influx of people during the landing and
marketing hours. During these hours, only people connected with the fisheries should
be allowed into the port area, such as the buyers, their loaders and sorters and other
fisheries-related staff. Some countries operate a tagging system whereby each operator
is handed a number of colour-coded tokens for his staff to come and go as they
please.
Outside working hours, the gate should be closed to prevent unauthorized entry
into the port, or, if the port is a public facility, prevent entry into the market hall. The
main gate should be manned at all hours, Figure 54.
Should the port fall under the ISPS Code, the main gate should be the only point
of controlled access to the port and all other breaches (such as back entrances) in the
perimeter must be sealed off. An area should also be set aside for vehicle inspection
purposes as required by the ISPS Code.
When the fishing port is located inside an urban area, the port authorities may allow
the general public to wander through the port, especially when restaurants are located
nearby. As long as adequate parking is located outside the port, this activity helps to
maintain a cleaner environment, as restaurants would then lose customers if the port
environment is not kept clean.
11.7.3 Cattle grid
In some developing countries, domestic and stray animals are allowed to wander about
untethered posing a health risk to fishing port operations. In such cases, the main gate
must be equipped with a cattle grid to prevent animals from wandering into the port
area. This area should be illuminated at night.
11.7.4 Billboard
At the entry to the port, a billboard is required to display information pertinent to the
running of the port operations (Figures 55 and 56). This should be placed either at the
entrance, outside the main gate, facing outwards over the perimeter fence or inside the
port area in a prominent position. The billboard or billboards should list, among other
things:
the port authority that has jurisdiction over the facility;
the port regulations;
FIGURE 54
A typical controlled-entry main gate
Shore-based infrastructure and renewable energy 251
fishing and/or hygiene by-laws;
the fines levied for each contravention; and
prices for services rendered.
Telephone numbers (normally coast guard, police and hospital) are also useful.
11.7.5 Closed-circuit television
When a port exports fish and fishery products directly to overseas markets, then the
ports security system is governed by the ISPS Code; see Chapter 1 for more details. In
this case, strategically located closed-circuit television monitoring is required as part
of the ports security arrangements. Professional assistance should be sought at the
design stage to ensure that the appropriate power supplies and connections are installed
together with the required illumination standards. Modern video surveillance systems
may also be run on solar power.
FIGURE 55
Dimensions for a simple billboard (mm)
FIGURE 56
Billboards displaying pricing structure (left) and regulations (right)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 252
11.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
Graham, J., Johnston, W.A. & Nicholson, F.J. 1993. Ice in fisheries. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper. No. 331. Rome, FAO.
Huss, H.H. 1995. Quality and quality changes in fresh fish. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.
No. 348. Rome, FAO.
International Maritime Organization. International Ship and Port Facility Security Code
2003 Edition. London, England.
Johnson, W.A., Nicholson, F.J., Roger, A. & Stroud, G.D. 1994. Freezing and refrigerated
storage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 340. Rome, FAO.
Londahl, G. 1981. Refrigerated storage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.
No. 214. Rome, FAO.
World Health Organization. 1991. Guidelines for Drinking Water Water Quality,
Volumes 1, 2 and 3. Delhi, India, CBS Publishers.
253
12. Public health, hygiene and
waste disposal
SUMMARY
The numbers are staggering. An estimated six million people worldwide contract
a food-borne illness each year. It is not just the person infected with the illness
that suffers. Damage of food-borne illness to an operation can include loss of
customers, reputation and sales. A fishery is a food producing operation and
fish is a highly perishable product. The fishing harbour is the focal point of the
fishing effort (and sometimes the village life revolves around the activities of the
fishing harbour) and it is here that fish is likely to be contaminated.
What is contamination and what constitutes pollution are commonly asked
questions and the view taken by some scientists is that a distinction must be
made between contamination and pollution. Contamination is the presence of
elevated concentrations of substances in the environment that are above the
natural background level for the area and for the organism. Pollution on the
other hand is the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of substances
or energy into the water, resulting in such deleterious effects as harmful to
living resources and hazard to human health.
Therefore, this chapter deals exclusively with the environment within
a fishing port, such as water quality standards, personal hygiene, sewage
treatment and disposal, and waste reception facilities and disposal. The objective
is to have health, hygiene and waste disposal issues addressed by port planners
when designing new ports and upgrading existing facilities as well as by port
managers at all times. Thus, the standards for sanitary water that should be used
in all aspects of fisheries, including the routes of contamination, are reviewed
and solutions proposed. In particular, methods for the disposal of all types of
waste likely to arise from fishing operations are discussed.
Consequently, the readership, port engineers, port managers and those
responsible for safety and health would be better equipped to design systems
that can withstand the rigours of a new modern fishing port and, with regard to
existing fishing ports, to identify potentially weak points in their public health
applications as well as waste disposal systems. The ultimate beneficiaries will
be the consumers of fish and fish products.
Fishing harbour planning construction and management 254
CONTENTS
12.1 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Programme 255
12.2 Water quality standards 255
12.2.1 Suspended solids 256
12.2.2 Biodegradable organics 256
12.2.3 Pathogens 256
12.2.4 Nutrients 261
12.2.5 Priority pollutants 261
12.2.6 Refractory organics 263
12.2.7 Dissolved inorganics 265
12.2.8 Heavy metals 265
12.3 Monitoring 268
12.3.1 Boreholes 268
12.3.2 Municipal mains 269
12.3.3 Water towers and reservoirs 269
12.3.4 Harbour basin water 269
12.3.5 International water standards 269
12.4 Personal hygiene and port sanitation 269
12.4.1 Sanitary fittings 269
12.4.2 Buildings 271
12.4.3 Signs and billboards 273
12.5 Sewage treatment 274
12.5.1 Type 1 effluent artisanal harbours 275
12.5.2 Type 1 effluent other ports 280
12.5.3 Type 2 effluent wash-hand basins 280
12.5.4 Type 3 effluent market floor runoff 281
12.6 Port wastes 282
12.6.1 Batteries 283
12.6.2 Spent oil 283
12.6.3 Bilge water separation 284
12.6.4 Solid waste bins 285
12.6.5 Wet waste bins 286
12.6.6 Flotsam collection and disposal 286
12.6.7 Fuel and oil spill response 287
12.7 Pest control 287
12.7.1 Rodents 288
12.7.2 Flies 288
12.7.3 Birds 289
12.7.4 Domestic animals 289
12.8 Bibliography and further reading 289
Appendix 1: World Health Oganization maximum allowable limits for drinking
water standards
290
Appendix 2: European Union directives suggested allowable limits for estuary
and harbour basin waters
291
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 255
12.1 HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT PROGRAMME
By charting the flow of fish through the fishing harbour (from the time it is discharged
on the quay to the time it leaves the port boundary), points can be identified where
contamination or growth of micro-organisms occur. Control features can then be
implemented based on the identified health hazard. This technique is known as a
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programme or HACCP in short. To the
fishing port planner, the three major areas of concern are:
water quality standards of all the water used in the port (potable and seawater);
personal hygiene of the shore-based workers; and
standard of cleanliness of the port in general.
Under HACCP, these three areas of concern translate into drastic changes in the
long term. In particular, these involve:
minimizing and eventually eliminating harbour and coastal pollution from point
and non-point sources;
improving sanitation and hygiene throughout the fishing harbour; and
maintaining port and harbour infrastructure in good working order.
In order to comply with these directives, a fishing port planner needs to have a good
understanding of both the natural environment existing around the fishing harbour as
well as the environment generated within the harbours infrastructure and with it the
wastes generated by the various components of the fishing effort.
This chapter deals exclusively with the environment within the fishing harbour, such
as water quality standards, personal hygiene, sewage treatment and disposal, and waste
reception facilities and disposal.
12.2 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Water is the underlying link which connects the various fishing activities together, such
as harvesting, storing and icing on board, handling inside a harbour and eventual sale to
consumers. Assuming that fish is generally caught offshore in relatively pollution-free
waters, potable water, and hence ice, come into contact with it all the way down the
process in port, right up to the fish vendors market stall.
Generally speaking, most fishing harbours are connected to an approved mains
supply: in some developing countries, however, the water is supplied from local
resources such as lakes, rivers or underground aquifers which may or may not be
contaminated. This fact alone makes it vitally important for a fishing harbour planner
to understand water quality standards, the types of pollutants which may be present in
the water supply and the most likely sources for these pollutants. Also, due to the acute
shortage of potable water in and around some fishing harbours in many developing
countries, raw seawater (i.e. drawn from within the harbour basin) often replaces
freshwater in the shore-based activities, implying that, in addition to freshwater,
harbour basin or estuary waters has also to be tested for contaminants.
Contamination of water by physical and bacteriological agents may be evaluated
by laboratory tests. Test results are usually expressed in parts per million (milligrams
per litre or simply ppm) or parts per billion (micrograms per litre or ppb) for physical
parameters and bacterial counts per 100 millilitres for organisms. For both types of
contaminants, maximum levels are usually stipulated and these levels may differ from
country to country. The major contaminants of concern in potable water supplies
are:
suspended solids;
biodegradable organics (proteins, carbohydrates and fats);
pathogens;
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon);
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 256
priority pollutants (highly toxic chemicals);
refractory organics (pesticides, phenols, surfactants);
heavy metals; and
dissolved inorganics (nuisance chemicals).
12.2.1 Suspended solids
The presence of suspended solids in water gives rise to turbidity. Suspended solids may
consist of clay, silt, airborne particulates, colloidal organic particles, plankton and other
microscopic organisms. The presence of particulate matter in water, whether organic,
inorganic or due to higher micro-organisms, can protect bacteria and viruses from the
action of disinfectants. The adsorptive capacity of some suspended particulates can lead
to entrapment of undesirable inorganic and organic compounds present in the water
and in this way turbidity can bear an indirect relationship to the health aspects of water
quality. Airborne particulate matter is of particular concern to facilities located near
mineral stockpiles (coal, iron ore, bauxite, etc.) or downwind from large power stations
(fly ash), timber saw mills (saw dust) or cement factories (cement dust). Rainwater
collection systems are particularly sensitive to such airborne particulates because they
usually augment local potable water systems and act as conduits for the pollutants to
enter the potable water system. Large quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons are also
generated by the combustion of fossil fuel in oil-fired power stations and industrial
kilns.
12.2.2 Biodegradable organics
Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable organics
are measured most commonly in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD
is the quantity of oxygen required for the oxidation of organic matter by bacterial
action in the presence of oxygen. The higher the demand for oxygen (the more organic
the pollution), the less oxygen is left to support life. Urban sewage commonly has a
BOD of 500 mg/litre. Harbour basin water should have a BOD in the range of 50 to
150 mg/litre.
12.2.3 Pathogens
The most common and widespread danger associated with drinking water is
contamination, either directly or indirectly, by sewage, by other wastes, or by human
or animal excrement (Table 1). If such contamination is recent, and if among the
contributors there are carriers of communicable enteric diseases, some of the living
causal agents may be present. The drinking of water so contaminated or its use in the
preparation of certain foods may result in further cases of infection. Natural and treated
waters vary in microbiological quality. Ideally, drinking water should not contain any
micro-organisms known to be pathogenic to humans. In practice, this means that it
should not be possible to demonstrate the presence of any coliform organism in any
sample of 100 ml.
12.2.3.1 Bacteria
Faecal pollution of drinking water may introduce a variety of intestinal pathogens
bacterial, viral and parasitic their presence being related to microbial diseases
and carriers present at that moment in the community. Intestinal bacterial pathogens
are widely distributed throughout the world. Those known to have occurred in
contaminated drinking water include strains of Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus. These
organisms may cause diseases that vary in severity from mild gastroenteritis to severe
and sometimes fatal dysentery, cholera or typhoid.
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 257
The modes of transmission of bacterial pathogens include ingestion of contaminated
water and food. The significance of the water route in the spread of intestinal bacterial
infections varies considerably, both with the disease and with local circumstances.
Among the various water-borne pathogens, there exists a wide range of minimum
infectious dose levels necessary to cause a human infection. With Salmonella typhi,
ingestion of relatively few organisms can cause disease; with Shigella flexneri, several
hundred cells may be needed, whereas many millions of cells of Salmonella serotypes
are usually required to cause gastroenteritis. Similarly, with toxigenic organisms such
as enteropathogenic E. coli and V. cholerae, as many as 108 organisms may be necessary
to cause illness. The size of the infective dose also varies in different persons with age,
nutritional status and general health at the time of exposure.
The significance of routes of transmission other than drinking water should not be
underestimated as the provision of a safe potable supply by itself will not necessarily
prevent infection without accompanying improvements in sanitation and personal
habits. Education in simple applied and personal hygiene is essential.
Surveillance of the bacterial quality of water is also important, not only in the
assessment of the degree of pollution, but also in the choice of the best source and
the treatment needed. Bacteriological examination offers the most sensitive test for
the detection of recent and therefore potentially dangerous faecal pollution, thereby
providing a hygienic assessment of water quality with a sensitivity and specificity that
is absent from routine chemical analysis. It is essential that water is examined regularly
and frequently as contamination may be intermittent and may not be detected by the
examination of a single sample. For this reason, it is important that drinking water is
TABLE 1
Infectious agents potentially present in drinking water contaminated by sewage
Organism Disease Remarks
Bacteria
Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis Diarrhoea
Legionella pneumophila Legionellosis Acute respiratory illness
Leptospira (150 spp.) Leptospirosis Jaundice, fever
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever High fever, diarrhoea
Salmonella (~1700 spp.) Salmonellosis Food poisoning
Shigella (4 spp.) Shigellosis Bacillary dysentery
Vibrio cholerae Cholera Extremely heavy diarrhoea
Yersinia enterolitica Yersinosis Diarrhoea
Viruses
Adenovinus (31 types) Respiratory disease
Enteroviruses (67 types) Gastroenteritis, meningitis
Hepatitis A Infectious hepatitis Jaundice, fever
Norwalk agent Gastroenteritis Vomiting
Reovirus Gastroenteritis
Rotavirus Gastroenteritis
Protozoa
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis Diarrhoea, dysentery
Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Diarrhoea
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic dysentery Prolonged diarrhoea with bleeding
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis Mild to severe diarrhoea, nausea
Helminths
Fasciola hepatica Fascioliasis Sheep liver fluke
Dracunculus medinensis Dracunculosis Guinea worm
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis Roundworm
Enterobius vericularis Enterobiasis Pinworm
Hymenolepis nana Hymenolepiasis Dwarf tapeworm
Taenia saginata Taeniasis Beef tapeworm
Taenia solium Taeniasis Pork tapeworm
Trichuris trichiura Trichuriasis Whipworm
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 258
examined frequently by a simple test rather than infrequently by a more complicated
test or series of tests. Priority must always be given to ensuring that routine bacterial
examination is maintained whenever human resources and facilities are limited. It
must be appreciated that all a bacteriological analysis can prove is that, at the time of
examination, contamination, or bacteria indicative of faecal pollution, could or could
not be demonstrated in a given sample of water using specified culture methods. In
addition, the results of routine bacteriological examination must always be interpreted
in the light of a thorough knowledge of the water supplies, including their source,
treatment and distribution.
Whenever changes in conditions lead to deterioration in the quality of the water
supplied, or even if they should suggest an increased possibility of contamination, the
frequency of bacteriological examination should be increased so that a series of samples
from well-chosen locations may identify the hazard and allow remedial action to be
taken. Whenever a sanitary survey, including visual inspection, indicates that a water
supply is obviously subject to pollution, remedial action must be taken, irrespective of
the results of bacteriological examination. For unpiped rural supplies, sanitary surveys
may often be the only form of examination that can be undertaken regularly.
The recognition that microbial infections can be water-borne has led to the
development of methods for routine examination to ensure that water intended for
human consumption is free from excremental pollution.
Although it is now possible to detect the presence of many pathogens in water, the
methods of isolation and enumeration are often complex and time-consuming. It is
therefore impractical to monitor drinking water for every possible microbial pathogen
that might occur with contamination. A more logical approach is the detection of
organisms normally present in the faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals
as indicators of excremental pollution, as well as of the efficacy of water treatment and
disinfection. The presence of such organisms indicates the presence of faecal material
and thus that intestinal pathogens could be present.
1
Conversely, the absence of faecal
commensal organisms indicates that pathogens are probably also absent. Search for
such indicators of faecal pollution thus provides a means of quality control. The
use of normal intestinal organisms as indicators of faecal pollution rather than the
pathogens themselves is a universally accepted principle for monitoring and assessing
the microbial safety of water supplies. Ideally, the finding of such indicator bacteria
should denote the possible presence of all relevant pathogens.
Indicator organisms should be abundant in excrement but absent, or present only
in small numbers, in other sources; they should be easily isolated, identified and
enumerated and should be unable to grow in water. They should also survive longer
than pathogens in water and be more resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine. In
practice, these criteria cannot all be met by any one organism, although many of them
are fulfilled by coliform organisms, especially Escherichia coli as the essential indicator
of pollution by faecal material of human or animal origin.
Other micro-organisms described as faecal coliforms such as faecal streptococci
and sulphite-reducing clostridia, especially Clostridium perfringens, that satisfy some
of these criteria (though not to the same extent as coliform organisms) can also be used
as secondary indicators of faecal contamination.
The significance that can be attached to the presence or absence of particular faecal
indicators varies with each organism and especially with the degree to which that
organism can be specifically associated with faeces. Coliform bacteria should not be
detectable in treated water supplies, and if found, indicate inadequate treatment or
post-treatment contamination.
1
The human intestinal tract contains countless rod-shaped bacteria known as coliform organisms and each
person discharges from 100 billion to 400 billion coliform organisms per day in addition to other kinds
of bacteria.
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 259
Furthermore, coliform bacteria are derived not only from the faeces of warm-
blooded animals but also from vegetation and soil. For these reasons, the presence
of small numbers of coliform organisms (1 to 10 organisms per 100 ml), particularly
in untreated groundwater, may be of limited sanitary significance provided faecal
coliform organisms are absent.
When coliform organisms are found in the absence of faecal coliform organisms
and E. coli, secondary indicators may be used to confirm the excremental nature of the
contamination.
12.2.3.2 Viruses
Viruses of major concern in relation to water-borne transmission of infectious disease
are essentially those that multiply in the intestine and are excreted in large numbers in
the faeces of infected individuals. Concentrations as high as 108 viral units per gram of
faeces have been reported. Even though replication does not occur outside living hosts,
enteric viruses have considerable ability to survive in the aquatic environment and may
remain viable for days or months. Viruses enter the water environment primarily by
way of sewage discharges. With the methods available at present, wide fluctuations in
the number of viruses in sewage have been found. On any given day, many of the 100
or so known enteric viruses can be isolated from sewage, the specific types being those
prevalent in the community at that time.
Procedures for the isolation of every virus type that may be present in sewage are
not yet available. As sewage comes into contact with drinking water, viruses are carried
on and remain viable for varying periods of time depending upon temperature and a
number of other less well-defined factors. It is generally believed that the primary
route of exposure to enteric viruses is by direct contact with infected persons or by
contact with faecally contaminated objects.
However, because of the ability of viruses to survive and because of the low
infective dose, exposure and consequent infections may occur by less obvious means,
including ingestion of contaminated water. Explosive outbreaks of viral hepatitis and
gastroenteritis resulting from sewage contamination of water supplies have been well
documented epidemiologically. In contrast, the transmission of low levels of virus
through drinking water of potable quality, although suspected of contributing to the
maintenance of endemic enteric viral disease within communities, has not yet been
demonstrated. In some developing areas, water sources may be heavily polluted and
the water-treatment processes may be less sophisticated and reliable. Because of these
factors, as well as the large number of persons at risk, drinking water must be regarded
as having a very significant potential as a vehicle for the environmental transmission
of enteric viruses. As with other microbial infections, enteric viruses may also be
transmitted by contaminated food. Enteric viruses are capable of producing a wide
variety of syndromes, including rashes, fever, gastroenteritis, myocarditis, meningitis,
respiratory disease and hepatitis. In general, asymptomatic infections are common and
the more serious manifestations rare. However, when drinking water is contaminated
with sewage, two diseases may occur in epidemic proportions gastroenteritis and
infectious hepatitis. Apart from these infections, there is little, if any, epidemiological
evidence to show that adequately treated drinking water is concerned in the
transmission of virus infections. Gastroenteritis of viral origin may be associated with
a variety of agents. Many of these have been identified only recently occurring as small
particles with a diameter of 270350 microns in stools of infected individuals with
diarrhoea. Viral gastroenteritis, usually of 2472 hours duration with nausea, vomiting
and diarrhoea, occurs in susceptible individuals of all ages. It is most serious in the very
young or very old where dehydration and electrolyte imbalance can occur rapidly and
threaten life if not corrected without delay. Hepatitis, if mild, may require only rest and
restricted activities for a week or two, but when severe it may cause death from liver
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 260
failure, or may result in chronic disease of the liver. Severe hepatitis is tolerated less
well with increasing age and the fatality rate increases sharply beyond middle age. The
mortality rate is higher among those with pre-existing malignancy and cirrhosis.
12.2.3.3 Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled eucaryotic micro-organisms without cell walls. The majority
of protozoa are aerobic. Protozoa feed on bacteria and other microscopic micro-
organisms. Of the intestinal protozoa pathogenic for humans, three may be transmitted
by drinking water: Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia spp. and Balantidium coli. These
organisms are the etiological agents of amoebic dysentery, giardiasis and balantidiasis,
respectively, and have all been associated with drinking water outbreaks. All three have
worldwide distribution. As a group, the intestinal pathogenic protozoa occur in large
numbers in the faeces of infected individuals in humans and a wide variety of domestic
and wild animals. Coliform organisms do not appear to be a good indicator for Giardia
or E. histolytica in treated water because of the increased resistance of these protozoans
to inactivation by disinfection.
12.2.3.4 Helminths
A great variety of helminth eggs and larvae have been detected in drinking water and it
is clear that all those infective to humans should be absent if the water supply is to be
safe. However, the majority of helminths are not water-borne and it is neither feasible
nor necessary to monitor water for them on a routine basis. Two groups of helminths
are more directly related to water supplies:
those transmitted wholly by the ingestion of infected copepod intermediate hosts;
and
those whose cercariae are directly infective to humans. A third category groups
the remainder of the species.
The first group (Dracunculus, Spirometra) comprises helminths that develop
in aquatic copepods and are acquired by humans ingesting water containing the
intermediate host crustacea. The most important member in this group is the guinea-
worm (Dracunculus medinensis), a filarial parasite of humans. Tapeworms of the genus
Spirometra, though much rarer in humans, also have a stage in aquatic copepods. Adult
worms are found in the small intestine of cats. Eggs pass out in the faeces and hatch in
water where they may be ingested by copepods.
The second group (Schistosoma, Ancylostoma, Necator) comprises a miscellaneous
group of flukes and roundworms whose infective larvae are able to penetrate the
human skin and mucous membranes. The human hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale
and Necator americanus, both with a wide tropical and subtropical distribution, have
eggs that hatch and develop in the soil to the third stage larvae, which then reinfect
humans by penetrating the skin. Hookworms of domestic animals may also invade
humans.
The third group of helminths has resistant eggs or cysts infective to humans. If these
gain access to drinking water and are ingested, humans become infected. The most
widespread intestinal helminths are Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) and Trichuris
trichuria (whipworm). The human tapeworms of the genera Hymenolepis, with a
direct life cycle, and Echinococcus, where humans are infected by ingesting eggs usually
acquired from dogs, have the potential for spread in drinking water.
12.2.3.5 Malaria and dengue
Both malaria and dengue are not transmitted directly by drinking water but by vectors
or carriers that breed in water, in this case mosquitoes. In order to prevent the spread
of these diseases, it is of the utmost importance that in all endemic areas, drinking water
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 261
reservoirs within the port area be adequately covered to prevent mosquitoes from
gaining access to the free water surface. These reservoirs comprise:
elevated water distribution tanks (access manholes);
reinforced concrete reservoirs (access manholes);
header tanks, whatever size; and
water cisterns in all toilets.
All manholes should be covered with purpose-made manhole covers and all vents
should be equipped with mosquito-net filters. Furthermore, all horizontal areas should
be laid to falls to prevent the rainwater forming ponds and adequate drains installed to
handle runoff. These areas include roofs, parking areas, access ways and derelict land
within the ports boundaries.
12.2.4 Nutrients
Nitrates and nitrites are considered together because conversion from one form
to another occurs in the environment. The health effects of nitrates are generally a
consequence of its ready conversion to nitrite in the body. Nitrates are widely present in
substantial quantities in soil, in most waters and in plants, including vegetables. Nitrites
also occur fairly widely, but generally at very much lower levels than nitrates. Nitrates
are products of oxidation of organic nitrogen by the bacteria present in soils and in
water where sufficient oxygen is present. Nitrites are formed by incomplete bacterial
oxidation of organic nitrogen. One of the principal uses of nitrate is as fertilizer.
Nitrates are also used in explosives, as oxidizing agents in the chemical industry and as
food preservatives. Its occurrence in water is brought about by fertilizer use, decaying
vegetable and animal matter, sewage effluents, industrial discharges, leachates from
refuse dumps.
Nitrates in the water are limited to 10 ppm.
12.2.5 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
12.2.5.1 Introduction
These are organic or inorganic compounds selected on the basis of their known or
suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity or high acute toxicity.
12.2.5.2 Arsenic
Arsenic is notorious as a toxic element. Its toxicity, however, depends on the chemical
(valency) and physical form of the compound, the route by which it enters the body,
the dose and duration of exposure and several other biological parameters. It is
recommended that, when water is found to contain arsenic at levels of 0.05 ppm, an
attempt should be made to ascertain the valency and chemical forms of the element.
Arsenic is commonly associated as an alloying additive with lead solder, lead shot,
battery grids, cable sheaths and boiler piping. Nowadays, most arsenic originates from
paints or pharmaceuticals and is commonly found in sewage. The concentration of
arsenic in seawater is around 0.002 ppm. The primary concerns are carcinogenicity and
mutagenicity.
12.2.5.3 Asbestos
Asbestos is a general term for fibrous silicate minerals of the amphibole and
serpentine mineral groups. Six minerals have been characterized as asbestos: chrysotile,
crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite and amosite. Asbestos is commonly
found in domestic water supplies. The use of asbestos-cement (170 grams of asbestos per
kilograms 80 percent chrysotile and 20 percent crocidolite) for pipes in distribution
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 262
systems could contribute to the asbestos content of drinking water. Background
levels are reported to be in the range of less than 1 million to 10 million fibres
per litre. The primary concern is carcinogenicity. Use of asbestos is now banned.
12.2.5.4 Barium
Barium is present in the earths crust in a concentration of 0.50 g/kg and the mineral
barytes, barium sulphate, is the commonest source. Traces of barium are present in
most soils.
Barium is also present in traces in many foodstuffs, such as brazil nuts. Barium is
also used in various industrial processes, such as in vacuum tubes, spark-plug alloys,
Getter alloys, Frays metal and as a lubricant for anode rotors in X-ray machines.
Drinking water should not contain more 0.050 ppm.
12.2.5.5 Beryllium
Beryllium is commonly found as part of feldspar mineral deposits and may exist as
the mineral beryl in small localized deposits. The primary source of beryllium in the
environment is the burning of fossil fuels, although contamination is normally light.
Beryllium can enter the water system through weathering of rocks in ground aquifers,
atmospheric fallout on rain water collection systems and industrial and municipal
discharges. Beryllium is used in metal alloys and certain electrical components. Not all
countries have set standards for limits of beryllium in drinking water. Those that have
limit its presence to 0.20 ppb.
12.2.5.6 Selenium
As a result of geochemical differences, levels of selenium in soil and vegetation vary
within broad limits. The chemical form of selenium, and thus its solubility, is another
decisive factor as regards its presence in drinking water. Selenium has been identified
as an essential nutrient in several animal species, including humans. Dietary selenium
levels of 5 mg/kg of food or more may cause chronic intoxication, and in seleniferous
areas this value has been considered as the dividing line between toxic and non-toxic
feeds. Drinking water in general does not represent the only or main source of selenium
exposure for the resident population in seleniferous areas. There is a range of selenium
intake by humans that is consistent with health, and outside this range deficiency or
toxicity can occur. Selenium in drinking water is limited to 0.01 ppm.
Selenium is widely used in the electronics industry, television cameras, solar
batteries, computer cores, rectifiers, xerographic plates and ceramics as a colorant for
glass. It is also used as a trace element for animal feeds.
12.2.5.7 Silver
Silver occurs naturally in elemental form and as various ores. It is also associated with
lead, copper and zinc ores. Because some metals such as lead and zinc are used in
distribution systems and also because in some countries silver oxide is used to disinfect
water supplies, silver levels in tap water may sometimes be elevated. The levels of silver
in drinking water should not exceed 1 ppb.
In industry, silver is used in the manufacture of silver nitrate, silver bromide and
other photographic chemicals, water distillation equipment, mirrors, silver plating
equipment, special batteries, table cutlery, jewellery, and dental, medical and scientific
equipment including amalgams.
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 263
12.2.6 REFRACTORY ORGANICS
12.2.6.1 Introduction
This group of contaminants is wide ranging and consists of chlorinated alkanes (carbon
tetrachloride), chlorinated ethenes (polyvinyl chloride, or PVC), polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (naphtalene, coal tar), pesticides, herbicides and fumigants (DDT,
endrin, aldrin, lindane, methoxychlor, toxaphene and silvex), mono-dichlorobenzenes
(solvents), benzenes (benzene, toluene), phenols and chlorophenols and trihalomethanes
(chloroform, bromoform).
12.2.6.2 Chlorinated alkanes
One of the major uses of chlorinated alkanes in the chemical industry is as an
intermediate in the production of other organochlorine compounds. They are therefore
produced in large quantities and consequently many are found in raw and finished
drinking water. Carbon tetrachloride is a haloalkane with a wide range of industrial and
chemical applications. It has been found to be an occasional contaminant of chlorine
used in the disinfection of drinking water but is not produced in drinking water as a
result of the chlorination process itself. Carbon tetrachloride was extensively used as a
propellant for aerosols. This chemical has been found to be a carcinogen to laboratory
animals. The guideline limit of this chemical is 3 ppb.
12.2.6.3 Chlorinated ethenes
This group of compounds is used widely in a variety of industrial processes as
solvents, softeners, paint thinners, dry-cleaning fluids, intermediates, etc. Because of
their wide use, they are often found in raw and treated drinking water. Because of
their high volatility, they are usually lost to the atmosphere from surface water and
therefore generally occur at lower concentrations. Vinyl chloride is mainly used for
the production of PVC resins which, in turn, form the most widely used plastics in
the world. Low concentrations of PVC have been detected in effluents discharged
by chemical and latex manufacturing plants and in drinking water as a result of
leaching from substandard (improperly cured) PVC pipes used in water distribution
systems. Vinyl chloride is associated with cancer and is mutagenic in a number of
biological systems, including Salmonella and E. coli. Other chlorinated ethenes include
1,1-dichloroethene (used in the packaging industry), trichloroethene (used as a dry-
cleaning solvent) and tetrachloroethene (used in dry-cleaning and as a degreasing agent
in metal industries). The guideline limit for PVC is 20 ppb.
12.2.6.4 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a large group of organic compounds
present in the environment from both natural and industrial sources. PAHs are
rarely encountered singly in the environment and many interactions can occur with
mixtures of PAHs whereby the potency of the known carcinogenic PAH may be
enhanced. These systems are not well understood, however, and their significance as
regards environmental exposure to PAH is not yet clear. Contact with coal-tar based
linings during distribution is known in some instances to lead to an increase in PAH
concentration in water. Because of the close association of PAH with suspended
solids, the application of treatment to achieve an acceptable level of turbidity will
ensure that minimum PAH levels are achieved. Aromatic hydrocarbons may enter
the aquatic environment of the harbour basin from discharges from vessels as ballast
water, bilge pumping, engine exhaust, effluents from coastal refineries, crude oil power
stations, terrestrial runoff (particularly from urban storm water containing road asphalt
particles) and leaching (creosoted components from jetties and wharves). A guideline
of 0.01 ppb is recommended.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 264
12.2.6.5 Pesticides
Pesticides that may be of importance to water quality include chlorinated hydrocarbons
and their derivatives, persistent herbicides, soil insecticides, pesticides that are easily
leached out from the soil, and pesticides systematically added to water supplies to
control disease vectors, such as mosquito larvae (malaria and dengue fever).
Of these compounds, only the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides occur frequently
and these are very persistent in the environment where they have become ubiquitous.
Typical pesticides include:
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): a persistent insecticide, stable under
most environmental conditions and resistant to complete breakdown by enzymes
present in the soil micro-organisms.
Aldrin and dieldrin: two related and very persistent pesticides which accumulate
in the food chain. Currently may be used for termite control around the roots of
fruit trees.
Chlordane: a broad-spectrum insecticide also used for termite control and for
homes and gardens.
HCB or hexachlorobenzene: produced commercially for use as a fungicide.
Heptachlor: another broad-spectrum insecticide used to control agricultural soil
insects. Heptachlor is very persistent.
Lindane: a wide-spectrum insecticide of the group called organochlorine
insecticides and used in a wide range of applications, including treatment of
animals, buildings, water (for mosquitoes), plants, seeds and soil.
Methoxychlor: an insecticide used for the treatment of agricultural crops and
livestock. Guidelines for refractory organics limit total drins to 0.03 ppb and
total ddt to 1.0 ppb.
Mono-dichlorobenzenes: monochlorobenzene is widely used as a solvent and
in the manufacture of several chemicals, such as insecticides and phenols.
Dichlorobenzenes are important intermediates for dyes, moth repellants,
deodorants, dielectric fluids, heat transfer fluids and insecticides.
Benzenes: benzene and toluene are produced mainly from petroleum or as a by-
product in the manufacture of gas. Both chemicals are widely used in the chemical
industry both as intermediates and for the production of styrene, phenol, acetone
and cyclohexane (used in manufacturing nylon). Significant quantities of toluene
are used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, detergents and as petrol additives.
The guideline for benzene in water is 10 ppb.
Phenols and chlorphenols: chlorphenols are used as biocides and are found in
water as a result of chlorinating water supplies containing phenol. Chlorphenols
are well known for their low taste and odour thresholds. For aesthetic reasons
therefore individual phenols should not, as a general rule, be present in drinking
water above 0.1 ppb. The best approach to controlling pollution by chlorphenols
is to prevent the contamination of the source water by phenol (from petrochemical
industries) and chlorinated phenolic pesticides (agriculture).
Trihalomethanes: trihalomethanes (chloroform and bromoform) in drinking
water occur principally as products of reaction of chemicals used in oxidative
treatment reacting with naturally occurring materials present in the water. Their
formation is particularly associated with the use of chlorine for disinfecting
water supplies. Notwithstanding this, it is important to recognize the fact that
chlorine is an effective water disinfectant and the hazards of disease arising
from microbiological contaminants resulting from incomplete disinfection are
substantial. Trihalomethanes have several adverse effects on health and the
guideline value limits chloroform in drinking water to 30 ppb.
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 265
12.2.7 DISSOLVED INORGANICS
12.2.7.1 Introduction
Dissolved inorganic compounds are generally associated with the aesthetic and
organoleptic (taste and odour) characteristics of drinking water. For health-related
contaminants, what is unsafe for one is unsafe for all, while aesthetic and organoleptic
characteristics are subject to social, economic and cultural considerations.
Since the majority of consumer complaints regarding water quality relate to its
colour, taste or odour, the quality of drinking water, as perceived by the senses, largely
determines the acceptability of a particular water.
12.2.7.2 Aluminium
Aluminium does not appear to be an essential nutrient to humans. Compared to the
aluminium intake from food, that from water is small. The incidence of discoloration
in drinking water in distribution systems increases if the aluminium level exceeds
0.1 ppm.
12.2.7.3 Chlorides
Chlorides are widely distributed in nature and are present in mineral deposits, in
seawater and some industrial processes. The taste threshold for chloride in drinking
water is dependent upon the associated cation, but is usually within the range of 200
to 300 ppm of chloride. Based on organoleptic considerations, the guideline value for
chloride is 250 ppm.
12.2.7.4 Colour
Colour in drinking water may be due to the presence of coloured organic substances,
such as humics (decay of vegetation in the water); metals such as iron and manganese; or
highly coloured industrial wastes, of which pulp, paper and textile wastes are the most
common. Chlorine from the chlorination process is likely to give rise to high levels of
trihalomethanes due to the reaction of chlorine with dissolved humic substances.
12.2.8 Heavy metals
12.2.8.1 Introduction
Trace quantities of many metals are important constituents of most waters. Many of
these metals are also classified as pollutants. The presence of any of these metals in
excessive quantities will interfere with many beneficial uses of the water because of
their toxicity.
12.2.8.2 Cadmium
Cadmium is widely distributed in the Earths crust but is particularly associated with
zinc and copper and is produced commercially only as a by-product of zinc smelting.
Cadmium shows no signs of being an essential trace element in biological processes;
on the contrary, it is highly toxic to the human organism. Like mercury, cadmium and
its compounds only enter the environment from geological or human activities (metal
mining, smelting and fossil fuel combustion).
Cadmium and its compounds are blacklisted materials, which by international
agreement may not be discharged or dumped into the environment. Cadmium is
a cumulative poison and a maximum level of 0.005 ppm is permitted for drinking
water.
12.2.8.3 Chromium
Most rocks and soils contain small amounts of chromium. Chromium in its naturally
occurring state is in a highly insoluble form; however, most of the more common soluble
forms found in soils are mainly the result of contamination by industrial emissions.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 266
The major uses of chromium are for chrome alloys, chrome plating, oxidizing agents,
corrosion inhibitors, pigments for the textile glass and ceramic industries as well as in
photography. Hexavalent chromium compounds (soluble) are carcinogenic and the
guideline value is 0.05 ppm.
12.2.8.4 Lead
Lead is not only the most abundant of heavy metals occurring in nature, it was also one
of the first metals used on a large scale by humans. Although it is not a nutritionally
essential element, its monitoring is important because of its toxicity to human health.
Lead is a cumulative poison. Most of the lead produced in metallic form, in batteries,
cable sheathing, sheets and pipes, etc., is recovered and recycled, but most lead used
in compound form, such as paints and petrol additives, is lost to the environment,
eventually ending up in the aquatic environment. Lead compounds, similar to the
ones used in petrol additives are reportedly being used in the production of mercurial
fungicides. The presence of lead in drinking water is limited to 0.01 ppm.
12.2.8.5 Mercury
Although a comparatively rare element, mercury is ubiquitous in the environment,
the result of natural geological activity and human-induced pollution. Mercury from
natural sources can enter the aquatic environment via weathering, dissolution and
biological processes. Although extremely useful to humans, mercury is also highly
toxic to the human organism, especially in the form of methyl mercury, because it
cannot be excreted and therefore acts as a cumulative poison. The potential for long-
term human health hazards from ingesting mercury-contaminated fish has led several
nations to establish regulations and guidelines for allowable seafood mercury levels.
Nearly all levels above 1 ppb in water are due to industrial effluents connected with
chlorine and caustic soda production, pharmaceuticals, mirror coatings, mercury lamps
and certain fungicides.
12.2.8.6 Nickel
Nickel is ubiquitous in the environment. Nickel is almost certainly essential for
animal nutrition and, consequently, it is probably essential to humans. Nickel is a
relatively non-toxic element; however, certain nickel compounds have been shown to
be carcinogenic in animal experiments.
12.2.8.7 Tin
Tin and its compounds are significant and controversial chemicals in the environment.
As is the case with other elements, not all chemical forms of tin are equally biologically
active. In contrast to the low toxicity of inorganic tin (derived from eating canned
foods), some organic tin compounds, also known as organotins, are toxic. Tributyltin
and triphenyltin, constituents of anti-fouling paints, are highly toxic and their presence
in harbour waters is limited to generally 0.002 and 0.008 ppb respectively.
A new International Maritime Organization Convention prohibits the use of
harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and will establish a mechanism
to prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems.
The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on
Ships was adopted on 5 October 2001. However, in many countries, organotin anti-
fouling paints are still available from old stocks and the start of the fishing season
generally sees an increase of this compound in the water as freshly painted vessels are
launched back into the water.
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 267
12.2.8.8 Copper
The presence of copper in the water supply, although not constituting a hazard to health,
may interfere with the intended domestic uses of water. Copper enhances corrosion of
aluminium and zinc fittings, stains clothes and plumbing fixtures. Copper is used in
alloys, as a catalyst, in anti-fouling paints and as a wood preservative. Urban sewage
contains substantial amounts of copper. The human taste threshold for copper is low,
5.07.0 ppm, and the taste is repulsive. The limit for drinking water is 1.0 ppm.
12.2.8.9 Iron
The presence of iron in drinking water is objectionable for a number of reasons
unrelated to health. Under the pH conditions existing in drinking water supplies,
ferrous salts are unstable and precipitate as insoluble ferric hydroxide, which settles out
as rusty silt. Such water tastes unpalatable, promotes the growth of iron bacteria, and
the silt gradually reduces the flow of water in the piping. The recommended guideline
level of iron in water is 0.3 ppm.
12.2.8.10 Manganese
Anaerobic groundwater often contains elevated levels of dissolved manganese. The
presence of manganese in drinking water is objectionable for a number of reasons
unrelated to health. At concentrations exceeding 0.15 ppm manganese imparts an
undesirable taste to beverages and stains plumbing fixtures. The recommended value
is 0.1 ppm.
12.2.8.11 Sodium
The sodium ion is ubiquitous in water owing to the high solubility of its salts and the
abundance of mineral deposits. Near coastal areas, wind-borne sea spray can make
an important contribution, either by fallout on to land surfaces where it drains to the
water source or from washout by rain. Domestic, commercial and industrial discharges
are another source of sodium in water. In general, sodium salts are not acutely toxic
substances because of the efficiency with which mature kidneys excrete sodium. The
effects on infants, in contrast to adults, are different because of the immaturity of infant
kidneys. A maximum of 200 ppm is allowed in drinking water.
12.2.8.12 Zinc
The concentration of zinc in tap water can be considerably higher than that in surface
water owing to the leaching action of zinc from galvanized pipes, brass and other zinc
alloys. Zinc imparts to water an undesirable astringent taste and in concentrations in
excess of 5 ppm water may appear opalescent and develop a greasy film on boiling.
Levels of zinc should be kept well below this value.
12.2.8.13 Petroleum hydrocarbons
Humans have a very low taste threshold for petroleum hydrocarbons and the taste is
particularly repulsive. All components of crude oil are degradable by bacteria, though
at varying rates, and a variety of yeasts and fungi can also metabolize petroleum
hydrocarbons. Water-soluble components of crude oils and refined products include a
variety of compounds that are toxic. High-molecular-weight tars are less damaging in
the water than medium-molecular-weight compounds such as diesel. Low-molecular-
weight compounds are generally unimportant because they are very volatile and rapidly
evaporate. Therefore, a diesel spillage at sea is more damaging than crude oil (very
tarry) or petrol spillage. For harbour basin water, the limit for dissolved hydrocarbons
should not exceed 0.30 ppm. Polluted harbour water can impart an unpleasant flavour
to fish if used for washing. Commercial fishermen may also risk tainting a whole catch
if their nets have been fouled by diesel or oil.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 268
12.2.8.14 Sulphates
Sulphates are widely distributed in nature and excessive amounts of dissolved sulphates
in drinking water lead to problems with hardness. Taste threshold concentration for the
most prevalent sulphate salts are: 200 to 500 ppm for sodium sulphate; 250 to 900 ppm
for calcium sulphate; and 400 to 600 ppm for magnesium sulphate. In drinking water,
dissolved sulphates are limited to 400 ppm.
12.2.8.15 Hardness
Water hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap,
hard water requiring a considerable amount of soap to produce lather. The degree
of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of its equivalent CaCO
3

concentration as follows:
Soft water has a greater tendency to cause corrosion of pipes and, consequently,
certain heavy metals such as copper, zinc, lead and cadmium may be present in the
water.
Very hard water, on the other hand, can cause considerable incrustations in pipes
and fittings, especially in fish processing plants.
12.2.8.16 pH
The value of the pH, expressed as a value ranging between 1 and 10, is a good indicator
of the state of the water. Values of 9.5 and above are alkaline in taste. Values of 3 and
below are acidic in taste. Values lower than 6 cause problems with corrosion. Values
below 4 support little life in a marine environment. Drinking water should have a pH
in the range 6.5 to 8.5. Harbour water should have a pH of between 6 and 9.
12.2.8.17 Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide occurs as a by-product in septic tanks when proteins in sewage
are attacked by certain bacteria. Traces in excess of 0.05 ppm cause taste and odour
problems.
12.3 MONITORING
Depending on the actual state of the fishing harbour infrastructure and the
environmental conditions obtaining in and around the harbour itself, monitoring tests
for contaminants should be carried out according to a specific programme. Unless local
sanitary standards are rigidly enforced, typical monitoring programmes should reflect
local environmental conditions.
12.3.1 Boreholes
Potable water supplies based on borehole extraction are very susceptible to
contamination by sewage, pesticides and salt water intrusion. Contamination may
also arise from pollutants entering the water table some distance from the port or
from sewage entering the borehole itself in the port area through cracked or corroded
casings. In cases where overdrawing is evident (water is brackish), bacterial tests should
be run very frequently, say once a week; otherwise, every month. Complete tests
should be run every six months.
Soft 060 ppm
Medium hard 60120 ppm
Hard 120180 ppm
Very hard 180 and above
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 269
12.3.2 Municipal mains
It is not uncommon for municipal or mains water supply to be contaminated at source
(through malfunctioning or inoperative chlorination equipment) or for the supply to
pick up contaminants through corroded sections of a pipeline leading to the fishing
harbour. Complete tests should be run every six months and the relevant authorities
informed of the results.
12.3.3 Water towers and reservoirs
Both types of structure are susceptible to bacterial growth if the residual chlorine levels
in them are low or non-existent. Testing may not be necessary if periodic scrubbing
is carried out. If the water tower cannot be decommissioned for maintenance, then
bacteria tests should be carried out every six months or so.
12.3.4 Harbour basin water
Typically, harbour basins should be tested once a year. However, in areas where
monsoons are very active, it may be advisable to test at the peak of the dry season
(when effluent point discharges tend to remain concentrated in the water course) and
then again during the wet season (when agricultural runoff may find its way into the
water course). Another critical period for harbours is the peak of the fishing season
(when most of the fleet is up and running and fuel and oil are discharged from the
bilges).
12.3.5 International water standards
The tables given in Appendix 1 and 2 to this chapter illustrate standard water quality
parameters for both potable water (World Health Organization) and harbour basin
waters (European Union Directives). If harbour basin water is being used for rinsing
fish, then it too must satisfy drinking water standards for contaminants.
12.4 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND PORT SANITATION
The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside a fishing harbour
depends on both the sanitary infrastructure available and the harbour management in
enforcing certain directives. The sanitary infrastructure is made up of:
toilet facilities (with adequate showers);
adequate supplies of soap and detergents; and
appropriate signs and billboards displayed at strategic places.
In general, the sanitary infrastructure should be able to cater for the total number
of potential workers within the harbour boundary; this is especially so for harbours
with high seasonal landings, where for a period of one to three months in the year the
increase in the number of workers may swamp the facilities meant for a low-season
workforce.
12.4.1 Sanitary fittings
Toilets should be constructed to the highest standards possible to ensure the maximum
lifetime. Poorly built facilities break down very quickly and generally lead to toilets
of opportunity elsewhere around the port. Toilet facilities should always be properly
maintained and full-time manning by attendants is desirable. Toilets should never open
on to a work area where fish is being handled due to the risk of flooding from blocked
drains. The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside the fishing
port depends on the quality of the facilities provided.
In many developing countries, the major reason for breakdown is not vandalism
but incorrect design and specification of the fittings at the design stage, followed by
a total lack of supervision during construction and poor operational management and
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 270
maintenance. The three most common fittings likely to break down prematurely under
current design practices are:
water taps;
toilet flush systems; and
shower heads.
It is not uncommon to enter a public toilet facility inside a fishing port and notice
that water taps are either inoperable or missing altogether. In all probability, the taps
specified would have been the most economical variety of the common household tap.
Figure 1 shows the most common types of water taps available on the market today,
ranging from the very economical household variety to the more sophisticated sensor
operated type. For the fitting to satisfy health hygiene regulations it may not be of the
types shown in Figures 1A and 1B because reclosing the tap by hand may retransfer
bacteria on to a clean hand. In addition to this, the household taps often specified are
not designed for the wear and tear of a public facility. In most public places such as
airports, train stations and restaurants, the water taps are of the self-closing type shown
in Figures 1C, 1E and 1F. The forearm operated type shown in Figure 1D, typically
seen at the doctors or dentists clinic, is also suitable and may be more economical than
the other types. However, the industry standard is the foot-operated unit as illustrated
in Figure 2.
Shower units (shower head and tap) are also problematic, especially if slightly saline
or calcium-rich borehole water is in use. Most household shower heads corrode easily
as do most wall-mounted valve or tap handles. To ensure a longer lasting unit, all pipes,
heads and valves should be in PVC or HDPE plastic. Valves should be of the ball
type with few moving parts. Pipework should not be embedded in the walls but fixed
externally with appropriate anchor fixings. The internal cubicles of showers should be
glazed. Mortar finishes are not suitable for a damp environment.
FIGURE 1
Typical types of water taps available
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 271
Many types of toilet flush systems are available on the market, but as with the other
types of sanitary fittings household varieties are not suitable for repeated use in a public
facility. Most household cisterns are very fragile and often break down for the most
minor of things (Figure 3).
12.4.2 Buildings
The building should be simple in layout, airy, brightly coloured and with plenty of
ventilation (Figure 4). All the floor drains inside the building should be bar drains
placed centrally across the room with water draining away from the walls to prevent
flooding (Figure 5). The drains should be in plastic and easily removed to clear
blockages.
All toilet facilities should be equipped with lighting to enable use during night-time
unloading and auctioning operations. Toilet facilities should be attended, especially in
artisanal harbours where the facility may also serve the village residents.
Steel piping in sanitary facilities is gradually being replaced with PVC or HDPE
(high-density polyethylene) piping. The obvious advantages over steel are resistance
to corrosion and ease of installation and maintenance. However, when installing
external pipework, care must be taken to employ a material that is ultraviolet stabilized.
Ultraviolet rays from the sun attack certain plastics and the proper material should be
specified for all external pipework.
FIGURE 2
Correct type of water tap recommended
FIGURE 3
Household-type cistern with fragile plastic fittings
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 272
Two methods of jointing plastic pipe are available: heat welding or glue. Heat
welding involves heating the pipe ends by a small heater similar to a hairdryer and
then applying force to weld the seams together. Gluing, however, is now the accepted
industry standard because it involves little capital equipment, apart from the glue,
Figure 6.
FIGURE 4
Optimal layout of small toilet facility
FIGURE 5
Required standard of finish for toilet facilities
FIGURE 6
Gluing an elbow joint
1 2 3
4 5 6
1. Cutting, 2. Reaming, 3. Cleaning, 4. Application of glue,
5. Fixing, 6. Wiping joint clean
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 273
Similarly, repairing a leaking elbow joint or length of pipe is also very quick and
needs no special tools, Figure 7.
The traditional bronze or brass gate valves are also being gradually replaced with
ball valves, Figure 8. Ball valves are made from resistant plastic with a stainless steel ball
valve. They have fewer moving parts and no corrodible fittings.
12.4.3 Signs and billboards
Port sanitation is to the port what personal hygiene is to the workers employed by the
port. Appropriate signs and billboards listing food hygiene regulations should form
part of the harbours sanitary awareness infrastructure. These signs should be displayed
at all the strategic locations within the port boundary, for example:
NO SMOKING, NO SPITTING, NO EATING signs should be posted
wherever fish is being handled;
HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS? signs should be posted at all toilet
exits.
Adequate signs should also be posted in prominent locations indicating the direction
to the toilets. Proper and frequent training of the port workers in personal hygiene
should form part of the harbour masters management brief.
FIGURE 7
Repairs to a PVC pipe are simple
FIGURE 8
Gate valves (left) and ball valves (right))
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 274
Port sanitation is best explained by the following simple regulations:
All water supplies inside the port boundary should comply with the World Health
Organization drinking water standards or national drinking water standards
where these are higher.
All ice, including that brought in from outside suppliers, should also comply with
the above drinking water standards.
All chlorination equipment should be functional and adequate supplies of the
chlorination agent should be held in stock.
All sampling and testing carried out inside the port should be carried out by ISO
certified laboratories only.
Appropriate signs should be displayed within the port area covering, among other
things, dumping, spillage, use of seawater from inside harbour basin, spitting,
eating areas, prohibited access to domestic animals, etc.
Appropriate billboards should be displayed at strategic locations listing fines for
the contravention of port hygiene rules.
All drainage systems (indoor and outdoor) should be kept in perfect working
order.
Port perimeter fences should be properly maintained to keep unauthorized people
and domestic animals from entering the port area at any time.
The entrance and exit to a fishing port area should be manned during business
hours to prevent unauthorized people from gaining entry to the fish handling
areas.
Disinfection of required areas should be carried out on a regular basis.
No excessive trash and wet wastes should be left to accumulate in work areas.
No rodent harbourage should exist in and around the port area (tall weeds, junk
piles and municipal rubbish).
No birds should be nesting inside open-sided auction halls and fish handling
sheds.
Only employees and officially recognized fish traders should be allowed access to
work areas during fish handling operations and auctions.
Toilet and shower facilities should be kept scrupulously clean and in perfect
working order.
Only electrically powered machinery should be allowed inside the auction or
handling sheds to prevent oil, petrol and diesel from leaking onto the floors which
are sometimes used as auction surfaces for large fish.
The entire fish handling area should be hosed down properly at the end of
business and locked up to prevent unauthorized entry until the next auction.
12.5 SEWAGE TREATMENT
The sewage effluent or wastewater from a fisheries harbour typically consists of three
major biologically degradable constituents:
Type 1 effluent from the toilets, faecal matter in water (typically low-volume
discharge);
Type 2 effluent from the wash hand basins and showers, soapy water (detergents
present, also low-volume discharge); and
Type 3 effluent from the fish cleaning operations, fish blood, scales and fish
solids, high-volume discharge.
The combined effluent from a fishing harbour should ideally be connected to a
municipal sewer to be taken away and treated with normal household sewage. If such
a sewer is not available within a reasonably economic distance, then the effluent has
to be treated before being discharged into a watercourse. Depending on the size of the
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 275
fishing harbour, the effluent may be treated either via septic tanks and on-site natural
treatment systems (artisanal harbours only) or via a proper sewage treatment plant
(coastal, offshore and distant-water harbours). In both cases, adequate space should be
provided for the purpose.
12.5.1 Type 1 effluent artisanal harbours
Artisanal harbours are more often than not situated in areas where basic municipal
infrastructure is very primitive or even totally absent; introduction of sophisticated
mechanical wastewater effluent treatment systems may also not be a viable option due
to the costs involved. Natural treatment systems, on the other hand, may be designed
to take advantage of the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur when
water, soil, plants, micro-organisms and the atmosphere interact. The processes
involved in natural systems include many of those used in sophisticated mechanical
treatment systems, such as sedimentation, filtration, gas transfer, adsorption, ion
exchange, chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation, and biological conversion and
degradation plus others unique to natural systems such as photosynthesis, photo-
oxidation and plant uptake. In natural systems, the treatment process occurs at natural
rates and tends to occur simultaneously in a single ecosystem reactor. In a mechanical
system, the processes occur sequentially in separate tanks at accelerated rates as a result
of energy input. Figure 9 provides a typical solution for artisanal fishing harbours.
The first stage of a natural treatment system is the septic tank, Figure 10, generally
located in or around the harbour and into which all the effluent should be directed.
A three-stage septic tank is a rectangular underground chamber divided internally
into three compartments. After coarse screening through a basket sump, the effluent
is retained inside the compartments for a minimum period of three days; during this
period, the solids in suspension settle to the bottom of the first compartment where
they are attacked and digested by bacteria. As a result, the volume of sludge is greatly
reduced and the effluent clarified to some extent. Appropriate manholes should be
provided over each compartment to enable sludge to be removed (pumped out) during
maintenance.
FIGURE 9
Typical solution for an artisanal fishing port
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 276
The dimensions of the chamber should be such that peak total daily effluent flows
are retained for a minimum period of three days inside the tank. Obviously, the larger
the volume to be treated, the larger the tank should be. Various methods are available to
reduce the volume of water to be treated, such as high-pressure jet cleaners for hosing
down operations (largest consumer of water), automatic or spring-loaded taps over
wash-hand basins and dual-flush action toilet flushing equipment.
The following guidelines may be used when calculating a harbours total daily
effluent flow rate.
Auction hall flow rate
1 litre per kilogram of fish landed every day;
10 litres per square metre of covered area (reduced to 2.5 litres if a high pressure
jet cleaner is used); and
10 litres per fish box handled (reduced to 2.5 litres if a high pressure jet cleaner is
used).
Toilet and shower facilities flow rate
100 litres per person per day (full-time employees + part-time handlers and sellers
+ crew in port).
Canteen services (hot food cooked on premises) flow rate
15 litres per serving per day.
The total volume should be adjusted for peak summer landing conditions when fish
handling and visiting crews are at their peak numbers.
The effluent from the septic tank should then be piped for further treatment to one
of several types of natural treatment systems and only discharged into a waterway
or into the sea as a last resort. Natural treatment systems may consist of one of the
following:
FIGURE 10
Typical three-stage septic tank
Covers
Inspection and cleaning
manhole in bricks 600 mm x 600 mm
300 mm
To soakaway
Outlet T
Liquid level
Scum
Toilet wastes Wastewater and settled
Wastes
Sludge
Ground level
Inlet T
From toilets
Reinforced concrete
stab 150 mm thick
L
i
q
u
i
d

d
e
p
t
h
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 277
Slow rate treatment (effluent is sprayed or channelled over vegetated land to
provide treatment), Figure 11.
Constructed wetlands emergent plants (effluent is fed into inundated areas
that support growth of emergent plants such as cattail, bulrush, reeds or sedges),
Figure 12.
Constructed wetlands floating aquatic plants (effluent is fed into inundated areas
that support plants of the floating species such as water hyacinth and duckweed),
Figure 13.
Rapid infiltration (effluent is applied intermittently to shallow spreading basins
and lost into the ground), Figure 14.
Slow rate treatment, the predominant natural treatment process in use today,
involves the application of effluent or wastewater to vegetated land to provide
treatment and to meet the growth needs of the vegetation, Figure 11. The applied
water is either consumed through evapotranspiration or percolates vertically and
horizontally through the soil profile. Any runoff is usually collected and reapplied
to the system. This system needs moderately slow soil permeability and in areas of
high precipitation needs effluent storage. The effluent may be applied via sprinklers or
furrows. Typical area requirements for this system are 15 to 45 acres per million litres
of effluent per day.
Two types of constructed wetland systems have been developed for wastewater
treatment: free water surface flow systems and subsurface flow systems, Figure 12.
FIGURE 11
Typical above-ground slow rate treatment field
Evapotranspiration
Surface
application
Percolation
Effluent
Effluent
collection
channel
Spray
application
Sprinkler
application
Surface
runoff
FIGURE 12
Subsurface water flow (right) and free water surface flow (left)
Cattail Bulrush
W.S. W.S.
Cattails
Slotted pipe for
wastewater
distribution
Inlet stone
distribution
Slope 1%
Rhizome network
Soil or gravel
Watertight membrane
Effluent outlet
height variable
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 278
The water depth in this system is typically very shallow, ranging from 0.10 to
0.60 metres. Subsurface flow systems are designed with an objective of secondary or
advanced levels of treatment. These systems have also been called root zone or rock
reed filters and consist of channels or trenches with relatively impermeable bottoms
filled with sand or rock media to support emergent vegetation.
This system is generally classified as a constructed wetland where the effluent may
be collected after treatment and reutilized in agriculture. Lack of a free water surface in
the subsurface flow system also makes it ideal for areas prone to mosquito infestation.
Effluent storage is needed in areas of high precipitation and, typically, 4 to 14 acres per
million litres of effluent treated daily are required.
Constructed wetlands offer all of the treatment capabilities of natural wetlands but
without the constraints associated with discharging to a natural ecosystem. Floating
aquatic plant systems are similar in concept to free water surface systems except that
the plants are floating species such as water hyacinth and duckweed. Water depths are
typically deeper, ranging from 0.50 to 1.80 metres, Figure 13.
Supplementary aeration has been used with floating plant systems to increase
treatment capacity and to maintain aerobic conditions necessary for the biological
control of mosquitoes. For this reason, the ponds should be stocked with mosquito
fish. Area requirements are similar to other wetland systems.
In rapid infiltration systems, wastewater effluent is applied on an intermittent
schedule usually to shallow infiltration trenches or spreading basins. Vegetation is not
usually provided. The evaporative losses in this system are only a small fraction of
the applied water and, hence, most of the applied effluent percolates through the soil
profile where treatment occurs. The treatment potential of rapid infiltration systems is
somewhat less than that for slow rate systems because of the lower retention capacity
of the soil and relatively higher inflow of water. In coastal areas, where the groundwater
level is high or the underlying strata not permeable enough, pressure-dosed field
trenches have been successfully used, Figure 14. Pressure distribution, which serves to
distribute the effluent evenly over the sand in the trench, is a key factor contributing
to the success of this type of disposal.
FIGURE 13
Wetland with floating aquatic plants
Water
hyacinth
Submerged
plants
Duckweed
Organic layer
Earth
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 279
The mound system, Figure 15, is essentially an intermittent sand filter that is placed
above the natural surface of the ground. The effluent in this system is pumped from
the septic tank through a piped pressure distribution system placed at the apex of the
gravel layer. Mound systems have been used in areas where the soils are permeable and
the water table very high or the soils not permeable at all. The system works well only
if the water accumulated under the mound can be pumped away. This system requires
mechanical pumping at all stages of the treatment and may not be suitable in areas
which lack a steady power supply.
Which system is the most suitable?
This question cannot be answered until the site has been evaluated. The principal
considerations in the design of a natural wastewater treatment system are:
a preliminary site assessment;
detailed site evaluation; and
assessment of the hydraulic assimilation capacity of the terrain.
The preliminary site assessment should consider the geomorphological features
of the area, such as surface slopes, existing marshes or wetlands, flooding potential,
groundwater extraction, water-table levels and landscaping.
FIGURE 14
Sand-filled trench
Compacted soil
Distribution pipe Building felt
Gravel
Sand
Impervious layer, fractured rock
or groundwater level
FIGURE 15
Mound system
Permeable soil
Soil cap
Top soil
Absorption bed
Barrier material
Distribution laterals
Clean drain rock
Sand fill
material
Tilled top soil
Water table or fractured bedrock
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 280
The detailed site evaluation should include identification of the soil characteristics,
percolation coefficients and hydrogeological characterization of the area.
From these investigations it should be possible to determine the hydraulic
assimilation capacity of the area, i.e. the suitability of the area to receive septic tank
effluent without jeopardizing the environment and public health.
Freshwater should be utilized in the toilet flushing system when septic tanks are
used for treating wastewater. The presence of seawater (up to 30 percent) in the raw
effluent decreases the efficiency of the bacterial decomposition of the sludge. Beyond
50 percent of seawater, bacterial decomposition is seriously compromised.
12.5.2 Type 1 effluent other ports
Other harbour installations situated away from municipal centres should install proper
sewage treatment plants which can handle a larger volume of water and produce an
effluent which may be discharged directly into a watercourse. Depending on the
required degree of purity of the effluent, a sewage treatment plant (Figure 16) may
consist of:
screening and disintegration (removal of major solids);
sedimentation (to settle out organic solids into sludge);
biological filtration (over a pebble bed inside circular tanks); and
tertiary treatment such as micro-straining, aeration and upward flow rapid gravity
sand filters.
In small plants, screening for large solid matter which may interfere with pipe flow
is generally carried out with manually racked bar screens at 60 to the flow.
The rest of the organic solids are then macerated by means of a special pump and the
fluid pumped into long sedimentation tanks; there, the drop in velocity allows some of
the suspended matter to settle as sludge which is then removed periodically, dried and
disposed of (buried, burned or dumped offshore). The biological treatment is achieved
by spraying the liquid from the sedimentation tanks over a pebble bed by slow-moving
rotating arms. Here, biological oxidation takes place (aerobic digestion) by micro-
organisms in the slime covering the stone pebbles. If further treatment is necessary, the
fluid is then pumped into a tertiary treatment section; otherwise, the liquid is pumped
to an outfall which should be located a distance away from the harbour.
12.5.3 Type 2 effluent wash-hand basins
In artisanal ports, where the sewage is treated through a septic tank, the effluent
containing detergents from the wash-hand basins and the shower units may be
discharged into a soakaway away from the septic tank or to a constructed wetland
(Figure 17).
Although soakaways have the potential to drastically reduce the volume of sewage
to be treated, they are only suitable for sandy terrain and their location must be such
that it does not contaminate drinking water borewells.
FIGURE 16
Typical modern sewage treatment plant
Tertiary treatment Percolating pebble beds Sedimentation tanks Screening tanks
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 281
12.5.4 Type 3 effluent market floor runoff
Market, auction and processing floors are generally hosed down using copious
amounts of water; the water may contain both solids (fish scales, discards, entrails,
etc.) and liquids (blood and fish oils). This runoff is not a health hazard in itself but
rather a nuisance; it may indirectly attract pests to the food handling area, such as
flies. Before entering the drainage system, this runoff should be channelled to a basket
drain to separate all the solids which may otherwise cause blockages in the drainage
system. The basket drain should be in stainless steel or plastic and easily accessible
for cleaning. Moreover, due to the large volume of water involved, this runoff should
preferably never be mixed with the toilets effluent as this will appreciably increase the
flow rate through the septic tank. This runoff water is best diverted to a soakaway, and
if clean seawater is used for this purpose, then an adequate outfall should be installed
to channel it directly back into the sea.
In larger installations it may still be uneconomical to channel this large volume of
runoff to the treatment plant as this will increase the basic cost of treatment for all
effluent. If environmental conditions permit (absence of sharks, outfall placed outside
the harbour basin, strong currents present near shore, etc.), this runoff may also be
channelled directly into the sea via a long underwater outfall.
An alternative solution to the dilemma of the increased volume of water is to reduce
drastically the volume of runoff at source, i.e. at the handling halls and this may be
achieved by the use of high-pressure cleaning equipment.
Small compact high-pressure cleaners manage to clean a surface using about one
fifth to one fourth of the volume of water normally used by a common 20 mm diameter
hose. The potential savings in water consumption may outweigh the cost of the electric
power (3 to 5 Kw) required to operate the cleaners, Figures 18 and 19. Most cleaners
come equipped with a small container to inject disinfectant (bleach) into the water jet,
a useful requirement for washing and sterilizing fish boxes simultaneously.
FIGURE 17
The soakaway
Ground level
Concrete cover
Variable depth of soil
Cement
joint
Open joint
wall
300 mm thick
gravel blanket
100 mm
PVC pipe
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 282
12.6 PORT WASTES
2
Apart from sewage, a ports waste stream consists of five different types of wastes
which may be broadly classified as toxic and non-toxic. The toxic wastes are:
batteries;
spent engine oil and bilge water oil; and
contaminated spares and consumables.
The non-toxic wastes are:
plastic consumables and dunnage, including nets; and
wet fish wastes.
Figure 20 indicates the layout and colour coding used in most countries to
distinguish between the different waste streams.
2
The port planner should keep abreast of debates at the IMO Committee on Flag State Implementation
with regard to facilities to be provided by port States.
FIGURE 18
A typical mobile high-pressure cleaner for use in auction hall
QUICK RELEASE COUPLING
FIGURE 19
A typical wall-mounted high-pressure cleaner for fish box washing
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 283
12.6.1 Batteries
Rechargeable lead-acid batteries contain plates of lead immersed in sulphuric acid
inside a plastic case. Lead-acid batteries are recyclable and most suppliers take spent
batteries back for industrial reprocessing. Sunlight may decompose the plastic casing,
so proper on-site storage of spent batteries is required to prevent the highly toxic
contents from spilling out (Figure 21).
12.6.2 Spent oil
Oily wastes discharged to reception facilities are usually mixtures of oil, water and,
in some cases, solids. The composition ratio of these solids can differ considerably,
depending on the type of wastes. Waste oil and fuel residues consist mainly of oil
contaminated with water, whereas bilge water consists mainly of water contaminated
with oil. Waste oil may be 100 percent recycled and in many countries it is now
mandatory to collect used oil from different sources for recycling. Reception facilities
for used engine oil inside harbours, Figures 22 and 23, are intended as a temporary
storage only, whereas the reception facilities for bilge water need to separate the oil
from the considerably larger volume of water. This oil can then be transferred to the
used oil storage facilities for collection at a later date and the treated water returned
back to the sea.
FIGURE 20
A fishing ports waste stream
FIGURE 21
Abandoned battery with split casing (left) and the recommended
battery on-site storage container (right)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 284
12.6.3 Bilge water separation
Oily bilge water is normally found on inboard motorized fishing vessels and consists
of engine oil (leaked out from the engine) mixed with seawater (leaked into the vessel
from various sources including around the propeller shaft of many vessels), and if left
standing still long enough, the oil fraction separates from the seawater and coalesces
on the surface. Bilge water should not be dumped overboard but collected at the
port for separation and eventual recycling of the oil fraction. The separated seawater
may be returned to the sea. Both artisanal and commercial separators are available,
Figure 24. Many of the larger fishing vessels are equipped with oily water separators;
FIGURE 22
Used oil drums may be converted to spent-oil storage in artisanal ports
FIGURE 23
Artisanal storage (left) and modern storage equipment (right)
FIGURE 24
Oily bilge water separators
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 285
the oil being returned to a holding tank and the water pumped overboard. If the oil
(often a mixture of lubricating oil and fuel oil) cannot be clarified and purified on board
(for further use) it has to be discharged ashore when in port for treatment. Figure 25
shows a modern vertical oil coalescer.
12.6.4 Solid waste bins
Non-toxic solid waste comprises all kinds of bulky items such as old tyre fenders,
pieces of rope and netting, broken fish boxes, etc. The equipment for handling this
waste should facilitate the reception, segregation and temporary storage. Part of this
waste may be recycled. However, the actual processing should not take place inside the
port. Disposal of this waste may be handled by municipal waste services.
Toxic solid waste comprises normal batteries, oil filters, engine spares, oil and paint
cans, solvents, oily rags, etc. None of this waste is normally recycled and this waste is
not normally handled by municipal services. This waste must not be sent to a municipal
landfill but must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill.
The receptacle capacity should match the demand, both in terms of size and number
of receptacles that are required and space availability. Small receptacles such as barrels
or oil drums are not suitable for bulky items. Household garbage from neighbourhood
communities should not be dumped inside the port facilities. In practice, it may be
found that both open top and closed containers are needed, especially in areas where
wind is very strong and where common garbage is generated inside the port and
cannot be stored in open top skips due to the presence of pests (cats and dogs) (see
Figure 26).
FIGURE 25
Modern vertical oil coalescer in plastic (no moving parts)
FIGURE 26
Solid waste bins
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 286
12.6.5 Wet waste bins
In theory, fish should be cleaned and gutted on board
the fishing vessels on their journey back to port and
dumped out at sea where it provides food for other
fish. In practice, however, much cleaning and gutting
still goes on inside harbours and it is well worth
installing reception facilities for the collection and
eventual disposal of wet wastes. Irrespective of the size
of the harbour, the best receptacle to use is an airtight
PVC drum (Figure 27).
These airtight containers should be placed at vantage
points all round the fish handling areas. They should be
placed in cool sheltered spots away from direct sunlight
to avoid rapid decomposition of the fish. The disposal
methods for wet wastes are various and all appear to
produce the desired result, i.e. removal of wastes which
may attract pests or vermin. The following methods are
practiced in various countries:
burial of limited quantities to produce fertilizer;
reloading on designated vessels for offshore dumping (a minor fee is levied on the
landings to pay for this service); and
privatizing the service via a concessionary agreement with an animal feed cottage
industry.
12.6.6 Flotsam collection and disposal
Whether a fishing port is located inside a river mouth or on an open coastline, flotsam
inevitably finds its way into the harbour area. This floating debris may consist of:
natural flotsam such as branches, logs, seaweed, etc.; and
rubbish caused by humans including fishing netting, wet fish wastes, carcasses of
domestic animals, household plastic litter and spilt oil.
Besides being a hazard to navigation, some of this material may also be a hazard
to public health (raw harbour water may be in use for rinsing fish) and should be
removed. Depending on the particular site conditions, the flotsam should be gathered
and disposed of in the proper manner. Figure 28 illustrates a vessel designed to scoop
up flotsam.
FIGURE 27
Air-tight PVC container
FIGURE 28
Self-propelled flotsam scooper
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 287
Figure 29 illustrates how two fishing vessels trawling in tandem (pair trawling) can
scoop flotsam over a wide area. The net, suitably buoyed with plastic floats, is towed
across by two fishing vessels proceeding at a low steady speed. The flotsam in the net
may then be brought ashore for sorting and disposal.
12.6.7 Fuel and oil spill response
Diesel fuel may leak into the harbour basin through careless handling during the
refuelling operations and engine oil may be pumped out during the emptying of the
bilges. All fishing ports should be equipped with a standard oil spill response package
consisting of disposable oil spill booms and absorbent pads, disposal bags, latex
gloves and plastic barrels for the sealed disposal of the oil-soaked disposable items
(Figure 30). The port management staff should be instructed in the proper handling of
fuel and trained in emergency oil-spill management.
12.7 PEST CONTROL
In many developing countries it is not uncommon to see domestic animals wandering
about the fishing port or landing site. Some animals, such as goats and poultry, are
sometimes purposely kept whereas dogs and cats move in to mop up scraps of food
left lying around. It is also very common for rodents and houseflies to invade such
FIGURE 29
Tandem trawling for flotsam by two vessels
FIGURE 30
Disposable oil-spill response equipment
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 288
places, especially when fish is part-processed (dried) inside the port area. Birds also
find shelter and ideal roosting places among the roof trusses of the old-fashioned type
sheds. Table 2 presents the best practice options for pest control.
12.7.1 Rodents
The best method to keep rodents at bay is strict housekeeping. Wet-waste bins, as
illustrated in Figure 27, should be made available all round the port area and all fish
wastes disposed of properly. Strict housekeeping rules must be enacted and enforced.
All unwanted fish carcasses (Figure 31) must be removed immediately and haphazard
use of the port area for slaughtering large fish should be forbidden.
12.7.2 Flies
Fish drying in the open air invites flies to lay eggs in the exposed flesh rendering the
finished product unhygienic. Fish drying should take place under a netted steel or
aluminium structure as illustrated in Figure 32. These structures are commonly used
in fish farming.
FIGURE 31
Abandoned fish carcasses and uncontrolled processing inside port area
TABLE 2
Best practice options for pest control
Type of nuisance Type of issue Best practice option
Rodents Infrastructure-
Management
Provide receptacles for wet wastes and
enforce housekeeping
Flies Infrastructure-
Management
Provide net-covered hangars and enforce use
Birds nesting inside fish-handling shed Infrastructure Install netting or false ceilings under trussed
roofs. New roofs should be of a flat slab
design or trussless
Cows, dogs, goats and cats Infrastructure Install fence and controlled access
FIGURE 32
Net-covered metal framework suitable for
fish drying or smoking
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 289
12.7.3 Birds
All port structures with open trussed roofs offer birds ample opportunities for roosting
and building nests. Bird droppings on the working surfaces below present a hygiene
hazard, especially if the fish is exposed during sorting or icing. All such structures
should be made bird proof by installing wire or plastic netting on all the undersides
and ensuring that all the roofing panels are intact (Figure 33).
12.7.4 Domestic animals
Domestic animals should not knowingly be kept inside port and fish landing areas and
fresh meat markets should not be allowed within the port or landing area. The major
requirements for controlling domestic animals around a port are illustrated in detail in
Chapter 11 and consist of:
controlled main entry gate;
cattle grid; and
perimeter boundary wall.
The boundary wall should not take the form of a fence as this is easily breached to
create shortcuts. The first metre of wall off the ground should be solid masonry and
this may be topped by a steel or wire fence as illustrated in Figure 53 in Chapter 11.
12.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
International Labour Organization. 2005. ILO Code of practice on safety and health in
ports. (English version available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/
techmeet/messhp03/messhp-cp-b.pdf)
International Maritime Organization. 1995. Comprehensive Manual on Port Reception
Facilities. London, International Maritime Organization.
International Maritime Organization. 1986. Guidelines on the Provision of Adequate
Reception Facilities in Ports. Part II, Residues and Mixtures Containing Noxious Liquid
Substances. London, International Maritime Organization.
Metcalf & Eddy. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. New York,
McGraw-Hill.
Sciortino, J.A. & Ravikumar, R. 1999. Fishery Harbour Manual on the Prevention of
Pollution. Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras, India.
World Health Organization. 1991. Guidelines for Drinking Water Water Quality.
Volumes 1, 2 and 3. Delhi, India, CBS Publishers.
FIGURE 33
Pigeons nesting on a truss (left) and a bird-proofed truss (right)
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 290
APPENDIX 1
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE LIMITS FOR DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
PARAMETER UNIT LIMIT
Aluminium mg Al/l 0.2
Arsenic mg As/l 0.05
Barium mg Ba/l 0.05
Berylium ug Be/l 0.2
Cadmium ug Cd/l 5.0
Calcium mg Ca/l 200.0
Chromium mg Cr/l 0.05
Copper mg Cu/l 1.0
Iron total mg Fe/l 0.3
Lead mg Pb/l 0.01
Magnesium mg Mg/l 150.0
Manganese mg Mn/l 0.1
Mercury ug Hg/l 1.0
Selenium mg Se/l 0.01
Sodium mg Na/l 200.0
Zinc mg Zn/l 5.0
Chlorides mg Cl/l 250.0
Cyanide mg Cn/l 0.1
Fluorides mg F/l 1.5
Nitrates mg NO
3
/l 10.0
Nitrites mg NO
2
/l -
Sulphates mg SO
4
/l 400.0
Suphides mg H
2
S/l 0
TOTAL drins ug/l 0.03
TOTAL ddt ug/l 1.0
Hydrocarbons mg/l 0.1
Anionic detergents mg/l 0
pH 6.5 8.5
Total dissolved solids mg/l 500
Total hardness mg/l 500
Alkalinity mg/l 500
MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Total bacteria Count/ml 100
Coliform Count/100 ml 0
E. Coli Count/100 ml 0
Salmonella Count/100 ml 0
ug = microgram
mg = milligram
Public health, hygiene and waste disposal 291
APPENDIX 2
EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVES
SUGGESTED ALLOWABLE LIMITS FOR
ESTUARY AND HARBOUR BASIN WATERS
PARAMETER UNIT VALUE
Mercury ug Hg/l 0.50 (D)
Cadmium ug Cd/l 5.00 (D)
Arsenic mg As/l 0.50 (G)
Chromium mg Cr/l 0.50 (G)
Copper mg Cu/l 0.50 (G)
Iron mg Fe/l 3.00 (G)
Lead mg Pb/l 0.50 (G)
Nickel mg Ni/l 0.50 (G)
Zinc mg Zn/l 50.00 (G)
Tributyltin ug /l 0.002
Triphenyltin ug /l 0.008
Aldrin ug /l 0.01
Dieldrin ug /l 0.01
Endrin ug /l 0.005
Isodrin ug /l 0.005
TOTAL drins ug /l 0.03
TOTAL ddt all 4 isomers ug /l 0.025
para-ddt ug /l 0.01
Hexaclorocyclohexane ug /l 0.02
Carbon tetrachloride ug /l 12.0
Pentachlorophenol ug /l 2.0
Hexachlorobenzene ug /l 0.03
Hexachlorobutadiene ug /l 0.10
Chloroform ug /l 12.0
Ethylenedichloride ug /l 10.0
Perchloroethylene ug /l 10.0
Trichlorobenzene ug /l 0.40
Trichloroethylene ug /l 10.0
Hydrocarbons ug /l 300.0 (G)
Phenols ug /l 50.0
Surfactants ug /l 300.0 (G)
Dissolved oxygen % Saturation 80-120 (G)
pH 6 - 9
Sulphide mg /l 0.04 (S)
MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Faecal coliforms per 100 ml 2 000
Total coliforms per 100 ml 10 000
Salmonella 0
Entero viruses 0
ug = microgram
mg = milligram
D - Dissolved
G-Guideline
S-Suggested
293
Annex 1
FAO Technical Guidelines for
Responsible Fisheries Fishing
Operations 1 (Annex VI)
Annex VI. Procedures for the Development and Management of Harbours and
Landing Places for Fishing Vessels
A. INTRODUCTION
1. The increasing problems associated with the construction of new harbours
and landing places for fishing vessels and, in particular, their operation and
maintenance, reached critical levels in some parts of the world. In many
instances, the adverse effects of harbour pollution from the activities of fishing
vessels as well as those of vendors and processors was exacerbated by the almost
total lack of reception facilities. Matters became more serious in the late 1980s
with an ever-increasing demand for assistance from developing countries to
solve specific problems with existing harbours as well as for help in designing
new installations.
2. In the Bay of Bengal subregion, the matter gave great cause for concern and, with
the cooperation of the International Maritime Organization (within its cleaner
seas programme), the Bay of Bengal Programme

(BOBP) commissioned a series
of important studies. At the same time, FAO also embarked on the preparation
of a manual in relation to harbours and landing places to give guidance on design,
construction and maintenance of harbours and landing places. An important
component of this manual dealt with the reduction of pollution.
3. In connection with the activities of the BOBP, the Government of Malaysia
hosted a subregional workshop at Penang, 9-11 December 1991, at which the
results of the studies carried out by the BOBP project were presented. The
FAO secretariat reported on its activities in other regions and IMO highlighted
developments with regard to MARPOL.
1
4. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), June 1992, in relation to the protection of the marine environment,
the need for a precautionary and anticipatory approach rather than a reactive
approach was seen to be necessary to prevent degradation of the marine
environment. UNCED recommended, inter alia, the adoption of environmental
impact assessment procedures.
5. In recent years, environmental auditing has become an accepted norm for
development within coastal areas. It ensures that a State, in consultation with
the promoter of a project proposal, can jointly make an assessment of a project
and the effect of the planned activities with regard to any significant adverse
impact upon the environment. The auditing mechanism also provides for a
preliminary assessment or partial audit, on the basis of which a government can
decide whether or not to go ahead with a proposal. It also provides the basis
1
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as modified by the Protocol
of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78).
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 294
for a decision with regard to a full environmental audit. In addition, taking into
consideration the size and cost of the project, as well as the practicality of the
exercise, it can provide the terms of reference for the full audit.
6. Although it was apparent from the studies undertaken by the BOBP and FAO,
that impact assessments with respect to coastal development seemed to be a
matter of common sense, the reality of the matter indicated otherwise. Similarly,
the level of cooperation between users of the coastal area often fell far short of
what was needed.
7. Therefore, in the preparation of this Annex, account has been taken of the
requirement for better systems of management identified by the BOBP
workshop in Penang, recent developments in the implementation of MARPOL
with regard to cleaner harbours (port reception facilities), Agenda 21 of UNCED
and Articles 8 and 10 of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (the
Code).
B. STANDARD PROCEDURES
1. General Provisions
1.1 Within the concepts of responsible fishing operations and the integration
of fisheries into coastal area management, this Annex provides a technical
framework for the implementation of procedures as an aid to the management
and development of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels.
1.2 Provisions are made for the formulation and implementation of environmental
audits for future fisheries related infrastructure projects.
1.3 Although forming a part of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries,
that is voluntary, some provisions of this Annex may be or have already been
given binding effect by means of legal instruments, such as UNCLOS 82
2
, the
Montreal protocol
3
and MARPOL 73/78.
2. Scope And Objectives
2.1 The proposed procedures are global in scope, and directed towards all persons,
whether in government or the private sector, involved in the planning, design,
construction, maintenance and management of harbours, harbour infrastructure
and landing places for fishing vessels.
2.2 The objective is to enhance the capacity of States to ensure the adoption of
environmentally sound development, management and conservation practices
through:
a) better standards of management in harbours and landing places for existing
and future facilities;
b) the establishment of environmental auditing procedures and design criteria
related to future fisheries infrastructure projects; and,
c) appropriate training and education in environmental awareness.
3. Management
3.1 States should ensure that an appropriate legal and institutional framework is
adopted to manage coastal zone development.
3.2 The fisheries sector should be an integral part of the coastal zone management
arrangements in order to ensure that:
a) due account is taken of the rights of coastal fishing communities and their
customary practices to the extent compatible with sustainable development;
and,
2
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982.
3
Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention.
Annex 1 FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries Fishing Operations 1 (Annex VI) 295
b) that the fisheries sector, together with fishing communities are consulted in
the decision making process regarding fisheries related projects as well as
providing for their inputs in non-fisheries activities related to coastal area
management.
3.3 States should take measures to establish effective management bodies at the fish
landing or harbour levels to ensure:
a) compliance with the laws, regulations and other legal rules governing
the duties of a port State in relation to a fishing harbour or a fish landing
facility;
b) compliance with environmental conservation and monitoring measures
adopted by the competent authorities at the national level as well as measures
adopted on a regional or subregional basis;
4

c) integration with other users (as in the case of a non-exclusive facility for
fishing vessels); and,
d) transparency in the decision making process.
3.4 In establishing a management body, the competent authorities should ensure that
such bodies:
a) are adequately funded to function as intended;
b) represent the whole spectrum of users of the facility;
c) allow for consultation between the various users;
d) are commensurate with the size of the facility and the duties of the body and
the responsibilities assigned to it.
3.5 At the village level, the management could be entrusted to a Community Fishery
Centre (CFC) or similar organization of fisherfolk. Although the facilities and
services within a particular village or area may be quite modest, there is still a
need for an organized form of management.
5

3.6 At the industrial level, the management should be implemented by a well defined
body (Private, Autonomous, Municipal or State), with the members drawn
from the various constituent users of the port as well as the community at large.
An exception to the rule would be where the facilities are owned by a single
company. Nevertheless, the company would remain accountable, within the
overall management structure, for its operations.
4. Environmental Auditing Procedures
4.1 States should ensure that development proposals are formulated in a precautionary
rather than a reactive manner to minimize unwarranted degradation of the
aquatic environment.
4.2 States should also establish procedures for the inclusion of future development
proposals for harbours and landing places for fishing vessels into national
development plans, and where applicable, fisheries or coastal zone management
plans. These procedures should be sufficiently flexible to accommodate requests
for proposals within a programming period which may arise, for instance, as
a consequence of unforeseen changes in the fisheries sector, including natural
disasters.
4.3 States should also ensure that all such proposals are supported by clearly defined
justifications.
4.4 States should adopt environmental audits in support of all applications for
construction or improvement of harbours or landing places for fishing vessels,
whether in coastal zones or inland waters.
6

4
The provisions or regional or subregional agreements to which the coastal State is a party would
normally be incorporated in national legislation.
5
See FAO guidelines for the establishment and operation of Community Fishery Centres.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 296
4.5 The auditing procedures required for carrying out a full environmental audit in
compliance with commonly accepted standards, should:
a) assess the existing environment, including the land-use characteristics and
socio-cultural activities at the proposed site;
b) list the planned changes to be made to the environment by the proposed
project;
c) estimate the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing
environment
7
;
d) propose mitigation measures to prevent (or mitigate) the anticipated impact
on the existing environment; and,
e) establish a system of environmental monitoring in the vicinity of the project
site.
4.6 In order to commence an auditing process, States should ensure that all
applications submitted in respect of new constructions are accompanied by a
detailed outline design of the proposal.
4.7 A detailed outline design of the proposal should be a stand-alone document.
It should consist of a detailed description and layout of the project proposal
in relation to its surroundings, the anticipated demand on the resources of the
area both during construction and operation, together with mitigation and
environmental monitoring proposals. The detail in the detailed outline design
should be commensurate with the size of the proposed project; the larger
the project the more detail required. This document should form part of the
environmental audit up and until full planning or building permission has been
issued by the competent authorities.
5. Environmental Assessments
5.1 The existing environment around a project site should be assessed through:
a) onshore topographic and offshore bathymetric maps (down to the 20 metre
contour) of the site, covering at least 1 km in each direction along the coast;
b) aerial imagery of the above-mentioned area with a resolution not smaller than
1:2000 together with any satellite imagery available
8
;
c) details of existing or planned coastal structures within 5 km of the proposed
site;
d) a morphological description of the coastal zone of the site, backed up by a
geological description of important local features such as cliffs, sand dunes,
beaches, reefs, terraces, rivers, dams on nearby rivers, river mouths;
e) wave, tide or lake level statistical characteristics including probability tables
for extreme conditions;
f) seasonal variations in rainfall, river flows, water density, water temperature,
nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels;
g) geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline
and seabed, including source, volume and seasonal changes in littoral
transport;
h) maps of onshore and offshore habitats in and around the project site (coral
reefs, lagoon systems, mangroves, estuaries, etc.);
i) maps of types of habitat in and around the project site (areas of refuge,
feeding grounds, nursery and spawning);
6
Institutional bodies or private sector organizations with the capacity to carry out such audits should be
identified.
7
See FAO paper on fishery harbour planning, reference 1.
8
Satellite images are available for many parts of the world. The FAO remote sensing unit and its network
of regional stations could provide appropriate reference points.
Annex 1 FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries Fishing Operations 1 (Annex VI) 297
j) lists of the species to be harvested, lists of protected or rare species and
biological indicators as well as the methods of fishing;
k) layouts, size and capacity of resource networks, such as for water supplies,
power supply and distribution, road and other communications and sewerage
networks, etc.; and,
l) location maps of any type of activity discharging directly or indirectly effluent
into the aquatic environment, including distant but connected watercourses,
such as sewer outfalls, onshore fish farms, slaughterhouses, logging/saw mill
concessions, wood pulp factories, mines and ore reduction plants and other
industries.
6. Planned Changes
6.1 Assessments should address the planned changes to the environment and should
include:
a) a general description of the entire project, including location, type, size and
typical cross-sections of the various components that together make up the
project together with a description of the proposed stages of construction;
b) the additional demands which would be placed on the locally available
resources, both during construction and operation of the project;
c) details of all the effluents and emissions arising from the project; and,
d) the changes in the landscape, including land use characteristics and socio-
cultural activities envisaged in the project.
7. Anticipated Impact
7.1 The estimation of the anticipated impact of the planned project on the existing
environment should include:
a) topographic, bathymetric and oceanographic changes, including dredging
and reclamation, during and after construction until stable conditions are
resumed, together with their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;
b) changes in water quality (temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen,
nutrients concentration and microbial pollution levels) during and after
construction and their effect on habitats, flora, fauna and land use;
c) sources of pollution discharging effluent, emissions or solid wastes during
and after construction until stable conditions are resumed and their effect on
habitats, flora, fauna and land use; and,
d) the visual impact on the seascape and the landscape and general quality of life
around the proposed project site.
7.2 In the valuation of the coastal resources, the competent authorities should take
into account all elements of value, not just those elements for which markets
happen to exist. The fact that a resource is not traded in a market does not mean
it is of no value (consider for instance the social benefits of a clean beach, the
tourist potential of a coral reef, or the health implications of clean air).
8. Mitigating Measures
8.1 The detailed outline design should list the proposed measures to prevent or
reduce (mitigate) the negative effects upon the environment. The mitigation
measures should be:
a) technical, i.e oil reception facilities, waste recycling schemes, sewage treatment
systems, CFC-free refrigeration equipment and by-pass dredging where
applicable;
b) managerial, i.e. a clearly defined harbour board, commensurate with the size
of the proposed project and the responsibilities expected of it; and,
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 298
c) legal and administrative, i.e. frameworks formulated in conformity with
national laws to provide for sanctions in respect of violations.
8.2 The detailed outline design should also list the proposed monitoring measures to
identify environmental degradation as early as possible.
8.3 In the first instance, such proposals should identify the appropriate indicators and
secondly the institutional bodies with the capacity to carry out the monitoring
process. These indicators could be:
a) physical parameters (i.e. changes in coastal morphology such as erosion or
siltation);
b) biological parameters (i.e. edibility of certain shellfish);
c) chemical parameters (water quality); and,
d) socio-economic parameters (such as population density and income levels).
9. Design Criteria
9.1 In general, States should adopt acceptable design criteria for the design and
construction of harbours and landing places for fishing vessels to ensure against
unwarranted degradation of the aquatic environment. Design criteria for both
the detailed outline design and the final design should ensure, inter alia:
a) compliance with basic engineering principles regarding the morphological
degradation of the coastal zone in respect of erosion and siltation (UNCED
92)
9
;
b) compliance with all relevant conventions concerning pollution of the aquatic
environment (MARPOL 73/78); and,
c) the provision of adequate monitoring of the effects of operations on the
environment (UNCED 92).
9.2 The detailed outline design should enable the competent authorities to make a
preliminary assessment of the project and the effect of the planned activities with
regard to any significant adverse impact upon the existing environment.
9.3 The detailed outline design of a project proposal should be based on the following
minimum technical requirements:
a) detailed current topographic and bathymetric maps, resolution not smaller
than 1:1000;
b) wave, tide or lake level statistical hindcast studies, including probability
tables for extreme conditions;
c) geological, petrographic and sedimentological characteristics of the coastline
and seabed; and,
d) mathematical and/or physical hydraulic modelling of the anticipated changes
in the shoreline (including erosion, and siltation) and conditions at sea
(including wave reflections and circulation).
9.4 The competent authorities should ensure that:
a) the resolution and accuracy of the maps are adequate and verifiable;
b) the wave statistical and hindcast studies are reliable;
c) the geological studies are adequate in extent and detail; and,
d) the hydraulic models are adequate in extent and calibration and the results
reliable.
9.5 Final design should only be submitted after the environmental audit has been
approved by the competent authorities.
9.6 States should ensure that final design adheres strictly to the detailed outline
design (and approved modifications) as approved by the competent authorities
in the final version of the environmental audit.
9
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992.
Annex 1 FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries Fishing Operations 1 (Annex VI) 299
9.7 The final design should comply with the relevant provisions of International
Conventions to which the State is a party, such as:
a) UNCLOS 1982 which establishes rules concerning environmental standards
as well as enforcement provisions dealing with pollution of the marine
environment;
b) MONTREAL PROTOCOL 1987 which protects the ozone layer by
taking measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that
deplete it;
c) MARPOL 73/78 which protects the marine environment by eliminating
completely pollution due to oil and other harmful substances; and,
d) LONDON CONVENTION 1972 which controls pollution of the sea by
dumping.
10. Education and Training
10.1 States should promote awareness of environmental issues related to fishing
harbours and landing places. The target audience should include:
a) direct users;
b) other user groups;
c) those responsible for the management and operation of such facilities; and,
d) the general public.
10.2 States should ensure that the provisions of the Code in relation to harbour and
landing places are brought to the attention of those responsible for the training
and certification of fishermen. Awareness programmes should ensure that these
provisions are brought to the attention of all those employed directly in the
fisheries industry, and their families.
10.3 Such training and awareness programmes should incorporate guidelines on
personal hygiene, public health (sanitation) and on how to maintain harbours
and landing places in a clean condition.
10.4 Other user groups may be served through community based arrangements
supported by government extension services, such as:
a) Community Fishing Centres (CFCs)
10

b) Fishery Development Units
11
(FDUs); and,
c) Vocational training programmes, which could include the general public.
10.5 States should ensure that their awareness programmes are supported by
requiring those responsible for the management and operation of fishing
harbours and landing places, to prominently display by-laws and regulations
(billboards, posters and newspapers) for the benefit of all users.
10.6 The general public, and as appropriate, those still at school, could also be
targeted by community wide awareness programmes or association of these
issues with environmental studies.
11. References
Fishery Harbour Planning FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 123, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1973.
Community Fishery Centres: Guidelines for Establishment and Operation FAO
Fisheries Technical Paper No. 264. Ben-Yami M, Anderson A.M., Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1985.
Construction and Maintenance of Artisanal Fishing Harbours and Village Landings FAO
Training Series No. 25. Sciortino J.A., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome 1995.
10
FAO/IMO Guidelines Ref. 3 and 5.
11
Fisheries Technical Paper No. 264 on Guidelines for the establishment and operation on FDUs.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 300
Linking Government Agents and Local Users: Participatory Urban Appraisal for Artisanal
Port Development Reusen R., Johnson J. International Institute for Environment and
Development, Issue No. 21. Nov. 1994.
Guidelines for Cleaner Fishery Harbours, BOBP (Madras 1993).
301
Annex 2
Port hygiene checklist
INTRODUCTION
The standard of personal hygiene of the workers employed inside a fishing harbour
depends on both the sanitary infrastructure available and the harbour management in
enforcing certain directives. The following principles are based on actual cases.
TOILETS
Toilets should be constructed to the highest standards possible to ensure the maximum
lifetime. Poorly built facilities break down very quickly and in hot climates they give
rise to toilets of opportunity elsewhere. Toilet facilities should always be properly
maintained and full-time manning by attendants is desirable. Toilets should never open
on to a work area where fish is being handled due to the risk of flooding from blocked
drains.
WASH-HAND BASINS
An adequate number of wash-hand basins should be provided within each toilet block.
These should be equipped with arm or foot-operated faucets and soap should be
available at all times. Household-type fittings should not be specified as these do not
withstand the rigours of constant use. Water saving spring loaded faucets should be
provided in areas where water is scarce.
SHOWERS
The importance of showers in hot climates should not be underestimated; fishermen
returning from long journeys always welcome a shower with proper running water.
As with toilets, showers should be built to the highest standard possible and manned
by attendants. When the harbour is not offloading fish, showers should be cleaned and
locked up.
SIGNS AND BILLBOARDS
Appropriate signs and billboards listing food hygiene regulations should form part of
the harbours sanitary awareness infrastructure. These signs should be displayed at all
the strategic locations within the port boundary, for example:
NO SMOKING, NO SPITTING, NO EATING signs should be posted
wherever fish is being handled; and
HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS ? signs should be posted at all toilet
exits.
Adequate signs should also be posted in prominent locations indicating the direction
to the toilets. Proper and frequent training of the port workers in personal hygiene
should form part of the harbour masters management brief. Port sanitation is to the
port what personal hygiene is to the workers employed by the port.
Port sanitation is best explained by the following simple regulations:
1. All water supplies inside the port should comply with the national drinking water
standards;
2. All ice, including that brought in from outside suppliers, should also comply with
the above drinking water standards;
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 302
3. All chlorination equipment should be functional and adequate supplies of the
chlorination agent should be held in stock;
4. All sampling and testing carried out inside the port should be carried out by
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certified laboratories only;
5. Appropriate signs should be displayed within the port area covering the
prohibition of dumping, spillage, use of seawater from inside harbour basin,
spitting, eating areas, access for domestic animals, etc.;
6. Appropriate billboards should be displayed at strategic locations listing fines for
the contravention of port hygiene rules;
7. All drainage systems (indoor and outdoor) should be kept in perfect working
order;
8. Port perimeter fences should be properly maintained to keep unauthorized people
and domestic animals from entering the port area at any time;
9. The entrance and exit to a fishing port area should be manned during business
hours to prevent unauthorized people from gaining entry to the fish handling
areas;
10. Disinfection of required areas should be carried out on a regular basis;
11. No excessive trash and wet wastes should be left to accumulate in work areas;
12. No rodent harbourage should exist in and around the port area (tall weeds, junk
piles and municipal rubbish);
13. No birds should be nesting inside open-sided auction halls and fish handling
sheds;
14. Only employees and officially recognized fish traders should be allowed access
to work areas during fish handling operations and auctions;
15. Toilet and shower facilities should be kept scrupulously clean and in perfect
working order;
16. Only electrically powered machinery should be allowed inside the auction or
handling sheds to prevent oil, petrol and diesel from leaking onto the floors
which are sometimes used as auction surfaces for large fish;
17. All equipment inside the fish handling areas, from block ice crushers to platform
trolleys, should be in stainless steel; and
18. The entire fish handling area should be hosed down properly at the end of
business and locked up to prevent unauthorized entry until the next auction.
303
Annex 3
Port hygiene deficiencies checklist
INTRODUCTION
The sanitary infrastructure inside many fishing harbours always gives cause for
concern, especially when health or food hygiene inspectors are expected for an official
visit. The following infrastructure deficiencies are among the most common infractions
which the inspectors look for and are based on actual cases:
A. WC Facilities
1. Toilets are sometimes totally absent from the harbour infrastructure;
2. Toilets open out onto work areas where sewage can flood directly into the
processing/handling area;
3. Toilet drains are often uncovered and full of rubbish like plastic bags, fruit, etc.,
causing blockages;
4. Toilets do not have an adequate water supply to flush;
5. Toilet and wash-hand basin fittings are often out of order, broken or missing;
6. Toilet wash-hand basins are often left without soap or wipe towels/blowers;
7. No HAVE YOU WASHED YOUR HANDS signs posted inside toilets;
8. Doors are often unserviceable and removed off the hinges because the timber
from which they are manufactured absorbs too much moisture and renders them
inoperable ;
9. Toilets are often flooded from leaking pipes or roofs; and
10. Sewage disposal or treatment is either absent or totally inadequate.
B. Auction Hall
1. No fish sorting tables in sorting hall and fish is handled on the floor;
2. No sanitary water is available inside the harbour to rinse fish; and
3. No sanitary water is available inside the harbour to wash floors.
305
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Training Manual on Seafood Handling
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 306

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)
Annex 4 Training manual on seafood handling 307
















1
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Fishing harbour planning construction and management 308
A
c
t
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v
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y

Annex 4 Training manual on seafood handling 309
















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Fishing harbour planning construction and management 310
A
c
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A
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q
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?
Annex 4 Training manual on seafood handling 311
















h
a
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b
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Fishing harbour planning construction and management 312
2
.

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7
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Annex 4 Training manual on seafood handling 323
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325
Annex 5
Prevention of pollution
INTRODUCTION
The following is a series of cartoons taken from the Cleaner Harbours publication
in the FAO Training Series. They may be adapted to make them compatible with the
different regions of the world.
Who should use them?
The drawings are for use by extension workers in the field, fisheries training colleges,
fisheries enforcement officers and harbour-masters. The drawings may also be used
as part of an elementary public awareness programme within a larger educational
framework. Some of the drawings are also suitable as posters.
Fish handling
Servicing
Refuelling
Operations
Fishing harbour - sources of pollution
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 1
Drawing No. 1 outlines the four major sources of pollution in a typical fisheries harbour; operations;
handling; servicing; and refuelling.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 326
Refuelling
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 2
Operations
Boat
servicing
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 3
Fish handling
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 4
Drawing No. 2 shows how split fuel oil attacks the caulking on timber vessels. Metal cans on the sea-bed
attack metal hulls and fittings, such as the propeller and the shaft.
Drawing No. 3 shows the discarded waste that is typical when vessels are serviced carelessly.
Drawing No. 4 emphasizes the health hazard of gutting sh inside the harbour pests are invariably
drawn to the area.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 327
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 5
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 6
Refuelling
Water tap unsuitable for fuel
Wire rusts and breaks off
Cheap plastic pipe
turns brittle and splits
very easily
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 7
Drawing No. 5 shows how dangerous chemicals nd their way into the food-chain.
Drawing No. 6 asks the important question without laying blame on any one particular sector of the
sheries industry.
Drawing No. 7 shows the typical mistakes made by people who are not aware of the consequences of
spilling fuel. Case history slides should be inserted in-between slides of drawings No. 8 onwards.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 328
Spill containment tray
Proper fuel cock
Rubber hose and pistol
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 8
Boat
maintenance
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 9
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 10
Drawing No. 8 shows the correct way to store and dispense fuel at the quayside.
Drawing No. 9 shows a careless boat owner servicing his boat with little attention to the mess around
him.
Drawing No. 10 explains in very simple terms the various chemicals that make up paint and their
toxicity to humans.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 329
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 12
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 13
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 11
Drawing No.11 stresses the point that any material abandoned near the waters edge invariably ends up
in the water. For example, wind blows some empty cans and children kick the rest in.
Drawing No.12 shows the correct method of can disposal. The container shown should look like the one
intended for use at the particular landing.
Drawing No.13 explains the importance of greasing moving parts rather than oiling them.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 330
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 14
Boat
operations
Oil attacks
your caulking
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 15
Drawing No.14 shows the correct method of oil disposal. The container shown should look like the one
intended for use.
Drawing No.15 shows the effect that oil has on a vessels caulking.
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 16
Drawing No.16 emphasizes the need to maintain engines properly (oil seals) and avoid oil spillage. If
outboards are very popular in a specic country, an outboard engine should be added to this drawing.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 331
Authorized
collector
Reprocessing
plant
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 17
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 19
Drawing No.17 shows collection and treatment of slops at both the artisanal and industrial levels.
Drawing No.18 suggests more environment-friendly methods of storing sh. Foam and timber boxes
accumulate bacteria and are not suitable for continuous use. However, timber boxes are made locally
and can be used as fuel when they break.
fish handling
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 18
Drawing No.19 shows how to keep the problems associated with offal to a minimum.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 332
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 20
Drawing No. 20 explains the importance of using clean fresh water to rinse sh. Note also that the run-
off containing blood is drained into a soakaway and not into the harbour.
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 21
Drawing No. 21 shows bad sh-cleaning techniques. The shmonger is using dirty water from the harbor,
where raw sewage might be present, and dumping scraps of sh which attract pests and disease. Note
the absence of soakaway.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 333
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 23
Drawing No. 23 shows which toxins the items shown in Drawing No. 22 contain. Although the manganese
powder lling of the torch battery is not considered toxic, it always contains traces of mercury which is
highly toxic.
Drawing No. 22 illustrates the sources of highly toxic heavy metal pollution.
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 22
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 24
Drawing No. 24 illustrates how batteries break up and release toxic lead into the environment.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 334
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 25
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 27
Drawing No. 25 illustrates a recommended collection method. The size and shape of containers illustrated
should match local market conditions.
Drawing No. 27 illustrates two cases where such items cause inconvenience to other vessels.
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 26
Drawing No. 26 Illustrates items which are sometimes lost over the side of boats.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 335
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 28
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 29
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 30
Drawing No. 28 illustrates another such inconvenience.
Drawing No. 29 focuses on the cost of removing this sort of rubbish.
Drawing No. 30 illustrates the correct method of rubbish disposal. The container should resemble the
one intended for use.
Fishing harbour planning, construction and management 336
FAO Training Series
CLEAN HARBOURS 31
PRACTICAL POSTERS
Based on FAO POSTER TRAINING SERIES
Drawing for a poster to be affixed in fishing harbours to remind fishermen to replace
leaking oil seals and to exercise care when replacing engine oil.
Leaking oil seals and oil spillage contribute to create oily bilge water which must
then be treated before being returned to the sea. Although it is an offence under
MARPOL to dump oily bilge water at sea, very few fishermen seem to understand the
process. Invariably, most bilge water ends up in the sea.
Drawing No. 31 can be used to illustrate the commentators summing-up remarks.
Annex 5 Prevention of pollution 337
A poster to be affixed inside the port area where fish hawkers congregate to sell
fish.
Although fish gutting and cleaning should be forbidden inside the harbour area,
sometimes this practize cannot be helped. In order to avoid the spread of diseases
which accompanies the presence of household pests, hawkers should be instructed on
the proper disposal of unwanted wastes. Wet waste bins should be provided in ample
quantities and placed in strategic locations. They should be shaded from sunlight to
prevent higher rates of decomposition and foul smells.
The figure shows a drawing for a poster instructing harbour users to utilise the
harbour waste receptacles for their bulky inorganic wastes.
Posters indicating the different types of wastes catered for and the respective bins
to use should be placed at the entrance to the harbour as well as in strategic locations
around the port. The bins for the different wastes (non-toxic, toxic and wet wastes)
should be colour coded and suitable for the kind of waste.
Fines levied by the management for non-observance of the port regulations should
be listed and placed in a prominent location inside the port boundary.
Dispose of unwanted
bulky items
as instructed