Contents

PART I
Foreword
Preface

v
vii

1.

Relations and Functions

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Relations
1.3 Types of Functions
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function
1.5 Binary Operations

1
1
2
7
12
19

2.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Concepts
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

33
33
33
42

3.

Matrices
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Matrix
3.3 Types of Matrices
3.4 Operations on Matrices
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix
3.8 Invertible Matrices

56
56
56
61
65
83
85
90
91

4.

Determinants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Determinant
4.3 Properties of Determinants
4.4 Area of a Triangle
4.5 Minors and Cofactors
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

103
103
103
109
121
123
126
133

xiv
5.

Continuity and Differentiability

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Continuity
5.3 Differentiability
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
5.7 Second Order Derivative
5.8 Mean Value Theorem

147
147
147
161
170
174
179
181
184

6.

Application of Derivatives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
6.4 Tangents and Normals
6.5 Approximations
6.6 Maxima and Minima

194
194
194
199
206
213
216

Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics

A.1.1 Introduction
A.1.2 What is a Proof?

247
247
247

Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling

A.2.1 Introduction
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling?
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling

256
256
256
257

Answers

268

Chapter

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

There is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics ... . It may
be very hard to define mathematical beauty but that is just as true of
beauty of any kind, we may not know quite what we mean by a
beautiful poem, but that does not prevent us from recognising
one when we read it. G. H. HARDY

1.1 Introduction

Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain,

co-domain and range have been introduced in Class XI
along with different types of specific real valued functions
and their graphs. The concept of the term relation in
mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation
in English language, according to which two objects or
quantities are related if there is a recognisable connection
or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be
the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the
set of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some
of the examples of relations from A to B are
(i) {(a, b) A B: a is brother of b},
Lejeune Dirichlet
(1805-1859)
(ii) {(a, b) A B: a is sister of b},
(iii) {(a, b) A B: age of a is greater than age of b},
(iv) {(a, b) A B: total marks obtained by a in the final examination is less than
the total marks obtained by b in the final examination},
(v) {(a, b) A B: a lives in the same locality as b}. However, abstracting from
this, we define mathematically a relation R from A to B as an arbitrary subset
of A B.
If (a, b) R, we say that a is related to b under the relation R and we write as
a R b. In general, (a, b) R, we do not bother whether there is a recognisable
connection or link between a and b. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kind of
relations.
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition
of functions, invertible functions and binary operations.

MATHEMATICS

1.2 Types of Relations

In this section, we would like to study different types of relations. We know that a
relation in a set A is a subset of A A. Thus, the empty set and A A are two
extreme relations. For illustration, consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} given by
R = {(a, b): a b = 10}. This is the empty set, as no pair (a, b) satisfies the condition
a b = 10. Similarly, R = {(a, b) : | a b | 0} is the whole set A A, as all pairs
(a, b) in A A satisfy | a b | 0. These two extreme examples lead us to the
following definitions.

Definition 1 A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is

A A.
related to any element of A, i.e., R =

Definition 2 A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A

is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A A.
Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial
relations.
Example 1 Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R
in A given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R = {(a, b) : the
difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal relation.

Solution Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = , showing that R is the empty relation. It is also
obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the school has to be
less than 3 meters. This shows that R = A A is the universal relation.

Remark In Class XI, we have seen two ways of representing a relation, namely
roaster method and set builder method. However, a relation R in the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
defined by R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is also expressed as a R b if and only if
b = a + 1 by many authors. We may also use this notation, as and when convenient.

If (a, b)

R, we say that a is related to b and we denote it as a R b.

One of the most important relation, which plays a significant role in Mathematics,
is an equivalence relation. To study equivalence relation, we first consider three
types of relations, namely reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Definition 3 A relation R in a set A is called

R implies that (a1, a3)

R and (a2, a3)

R, for all a1, a2

A.

R, for all a1, a2

(iii) transitive, if (a1, a2)

a3 A.

R implies that (a2, a1)

(ii) symmetric, if (a1, a2)

A,

R, for every a

(i) reflexive, if (a, a)

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Definition 4 A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is

reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example 2 Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by
R = {(T1, T2) : T1 is congruent to T2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, since every triangle is congruent to itself. Further,
(T1, T2) R T1 is congruent to T2 T2 is congruent to T1 (T2, T1) R. Hence,
T1 is congruent to T2 and T2 is
R is symmetric. Moreover, (T1, T2), (T2, T3) R
congruent to T3 T1 is congruent to T3 (T1, T3) R. Therefore, R is an equivalence
relation.

Example 3 Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is perpendicular to L2}. Show that R is symmetric but neither
reflexive nor transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive, as a line L1 can not be perpendicular to itself, i.e., (L1, L1)
R. R is symmetric as (L1, L2) R
L1 is perpendicular to L2

L2 is perpendicular to L1

(L2, L1)

R.

R is not transitive. Indeed, if L1 is perpendicular to L2 and

Fig 1.1
L2 is perpendicular to L3, then L1 can never be perpendicular to
L3. In fact, L1 is parallel to L3, i.e., (L1, L2) R, (L2, L3) R but (L1, L3) R.

Example 4 Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.
Solution R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric,
as (1, 2) R but (2, 1) R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) R and (2, 3) R
but (1, 3) R.

Example 5 Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by

R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a b}
is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a a) for all a Z. Further, if (a, b) R, then
2 divides a b. Therefore, 2 divides b a. Hence, (b, a) R, which shows that R is
symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) R and (b, c) R, then a b and b c are divisible by
2. Now, a c = (a b) + (b c) is even (Why?). So, (a c) is divisible by 2. This
shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.

MATHEMATICS

In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero, as (0, 2), (0, 4)
etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, 1), (0, 3) etc., do not lie in R.
Similarly, all odd integers are related to one and no even integer is related to one.
Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers are subsets of
Z satisfying following conditions:
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to
each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E O.
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by
[0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing 1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that
[0] [1], [0] = [2r] and [1] = [2r + 1], r Z. Infact, what we have seen above is true
for an arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence
relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets Ai called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:

(i) all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.

Aj = X and Ai

Aj = , i

(iii)

j.

(ii) no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i

j.

The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation
is that we can go reverse also. For example, consider a subdivision of the set Z given
by three mutually disjoint subsets A1, A2 and A3 whose union is Z with
A2 = {x
A3 = {x

A1 = {x

Z : x is a multiple of 3} = {..., 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, ...}

Z : x 1 is a multiple of 3} = {..., 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
Z : x 2 is a multiple of 3} = {..., 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}

Define a relation R in Z given by R = {(a, b) : 3 divides a b}. Following the

arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we can show that R is an equivalence
relation. Also, A1 coincides with the set of all integers in Z which are related to zero, A2
coincides with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A3 coincides with the
set of all integers in Z which are related to 2. Thus, A1 = [0], A2 = [1] and A3 = [2].
In fact, A1 = [3r], A2 = [3r + 1] and A3 = [3r + 2], for all r Z.

Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by

R = {(a, b) : both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4, 6}.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Solution Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so
that (a, a) R. Further, (a, b) R
both a and b must be either odd or even
(b, a) R. Similarly, (a, b) R and (b, c) R
all elements a, b, c, must be
either even or odd simultaneously (a, c) R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all the elements
of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to
each other, as all of them are even. Also, no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be
related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements
of {2, 4, 6} are even.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Determine whether each of the following relations are reflexive, symmetric and
transitive:
(i) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 13, 14} defined as
R = {(x, y) : 3x y = 0}
(ii) Relation R in the set N of natural numbers defined as
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5 and x < 4}
(iii) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(x, y) : y is divisible by x}
(iv) Relation R in the set Z of all integers defined as
R = {(x, y) : x y is an integer}
(v) Relation R in the set A of human beings in a town at a particular time given by
(a) R = {(x, y) : x and y work at the same place}
(b) R = {(x, y) : x and y live in the same locality}
(c) R = {(x, y) : x is exactly 7 cm taller than y}
(d) R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y}
(e) R = {(x, y) : x is father of y}
2. Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as
R = {(a, b) : a b2} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Check whether the relation R defined in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.
4. Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
5. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a b3} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive.

MATHEMATICS

6. Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
7. Show that the relation R in the set A of all the books in a library of a college,
given by R = {(x, y) : x and y have same number of pages} is an equivalence
relation.
8. Show that the relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
R = {(a, b) : |a b| is even}, is an equivalence relation. Show that all the
elements of {1, 3, 5} are related to each other and all the elements of {2, 4} are
related to each other. But no element of {1, 3, 5} is related to any element of {2, 4}.

(i) R = {(a, b) : |a b| is a multiple of 4}

Z:0

9. Show that each of the relation R in the set A = {x

12}, given by

(ii) R = {(a, b) : a = b}
is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1 in each case.
10. Give an example of a relation. Which is
(i) Symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
(ii) Transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric.
(iii) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(iv) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Show that the relation R in the set A of points in a plane given by
R = {(P, Q) : distance of the point P from the origin is same as the distance of the
point Q from the origin}, is an equivalence relation. Further, show that the set of
all points related to a point P (0, 0) is the circle passing through P with origin as
centre.

12. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all triangles as R = {(T1, T2) : T1
is similar to T2}, is equivalence relation. Consider three right angle triangles T1
with sides 3, 4, 5, T2 with sides 5, 12, 13 and T3 with sides 6, 8, 10. Which
triangles among T1, T2 and T3 are related?
13. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all polygons as R = {(P1, P2) :
P1 and P2 have same number of sides}, is an equivalence relation. What is the
set of all elements in A related to the right angle triangle T with sides 3, 4 and 5?
14. Let L be the set of all lines in XY plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is parallel to L2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find
the set of all lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

15. Let R be the relation in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4,4),
(1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)}. Choose the correct answer.
(A) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(B) R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
(D) R is an equivalence relation.
16. Let R be the relation in the set N given by R = {(a, b) : a = b 2, b > 6}. Choose
the correct answer.

1.3 Types of Functions

(B) (3, 8)

(C) (6, 8)

(D) (8, 7)

(A) (2, 4)

The notion of a function along with some special functions like identity function, constant
function, polynomial function, rational function, modulus function, signum function etc.
along with their graphs have been given in Class XI.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of two functions have also been
studied. As the concept of function is of paramount importance in mathematics and
among other disciplines as well, we would like to extend our study about function from
where we finished earlier. In this section, we would like to study different types of
functions.
Consider the functions f1, f2, f3 and f4 given by the following diagrams.
In Fig 1.2, we observe that the images of distinct elements of X1 under the function
f1 are distinct, but the image of two distinct elements 1 and 2 of X1 under f2 is same,
namely b. Further, there are some elements like e and f in X2 which are not images of
any element of X1 under f1, while all elements of X3 are images of some elements of X1
under f3. The above observations lead to the following definitions:
Definition 5 A function f : X Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images
of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1, x2 X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2. Otherwise, f is called many-one.

The function f1 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (i) and (iv) are one-one and the function f2 and f3
in Fig 1.2 (ii) and (iii) are many-one.
Definition 6 A function f : X Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element
of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y Y, there exists an
element x in X such that f (x) = y.

The function f3 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (iii), (iv) are onto and the function f1 in Fig 1.2 (i) is
not onto as elements e, f in X2 are not the image of any element in X1 under f1.

MATHEMATICS

Fig 1.2 (i) to (iv)

Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Y.

Definition 7 A function f : X
both one-one and onto.

Remark f : X

Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is

The function f4 in Fig 1.2 (iv) is one-one and onto.

Example 7 Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A N be
function defined by f (x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.

Solution No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore,
f must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll numbers of
students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll number of any student of
the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.

Example 8 Show that the function f : N

onto.

N, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one but not

Solution The function f is one-one, for f (x1) = f (x2)

2x1 = 2x2
x1 = x2. Further,
f is not onto, as for 1 N, there does not exist any x in N such that f (x) = 2x = 1.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

number y in R, there exists

Solution f is one-one, as f (x1) = f (x2)

R, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.

2x1 = 2x2

Example 9 Prove that the function f : R

x1 = x2. Also, given any real

y
y
y
in R such that f ( ) = 2 . ( ) = y. Hence, f is onto.
2
2
2

Fig 1.3

Example 10 Show that the function f : N

for every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.

N, given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f (x) = x 1,

Solution f is not one-one, as f (1) = f (2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y N, y 1,

we can choose x as y + 1 such that f (y + 1) = y + 1 1 = y. Also for 1 N, we
have f (1) = 1.

N, given by

x 1,if x is odd,
x 1,if x is even

f ( x)

Example 12 Show that f : N

is both one-one and onto.

Fig 1.4

Solution Since f ( 1) = 1 = f (1), f is not oneone. Also, the element 2 in the co-domain R is
not image of any element x in the domain R
(Why?). Therefore f is not onto.

Example 11 Show that the function f : R R,

defined as f (x) = x2, is neither one-one nor onto.

10

MATHEMATICS

Solution Suppose f (x1) = f (x2). Note that if x1 is odd and x2 is even, then we will have
x1 + 1 = x2 1, i.e., x2 x1 = 2 which is impossible. Similarly, the possibility of x1 being
even and x2 being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. Therefore,
both x1 and x2 must be either odd or even. Suppose both x1 and x2 are odd. Then
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 x1 = x2. Similarly, if both x1 and x2 are even, then also
x1 1 = x2 1
x1 = x2. Thus, f is one-one. Also, any odd number
f (x1) = f (x2)
2r + 1 in the co-domain N is the image of 2r + 2 in the domain N and any even number
2r in the co-domain N is the image of 2r 1 in the domain N. Thus, f is onto.

Example 13 Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3}

{1, 2, 3} is always one-one.

Solution Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can be
only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the
co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f must be one-one.

Example 14 Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3}

{1, 2, 3} must be onto.

Solution Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different

elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.
Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary
finite set X, i.e., a one-one function f : X
X is necessarily onto and an onto map
f : X X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8
and 10 show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic
difference between a finite and an infinite set.

EXERCISE 1.2
1
is one-one and onto,
x
where R is the set of all non-zero real numbers. Is the result true, if the domain
R is replaced by N with co-domain being same as R ?
2. Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the following functions:
(i) f : N
N given by f (x) = x2
(ii) f : Z
Z given by f (x) = x2
(iii) f : R
R given by f (x) = x2
(iv) f : N
N given by f (x) = x3
(v) f : Z
Z given by f (x) = x3
3. Prove that the Greatest Integer Function f : R R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither
one-one nor onto, where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
1. Show that the function f : R

R defined by f (x) =

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

11

4. Show that the Modulus Function f : R R, given by f (x) = | x |, is neither oneone nor onto, where | x | is x, if x is positive or 0 and | x | is x, if x is negative.

5. Show that the Signum Function f : R

R, given by

1, if x 0
0, if x

f ( x)

1, if x 0

is neither one-one nor onto.

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one-one.
7. In each of the following cases, state whether the function is one-one, onto or
bijective. Justify your answer.
R defined by f (x) = 3 4x
R defined by f (x) = 1 + x2

N be defined by f (n) =

n 1
, if n is odd
2
for all n
n
, if n is even
2

9. Let f : N

B A such that f (a, b) = (b, a) is

8. Let A and B be sets. Show that f : A B

bijective function.

(ii) f : R

(i) f : R

N.

State whether the function f is bijective. Justify your answer.

B defined by

x 2
. Is f one-one and onto? Justify your answer.
x 3

11. Let f : R

f (x) =

10. Let A = R {3} and B = R {1}. Consider the function f : A

R be defined as f(x) = x4. Choose the correct answer.

(A) f is one-one onto

(B) f is many-one onto

(C) f is one-one but not onto

(D) f is neither one-one nor onto.

12. Let f : R

R be defined as f (x) = 3x. Choose the correct answer.

(A) f is one-one onto

(B) f is many-one onto

(C) f is one-one but not onto

(D) f is neither one-one nor onto.

12

MATHEMATICS

1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

In this section, we will study composition of functions and the inverse of a bijective
function. Consider the set A of all students, who appeared in Class X of a Board
Examination in 2006. Each student appearing in the Board Examination is assigned a
roll number by the Board which is written by the students in the answer script at the
time of examination. In order to have confidentiality, the Board arranges to deface the
roll numbers of students in the answer scripts and assigns a fake code number to each
roll number. Let B N be the set of all roll numbers and C N be the set of all code
numbers. This gives rise to two functions f : A B and g : B C given by f (a) = the
roll number assigned to the student a and g (b) = the code number assigned to the roll
number b. In this process each student is assigned a roll number through the function f
and each roll number is assigned a code number through the function g. Thus, by the
combination of these two functions, each student is eventually attached a code number.

This leads to the following definition:

Definition 8 Let f : A B and g : B C be two functions. Then the composition of
f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A C given by

A.

gof (x) = g(f (x)),

Fig 1.5

Example 15 Let f : {2, 3, 4, 5}

{3, 4, 5, 9} and g : {3, 4, 5, 9}
{7, 11, 15} be
functions defined as f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4, f (4) = f (5) = 5 and g (3) = g (4) = 7 and
g (5) = g (9) = 11. Find gof.

Solution We have gof (2) = g (f (2)) = g (3) = 7, gof (3) = g (f (3)) = g (4) = 7,
gof (4) = g (f (4)) = g (5) = 11 and gof (5) = g (5) = 11.
R and g : R

Example 16 Find gof and fog, if f : R

and g (x) = 3x2. Show that gof fog.

R are given by f (x) = cos x

Solution We have gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (cos x) = 3 (cos x)2 = 3 cos2 x. Similarly,
fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f (3x2) = cos (3x2). Note that 3cos2 x cos 3x2, for x = 0. Hence,
gof fog.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

A, IB (x) = x,

3
7
,B=R
; IA (x) = x, x
5
5
functions on sets A and B, respectively.

A=R

3x 4
and
5x 7

7x 4
, then fog = IA and gof = IB, where,
5x 3

7
is defined by g ( x)
5

is defined by f ( x )

3
5

3
5

g:R

7
5

Example 17 Show that if f : R

13

B are called identity

Solution We have

41x
41

A, which implies that gof = IB

C is

C are one-one, then gof : A

21x 12 20 x 12
35 x 20 35 x 21

B and g : B

41x
41

Example 18 Show that if f : A

also one-one.

B and fog (x) = x,

4)
3)
4)
3)

Thus, gof (x) = x,

and fog = IA.

7x 4
f
5x 3

21x 28 20 x 28
15 x 20 15 x 21

Similarly, fog ( x)

(7 x
(5 x
(7 x
5
(5 x

3x 4
g
5x 7

4)
7)
4)
7)

gof ( x)

(3x
(5 x
(3x
5
(5 x

C is

Solution Suppose gof (x1) = gof (x2)

g (f (x1)) = g(f (x 2))
f (x1) = f (x2), as g is one-one
x1 = x2, as f is one-one
Hence, gof is one-one.

B and g : B

Example 19 Show that if f : A

also onto.

C are onto, then gof : A

Solution Given an arbitrary element z C, there exists a pre-image y of z under g

such that g (y) = z, since g is onto. Further, for y B, there exists an element x in A

14

MATHEMATICS

with f (x) = y, since f is onto. Therefore, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (y) = z, showing that gof
is onto.
Example 20 Consider functions f and g such that composite gof is defined and is oneone. Are f and g both necessarily one-one.
Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4}
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined as f (x) = x, x and
g : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as g (x) = x, for x = 1, 2, 3, 4 and g (5) = g (6) = 5.
Then, gof (x) = x x, which shows that gof is one-one. But g is clearly not one-one.

Example 21 Are f and g both necessarily onto, if gof is onto?

Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4} and g : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3} defined
as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = f (4) = 3, g (1) = 1, g (2) = 2 and g (3) = g (4) = 3. It can be
seen that gof is onto but f is not onto.

Remark It can be verified in general that gof is one-one implies that f is one-one.
Similarly, gof is onto implies that g is onto.
Now, we would like to have close look at the functions f and g described in the
beginning of this section in reference to a Board Examination. Each student appearing
in Class X Examination of the Board is assigned a roll number under the function f and
each roll number is assigned a code number under g. After the answer scripts are
examined, examiner enters the mark against each code number in a mark book and
submits to the office of the Board. The Board officials decode by assigning roll number
back to each code number through a process reverse to g and thus mark gets attached
to roll number rather than code number. Further, the process reverse to f assigns a roll
number to the student having that roll number. This helps in assigning mark to the
student scoring that mark. We observe that while composing f and g, to get gof, first f
and then g was applied, while in the reverse process of the composite gof, first the
reverse process of g is applied and then the reverse process of f.
Example 22 Let f : {1, 2, 3}
{a, b, c} be one-one and onto function given by
f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Show that there exists a function g : {a, b, c} {1, 2, 3}
such that gof = IX and fog = IY, where, X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}.

Solution Consider g : {a, b, c}

{1, 2, 3} as g (a) = 1, g (b) = 2 and g (c) = 3. It is
easy to verify that the composite gof = IX is the identity function on X and the composite
fog = IY is the identity function on Y.

Remark The interesting fact is that the result mentioned in the above example is true
for an arbitrary one-one and onto function f : X Y. Not only this, even the converse
is also true , i.e., if f : X Y is a function such that there exists a function g : Y X
such that gof = IX and fog = IY, then f must be one-one and onto.
The above discussion, Example 22 and Remark lead to the following definition:

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

15

Definition 9 A function f : X Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function

g : Y X such that gof = IX and fog = IY. The function g is called the inverse of f and
is denoted by f 1.

Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto and conversely, if f is

one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact significantly helps for proving a
function f to be invertible by showing that f is one-one and onto, specially when the
actual inverse of f is not to be determined.
Example 23 Let f : N Y be a function defined as f (x) = 4x + 3, where,
Y = {y N : y = 4x + 3 for some x N }. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse.

Solution Consider an arbitrary element y of Y. By the definition of Y, y = 4x + 3,

(4 x 3 3)
( y 3)
. Now, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x + 3) =
4
4

4 ( y 3)
4

( y 3)
4

fog (y) = f (g (y)) = f

g ( y)

( y 3)
. Define g : Y
4

for some x in the domain N . This shows that x

N by

x and

3 = y 3 + 3 = y. This shows that gof = IN

and fog = IY, which implies that f is invertible and g is the inverse of f.
Y as f (n) = n2. Show that

Solution An arbitrary element y in Y is of the form n2, for some n

n 2 = n and fog (y) = f

N , defined by g (y) =
y

gof = IN and fog = IY. Hence, f is invertible with f 1 = g.

gof (n) = g (n2) =

y . This gives a function g : Y

implies that n =

N . Consider f : N

Example 24 Let Y = {n2 : n N }

f is invertible. Find the inverse of f.

N . This
y . Now,

y , which shows that

Example 25 Let f : N
R be a function defined as f (x) = 4x2 + 12x + 15. Show that
f : N S, where, S is the range of f, is invertible. Find the inverse of f.

Solution Let y be an arbitrary element of range f. Then y = 4x2 + 12x + 15, for some
y 6

, as y

x in N, which implies that y = (2x + 3)2 + 6. This gives x

6.

MATHEMATICS

y 6

.
2
gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x2 + 12x + 15) = g ((2x + 3)2 + 6)

2x 3 3
2

6 6

(2 x 3) 2

Now

N by g (y) =

Let us define g : S

16

x
2

y 6

3 3

6 = y 6 + 6 = y.

gof = IN and fog =IS. This implies that f is invertible with f 1 = g.

N, g : N
N and h : N
R defined as f (x) = 2x,
x, y and z in N. Show that ho(gof ) = (hog) of.

Example 26 Consider f : N
g (y) = 3y + 4 and h (z) = sin z,

Hence,

y 6

y 6

fog (y) = f

and

y 6

Solution We have

((hog) o f ) (x) = (hog) ( f (x)) = (hog) (2x) = h ( g (2x))

Hence,

(hog) of (x) = hog (f (x)) = h(g (f (x))),

ho(gof ) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g (f (x))),

and

N.

S are functions, then

This shows that ho(gof) = (hog) o f.

This result is true in general situation as well.
Theorem 1 If f : X Y, g : Y Z and h : Z
ho(gof ) = (hog) o f.
Proof We have

= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4),

Also,

x N.

ho(gof) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g (f (x))) = h (g (2x))

= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4)

x in X
x in X.

ho(gof) = (hog) o f.

Example 27 Consider f : {1, 2, 3}

{a, b, c} and g : {a, b, c}
{apple, ball, cat}
defined as f (1) = a, f (2) = b, f (3) = c, g(a) = apple, g(b) = ball and g(c) = cat.
Show that f, g and gof are invertible. Find out f 1, g1 and (gof)1 and show that
(gof) 1 = f 1o g1.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

17

Solution Note that by definition, f and g are bijective functions. Let

f 1: {a, b, c}
(1, 2, 3} and g1 : {apple, ball, cat}
{a, b, c} be defined as
1
1
1
1
1
f {a} = 1, f {b} = 2, f {c} = 3, g {apple} = a, g {ball} = b and g 1{cat} = c.
It is easy to verify that f 1 o f = I{1, 2, 3}, f o f 1 = I{a, b, c}, g 1og = I{a, b, c} and g o g1 = ID,
where, D = {apple, ball, cat}. Now, gof : {1, 2, 3}
{apple, ball, cat} is given by
gof (1) = apple, gof (2) = ball, gof (3) = cat. We can define
(gof)1 : {apple, ball, cat} {1, 2, 3} by (gof)1 (apple) = 1, (gof)1 (ball) = 2 and
(g o f)1 (cat) = 3. It is easy to see that (g o f)1 o (g o f) = I{1, 2, 3} and
(gof) o (gof)1 = ID. Thus, we have seen that f, g and gof are invertible.
Now, f 1og1 (apple)= f 1(g1(apple)) = f 1(a) = 1 = (gof)1 (apple)
f 1og1 (ball) = f 1(g1(ball)) = f 1(b) = 2 = (gof)1 (ball) and
f 1og1 (cat) = f 1(g1(cat)) = f 1(c) = 3 = (gof)1 (cat).
Hence
(gof)1 = f 1 og1 .
The above result is true in general situation also.
Theorem 2 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two invertible functions. Then gof is also
invertible with (gof)1 = f 1og1.
Proof To show that gof is invertible with (gof)1 = f 1og1, it is enough to show that
( f 1og1)o(gof) = IX and (gof)o( f 1og1) = IZ.
Now,
(f 1og 1) o (gof) = ((f 1og1) og) of, by Theorem 1
= (f 1o(g1og)) of, by Theorem 1
= (f 1 o IY) of, by definition of g1
= IX.
Similarly, it can be shown that (gof ) o (f 1 o g 1) = IZ.

Example 28 Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Determine whether the functions f : S

below have inverses. Find f 1, if it exists.
(a) f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(b) f = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)}
(c) f = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1)}

S defined as

Solution
(a) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with the inverse
f 1 of f given by f 1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} = f.
(b) Since f (2) = f (3) = 1, f is not one-one, so that f is not invertible.
(c) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with
f 1 = {(3, 1), (2, 3), (1, 2)}.

18

MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 1.3
{1, 2, 5} and g : {1, 2, 5}

1. Let f : {1, 3, 4}

{1, 3} be given by

f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)} and g = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (5, 1)}. Write down gof.
2. Let f, g and h be functions from R to R. Show that
(f + g) o h = foh + goh
(f . g) o h = (foh) . (goh)
3. Find gof and fog, if
(i) f (x) = | x | and g(x) = | 5x 2 |
1

(ii) f (x) = 8x3 and g(x) = x 3 .

inverse of f ?

(4 x 3)
, x
(6 x 4)

2
2
, show that fof (x) = x, for all x
. What is the
3
3

4. If f (x) =

5. State with reason whether following functions have inverse

{10} with

{1, 2, 3, 4} with

{7, 9, 11, 13} with

(i) f : {1, 2, 3, 4}

R, given by f (x) =

f = {(1, 10), (2, 10), (3, 10), (4, 10)}

(ii) g : {5, 6, 7, 8}

g = {(5, 4), (6, 3), (7, 4), (8, 2)}

(iii) h : {2, 3, 4, 5}

h = {(2, 7), (3, 9), (4, 11), (5, 13)}

Range f, y = f (x) =

x 2

is one-one. Find the inverse

, for some x in [1, 1], i.e., x =

2y
)
(1 y )

R given by f (x) = 4x + 3. Show that f is invertible. Find the

[4, ) given by f (x) = x2 + 4. Show that f is invertible with the

y 4 , where R+ is the set of all non-negative

inverse f 1 of f given by f 1(y) =

real numbers.

7. Consider f : R
inverse of f.
8. Consider f : R+

Range f.

( x 2)

(Hint: For y

of the function f : [1, 1]

6. Show that f : [1, 1]

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

y 6

with f 1(y) =

[ 5, ) given by f (x) = 9x2 + 6x 5. Show that f is invertible

9. Consider f : R+

19

.
3
10. Let f : X Y be an invertible function. Show that f has unique inverse.
(Hint: suppose g1 and g2 are two inverses of f. Then for all y Y,
fog1(y) = 1Y(y) = fog2(y). Use one-one ness of f).
11. Consider f : {1, 2, 3} {a, b, c} given by f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Find
f 1 and show that (f 1)1 = f.
12. Let f : X Y be an invertible function. Show that the inverse of f 1 is f, i.e.,
(f 1)1 = f.

R be given by f (x) = (3 x3 ) 3 , then fof (x) is

(B) x 3

R be a function defined as f (x) =

given by

(B)

g ( y)

4y
3 4y

(D)

g ( y)

3y
3 4y

4y
4 3y
3y
4 3y

g ( y)

4
3

(C)

g ( y)

4x
. The inverse of
3x 4

(A)

f is the map g : Range f

4
3

14. Let f : R

(D) (3 x3).

(C) x

(A) x 3

13. If f : R

1.5 Binary Operations

Right from the school days, you must have come across four fundamental operations
namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The main feature of these
operations is that given any two numbers a and b, we associate another number a + b

a
, b 0. It is to be noted that only two numbers can be added or
b
multiplied at a time. When we need to add three numbers, we first add two numbers
and the result is then added to the third number. Thus, addition, multiplication, subtraction

or a b or ab or

20

MATHEMATICS

and division are examples of binary operation, as binary means two. If we want to
have a general definition which can cover all these four operations, then the set of
numbers is to be replaced by an arbitrary set X and then general binary operation is
nothing but association of any pair of elements a, b from X to another element of X.
This gives rise to a general definition as follows:
Definition 10 A binary operation on a set A is a function : A A A. We denote
(a, b) by a b.

Example 29 Show that addition, subtraction and multiplication are binary operations
on R, but division is not a binary operation on R. Further, show that division is a binary
operation on the set R of nonzero real numbers.

Solution

+ : R R R is given by
(a, b)
a+b
: R R R is given by
(a, b)
ab
: R R R is given by
(a, b)
ab
Since +, and are functions, they are binary operations on R.

R, given by (a, b)

a
is not defined.
b

:R R

R , given by (a, b)

However,

a
, is not a function and hence not a binary
b

operation, as for b = 0,

But : R R

a
is a function and hence a
b

binary operation on R .

Example 30 Show that subtraction and division are not binary operations on N.
Solution : N N N, given by (a, b) a b, is not binary operation, as the image
of (3, 5) under is 3 5 = 2 N. Similarly, : N N N, given by (a, b) a b

R given by (a, b)

3
N.
5
a + 4b2 is a binary

5=

:R R

Example 31 Show that

operation.

is 3

is not a binary operation, as the image of (3, 5) under

Solution Since carries each pair (a, b) to a unique element a + 4b2 in R, is a binary
operation on R.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

:PP P
B are binary

Example 32 Let P be the set of all subsets of a given set X. Show that
given by (A, B)
A B and : P P
P given by (A, B)
A
operations on the set P.

21

Solution Since union operation carries each pair (A, B) in P P to a unique element
A B in P, is binary operation on P. Similarly, the intersection operation carries
each pair (A, B) in P P to a unique element A B in P, is a binary operation on P.

:RR
R given by (a, b)
max {a, b} and the
Example 33 Show that the
:RR
R given by (a, b) min {a, b} are binary operations.

carries each pair (a, b) in R R to a unique element namely

Solution Since
maximum of a and b lying in R, is a binary operation. Using the similar argument,
is also a binary operation.
one can say that

Remark (4, 7) = 7, (4, 7) = 4, (4, 7) = 4 and (4, 7) = 7.

When number of elements in a set A is small, we can express a binary operation on
the set A through a table called the operation table for the operation . For example
consider A = {1, 2, 3}. Then, the operation on A defined in Example 33 can be expressed
by the following operation table (Table 1.1) . Here, (1, 3) = 3, (2, 3) = 3, (1, 2) = 2.

Table 1.1

Here, we are having 3 rows and 3 columns in the operation table with (i, j) the
entry of the table being maximum of ith and jth elements of the set A. This can be
generalised for general operation : A A
A. If A = {a1, a2, ..., an}. Then the
operation table will be having n rows and n columns with (i, j)th entry being ai aj.
Conversely, given any operation table having n rows and n columns with each entry
being an element of A = {a1, a2, ..., an}, we can define a binary operation : A A A
given by ai aj = the entry in the ith row and jth column of the operation table.
One may note that 3 and 4 can be added in any order and the result is same, i.e.,
3 + 4 = 4 + 3, but subtraction of 3 and 4 in different order give different results, i.e.,
3 4 4 3. Similarly, in case of multiplication of 3 and 4, order is immaterial, but
division of 3 and 4 in different order give different results. Thus, addition and
multiplication of 3 and 4 are meaningful, but subtraction and division of 3 and 4 are
meaningless. For subtraction and division we have to write subtract 3 from 4, subtract
4 from 3, divide 3 by 4 or divide 4 by 3.

22

MATHEMATICS

This leads to the following definition:

Definition 11 A binary operation on the set X is called commutative, if a b = b a,
for every a, b X.

Example 34 Show that + : R R

R and : R R
R are commutative binary
R are not commutative.
R and : R R
operations, but : R R

Solution Since a + b = b + a and a b = b a, a, b

R, + and are
commutative binary operation. However, is not commutative, since 3 4 4 3.
Similarly, 3 4 4 3 shows that is not commutative.

R defined by a b = a + 2b is not commutative.

Example 35 Show that : R R

Solution Since 3 4 = 3 + 8 = 11 and 4 3 = 4 + 6 = 10, showing that the operation

is not commutative.
If we want to associate three elements of a set X through a binary operation on X,
we encounter a natural problem. The expression a b c may be interpreted as
(a b) c or a (b c) and these two expressions need not be same. For example,
(8 5) 2 8 (5 2). Therefore, association of three numbers 8, 5 and 3 through
the binary operation subtraction is meaningless, unless bracket is used. But in case
of addition, 8 + 5 + 2 has the same value whether we look at it as ( 8 + 5) + 2 or as
8 + (5 + 2). Thus, association of 3 or even more than 3 numbers through addition is
meaningful without using bracket. This leads to the following:
Definition 12 A binary operation : A A A is said to be associative if
(a b) c = a (b c), a, b, c, A.

Example 36 Show that addition and multiplication are associative binary operation on
R. But subtraction is not associative on R. Division is not associative on R .

Solution Addition and multiplication are associative, since (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and

a, b, c R. However, subtraction and division are not
(a b) c = a (b c)
associative, as (8 5) 3 8 (5 3) and (8 5) 3 8 (5 3).

R given by a

:RR

Example 37 Show that

a + 2b is not associative.

Solution The operation is not associative, since

(8 5) 3 = (8 + 10) 3 = (8 + 10) + 6 = 24,
while
8 (5 3) = 8 (5 + 6) = 8 11 = 8 + 22 = 30.

Remark Associative property of a binary operation is very important in the sense that
with this property of a binary operation, we can write a1 a2 ... an which is not
ambiguous. But in absence of this property, the expression a1 a2 ... an is ambiguous
unless brackets are used. Recall that in the earlier classes brackets were used whenever
subtraction or division operations or more than one operation occurred.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

23

For the binary operation + on R, the interesting feature of the number zero is that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, i.e., any number remains unaltered by adding zero. But in case of
multiplication, the number 1 plays this role, as a 1 = a = 1 a, a in R. This leads
to the following definition:

Definition 13 Given a binary operation : A A A, an element e

a A.
is called identity for the operation , if a e = a = e a,

A, if it exists,

Example 38 Show that zero is the identity for addition on R and 1 is the identity for
multiplication on R. But there is no identity element for the operations

R and

:R R

R.

:RR

Solution a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a 1 = a = 1 a, a R implies that 0 and 1 are

identity elements for the operations + and respectively. Further, there is no element
e in R with a e = e a, a. Similarly, we can not find any element e in R such that
a e = e a, a in R . Hence, and do not have identity element.

Remark Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but it is not identity for the
addition operation on N, as 0 N. In fact the addition operation on N does not have
any identity.
One further notices that for the addition operation + : R R
R, given any
a R, there exists a in R such that a + ( a) = 0 (identity for +) = ( a) + a.

Similarly, for the multiplication operation on R, given any a 0 in R, we can choose

in R such that a

1
a

1
1
= 1(identity for ) = a. This leads to the following definition:
a
a

Definition 14 Given a binary operation : A A A with the identity element e in A,

an element a A is said to be invertible with respect to the operation , if there exists
an element b in A such that a b = e = b a and b is called the inverse of a and is
denoted by a1.

Example 39 Show that a is the inverse of a for the addition operation + on R and

1
is the inverse of a
a

0 for the multiplication operation on R.

Solution As a + ( a) = a a = 0 and ( a) + a = 0, a is the inverse of a for addition.

1
1
1
Similarly, for a 0, a = 1 = a implies that is the inverse of a for multiplication.
a
a
a

MATHEMATICS

1
is not the inverse of a
a

N for multiplication operation on N, for a

N and

N for the addition operation + on

Example 40 Show that a is not the inverse of a

24

1.

Solution Since a N, a can not be inverse of a for addition operation on N,

although a satisfies a + ( a) = 0 = ( a) + a.

1
N, which implies that other than 1 no element of N
a
has inverse for multiplication operation on N.
Similarly, for a 1 in N,

Examples 34, 36, 38 and 39 show that addition on R is a commutative and associative
binary operation with 0 as the identity element and a as the inverse of a in R a.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Determine whether or not each of the definition of given below gives a binary
operation. In the event that is not a binary operation, give justification for this.

(v) On Z , define

(iv) On Z+, define

by a
by a
by a
by a
by a

(iii) On R, define

(ii) On Z+, define

(i) On Z+, define

b=ab
b = ab
b = ab2
b = |a b|
b=a

2. For each binary operation defined below, determine whether is commutative

or associative.

b=ab

b=

b = 2ab

(iv) On Z+, define a

(v) On Z+, define a

ab
2

b = ab

(vi) On R { 1}, define a

(iii) On Q, define a

b = ab + 1

b=

a
b 1

(ii) On Q, define a

(i) On Z, define a

3. Consider the binary operation

on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
b = min {a, b}. Write the operation table of the operation .
a

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

25

4. Consider a binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by the following

multiplication table (Table 1.2).
(i) Compute (2 3) 4 and 2 (3 4)
(ii) Is commutative?
(iii) Compute (2 3) (4 5).
(Hint: use the following table)

Table 1.2

5. Let
be the binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
a b = H.C.F. of a and b. Is the operation same as the operation defined
in Exercise 4 above? Justify your answer.
6. Let be the binary operation on N given by a b = L.C.M. of a and b. Find
(ii) Is commutative?
(i) 5 7, 20 16
(iii) Is associative?
(iv) Find the identity of in N
(v) Which elements of N are invertible for the operation ?
7. Is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by a b = L.C.M. of a and b a binary
operation? Justify your answer.
8. Let be the binary operation on N defined by a b = H.C.F. of a and b.
Is commutative? Is associative? Does there exist identity for this binary
operation on N?
9. Let be a binary operation on the set Q of rational numbers as follows:
(ii) a b = a2 + b2
(i) a b = a b
(iii) a b = a + ab
(iv) a b = (a b)2
ab
(v) a b =
(vi) a b = ab2
4
Find which of the binary operations are commutative and which are associative.
10. Show that none of the operations given above has identity.
11. Let A = N N and be the binary operation on A defined by
(a, b) (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)

26

MATHEMATICS

Show that is commutative and associative. Find the identity element for on
A, if any.
12. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify.

(i) For an arbitrary binary operation on a set N, a a = a a N.

(ii) If is a commutative binary operation on N, then a (b c) = (c b) a
13. Consider a binary operation on N defined as a b = a3 + b3. Choose the
correct answer.
(A) Is both associative and commutative?
(B) Is commutative but not associative?
(C) Is associative but not commutative?
(D) Is neither commutative nor associative?

Miscellaneous Examples

Example 41 If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations in a set A, show that R1

also an equivalence relation.

R2 is

Solution Since R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, (a, a) R1, and (a, a) R2 a A.
This implies that (a, a) R1 R2, a, showing R1 R2 is reflexive. Further,
(a, b) R1 and (a, b) R2
(b, a) R1 and (b, a) R2
(a, b) R1 R2
R2, hence, R1 R2 is symmetric. Similarly, (a, b) R1
R2 and
(b, a) R1
(b, c) R1 R2
(a, c) R1 and (a, c) R2
(a, c) R1 R2. This shows that
R1 R2 is transitive. Thus, R1 R2 is an equivalence relation.

Example 42 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers

defined by (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (x, y) R (x, y), (x, y) A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is
uy = vx and hence (u, v) R (x, y). This
reflexive. Further, (x, y) R (u, v) xv = yu
shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (x, y) R (u, v) and (u, v) R (a, b) xv = yu and

b
a
a
a
xv
yu
yu
xb = ya and hence (x, y) R (a, b). Thus, R
v
u
u
u
is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.

xv

ub = va

Example 43 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R1 be a relation in X given

by R1 = {(x, y) : x y is divisible by 3} and R2 be another relation on X given by
R2 = {(x, y): {x, y} {1, 4, 7}} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} {3, 6, 9}}. Show that
R1 = R2.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

27

Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8} and {3, 6, 9} is
that difference between any two elements of these sets is a multiple of 3. Therefore,
(x, y) R1
x y is a multiple of 3
{x, y} {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8}
or {x, y} {3, 6, 9}
(x, y) R2. Hence, R1 R2. Similarly, {x, y} R2 {x, y}
{1, 4, 7} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} {3, 6, 9}
x y is divisible by
{x, y} R1. This shows that R2 R1. Hence, R1 = R2.
3

Example 44 Let f : X Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by

R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}. Examine if R is an equivalence relation.

Solution For every a X, (a, a) R, since f (a) = f (a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) R
f (a) = f (b)
f (b) = f (a)
(b, a) R. Therefore, R is
symmetric. Further, (a, b) R and (b, c) R
f (a) = f (b) and f (b) = f (c)
f (a)
= f (c)
(a, c) R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence
relation.

Example 45 Determine which of the following binary operations on the set N are
associative and which are commutative.
b=

(a b )
2

a, b

(b) a

a, b

b=1

a, b
a, b, c

(a) a

Solution

a b
2
a b
2
=
2

Hence,

is not associative.

a b 2c
.
4

b c
2

b c
2
2

2a b c
4

a b 2c
in general.
4

c) = a

is commutative. Further,

c.

(b

c=

N. Also
N. Hence

But

b)

(a

a, shows that

b a
=b
2

a b
2

b=

(b) a

(a) Clearly, by definition a

b = b
a = 1,
(a b) c = (1 c) =1 and a (b c) = a (1) = 1,
R is both associative and commutative.

28

MATHEMATICS

Example 46 Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three
symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is
same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.
Example 47 Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1, 2)
and (2, 3) which are reflexive and transitive but not symmetric is four.
Solution The smallest relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}. Now, if we add
the pair (2, 1) to R1 to get R2, then the relation R2 will be reflexive, transitive but not
symmetric. Similarly, we can obtain R3 and R4 by adding (3, 2) and (3, 1) respectively,
to R1 to get the desired relations. However, we can not add any two pairs out of (2, 1),
(3, 2) and (3, 1) to R1 at a time, as by doing so, we will be forced to add the remaining
third pair in order to maintain transitivity and in the process, the relation will become
symmetric also which is not required. Thus, the total number of desired relations is four.
Example 48 Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1, 2, 3} containing
(1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Solution The smallest equivalence relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is {(1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. Now we are left with only 4 pairs namely (2, 3), (3, 2),
(1, 3) and (3, 1). If we add any one, say (2, 3) to R1, then for symmetry we must add
(3, 2) also and now for transitivity we are forced to add (1, 3) and (3, 1). Thus, the only
equivalence relation bigger than R1 is the universal relation. This shows that the total
number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Example 49 Show that the number of binary operations on {1, 2} having 1 as identity
and having 2 as the inverse of 2 is exactly one.
Solution A binary operation on {1, 2} is a function from {1, 2} {1, 2} to {1, 2}, i.e.,
a function from {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
{1, 2}. Since 1 is the identity for the
desired binary operation ,
(1, 2) = 2, (2, 1) = 2 and the only choice
left is for the pair (2, 2). Since 2 is the inverse of 2, i.e., (2, 2) must be equal to 1. Thus,
the number of desired binary operation is only one.

Example 50 Consider the identity function IN : N N defined as IN (x) = x

Show that although IN is onto but IN + IN : N
N defined as
(IN + IN) (x) = IN (x) + IN (x) = x + x = 2x is not onto.

N.

Solution Clearly IN is onto. But IN + IN is not onto, as we can find an element 3

in the co-domain N such that there does not exist any x in the domain N with
(IN + IN) (x) = 2x = 3.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Example 51 Consider a function f :

g : 0,

2
one-one.

0,

29

R given by f (x) = sin x and

R given by g(x) = cos x. Show that f and g are one-one, but f + g is not

Solution Since for any two distinct elements x1 and x2 in 0,

, sin x1 sin x2 and

2
cos x2, both f and g must be one-one. But (f + g) (0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and

= sin

cos

(f + g)

cos x1

1 . Therefore, f + g is not one-one.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1

1. Let f : R
R be defined as f (x) = 10x + 7. Find the function g : R
that g o f = f o g = 1R.

R such

2. Let f : W
W be defined as f (n) = n 1, if n is odd and f (n) = n + 1, if n is
even. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse of f. Here, W is the set of all
whole numbers.

R is defined by f(x) = x2 3x + 2, find f (f (x)).

R : 1 < x < 1} defined by f ( x )

R is one one and onto function.

x
,
1 |x|

R given by f (x) = x3 is injective.

6. Give examples of two functions f : N

injective but g is not injective.

Z and g : Z

5. Show that the function f : R

{x

4. Show that the function f : R

3. If f : R

Z such that g o f is

(Hint : Consider f (x) = x and g (x) = | x |).

N such that g o f is onto

x 1 if x 1
1 if x 1

(Hint : Consider f (x) = x + 1 and g ( x )

N and g : N

7. Give examples of two functions f : N

but f is not onto.

8. Given a non empty set X, consider P(X) which is the set of all subsets of X.

30

MATHEMATICS

Define the relation R in P(X) as follows:

For subsets A, B in P(X), ARB if and only if A B. Is R an equivalence relation
on P(X)? Justify your answer.
Given a non-empty set X, consider the binary operation : P(X) P(X) P(X)
given by A B = A B A, B in P(X), where P(X) is the power set of X.
Show that X is the identity element for this operation and X is the only invertible
element in P(X) with respect to the operation .
Find the number of all onto functions from the set {1, 2, 3, ... , n} to itself.
Let S = {a, b, c} and T = {1, 2, 3}. Find F1 of the following functions F from S
to T, if it exists.
(i) F = {(a, 3), (b, 2), (c, 1)}
(ii) F = {(a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 1)}
Consider the binary operations : R R
R and o : R R
R defined as
a b = |a b| and a o b = a, a, b R. Show that is commutative but not
associative, o is associative but not commutative. Further, show that a, b, c R,
a (b o c) = (a b) o (a b). [If it is so, we say that the operation distributes
over the operation o]. Does o distribute over ? Justify your answer.
Given a non-empty set X, let : P(X) P(X)
P(X) be defined as
A * B = (A B) (B A), A, B P(X). Show that the empty set is the
identity for the operation and all the elements A of P(X) are invertible with
A1 = A. (Hint : (A ) ( A) = A and (A A) (A A) = A A = ).
Define a binary operation on the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} as

if a b 6

a b,

a b

14.

13.

12.

10.
11.

9.

a b 6 if a b 6

Show that zero is the identity for this operation and each element a of the set is
invertible with 6 a being the inverse of a.
15. Let A = { 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = { 4, 2, 0, 2} and f, g : A B be functions defined

1
1, x A. Are f and g equal?
2
Justify your answer. (Hint: One may note that two functions f : A
B and
g:A
B such that f (a) = g (a) a A, are called equal functions).
16. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of relations containing (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are
reflexive and symmetric but not transitive is
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
17. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) is
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(A) 1

2 x

A and g ( x)

by f (x) = x2 x, x

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

R be the Signum Function defined as

f ( x)

1, x 0
0, x 0

18. Let f : R

31

1, x 0

and g : R R be the Greatest Integer Function given by g (x) = [x], where [x] is
greatest integer less than or equal to x. Then, does fog and gof coincide in (0, 1]?
19. Number of binary operations on the set {a, b} are
(B) 16
(C) 20
(D ) 8
(A) 10

Summary
In this chapter, we studied different types of relations and equivalence relation,
composition of functions, invertible functions and binary operations. The main features
of this chapter are as follows:
Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R =
X X.
Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X X.
Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) R a X.
Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R implies (b, a) R.
Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R and (b, c) R
implies that (a, c) R.
Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
Equivalence class [a] containing a X for an equivalence relation R in X is
the subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
A function f : X
Y is one-one (or injective) if

f (x1) = f (x2)
x1 = x2
x1, x2 X.
A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y Y, x X such
that f (x) = y.
A function f : X Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one
and onto.
The composition of functions f : A
B and g : B
C is the function
C given by gof (x) = g(f (x)) x A.
gof : A
A function f : X
Y is invertible if g : Y
X such that gof = IX and
fog = IY.
A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one and onto.

MATHEMATICS

Given a finite set X, a function f : X X is one-one (respectively onto) if and

only if f is onto (respectively one-one). This is the characteristic property of a
finite set. This is not true for infinite set
A binary operation on a set A is a function from A A to A.
An element e X is the identity element for binary operation : X X X,
if a e = a = e a a X.
An element a X is invertible for binary operation : X X
X, if
there exists b X such that a b = e = b a where, e is the identity for the
binary operation . The element b is called inverse of a and is denoted by a1.
An operation on X is commutative if a b = b a a, b in X.
An operation on X is associative if (a b) c = a (b c) a, b, c in X.

32

Historical Note
The concept of function has evolved over a long period of time starting from
R. Descartes (1596-1650), who used the word function in his manuscript
Geometrie in 1637 to mean some positive integral power xn of a variable x
while studying geometrical curves like hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. James
Gregory (1636-1675) in his work Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura
(1667) considered function as a quantity obtained from other quantities by
successive use of algebraic operations or by any other operations. Later G. W.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) in his manuscript Methodus tangentium inversa, seu de
functionibus written in 1673 used the word function to mean a quantity varying
from point to point on a curve such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the
slope of the curve, the tangent and the normal to the curve at a point. However,
in his manuscript Historia (1714), Leibnitz used the word function to mean
quantities that depend on a variable. He was the first to use the phrase function
of x. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) used the notation x for the first time in 1718 to
indicate a function of x. But the general adoption of symbols like f, F, , ... to
represent functions was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1734 in the first
part of his manuscript Analysis Infinitorium. Later on, Joeph Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813) published his manuscripts Theorie des functions analytiques in
1793, where he discussed about analytic function and used the notion f (x), F(x),
( x) etc. for different function of x. Subsequently, Lejeunne Dirichlet
(1805-1859) gave the definition of function which was being used till the set
theoretic definition of function presently used, was given after set theory was
developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The set theoretic definition of function
known to us presently is simply an abstraction of the definition given by Dirichlet
in a rigorous manner.

Chapter

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of
self-evident things. FELIX KLEIN

2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function
f, denoted by f 1, exists if f is one-one and onto. There are
many functions which are not one-one, onto or both and
hence we can not talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we
studied that trigonometric functions are not one-one and
onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their
inverses do not exist. In this chapter, we shall study about
the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric
functions which ensure the existence of their inverses and
observe their behaviour through graphical representations.
Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.

Arya Bhatta
The inverse trigonometric functions play an important
(476-550 A. D.)
role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals.
The concepts of inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering.

2.2 Basic Concepts

In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows:
sine function, i.e., sine : R [ 1, 1]
cosine function, i.e., cos : R [ 1, 1]

,n

Z}

cotangent function, i.e., cot : R { x : x = n , n

Z}

secant function, i.e., sec : R { x : x = (2n + 1)

,n

Z}

tangent function, i.e., tan : R { x : x = (2n + 1)

2
cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R { x : x = n , n

Z}

R ( 1, 1)

R ( 1, 1)

34

MATHEMATICS

We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if f : X Y such that f (x) = y is one-one and
onto, then we can define a unique function g : Y X such that g (y) = x, where x X
and y = f (x), y Y. Here, the domain of g = range of f and the range of g = domain
of f. The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f 1. Further, g is also
one-one and onto and inverse of g is f. Thus, g 1 = (f 1)1 = f. We also have
(f 1 o f ) (x) = f 1 (f (x)) = f 1(y) = x
and
(f o f 1) (y) = f (f 1(y)) = f (x) = y
Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the

, then it becomes one-one

,
2 2
and onto with range [ 1, 1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals

closed interval [1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to

3
3
,
,
etc., is one-one and its range is [1, 1]. We can,
,
,
,
2 2
2
2
2 2
therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. We denote the
inverse of sine function by sin1 (arc sine function). Thus, sin1 is a function whose

3
,
2
2

domain is [ 1, 1] and range could be any of the intervals

or

3
, and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
2 2

,
is called the principal value branch,
2 2
whereas other intervals as range give different branches of sin1. When we refer
to the function sin1, we take it as the function whose domain is [1, 1] and range is

function sin1. The branch with range

, . We write sin1 : [1, 1]

,
2 2
2 2
From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin1 x) = x
1 and sin1 (sin x) = x if

if 1

. In other words, if y = sin1 x, then

sin y = x.
Remarks
(i) We know from Chapter 1, that if y = f (x) is an invertible function, then x = f 1 (y).
Thus, the graph of sin1 function can be obtained from the graph of original
function by interchanging x and y axes, i.e., if (a, b) is a point on the graph of
sine function, then (b, a) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

35

of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function y = sin1 x can be obtained from
the graph of y = sin x by interchanging x and y axes. The graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin1 x are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of
y = sin1 x represent the principal value branch.
(ii) It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the
corresponding graph of original function as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along
the line y = x. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin1 x as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).

Fig 2.1 (i)

Fig 2.1 (ii)

Fig 2.1 (iii)

Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all
real numbers and range is the set [1, 1]. If we restrict the domain of cosine function
to [0, ], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [1, 1]. Actually, cosine function

36

MATHEMATICS

restricted to any of the intervals [ , 0], [0, ], [ , 2 ] etc., is bijective with range as
[1, 1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of cosine function in each of these
intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos1 (arc cosine function).
Thus, cos1 is a function whose domain is [1, 1] and range
could be any of the intervals [ , 0], [0, ], [ , 2 ] etc.
Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function cos1. The branch with range [0, ] is called the principal
value branch of the function cos1. We write

[0, ].

cos1 : [1, 1]

The graph of the function given by y = cos1 x can be drawn

in the same way as discussed about the graph of y = sin1 x. The
graphs of y = cos x and y = cos1 x are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).

Fig 2.2 (i)

Fig 2.2 (ii)

Let us now discuss cosec1x and sec1x as follows:

1
, the domain of the cosec function is the set {x : x R and
Since, cosec x =
sin x
x n , n Z} and the range is the set {y : y R, y 1 or y 1} i.e., the set
R (1, 1). It means that y = cosec x assumes all real values except 1 < y < 1 and is
not defined for integral multiple of . If we restrict the domain of cosec function to

, {0}, then it is one to one and onto with its range as the set R ( 1, 1). Actually,
2 2
3
,
,
{ },
{0},
cosec function restricted to any of the intervals
2 2
2 2
3
,
{ } etc., is bijective and its range is the set of all real numbers R (1, 1).
2 2

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

37

Thus cosec1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R (1, 1) and range could

3
,
2 2

2 2

{0} ,

},

3
2 2

be any of the intervals

{ } etc. The

,
{0} is called the principal value branch
2 2
of cosec1. We thus have principal branch as

function corresponding to the range

,
{0}
2 2
The graphs of y = cosec x and y = cosec1 x are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).
cosec1 : R (1, 1)

Fig 2.3 (ii)

Fig 2.3 (i)

1
, the domain of y = sec x is the set R {x : x = (2n + 1) ,
cos x
2
Z} and range is the set R (1, 1). It means that sec (secant function) assumes

Also, since sec x =

all real values except 1 < y < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of

restrict the domain of secant function to [0, ] {

. If we

}, then it is one-one and onto with

38

MATHEMATICS

its range as the set R (1, 1). Actually, secant function restricted to any of the

3
}, [0, ]
,[ ,2 ]{
} etc., is bijective and its range
2
2
2
is R {1, 1}. Thus sec1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R (1, 1) and
3
range could be any of the intervals [ , 0] {
}, [0, ] { }, [ , 2 ] {
} etc.
2
2
2
Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec1.

The branch with range [0, ] {

intervals [ , 0] {

} is called the principal value branch of the

function sec1. We thus have

[0, ] {

sec1 : R (1,1)

}
2
The graphs of the functions y = sec x and y = sec-1 x are given in Fig 2.4 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.4 (ii)

Fig 2.4 (i)

Finally, we now discuss tan1 and cot1

We know that the domain of the tan function (tangent function) is the set

,n

is not defined for odd multiples of

Z} and the range is R. It means that tan function

(2n +1)

R and x

{x : x

. If we restrict the domain of tangent function to

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

39

,
, then it is one-one and onto with its range as R. Actually, tangent function
2 2
3
3
,
,
,
restricted to any of the intervals
,
,
etc., is bijective
2 2
2 2
2 2
and its range is R. Thus tan1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R and
3
3
,
,
, ,
,
and so on. These
range could be any of the intervals
2 2
2 2
2 2

is called the principal value branch of the function tan1.

We thus have

intervals give different branches of the function tan1. The branch with range

,
2 2

,
2 2
The graphs of the function y = tan x and y = tan1x are given in Fig 2.5 (i), (ii).
tan1 : R

Fig 2.5 (i)

Fig 2.5 (ii)

We know that domain of the cot function (cotangent function) is the set
{x : x R and x n , n Z} and range is R. It means that cotangent function is not
defined for integral multiples of . If we restrict the domain of cotangent function to
(0, ), then it is bijective with and its range as R. In fact, cotangent function restricted
to any of the intervals ( , 0), (0, ), ( , 2 ) etc., is bijective and its range is R. Thus
cot 1 can be defined as a function whose domain is the R and range as any of the

40

MATHEMATICS

intervals ( , 0), (0, ), ( , 2 ) etc. These intervals give different branches of the
function cot 1. The function with range (0, ) is called the principal value branch of
the function cot 1. We thus have
cot1 : R
(0, )
1
The graphs of y = cot x and y = cot x are given in Fig 2.6 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.6 (i)

Fig 2.6 (ii)

The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value
branches) along with their domains and ranges.

tan1

cot1

[0, ] { }
2

R (1, 1)

,
{0}
2 2

,
2 2

(0, )

sec 1

R (1,1)

cosec1

[0, ]

[1, 1]

,
2 2

cos 1

[1, 1]

sin1

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

41

Note

1. sin1x should not be confused with (sin x)1. In fact (sin x)1 =
and
sin x
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned, we
mean the principal value branch of that function.
3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range of
principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.

Example 1 Find the principal value of sin1

1
1
= y. Then, sin y =
.
2
2

Solution Let sin1

We now consider some examples:

We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin1 is

,
2 2

1
1
. Therefore, principal value of sin1
is
2
2
4
4
1
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot1
3
1
Solution Let cot1
= y. Then,
3
2
1
cot y
cot
= cot
= cot
3
3
3
3
We know that the range of principal value branch of cot 1 is (0,
1
2
1
2
cot
=
. Hence, principal value of cot1
is
3
3
3
3

sin

EXERCISE 2.1

Find the principal values of the following:

4. tan1 (

1
2

3)

2. cos1

5. cos1

1. sin1

3
2

3. cosec1 (2)

1
2

6. tan1 (1)

and

) and

MATHEMATICS

2
3

8. cot1 ( 3)

1
2

7. sec1

9. cos1

42

10. cosec1 ( 2 )
Find the values of the following:

12. cos1

1
1
+ 2 sin1
2
2

1
2

1
+ sin1
2

11. tan1(1) + cos1

13. If sin1 x = y, then

(C)

2 is equal to

(B)

(D)

2
3

3 sec

(A)

(D)

(C) 0 < y <

14. tan1

(B)

(A) 0

2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric
functions. It may be mentioned here that these results are valid within the principal
value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever
they are defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse
trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid only for some values of x for which
inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these
values of x in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this text book.
Let us recall that if y = sin1x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin1x. This is
equivalent to

,
2 2
Same is true for other five inverse trigonometric functions as well. We now prove
some properties of inverse trigonometric functions.
1
1. (i) sin1 = cosec1 x, x 1 or x 1
x

[ 1, 1] and sin1 (sin x) = x, x

1
= sec1x, x
x

1 or x

(ii) cos1

sin (sin1 x) = x, x

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1
= cot1 x, x > 0
x
To prove the first result, we put cosec1 x = y, i.e., x = cosec y
1
Therefore
= sin y
x
1
Hence
sin1 = y
x
1
= cosec1 x
or
sin1
x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
2. (i) sin1 (x) = sin1 x, x [ 1, 1]
(ii) tan1 (x) = tan1 x, x R
(iii) cosec1 (x) = cosec1 x, | x | 1
Let sin1 (x) = y, i.e., x = sin y so that x = sin y, i.e., x = sin (y).
Hence
sin1 x = y = sin1 (x)
Therefore
sin1 (x) = sin1x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
3. (i) cos1 (x) = cos1 x, x [ 1, 1]
(ii) sec1 (x) = sec1 x, | x | 1
(iii) cot1 (x) = cot1 x, x R
Let cos1 (x) = y i.e., x = cos y so that x = cos y = cos ( y)
Therefore
cos1 x = y = cos1 (x)
Hence
cos1 (x) = cos1 x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
(iii) tan1

, |x|

[ 1, 1]

Let sin1 x = y. Then x = sin y = cos

cos1 x =

Therefore

y =

(iii) cosec1 x + sec1 x =

,x

,x

(ii) tan1 x + cot1 x =

4. (i) sin1 x + cos1 x =

sin 1 x

43

MATHEMATICS

sin1 x + cos1 x =

Hence

44

Similarly, we can prove the other parts.

x+y
, xy < 1
1 xy

5. (i) tan1x + tan1 y = tan1

xy
, xy > 1
1 + xy

(ii) tan1x tan1 y = tan1

and tan1 y = . Then x = tan , y = tan

= tan1

x y
1 xy

x y
1 xy

tan tan
1 tan tan

tan(

x y
tan1 x + tan1 y = tan1 1 xy

Hence

This gives

, |x| < 1

Now

1 x2

Let tan1 x =

2x

(iii) 2tan1x = tan1

In the above result, if we replace y by y, we get the second result and by replacing
y by x, we get the third result.
2x
, |x|
1 + x2

6. (i) 2tan1 x = sin1

(ii) 2tan1 x = cos1

1 x2
,x
1 + x2

(iii) 2 tan1 x = tan1

2x
,1<x<1
1 x2

Let tan1 x = y, then x = tan y. Now

2 tan y
2x
1
2 = sin
1 tan 2 y
1 x
= sin1 (sin 2y) = 2y = 2tan1 x

sin1

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1 tan 2 y
1 x2
1
Also cos
= cos
= cos1 (cos 2y) = 2y = 2tan1 x
1 tan 2 y
1 x2

(iii) Can be worked out similarly.

We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that
1
1
x
2
2
1
x 1
= 2 cos1 x,
2

Solution

(ii) sin1 2 x 1 x 2

(i) sin1 2 x 1 x 2 = 2 sin1 x,

(i) Let x = sin . Then sin1 x = . We have

= 2 sin1 x

= sin1 (2sin cos ) = sin1 (sin2 ) = 2

1 sin 2

= sin1 2sin

sin1 2 x 1 x 2

(ii) Take x = cos , then proceeding as above, we get, sin1 2 x 1 x 2 = 2 cos1 x

15
1 3
= tan
= R.H.S.
4
20

in the simplest form.

x
x
sin 2
2
2
x
x
2 x
2 x
cos
sin
2sin cos
2
2
2
2

cos2

tan 1

cos x
,
1 sin x

tan

cos x
1 sin x

1 2
2 11
tan 1
tan
1 2
1
2 11

Solution We write

Example 5 Express tan

2
1 1
tan 1
L.H.S. = tan
2
11

1
2
3
tan 1
tan 1
2
11
4
Solution By property 5 (i), we have
Example 4 Show that tan1

45

MATHEMATICS

tan

x
4 2

x
2
x
1 tan
2

1 tan

1
= tan tan

x
x
sin
2
2
x
x
cos
sin
2
2

cos

= tan

x
x
x
x
sin
cos
sin
2
2
2
2
x
x 2
cos
sin
2
2

1
= tan

cos

46

x
2

Alternatively,

tan 1 tan

2x
4

x
2

, | x | > 1 in the simplest form.

sec 2

1 tan

x2 1 =

x2 1

x
4 2

2x
4

1
= tan tan

Solution Let x = sec , then

2x
2x
cos
4
4
2x
2sin 2
4

1
= tan cot

1 cos

2sin

tan 1

2x
2
2x
2

1 cos

1
= tan

1
Example 6 Write cot

tan 1

cos x
1 sin x

sin

tan 1

sin

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3 x x3
2x
1
= tan
, | x|
1 3x 2
1 x2

3tan tan 3
1 3tan 2

tan 1

3x x 3
1 3x 2

1
3

= tan1 x. We have

1
R.H.S. = tan

Solution Let x = tan . Then

1
Example 7 Prove that tan x + tan
1

= sec1 x, which is the simplest form.

= cot1 (cot ) =

1
Therefore, cot

= tan1 (tan3 ) = 3 = 3tan1 x = tan1 x + 2 tan1 x

2x
= L.H.S. (Why?)
1 x2
Example 8 Find the value of cos (sec1 x + cosec1 x), | x |

= tan1 x + tan1

Solution We have cos (sec1 x + cosec1 x) = cos

=0

EXERCISE 2.2
Prove the following:

1
1
31
tan 1
tan 1
2
7
17

2 tan

4.

2
7
1
tan 1
tan 1
11
24
2

3. tan 1

1
,1
2

2. 3cos1 x = cos1 (4x3 3x), x

1 1
,
2 2

1. 3sin1 x = sin1 (3x 4x3), x

Write the following functions in the simplest form:

6.

tan

1 cos x
,x<
1 cos x

8.

tan

x2 1

, |x| > 1

cos x sin x
,x<
cos x sin x

,x

tan

7.

1 x2
x

tan

5.

47

48

MATHEMATICS

9.

tan

10.

tan

, |x| < a

a2 x 2

3a 2 x x 3
, a > 0;
a 3 3ax 2

Find the values of each of the following:

tan 1 2 cos 2 sin 1

13.

tan

1
2

11.

12. cot (tan1a + cot1a)

1
2x
1 y2
sin 1
cos 1
, | x | < 1, y > 0 and xy < 1
2
1 x2
1 y2

1
cos 1 x
5

1
14. If sin sin

1 , then find the value of x

x 1
x 1
tan 1
, then find the value of x
x 2
x 2 4
Find the values of each of the expressions in Exercises 16 to 18.

is equal to

5
6

1
) is equal to
2
1
(B)
3

(C)

1
4

(D)

(D) 1

3) is equal to

(B)

3 cot 1 (

(C)

(B)
sin 1 (

3
4

7
6

(A)

cos

tan 1 tan

tan

3
1
(A)
2

21.

3
3
cot 1
5
2

7
6

(A)
20. sin

17.

19. cos

2
3

tan sin 1

18.

1
16. sin sin

1
15. If tan

(C) 0

(D) 2 3

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Miscellaneous Examples

Therefore

sin 1 (sin

sin (

However

3
5

3
)
5

But

1
x . Therefore, sin (sin

, , which is the principal branch of sin1 x

2 2

3
and sin y
5

8
17

x and sin

3
8
sin 1
5
17

2
5

cos

3
2
) sin 1 (sin )
5
5

84
85

8
17

Therefore

sin x

Now

cos x

and

cos y

We have

cos (xy) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

3 8
5 17

cos

3
8
sin 1
5
17

64
289

84
85

84
85

sin

cos

4
5

Hence

9
25

Therefore

4 15
5 17

1 sin 2 y

1 sin 2 x

,
2 2

3
5

3
2
2
) sin
and
5
5
5

3
) sin(
5

Example 10 Show that sin

Solution Let sin

3
5

Solution We know that sin 1 (sin x)

3
)
5

1
Example 9 Find the value of sin (sin

84
85

(Why?)

15
17

49

MATHEMATICS

tan z

63
16

3
12
, tan x
and tan y
5
5
12
5
12
1
5

3
4
3
4

3
4

63
16

tan x tan y
1 tan x tan y

y)

63
16

63
16

tan( x

Hence

y)

tan( x

y , tan

4
,
5

tan

We have

i.e.,

5
, sin y
13

cos x

12
, cos y
13

4
5

Therefore

4
5

sin x

Then

13

x, cos

1 12

13

cos

Solution Let sin

1 12

Example 11 Show that sin

50

tan z

tan (x + y) = tan (z) or tan (x + y) = tan ( z)

Therefore

x + y = z or x + y =

Since

x, y and z are positive, x + y

Hence

x+y+z=

z (Why?)

12
4
63
cos 1
tan 1
13
5
16

a
a cos x b sin x
, if
tan x > 1
b
b cos x a sin x

1
Example 12 Simplify tan

1
or sin

Solution We have,

tan 1 (tan x) = tan 1

a
b

a
b

1
= tan

1
= tan

a
tan x
b
a
1
tan x
b

a cos x b sin x
a cos x b sin x
1
b cos x
= tan
b cos x a sin x
b cos x a sin x
b cos x

tan

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 13 Solve tan1 2x + tan1 3x =

Solution We have tan1 2x + tan1 3x =

51

5x
1 6x 2

tan 1

i.e.

2 x 3x
1 2 x 3x

tan 1

or

5x
1
= tan
1 6 x2
4
6x2 + 5x 1 = 0 i.e., (6x 1) (x + 1) = 0

or

Therefore

1
or x = 1.
6
Since x = 1 does not satisfy the equation, as the L.H.S. of the equation becomes

which gives

1
is the only solution of the given equation.
6

negative, x

x=

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

Find the value of the following:

5
3
cos 1
13
5

tan

1
1
tan 1
3
8

1
1
tan 1
5
7

tan 1

8.

sin 1

sin 1

3
5

sin 1

3
5

1
6. cos

63
16

33
65

tan 1

7.

cos 1

8
17

12
13

4
12
cos 1
5
13

1
4. sin

24
7

tan 1

1
5. cos

3
5

7
6

tan 1 tan

2sin 1

3.

2.

Prove that

13
6

1
cos
1. cos

tan 1

77
36

sin 1

56
65

52

MATHEMATICS

Prove that

1 x
1 x

1 x
1 x

12.

9
8

9
1
sin 1
4
3

9
sin
4

1
cos 1 x ,
2

tan 1

0,

1
2

x 1 [Hint: Put x = cos 2 ]

11.

x x
,
2

1 sin x
1 sin x

1 sin x
1 sin x

10. cot 1

[0, 1]

1
1 x
cos 1
,x
2
1 x

tan 1 x

9.

2 2
3

Solve the following equations:

1 x 1 1
tan x,( x
1 x 2

(B)

1 x2

x
x

1
2

(C) 0

(D)

(D)

1
2

y
is equal to
y

(B)

tan

(A)

x
y

tan

(B) 1,

, then x is equal to

17.

1
2

1 x2

16. sin1 (1 x) 2 sin1 x =

(A) 0,

1 x2

(D)

(C)

3
4

1 x2

(C)

(A)

15. sin (tan1 x), | x | < 1 is equal to

tan 1

13. 2tan1 (cos x) = tan1 (2 cosec x) 14.

0)

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Summary
The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric
functions are given in the following table:
Domain

[1, 1]
[1, 1]
R (1,1)

y = sec1 x

R (1, 1)

y = tan1 x

y = cot1 x

,
{0}
2 2

[0, ] { }
2

y = cosec1 x

,
2 2
[0, ]

y = cos1 x

y = sin1 x

Range
(Principal Value Branches)

Functions

,
2 2

(0, )

sin1x should not be confused with (sin x)1. In fact (sin x)1 =

1
and
sin x

similarly for other trigonometric functions.

The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal
value branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
For suitable values of domain, we have
y = sin1 x
x = sin y
x = sin y
y = sin1 x
sin (sin1 x) = x
sin1 (sin x) = x

sec1 (x) =

cot1 x

1
= cot1 x
x

tan1

cot1 (x) =

cos1 x

1
= sec1x
x

cos1 (x) =

cos1

1
= cosec1 x
x

sin1

sec1 x

53

MATHEMATICS

1 xy

cosec1 x + sec1 x =

tan1x tan1y = tan1

tan1x + tan1y = tan1

2tan1x = tan1

cosec1 (x) = cosec1 x

2x
1 x2

sin1 x + cos1 x =

tan1 (x) = tan1 x

sin1 (x) = sin1 x

tan1 x + cot1 x =

54

1 xy

2x
1 x2
1
2tan x = sin
= cos
1 x2
1 x2
1

Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476A.D.), Brahmagupta (598 A.D.), Bhaskara I
(600 A.D.) and Bhaskara II (1114 A.D.) got important results of trigonometry. All
this knowledge went from India to Arabia and then from there to Europe. The
Greeks had also started the study of trigonometry but their approach was so
clumsy that when the Indian approach became known, it was immediately adopted
throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents one of
the main contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600 A.D.) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for sines or
cosines of 18, 36, 54, 72, etc., were given by Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin1 x, cos1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were suggested
by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The name of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

55

height, and comparing the ratios:

H
S

h
= tan (suns altitude)
s

Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.

Chapter

MATRICES

3.1 Introduction

The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. CANTOR

The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices

are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.

3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession

MATRICES

57

of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha
has
15
notebooks
and
Fauzia
has
10
notebooks
and
Simran
has
13
notebooks
and
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks
Pens
Radha
15
6
Fauzia
10
2
Simran
13
5
and this can be expressed as

6 pens,
2 pens,
5 pens.

or
Radha
Notebooks
15
Pens
6
which can be expressed as:

Fauzia
10
2

Simran
13
5

In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,

58

MATHEMATICS

respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:

1 x

x3

cos x sin x 2 tan x

3.5

1
2
2 , C
5
7

5 , B
6

2 i

2
0
3

In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m n or simply m n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 2 matrix, B as 3 3 matrix and C as 2 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m n matrix has the following rectangular array:

or A = [aij]m n, 1 i m, 1 j n i, j N
Thus the ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the jth column
consists of the elements a1j, a2j, a3j,..., amj ,
In general aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m n matrix will be
equal to mn.

MATRICES

59

Note In this chapter

1. We shall follow the notation, namely A = [aij]m n to indicate that A is a matrix

of order m n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions taking real values.

We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as

(or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as

0
or [0 1].
1

Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (1, 2).
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as

2 4

0 2

A 1

or

B 3 2
C 1 3

D 1 2

A B C D
1 3 1 1

4 2

Thus, matrices can be used as representation of vertices of geometrical figures in

a plane.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women
workers in three factories I, II and III
Men workers

Women workers

30

25

II

25

31

III

27

26

Represent the above information in the form of a 3 2 matrix. What does the entry
in the third row and second column represent?

60

MATHEMATICS

Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 2 matrix as follows:

25

25
27

31
26

30

The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women
workers in factory III.
Example 2 If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that if a matrix is of order m n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find
all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural
numbers, whose product is 8.
Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8), (8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4)
Hence, possible orders are 1 8, 8 1, 4 2, 2 4

a12

1
| 2 3 1|
2

1
2

a22

1
| 3 3 1| 0
2

a32

1
|2 3 2| 2
2

1
|3 3 2|
2

5
2
2 .
3
2

1
1
2
0

5
2

Hence the required matrix is given by A

1
|1 3 2 |
2

a31

1
|1 3 1| 1
2

a21

a11

Therefore

aij

Now

a31 a32
1
| i 3 j | , i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2

3
2

Solution In general a 3 2 matrix is given by A

a11 a12
a21 a22 .

1
|i 3j |.
2

Example 3 Construct a 3 2 matrix whose elements are given by aij

MATRICES

61

3.3 Types of Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
0

For example, A

1 is a column matrix of order 4 1.

1/ 2

In general, A = [aij] m 1 is a column matrix of order m 1.

(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

1
2

For example, B

5 2 3

is a row matrix.

1 4

In general, B = [bij] 1 n is a row matrix of order 1 n.

(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order n.
1

3
3 2
2
4
3

For example A

is a square matrix of order 3.

In general, A = [aij] m m is a square matrix of order m.

Note If A = [aij] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a11, a22, ..., ann

Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.

are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if A

1 .
6

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MATHEMATICS

(iv) Diagonal matrix

A square matrix B = [bij] m m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [bij] m m is said to be a diagonal
matrix if bij = 0, when i j.

1.1 0 0
0

For example, A = [4], B

1 0
, C
0 2

2 0 , are diagonal matrices

0 3

of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n n is said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example

0
,
1

3
0
0

0
3
0

0
0
3

A = [3],

1
0

are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n n is an
1 if i
0 if i

identity matrix, if aij

j
.
j

We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.

1 0 0
1 0
, 0 1 0 are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
For example [1],
0 1
0 0 1

respectively.

Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.

MATRICES

63

(vii) Zero matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
0 0
0 0 0
,
, [0, 0] are all zero matrices. We denote
0 0
0 0 0

For example, [0],

zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.

3.3.1 Equality of matrices
Definition 2 Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is aij = bij for
all i and j.
2 3
2 3
3 2
2 3
and
and
are equal matrices but
are
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1

For example,

not equal matrices. Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

1.5

6 , then x = 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a =
2

6 a 1

b 3

21

6 , b = 3, c = 2

6 3y 2

3 2c 2

2b 4

Example 4 If

x 3 z 4 2y 7

2
3

21

x y
If z a
b c

Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.

Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0,
z + 4 = 6,
2y 7 = 3y 2
a 1 = 3,
0 = 2c + 2
b 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = 2, b = 7, c = 1, x = 3, y = 5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
4
3
11 24

2a b a 2b
5c d 4c 3d

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MATHEMATICS

Solution By equality of two matrices, equating the corresponding elements, we get

2a + b = 4
5c d = 11
a 2b = 3
4c + 3d = 24
Solving these equations, we get
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4

EXERCISE 3.1
5

35

5
12 , write:
2
5 17

19

1. In the matrix A

(i) The order of the matrix,

(ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 2 matrix, A = [aij], whose elements are given by:
(ii) aij

j)2

i
j

(iii)

aij

(i

(i 2 j )2
2

(i) aij

5. Construct a 3 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:

j|

(ii) aij

1
| 3i
2

2i

(i) aij

6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:

xy

5 z

6 2
5 8

7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:

1 5
0 13

a b 2a c
2a b 3c d

(ii)

(iii)

1 5

x z
y

x 5

9
5
7

(i)

4 3

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65

8. A = [aij]m n\ is a square matrix, if

(A) m < n
(B) m > n
(C) m = n
(D) None of these
9. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal
3x 7
5
0 y 2
,
8
4
y 1 2 3x

1
, y 7
3

(A) x

(B) Not possible to find

2
1
2
, y
(D) x
3
3
3
10. The number of all possible matrices of order 3 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:
(A) 27
(B) 18
(C) 81
(D) 512

(C) y = 7,

3.4 Operations on Matrices

In this section, we shall introduce certain operations on matrices, namely, addition of
matrices, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, difference and multiplication of matrices.
3.4.1 Addition of matrices
Suppose Fatima has two factories at places A and B. Each factory produces sport
shoes for boys and girls in three different price categories labelled 1, 2 and 3. The
quantities produced by each factory are represented as matrices given below:

Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
In category 2 : for boys (75 + 70), for girls (65 + 55)
In category 3 : for boys (90 + 75), for girls (85 + 75)

90 75

This can be represented in the matrix form as 75 70

60 50

80 90

65 55 .
85 75

66

MATHEMATICS

This new matrix is the sum of the above two matrices. We observe that the sum of
two matrices is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. Furthermore, the two matrices have to be of the same order.

a22

b12

a13 b13

b22

a23 b23

a21 b21

b13

b21 b22 b23

a11 b11 a12

23 matrix. Then, we define A + B

b11 b12

a23

is a 2 3 matrix and B

a21 a22

a13

a11 a12

Thus, if A

is another

In general, if A = [aij] and B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order, say m n.
Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix C = [cij]m n, where
cij = aij + bij, for all possible values of i and j.
1
and B
0

3 1
2 3

5 1
2 3

Example 6 Given A

1 , find A + B
2

Since A, B are of the same order 2 3. Therefore, addition of A and B is defined

and is given by

1
2

3 3

5 1 1

3 1

2 2

3 1

5 0
1
2

A+B

Note

1. We emphasise that if A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not
1 2 3

2 3
,B
1 0

1 0 1

defined. For example if A

, then A + B is not defined.

2. We may observe that addition of matrices is an example of binary operation

on the set of matrices of the same order.
3.4.2 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
Now suppose that Fatima has doubled the production at a factory A in all categories
(refer to 3.4.1).

MATRICES

67

Previously quantities (in standard units) produced by factory A were

Revised quantities produced by factory A are as given below:

Boys Girls

160

120

This can be represented in the matrix form as 150

3 2 90 2 85

1 2 80 2 60
2 2 75 2 65

130 . We observe that

180

170

the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix by 2.
In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if
A = [aij] m n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which is obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, kA = k [aij] m n = [k (aij)] m n, that is, (i, j)th element of kA is kaij
for all possible values of i and j.

1 1.5

3 , then
5

5 7
2 0

3A = 3

5 7
2 0

3
5

4.5

A=

1 1.5

For example, if

3 5 21 9
6
0 15

Negative of a matrix The negative of a matrix is denoted by A. We define

A = ( 1) A.

MATHEMATICS

3 1
, then A is given by
5 x
( 1)

A = ( 1) A

5 x

A=

For example, let

68

Difference of matrices If A = [aij], B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order,
say m n, then difference A B is defined as a matrix D = [dij], where dij = aij bij,
for all value of i and j. In other words, D = A B = A + (1) B, that is sum of the matrix
A and the matrix B.
3

2 3 1

and B

1 2 3

1 3

1 0 2

Example 7 If A

, then find 2A B.

Solution We have

2 3 4 1 6 3
4 1 6 0 2 2

3
2

1 5 3
5 6 0

3 1
1 0

2 4 6
4 6 2

1 3
1 0 2

1 2 3
2 3 1

2A B = 2

3.4.3 Properties of matrix addition

The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties:
(i) Commutative Law If A = [aij], B = [bij] are matrices of the same order, say
m n, then A + B = B + A.
Now
A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij]
= [bij + aij] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([bij] + [aij]) = B + A
(ii) Associative Law For any three matrices A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the
same order, say m n, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Now
(A + B) + C = ([aij] + [bij]) + [cij]
= [aij + bij] + [cij] = [(aij + bij) + cij]
(Why?)
= [aij + (bij + cij)]
= [aij] + [(bij + cij)] = [aij] + ([bij] + [cij]) = A + (B + C)

MATRICES

69

(iii) Existence of additive identity Let A = [a ij] be an m n matrix and

O be an m n zero matrix, then A + O = O + A = A. In other words, O is the
additive identity for matrix addition.
(iv) The existence of additive inverse Let A = [aij]m n be any matrix, then we
have another matrix as A = [ aij]m n such that A + ( A) = ( A) + A= O. So
A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.
3.4.4 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m n, and k and l are
scalars, then
(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A
(ii) k (A + B) = k ([aij] + [bij])
= k [aij + bij] = [k (aij + bij)] = [(k aij) + (k bij)]
= [k aij] + [k bij] = k [aij] + k [bij] = kA + kB
(iii) ( k + l) A = (k + l) [aij]
= [(k + l) aij] + [k aij] + [l aij] = k [aij] + l [aij] = k A + l A

Example 8 If A

2 and B

3 6

2A + 3X = 5B.

8 0

2 , then find the matrix X, such that

5 1

Solution We have 2A + 3X = 5B
or
2A + 3X 2A = 5B 2A
or
or
or

2A 2A + 3X = 5B 2A
O + 3X = 5B 2A
3X = 5B 2A

or

X=

8 0
2 4 2
3 6

1
=
3

10 10
20 10
25 5

2 2
1
5 4 2
3
5 1

16 0
8 4
6 12

1
(5B 2A)
3

or

(Matrix addition is commutative)

( 2A is the additive inverse of 2A)
(O is the additive identity)

MATHEMATICS

4 4
0 4

8 8
0 8

5 3 2 6

9 1
4

10

1 2
2 0

0 10

2Y

Y=

or

(X X) + (Y + Y) =

0 9

2X

or

5 2

6
.
1

(X + Y) (X Y) =

Also

1 8 8
2 0 8

6
.
1

X=

or

8 8
0 8

3
0

(X + X) + (Y Y) =

5 2
0 9

3
0

5 2
and X Y
0 9

X Y

or

Solution We have X Y

Example 9 Find X and Y, if X Y

10 16 10 0
6 10
1
1
20 8 10 4 =
12 14 =
=
3
3
25 6 5 12
31 7

10
3
14
4
3
31 7
3
3

70

Example 10 Find the values of x and y from the following equation:

4
7 6
=
2
15 14

y 3

3
1

x
7

Solution We have

7 6
15 14

y 3

2x
10
14 2 y 6

3
1

4
2

7 6
15 14

MATRICES

and
and

i.e.

4
2
x =2
x=

and
and

or

2x + 3 = 7
2x = 7 3

2x 3
6
15
2y 4

2y 4 = 14
2y = 18

7 6
15 14

or
or

2x 3
10 4
7 6
=
14 1 2 y 6 2
15 14

(Why?)

or

71

18
2
y = 9.

y=

Example 11 Two farmers Ramkishan and Gurcharan Singh cultivates only three
varieties of rice namely Basmati, Permal and Naura. The sale (in Rupees) of these
varieties of rice by both the farmers in the month of September and October are given
by the following matrices A and B.

(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each
variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.
(iii) If both farmers receive 2% profit on gross sales, compute the profit for each
farmer and for each variety sold in October.
Solution
(i) Combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each variety is
given by

72

MATHEMATICS

(ii) Change in sales from September to October is given by

2
B = 0.02 B
100

(iii) 2% of B =

= 0.02

=
Thus, in October Ramkishan receives Rs 100, Rs 200 and Rs 120 as profit in the
sale of each variety of rice, respectively, and Grucharan Singh receives profit of Rs
400, Rs 200 and Rs 200 in the sale of each variety of rice, respectively.
3.4.5 Multiplication of matrices
Suppose Meera and Nadeem are two friends. Meera wants to buy 2 pens and 5 story
books, while Nadeem needs 8 pens and 10 story books. They both go to a shop to
enquire about the rates which are quoted as follows:
Pen Rs 5 each, story book Rs 50 each.
How much money does each need to spend? Clearly, Meera needs Rs (5 2 + 50 5)
that is Rs 260, while Nadeem needs (8 5 + 50 10) Rs, that is Rs 540. In terms of
matrix representation, we can write the above information as follows:

5
50

5 2 5 50
8 5 10 50

2 5
8 10

Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)

260
540

Requirements

Suppose that they enquire about the rates from another shop, quoted as follows:
pen Rs 4 each, story book Rs 40 each.
Now, the money required by Meera and Nadeem to make purchases will be
respectively Rs (4 2 + 40 5) = Rs 208 and Rs (8 4 + 10 40) = Rs 432

MATRICES

73

Again, the above information can be represented as follows:

Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
4 2 40 5
8 4 10 4 0

4
40

208
432

2 5
8 10

Now, the information in both the cases can be combined and expressed in terms of
matrices as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
5 2 5 50 4 2 40 5
8 5 10 5 0 8 4 10 4 0

540 432

260 208

5 4
50 40

2 5
8 10

The above is an example of multiplication of matrices. We observe that, for

multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A should be equal to
the number of rows in B. Furthermore for getting the elements of the product matrix,
we take rows of A and columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.
Formally, we define multiplication of matrices as follows:
The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. Let A = [aij] be an m n matrix and B = [bjk] be an
n p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m p.
To get the (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. In other words,
if A = [aij]m n, B = [bjk]n p, then the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain] and the kth column of

bnk

, then cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bnk =

b2 k

B is

b1k

aij b jk .

j 1

The matrix C = [cik]m p is the product of A and B.

1 2
and D
3 4

2 7
1 1 , then the product CD is defined

For example, if C

1
0

MATHEMATICS

and is given by CD

1 2

3 4

74

1 . This is a 2 2 matrix in which each

4

entry is the sum of the products across some row of C with the corresponding entries
down some column of D. These four computations are

13

2 3

6 9

and B

Example 12 Find AB, if A

2 6 0
7 9 8

17

13

Thus CD

Solution The matrix A has 2 columns which is equal to the number of rows of B.
Hence AB is defined. Now

4 21 12 27 0 24

12 63 36 81 0 72

75 117 72
25 39 24

6(2) 9(7) 6(6) 9(9) 6(0) 9(8)

2(2) 3(7) 2(6) 3(9) 2(0) 3(8)

AB

MATRICES

75

Remark If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined. In the above example, AB is

defined but BA is not defined because B has 3 column while A has only 2 (and not 3)
rows. If A, B are, respectively m n, k l matrices, then both AB and BA are defined
if and only if n = k and l = m. In particular, if both A and B are square matrices of the
same order, then both AB and BA are defined.
Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices
Now, we shall see by an example that even if AB and BA are both defined, it is not
necessary that AB = BA.

AB

2 3
and B
2 5

2 3

Example 13 If A

1
4

4 5 , then find AB, BA. Show that

2 1

BA.

Solution Since A is a 2 3 matrix and B is 3 2 matrix. Hence AB and BA are both

defined and are matrices of order 2 2 and 3 3, respectively. Note that
0
10

6 15

4
3

10

21

16

37

8 10 12 25
4 2
6 5

2 11

4 20
2 4

4 6

2 12

3 10 3
12 10 5

1 2 3
4 2 5

4 5 =
2 1

4 5
2 1

2 3

2 8 6
8 8 10

4 2

2 3

BA

and

AB

Clearly AB BA
In the above example both AB and BA are of different order and so AB BA. But
one may think that perhaps AB and BA could be the same if they were of the same
order. But it is not so, here we give an example to show that even if AB and BA are of
same order they may not be same.

1 0

1
. Clearly AB
0

0
1

0 1

and B

BA

Thus matrix multiplication is not commutative.

, then AB

BA.

0 1

and

1 0

Example 14 If A

MATHEMATICS

76

Note This does not mean that AB BA for every pair of matrices A, B for
which AB and BA, are defined. For instance,

0 2

, B

3 0

1 0

0 4

, then AB = BA =

If A

3 0

0 8

Observe that multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.

Zero matrix as the product of two non zero matrices
We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need
not be true for matrices, we will observe this through an example.

0
0

3 5

0 0

0 0

0 0

Solution We have AB

3 5
.
0 0

Example 15 Find AB, if A

1
and B
2

Thus, if the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
3.4.6 Properties of multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without
proof.
1. The associative law For any three matrices A, B and C. We have
(AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributive law For three matrices A, B and C.
(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.
Now, we shall verify these properties by examples.

3 , B
2

1 3

0 2 and C
1 4

A(BC), (AB)C and show that (AB)C = A(BC).

Example 16 If A

1 2 3
2 0

2 1

, find

MATRICES

2 2

4 0

1 36

2 0

1 30

8 1

3 36

2 0

3 30

4 18

4 15

1 6

2 0

0 4

0 0

1 8

2 0

3 6

4 3

0 4

0 2

6 2

3 8 4 4

4 2
11 8

7 4 7

4 0

7 2

2 0 2

= 14 0 21 4 0 6
21 4 14 6 0 4

31

11 8

3 4 11
6 0 33
9 4 22

1 2 8
2 0 24
3 2 16

39 22 . Clearly, (AB) C = A (BC)

27 11

35

7 2

A(BC) = 2

0
2

1 18
1 15

2 0

2 0 3 6 0 12
3 0 2 9 2 8

39 22
27 11

2 1

14

0 2
1 4

1 0 1 3 2 4

0 2

= 4
7

Therefore

1 3

2
2

3
2

= 35
31

BC =

0
1

2 0

1 18

1 15

Now

2
3

1 3

(AB) (C)

2 1

Solution We have AB

77

MATHEMATICS

6
7

0
8

8 ,B
0

0 1 1

Example 17 If A

1 0 2 ,C
1 2 0

2
3

78

Calculate AC, BC and (A + B)C. Also, verify that (A + B)C = AC + BC

0 2 3

2 0 6

2 4 0

20

28

12
30

20
28

(A + B) C = AC + BC

3
4

2
2

1 , then show that A3 23A 40 I = O

1

19

12 8

14

6 15

A.A

Solution We have A

Example 18 If A

10

Clearly,

12 0 24
14 16 0

AC + BC = 12
30

BC = 1 0 2
1 2 0

0 1 1

2
3

0 12 21

0 8
8 0

AC =

16 12 0

10

10 0 30

0 14 24

10

So

6
7

(A + B) C =

and

Further

So

10

Solution Now, A + B

MATRICES

2
2

1 1 12 8
1 14 6 15

63 46 69

69 6 23
92 46 63

A =AA = 3

So

3 19

79

Now

A3 23A 40I = 69 6 23 23 3
92 46 63
4

1 40 0

1 0

0 1
40

23

40

23

40

6 46 40 23 23 0
46 46 0 63 23 40

69 69 0

46 46 0

46

69

46

92

= 69 69 0
92 92 0

= 0 0 0
0 0 0

69

63 23 40

0 0 0

46

= 69 6 23
92 46 63

23

63 46 69

1 0 0

63 46 69

Example 19 In a legislative assembly election, a political group hired a public relations

firm to promote its candidate in three ways: telephone, house calls, and letters. The
cost per contact (in paise) is given in matrix A as
Cost per contact

A=

40
100
50

Telephone
Housecall
Letter

The number of contacts of each type made in two cities X and Y is given by
Telephone Housecall Letter

1000
3000

500 5000
1000 10,000

cities X and Y.

X
. Find the total amount spent by the group in the two
Y

80

MATHEMATICS

Solution We have

340, 000

50,000

40,000

250, 000

120,000 + 100,000 +500,000

720,000

BA =

X
Y

X
Y

So the total amount spent by the group in the two cities is 340,000 paise and
720,000 paise, i.e., Rs 3400 and Rs 7200, respectively.

EXERCISE 3.2
5

3 2
2 5
3
Find each of the following:
(i) A + B
(ii) A B
(iv) AB
(v) BA
2. Compute the following:

0
1

(iii)

cos 2 x
sin 2 x

cos 2 x

1 2 3

2 3 1

2 1

(v)

1
3

2 [2 3 4]
3

sin 2 x

3 2
11

cos 2 x

2bc
2ab

1 0 1
1

1 3
0 2

3
1

4 5 6

sin 2 x

3 4 5

sin 2 x

2ab
2ac

2 3 4

(ii)

cos 2 x

(vi)

(iv)

(i)

c2

3. Compute the indicated products.

(iv)

0 5
2 4

b2

8
3

b2

5 16
8 5

12 7 6

8
2

a2

(ii)

(iii) 3A C

(iii)

,C

a b

,B

(i)

2 4

1. Let A

2 1

MATRICES

4
2

2
0

5 and C
3

0
1

3
2

2 , then compute
3

2 ,B
1

0
1

5
1

4. If A

81

(A+B) and (B C). Also, verify that A + (B C) = (A + B) C.

sin
cos

3 0
0 3

5 6

2
3

1
1

1
0

3 5
4 6

10
, find the values of x and y.
5

x y
z w

x 6
1 2w

12. Given 3

z w

11. If x

10. Solve the equation for x, y, z and t, if 2

1 8

3 2

0 x

y 0

1 3

and 2X + Y =

2
5

1 4

3 2

2
1

2 3
and 3X 2Y
4 0

cos
sin

+ sin

7 0
and X Y
2 5

9. Find x and y, if 2

4
, then compute 3A 5B.
5
2
5

8. Find X, if Y =

(ii) 2X + 3Y

(i) X + Y

7. Find X and Y, if

sin
cos

3
5
2
5
6
5

cos
sin

6. Simplify cos

and B

2
5
1
5
7
5

2
3

5
3
4
3
2
3

5. If A

2
3
1
3
7
3

, find the values of x, y, z and w.

MATHEMATICS

0 , show that F(x) F(y) = F(x + y).

1

1 2 3

15. Find A 5A + 6I, if A

3
4

1 2 3
0 1 0
1 1 0

0 2 1 , prove that A3 6A2 + 7A + 2I = 0

2 0 3
2
1 0
and I=
, find k so that A2 = kA 2I
2
0 1

and I is the identity matrix of order 2, show that

sin
cos

cos
sin

I + A = (I A)

tan

tan

18. If A

17. If A

1
7

16. If A

1 0 2

5
6

1 1 0

0 1 0

2 1
3 4

2 1
3 4

1
7

(ii)

5
6

(i)

14. Show that

cos x
0

sin x
0

sin x 0

13. If F ( x )

cos x

82

19. A trust fund has Rs 30,000 that must be invested in two different types of bonds.
The first bond pays 5% interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest
per year. Using matrix multiplication, determine how to divide Rs 30,000 among
the two types of bonds. If the trust fund must obtain an annual total interest of:
(a) Rs 1800
(b) Rs 2000

MATRICES

83

20. The bookshop of a particular school has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen
physics books, 10 dozen economics books. Their selling prices are Rs 80, Rs 60
and Rs 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the bookshop will receive
from selling all the books using matrix algebra.
Assume X, Y, Z, W and P are matrices of order 2 n, 3 k, 2 p, n 3 and p k,
respectively. Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21. The restriction on n, k and p so that PY + WY will be defined are:
(A) k = 3, p = n
(B) k is arbitrary, p = 2
(C) p is arbitrary, k = 3
(D) k = 2, p = 3
22. If n = p, then the order of the matrix 7X 5Z is:
(B) 2 n
(C) n 3
(D) p n
(A) p 2

3.5. Transpose of a Matrix

In this section, we shall learn about transpose of a matrix and special types of matrices
such as symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Definition 3 If A = [aij] be an m n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is
denoted by A or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij]m n, then A = [aji]n m. For example,

, then A

3 0
1
5 1
5

5
3 1
0 1
5

if A

2 3

3 2

3.5.1 Properties of transpose of the matrices

We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These
may be verified by taking suitable examples.
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(ii) (kA) = kA (where k is any constant)
(i) (A ) = A,
(iii) (A + B) = A + B
(iv) (A B) = B A

1 2
, verify that
2 4

2
1

and B

4 2

3 2

Example 20 If A

(ii) (A + B) = A + B ,
(i) (A ) = A,
(iii) (kB) = kB , where k is any constant.

84

MATHEMATICS

Solution
(i) We have

3 4
3 2
2 0

3
3 2
4 2 0

3
3 2
A=
4 2 0

Thus (A ) = A
(ii) We have

5
3 1 4
4
4

3 4
3 2 ,B

3 1 4

2 1
1 2 ,

2 0

2 4

5
3 1 4
4
4

k 1 2
2 4

2k

2k

4k

kB

(kB) = kB

2k 4k

2 1

k 2k

(kB) =

2 4

2k

1 2

2k k

Thus

(A + B) = A + B

kB = k

Then

A B

Thus
(iii) We have

A +B =

So

A =

Now

1 2
2 4

(A + B) =

2
1

, B=

4 2

3 2

Therefore

A=

MATRICES

85

1 3

6 , verify that (AB) = B A .

4 ,B
5

Example 21 If A
Solution We have

1 3

4 ,B

A=

15

12
24

15
30

2 4 5

(AB)

30

(AB) = B A

Clearly

3
6

24

BA =

12

6 =

A = [2 4 5] , B

4 1 3

Now

12

AB =

then

6
12

3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Definition 4 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be symmetric if A = A, that is,
[aij] = [aji] for all possible values of i and j.

3
1

is a symmetric matrix as A = A

2
1.5

For example A

3
2

Definition 5 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if

A = A, that is aji = aij for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we
have aii = aii. Therefore 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 for all is.

This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.

86

MATHEMATICS

g is a skew symmetric matrix as B = B

For example, the matrix B

Now, we are going to prove some results of symmetric and skew-symmetric

matrices.
Theorem 1 For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A is a symmetric
matrix and A A is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let B = A + A , then

B = (A + A )

= A + (A ) (as (A + B) = A + B )

= A + A (as (A ) = A)

= A + A (as A + B = B + A)

= B
Therefore

B = A + A is a symmetric matrix

Now let

C= AA

C = (A A ) = A (A )

= A A

(Why?)

(Why?)

= (A A ) = C

C = A A is a skew symmetric matrix.

Therefore

Theorem 2 Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let A be a square matrix, then we can write

1
1
(A A )
(A A )
2
2
From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A ) is a symmetric matrix and (A A ) is

1
(A A )
2

a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA) = kA , it follows that

1
(A A ) is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square
2
matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

is symmetric matrix and

MATRICES

1
1

skew symmetric matrix.

Example 22 Express the matrix B

2
3
2

4 as the sum of a symmetric and a

3

Solution Here

2
3

3
2

3
1

2 =

3
2

3
2
3
2

1 ,

1 =P
3

0
6

6
0

1
2
5
2

1
2
0
3

1
0
2
5
3
2

5
3

1
2

0
1
1
2
5

1
Q = (B B )
2

Q =

1
(B + B ) is a symmetric matrix.
2

Then

Also, let

P=

3
2
3
2

Thus

P =

Now

3
2

Let

1
2

5
2

1
P = (B + B )
2

3
2

B =

87

MATHEMATICS

1
(B B ) is a skew symmetric matrix.
2

4
3

3
2

1
1

1
2
5
2

5
2

P+Q

3
2
3
2

1
2

Now

3
2

3
2

Q=

Thus

88

Thus, B is represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

EXERCISE 3.3
1. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:

(iii)

1 2

0 , then verify that

1 3

(ii) (A B) = A B

(i) (A + B) = A + B

(ii) (A B) = A B

1 2 1
, then verify that
1 2 3

1 2 and B
0 1

6
1

3 4

3 5
2 3

2 1 1

5 7 9 and B

4 1

1 5

1 2 3

(i) (A + B) = A + B ,

3. If A

1
3

2. If A

(ii)

(i)

1
2

1
2
1

2 3
1 0
and B
, then find (A + 2B)
1 2
1 2
5. For the matrices A and B, verify that (AB) = B A , where

1 , B

(ii) A

1 5 7

1 2 1

, B

(i) A

4. If A

MATRICES

cos

sin

, then verify that A A = I

(i) Show that the matrix A

7.

2 1 is a symmetric matrix.

1 3

1 5
6 7

8. For the matrix A

(ii) Show that the matrix A

1 5

cos

sin

, then verify that A A = I

(ii) If A

sin
cos

cos
sin

6. If (i) A

89

is a skew symmetric matrix.

, verify that

(i) (A + A ) is a symmetric matrix

(ii) (A A ) is a skew symmetric matrix

1
A A , when A
and
2

1
A A
9. Find
2

10. Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix:

(iv)

2
2

1 5
1 2

(iii)

(ii)

3
1

1
3

(i)

90

MATHEMATICS

Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 11 and 12.

11. If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB BA is a
(A) Skew symmetric matrix
(B) Symmetric matrix
(C) Zero matrix
(D) Identity matrix
, then A + A = I, if the value of

(B)
(D)

3
2

is

(C)

sin
cos

(A)

cos
sin

12. If A

3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix

There are six operations (transformations) on a matrix, three of which are due to rows
and three due to columns, which are known as elementary operations or
transformations.
(i) The interchange of any two rows or two columns. Symbolically the interchange
Rj and interchange of ith and jth column is
of ith and jth rows is denoted by Ri
Cj.
denoted by Ci

1
5

3 1 , we get
6 7

1
1
5

3 1
2 1 .
6 7

R2 to A

For example, applying R1

(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero
number. Symbolically, the multiplication of each element of the ith row by k,
where k 0 is denoted by Ri
k Ri.
The corresponding column operation is denoted by Ci kCi

1
C3 , to B
7

3 1

, we get

1
7
1
3
7

For example, applying C3

(iii) The addition to the elements of any row or column, the corresponding
elements of any other row or column multiplied by any non zero number.
Symbolically, the addition to the elements of ith row, the corresponding elements
Ri + kRj.
of jth row multiplied by k is denoted by Ri

MATRICES

, we get

R2 2R1, to C

Ci + kCj.
1
0

For example, applying R2

The corresponding column operation is denoted by Ci

91

3.8 Invertible Matrices

Definition 6 If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square
matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse
matrix of A and it is denoted by A 1. In that case A is said to be invertible.

3
2

6 6
3 4

3
be two matrices.
2

1 0
0 1

4 3
2 2

2
1

2
1

2 3
1 2

AB =

2 3
and B =
1 2

Now

A=

For example, let

1 0
I . Thus B is the inverse of A, in other
0 1
words B = A 1 and A is inverse of B, i.e., A = B1

BA =

Also

Note

1. A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix, since for products BA
and AB to be defined and to be equal, it is necessary that matrices A and B
should be square matrices of the same order.
2. If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.
Theorem 3 (Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
Proof Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two
inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.
Since B is the inverse of A
AB = BA = I

... (1)

AC = CA = I

... (2)

Since C is also the inverse of A

Thus
B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4 If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)1 = B1 A1.

92

MATHEMATICS

Proof From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have

(AB) (AB)1 = 1
or

A1 (AB) (AB)1 = A 1 I

(Pre multiplying both sides by A1)

or

(A1A) B (AB)1 = A 1

(Since A1 I = A1)

or

IB (AB)1 = A 1

or

B (AB)1 = A 1

or

B1 B (AB)1 = B1 A1

or

I (AB)1 = B1 A1
(AB)1 = B1 A1

Hence

3.8.1 Inverse of a matrix by elementary operations

Let X, A and B be matrices of, the same order such that X = AB. In order to apply a
sequence of elementary row operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we will apply
these row operations simultaneously on X and on the first matrix A of the product AB
on RHS.
Similarly, in order to apply a sequence of elementary column operations on the
matrix equation X = AB, we will apply, these operations simultaneously on X and on the
second matrix B of the product AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matrix such that A1
exists, then to find A1 using elementary row operations, write A = IA and apply a
sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix B will be the
inverse of A. Similarly, if we wish to find A1 using column operations, then, write
A = AI and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI till we get, I = AB.
Remark In case, after applying one or more elementary row (column) operations on
A = IA (A = AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S.,
then A1 does not exist.
Example 23 By using elementary operations, find the inverse of the matrix
1
2

2
.
1

A=

Solution In order to use elementary row operations we may write A = IA.

1 0
1
A, then
0 1
0

2
5

1 0
A (applying R2
2 1

2
1

1
2

or

R2 2R1)

MATRICES

2
5
A (applying R1
1
5

1
5
2
5

0 1

or

1 0

0
1 A (applying R2
5

or

1
= 2
0 1
5
1 2

93

1
R)
5 2

R1 2R2)

1 2
5 5
Thus
A1 =
2
1
5 5
Alternatively, in order to use elementary column operations, we write A = AI, i.e.,

0 1
1

1
C2 , we have
5

1
1 0
5
= A
2
0 1
5

1
5
A1 =
2
5

C1 2C2, we obtain

2
5
1
5

2
5
1
5

2
5
1
5

1 0
= A
2 1

Finally, applying C1

= A

1 0

= A

2 1
C2 2C1, we get

Now applying C2

Hence

Applying C2

94

MATHEMATICS

Example 24 Obtain the inverse of the following matrix using elementary operations

1 2 3 .

0 1 2

3 1 1

1 0 0

0 1 2

Solution Write A = I A, i.e., 1 2 3 = 0 1 0 A

0 0 1
3 1 1

0 A (applying R1

1
5

0
3

0 A (applying R3
1

0 A

5
2

3
2

1
2

0 0 1

1
2
1
5
2

1
2
0
3
2

0 1 2

1 0 0

(applying R3

1
2
0 A (applying R1
1
2

2
1

0 1
0 0

1 0

0 0

0 1

1 0

R3 3R1)

0 A (applying R3
1

or

R2)

or

1 0 0 A (applying R1
0 0 1

or

or

3 1 1

or

0 1 2

0 1 0

or

1 2 3

R1 2R2)

R3 + 5R2)

1
R)
2 3

R1 + R3)

MATRICES

1
2
1 A (applying R2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2

R2 2R3)

A1 =

Hence

1
2
3
3
2
1
2
3
3
2

0 1 0
0 0 1

1
2
4
5
2
1
2
4
5
2

or

1 0 0

Alternatively, write A = AI, i.e.,

1 0 0

0 1 2

1 2 3 = A 0 1 0
3 1 1
0 0 1

1 0 0

0 1

2 1 0 = A 1 0
1 3 1
0 0

(C3

C3 + C2)

(C3

1
2
1
1
2

(C3

2 1 0 = A 1 0
1 3 2
0 0

0 1

1 0 0

C3 2C1)

1 = A 1 0
1
0 0

C2)

0 1

(C1

2 1

1 3

or

1 0

or

2 1 3 = A 1 0 0
1 3 1
0 0 1

or

or

0 1 0

1 0 2

1
C)
2 3

95

MATHEMATICS

1 0
P.
0 1

1
1
0
P (applying R1
5 = 10
0 1
1

2
1

2
.
1

or

10
5

10
5

Solution We have P = I P, i.e.,

1
2
1
1
2

Example 25 Find P 1, if it exists, given P

C2 3C3)

4
5
2

1
2
1 (C2
1
2

C1 + 5C3)

A1 =

1
2
3
3
2

(C1

1
2

Hence

1
2
3
3
2

1
2
4
5
2

1
2
1
1
2

C1 2C2)

0 1 0 = A
0 0 1

1
1
2
4 0
5
0
2

or

(C1

1 0 0

0 1 0 = A
0 3 1

1
2
1
1
2

2 1

0 1 0 = A 1
5 3 1
0

1 0 0

or

or

1 0 0

96

1
R)
10 1

MATRICES

1
1
0
10
5 =
P (applying R2
1
0
1
2

or

97

R2 + 5R1)

We have all zeros in the second row of the left hand side matrix of the above
equation. Therefore, P1 does not exist.

EXERCISE 3.4
Using elementary transformations, find the inverse of each of the matrices, if it exists
in Exercises 1 to 17.

6
2

2
2
3

3
1

3 3

2 3
2 2

0 1

5 1

15.

2 0

4 2

2 1

12.

0
3

18. Matrices A and B will be inverse of each other only if

(A) AB = BA

(B) AB = BA = 0

(C) AB = 0, BA = I

(D) AB = BA = I

17.

6
2

2
1

3 10

9.

3 4

16.

14.

4 5

2 5
1 3

11.

6.

1 3
2 7

2
1

1
2

3
4

5 2

2 1
7 4

3.

8.

5 7

2 1
1 1

13.

3 1

5.

10.

2 3

2.

7.

1
3

4.

1
2

1.

98

MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Examples

, then prove that A n

sin n
cos n

,n

N.

cos n
sin n

sin
cos

cos
sin

Example 26 If A

Solution We shall prove the result by using principle of mathematical induction.

sin k

sin k

cos k

cos sin k
sin sin k

sin cos k
cos cos k

k )

cos( k 1)

sin (k 1)

k ) cos (

k )

sin (k 1)

cos (k 1)

sin (

sin (

k )

cos

cos k

cos cos k sin sin k

sin cos k
cos sin k

cos (

sin

sin

cos

sin k
cos k

k
Ak + 1 = A A

Now

,n

Now, we prove that the result holds for n = k +1

cos k
sin k

k
, then A

sin
cos

sin
cos

sin n
cos n

cos
sin

P(k) : A

cos
sin

1
, so A

Therefore,
the result is true for n = 1.
Let the result be true for n = k. So

cos n
sin n

sin
cos

then A n

cos
sin

sin
cos

P(1) : A

cos
sin

P(n) : If A

We have

Therefore, the result is true for n = k + 1. Thus by principle of mathematical induction,

sin n

cos n

sin n
cos n

n
we have A

, holds for all natural numbers.

Example 27 If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB
is symmetric if and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Solution Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore A = A and B = B.
Let
AB be symmetric, then (AB) = AB

MATRICES

99

But
(AB) = B A = BA (Why?)
Therefore
BA = AB
Conversely, if AB = BA, then we shall show that AB is symmetric.
Now
(AB) = B A
= B A (as A and B are symmetric)
= AB
Hence AB is symmetric.

5 2
,C
7 4

1
,B
4

2 5
. Find a matrix D such that
3 8

CD AB = O.

2
3

Example 28 Let A

Solution Since A, B, C are all square matrices of order 2, and CD AB is well

defined, D must be a square matrix of order 2.
d

. Then CD AB = 0 gives

2 5

2 a 5c 2b 5d

2a 5c 3
2b 5d
0 0
=
3a 8c 43 3b 8d 22
0 0

43 22

3b 8d

7 4

=O

3a 8c

5 2

3 8

0 0
0 0

or

or

or

D=

Let

By equality of matrices, we get

2a + 5c 3 = 0
... (1)
3a + 8c 43 = 0
... (2)
2b + 5d = 0
... (3)
and
3b + 8d 22 = 0
... (4)
Solving (1) and (2), we get a = 191, c = 77. Solving (3) and (4), we get b = 110,
d = 44.

a b
c d

191
77

D=

110
44

Therefore

100

MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

0 1
, show that (aI + bA)n = an I + nan 1 bA, where I is the identity
0 0

N.

3n

3n

3n

3n

3n

1
1

, n N.

1 2n
4n
, where n is any positive
1 2n
n

4
, then prove that A n
1

3n

3
1

3n

3n

3. If A

1 1 1 , prove that A n
1 1 1

2. If A

3n

1 1 1

matrix of order 2 and n

1. Let A

integer.
4. If A and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB BA is a skew symmetric
matrix.
5. Show that the matrix B AB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is
symmetric or skew symmetric.

A A = I.

1 0 2 1
2 0 3

1 0 2

x
4
1

9. Find x, if x

1
, show that A2 5A + 7I = 0.
2

3
1

8. If A

1 0 2

7. For what values of x : 1 2 1 2 0 1

1 2 0

2 = O?
x

6. Find the values of x, y, z if the matrix A

0 2y

z satisfy the equation

MATRICES

101

10. A manufacturer produces three products x, y, z which he sells in two markets.

Annual sales are indicated below:
Market
Products
10,000
2,000
18,000
I
II
6,000
20,000
8,000
(a) If unit sale prices of x, y and z are Rs 2.50, Rs 1.50 and Rs 1.00, respectively,
find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix algebra.
(b) If the unit costs of the above three commodities are Rs 2.00, Rs 1.00 and 50
paise respectively. Find the gross profit.
7
2

1 2 3
4 5 6

8
4

9
6

11. Find the matrix X so that X

12. If A and B are square matrices of the same order such that AB = BA, then prove
by induction that ABn = BnA. Further, prove that (AB)n = AnBn for all n N.
Choose the correct answer in the following questions:

13. If A =

is such that A = I, then

(A) 1 + +
=0
(B) 1 +
=0
(C) 1
=0
(D) 1 +
=0
14. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then
(B) A is a zero matrix
(A) A is a diagonal matrix
(C) A is a square matrix
(D) None of these
2
15. If A is square matrix such that A = A, then (I + A) 7 A is equal to
(A) A
(B) I A
(C) I
(D) 3A

Summary
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m n.
[aij]m 1 is a column matrix.
[aij]1 n is a row matrix.
An m n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.

A = [aij]m m is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i

j.

MATHEMATICS

j, aij = k, (k is some

A = [aij]n n is an identity matrix, if aij = 1, when i = j, aij = 0, when i

A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.

A = [aij]n n is a scalar matrix if aij = 0, when i

constant), when i = j.

j.

A = [aij] = [bij] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) aij = bij for all
possible values of i and j.
kA = k[aij]m n = [k(aij)]m n
A = (1)A
A B = A + (1) B
A+ B = B +A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.
k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.
(k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant.
n

If A = [aij]m n and B = [bjk]n p , then AB = C = [cik]m p, where cik

aij b jk

j 1

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C, (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC, (iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC

If A = [aij]m n, then A or AT = [aji]n m

(i) (A ) = A, (ii) (kA) = kA , (iii) (A + B) = A + B , (iv) (AB) = B A

A is a symmetric matrix if A = A.
A is a skew symmetric matrix if A = A.
Any square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Elementary operations of a matrix are as follows:
Rj or Ci
Cj
(i) Ri
(ii) Ri
kRi or Ci
kCi
(iii) Ri
Ri + kRj or Ci
Ci + kCj
If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = BA = I, then B is the
inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A1 and A is the inverse of B.
Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

102

Chapter

DETERMINANTS

4.1 Introduction

All Mathematical truths are relative and conditional. C.P. STEINMETZ

In the previous chapter, we have studied about matrices

and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a system
of algebraic equations can be expressed in the form of
matrices. This means, a system of linear equations like
a1 x + b 1 y = c 1
a2 x + b2 y = c 2
b1
b2

x
y

a1
a2

c1
. Now, this
c2

can be represented as

system of equations has a unique solution or not, is

determined by the number a1 b2 a2 b1. (Recall that if
P.S. Laplace
(1749-1827)

which determines uniqueness of solution is associated with the matrix A

a1
a2

b1
b2

a1 b1
or, a1 b2 a2 b1 0, then the system of linear
a2 b2
equations has a unique solution). The number a1 b2 a2 b1

and is called the determinant of A or det A. Determinants have wide applications in

Engineering, Science, Economics, Social Science, etc.
In this chapter, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real entries.
Also, we will study various properties of determinants, minors, cofactors and applications
of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint and inverse of a square matrix,
consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and solution of linear
equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.

4.2 Determinant
To every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number (real or
complex) called determinant of the square matrix A, where aij = (i, j)th element of A.

104

MATHEMATICS

This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
K is defined by f (A) = k, where A M and
numbers (real or complex) and f : M
k K, then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by | A | or det A or .

If A =

, then determinant of A is written as | A| =

c d

= det (A)

Remarks
(i) For matrix A, | A | is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A = [a ] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two

A=

a11
a21

a12
be a matrix of order 2 2,
a22

Let

then the determinant of A is defined as:

Example 1 Evaluate

= a11a22 a21a12

2 4
.
1 2

2 4
= 2 (2) 4(1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
1 2

Example 2 Evaluate

x
x 1
x 1
x

Solution We have

det (A) = |A| =

Solution We have
x 1

= x (x) (x + 1) (x 1) = x2 (x2 1) = x2 x2 + 1 = 1

4.2.3 Determinant of a matrix of order 3 3

Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in terms of
second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a determinant along
a row (or a column). There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order

DETERMINANTS

105

3 corresponding to each of three rows (R1, R2 and R3) and three columns (C1, C2 and
C3) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [aij]3 3

a 11

a13

| A | = a21
a31

i.e.,

a12
a22

a23

a32

a33

Expansion along first Row (R1)

Step 1 Multiply first element a11 of R1 by (1)(1 + 1) [(1)sum of suffixes in a11] and with the
second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (R1) and first
column (C1) of | A | as a11 lies in R1 and C1,
i.e.,

(1)1 + 1 a11

a22

a23

a32

a33

Step 2 Multiply 2nd element a12 of R1 by (1)1 + 2 [(1)sum of suffixes in a12] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and 2nd column (C2)
of | A | as a12 lies in R1 and C2,
i.e.,

(1)1 + 2 a12

a21 a23
a31

a33

Step 3 Multiply third element a13 of R1 by (1)1 + 3 [(1)sum of suffixes in a ] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and third column (C3)
of | A | as a13 lies in R1 and C3,
13

i.e.,

a21
(1)1 + 3 a13 a
31

a22
a32

Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by

or

a13

a33

1
+ (1)

a23

(1)1

a22
det A = |A| = (1)1 + 1 a11 a
32

a12

a21 a23
a31 a33

a21 a22
a31

a32

|A| = a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23) a12 (a21 a33 a31 a23)
+ a13 (a21 a32 a31 a22)

106

MATHEMATICS

= a11 a22 a33 a11 a32 a23 a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 + a13 a21 a32
a13 a31 a22
... (1)
Note We shall apply all four steps together.

Expansion along second row (R2)

a 11
| A | = a 21
a 31

a 12
a 22

a 13
a 23

a 32

a 33

Expanding along R2, we get

1

a12

(1) 2

a13

a32

a21

2
| A | = (1)

a33

(1)2

a11

a23

a22

a11

a13

a31 a33

a12

a31 a32

= a21 (a12 a33 a32 a13) + a22 (a11 a33 a31 a13)
a23 (a11 a32 a31 a12)
| A | = a21 a12 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a22 a11 a33 a22 a31 a13 a23 a11 a32
+ a23 a31 a12
= a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a13 a31 a22
... (2)
Expansion along first Column (C1)
a11
| A | = a21
a31

a12
a22

a13
a23

a32

a33

By expanding along C1, we get

a22

3
+ a31 (1)

a23

a32

a33

1
| A | = a11 (1)

a 12

a12

a13

a32

a33

a13

a22

a21 ( 1) 2

a23

= a11 (a22 a33 a23 a32) a21 (a12 a33 a13 a32) + a31 (a12 a23 a13 a22)

DETERMINANTS

107

| A | = a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32 a21 a12 a33 + a21 a13 a32 + a31 a12 a23
a31 a13 a22
= a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a13 a31 a22
... (3)
Clearly, values of | A | in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of |A| by expanding along R3, C2 and C3 are equal to the
value of | A | obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column
which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (1)i + j, we can multiply by +1 or 1
according as (i + j) is even or odd.
1 1
2 2
and B =
. Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also
2 0
4 0
| A | = 0 8 = 8 and | B | = 0 2 = 2.

(iii) Let A =

Observe that, | A | = 4 ( 2) = 22 | B | or | A | = 2n | B |, where n = 2 is the order of

square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then | A| = kn
| B |, where n = 1, 2, 3

1 2 4

Example 3 Evaluate the determinant

= 1 3 0 .
4 1 0

Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C3), we get

1 3
1 2
0
4 1
4 1

= 4

1 2
1 3

= 4 (1 12) 0 + 0 = 52

cos

sin

sin

= sin
cos

Example 4 Evaluate

sin

108

MATHEMATICS

Solution Expanding along R1, we get

cos

= 0 sin (0 sin cos ) cos (sin sin

= sin sin cos cos sin sin = 0

0)

3 2
.
4 1

3 x
x 1

Solution We have

3 x
x 1

Example 5 Find values of x for which

sin
0

3 2
4 1

3 x2 = 3 8
x2 = 8

Hence

x=

i.e.
i.e.

2 2

EXERCISE 4.1
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
4
1

1 0 1
0 1 2 , then show that | 3 A | = 27 | A |
0 0 4

4 2

, then show that | 2A | = 4 | A |

A=

1 x 1

4. If

x2 x

A=

(ii)

3. If

sin
cos

5. Evaluate the determinants

(i)

3 1 2
0 0 1
3 5

3 4
(ii)

1 2

cos
sin

2. (i)

2
5

1.

sin
cos

0
sin

sin
cos

sin

sin
0

0
sin

= 0

DETERMINANTS

2 3

3 5

1 1 2
2 1

2 3
4 5

x 3
2x 5

3 , find | A |
5 4 9

7. Find values of x, if
2 4
5 1

x 2
18 x
(A) 6

8. If

(i)

(iv)

1 2
2 1

2x 4
6 x

(ii)

6. If A =

2
0

(iii)

0 1 2
1 0 3

109

6 2
, then x is equal to
18 6
(B) 6
(C) 6

(D) 0

4.3 Properties of Determinants

In the previous section, we have learnt how to expand the determinants. In this section,
we will study some properties of determinants which simplifies its evaluation by obtaining
maximum number of zeros in a row or a column. These properties are true for
determinants of any order. However, we shall restrict ourselves upto determinants of
order 3 only.
Property 1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns
are interchanged.

Verification Let

a1 a2
= b1 b2
c1 c2

a3
b3
c3

Expanding along first row, we get

b3

c2

c3

b2

a2

b1 b3
c1 c3

= a1

a3

b1 b2
c1 c2

= a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2) a2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)

By interchanging the rows and columns of , we get the determinant

a1
= a2
a3

b1
b2

c1
c2

b3

c3

MATHEMATICS

110

Expanding
Hence

along first column, we get

= a1 (b2 c3 c2 b3) a2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)
1
= 1
1

Remark It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then

det (A) = det (A ), where A = transpose of A.

Note If Ri = ith row and Ci = ith column, then for interchange of row and
columns, we will symbolically write Ci Ri

Let us verify the above property by example.

2 3

4
= 6 0
1 5 7
Solution Expanding the determinant along first row, we have
= 2

5 7

(3)

Example 6 Verify Property 1 for

6 0
1 5

= 2 (0 20) + 3 ( 42 4) + 5 (30 0)
= 40 138 + 150 = 28
By interchanging rows and columns, we get

= 2

(Expanding along first column)

0 5
6 1
(3)
4 7
4 7

2 6 1
= 3 0 5
5 4 7

6 1
0 5

= 2 (0 20) + 3 ( 42 4) + 5 (30 0)
= 40 138 + 150 = 28
Clearly
= 1
Hence, Property 1 is verified.
Property 2 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign
of determinant changes.

a1 a2

Verification Let

= b1
c1

a3

b2

b3

c2

c3

DETERMINANTS

111

Expanding along first row, we get

= a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2) a2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)
Interchanging first and third rows, the new determinant obtained is given by

c1

c2

c3

= b1 b2
a1 a2

b3
a3

Expanding along third row, we get

= a1 (c2 b3 b2 c3) a2 (c1 b3 c3 b1) + a3 (b2 c1 b1 c2)
1
= [a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2) a2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)]
Clearly 1 =
Similarly, we can verify the result by interchanging any two columns.

2 3

2 3
0

0
5

Rj and interchange of

4 .
7

= 28 (See Example 6)

5 7

Interchanging rows R2 and R3 i.e., R2

2 3 5
= 1 5 7
6 0 4

along first row, we have

Expanding the determinant

R3, we have

= 2

(3)

= 6
1

= 6
1

Solution

Example 7 Verify Property 2 for

Note We can denote the interchange of rows by Ri

columns by Ci
Cj.

1 5
6 0

= 2 (20 0) + 3 (4 + 42) + 5 (0 30)

= 40 + 138 150 = 28

MATHEMATICS

Clearly
Hence, Property 2 is verified.

112

Property 3 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding
elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.

=0

or

Therefore

Proof If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant , then
does not change. However, by Property 2, it follows that has changed its sign

Let us verify the above property by an example.

Example 8 Evaluate

3 2 3
= 2 2 3
3 2 3

Solution Expanding along first row, we get

= 3 (6 6) 2 (6 9) + 3 (4 6)
= 0 2 (3) + 3 (2) = 6 6 = 0

Here R1 and R3 are identical.

Property 4 If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a

constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.

a1

Verification Let

b1

c1

= a2
a3

b2

c2

b3

c3

and 1 be the determinant obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by k.
Then

k a1
= a2
a3

k b1
b2

k c1
c2

b3

c3

Expanding along first row, we get

= k a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2) k b1 (a2 c3 c2 a3) + k c1 (a2 b3 b2 a3)

= k [a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2) b1 (a2 c3 c2 a3) + c1 (a2 b3 b2 a3)]
=k

DETERMINANTS

k a1
a2
a3

Hence

k b1
b2

k c1
a1
c2 = k a2
c3
a3

b3

b1
b2

c1
c2

b3

113

c3

Remarks
(i) By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or any
one column of a given determinant.
(ii) If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
proportional (in the same ratio), then its value is zero. For example
a1
b1

a2
b2

a3
b3

k a1

k a2

k a3

= 0 (rows R1 and R2 are proportional)

102 18 36
3

17

17

17

Solution Note that

6(17) 6(3) 6(6)

3

17 3 6

102 18 36

6 1

3 4

17 3 6

Example 9 Evaluate

(Using Properties 3 and 4)

Property 5 If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed
as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two
(or more) determinants.

b2

c3

Verification L.H.S. =

a2

a1

a3

= b1
c1

b3

c2

a2
b2

b3

c2

c3

a3

b1
c1

For example,

a1

b1

b2

b3

c1

c2

c3

a3

b1
c1

a2

b2
c2

a1

b3
c3

114

MATHEMATICS

Expanding the determinants along the first row, we get

= (a1 + 1) (b2 c3 c2 b3) (a2 + 2) (b1 c3 b3 c1)
+ (a3 + 3) (b1 c2 b2 c1)
= a1 (b2 c3 c2 b3) a2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)
+ 1 (b2 c3 c2 b3) 2 (b1 c3 b3 c1) + 3 (b1 c2 b2 c1)
(by rearranging terms)

c3

c1

c2

c2

a3
b3

b1

a2
b2

a1
= b1
c1

b2

b3

= R.H.S.

c3

Similarly, we may verify Property 5 for other rows or columns.

2y c

2z

a
b
c
Solution We have a 2 x b 2 y c 2 z
x
y
z

a b

= a b c
x y z

2x b

Example 10 Show that a

2x 2 y 2z
x

(by Property 5)
(Using Property 3 and Property 4)

=0+0=0

Property 6 If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples
of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then value of determinant
remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation
Ri
Ri + kRj or Ci
Ci + k Cj .
Verification

c2

c3

a1

and

b3

a3

b2

k c1

b1

a2

Let

a2

= b1
c1

k c2

b2

c1

c2

a3

a1

b3

k c3

c3

R1 + kR3 .
where 1 is obtained by the operation R1
Here, we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R3) by a constant k and
added them to the corresponding elements of the first row (R1).
R1 + k R3.
Symbolically, we write this operation as R1

DETERMINANTS

115

Now, again
a3

k c1

k c2

k c3

= b1 b2

b3

b1

b2

b3

c1

c3

c1

c2

c3

Hence

c2

(Using Property 5)
(since R1 and R3 are proportional)

+0

a2

a1

Remarks
kRi or Ci

(i) If 1 is the determinant obtained by applying Ri

determinant , then 1 = k .

kCi to the

(ii) If more than one operation like Ri Ri + kRj is done in one step, care should be
taken to see that a row that is affected in one operation should not be used in
another operation. A similar remark applies to column operations.

6b

3c

R2 2R1 and R3

a a b a b c
a
2a b
= 0
0
3a
7a 3b

R3 3R2 , we get

= a (a2 0) = a (a2) = a3

2a

a 2a b
+0+0
a
0

Expanding along C1, we obtain

= 0
0

b a

a a

= a

R3 3R1 to the given

Now applying R3

a3 .

3b 10a

a b c
4a 3b 2c

Solution Applying operations R2

determinant , we have

b
2b

a
a
Example 11 Prove that 2a 3a
3a 6 a

116

MATHEMATICS

Example 12 Without expanding, prove that

x

R1 + R2 to , we get

y
x

y
y

Since the elements of R1 and R3 are proportional,

Example 13 Evaluate

Solution Applying R1

= 0.

1 a bc
= 1 b ca
1 c ab
R2 R1 and R3

R3 R1, we get

1
a
bc
= 0 b a c ( a b)
0 c a b (a c)

Solution Applying R2

Taking factors (b a) and (c a) common from R2 and R3, respectively, we get

1 a
a ) (c

= (b

bc

a) 0 1

0 1

= (b a) (c a) [( b + c)] (Expanding along first column)

= (a b) (b c) (c a)
b

b
c

a
c

Solution Let

a
a

b
a

Example 14 Prove that

a
b

4 abc

DETERMINANTS

R1 R2 R3 to , we get

2c

2b

b
= b c a
c
c
a b

(2 c )

b
b
c a b

= 0

(2b)

Expanding along R1, we obtain

b c
c

R1

Applying

117

= 2 c (a b + b2 bc) 2 b (b c c2 ac)
= 2 a b c + 2 cb2 2 bc2 2 b2c + 2 bc2 + 2 abc
= 4 abc

show that 1 + xyz = 0

y 2 1 y3

1 x3

Example 15 If x, y, z are different and

x2

1 z

0 , then

Solution We have

1 x3

y 2 1 y3

= y

x2

x
z

z2

1 z3

x2 1

x2

x3

= y

y2 1

y2

z2 1

z2

y 3 (Using Property 5)
z3

1 x

x2

2
= ( 1) 1 y

y2

xyz 1 y

y2

1 z

1 z

x2
y 2 (1 xyz )
z2

= 1 y
1 z

1 x

(Using C3

x2

C2 and then C1

1 x

C2)

MATHEMATICS

x2
y2

y x

0 z

x z2

= 1 xyz 0

x2

(Using R2

R2R1 and R3

118

R3 R1)

x2

Taking out common factor (y x) from R2 and (z x) from R3, we get

y x
z x

= (1 + xyz) (y x) (z x) (z y) (on expanding along C1)

= 0 and x, y, z are all different, i.e., x y 0, y z 0, z x 0, we get

Example 16 Show that

1 1
b c

abc bc ca ab

1 c

1
a

abc 1

1
1

1 a
1
1 1 b

Solution Taking out factors a,b,c common from R1, R2 and R3, we get
1
1
1
1
a
a
a
1
1
1
1
L.H.S. = abc
b
b
b
1
1
1
1
c
c
c

R1 + R2 + R3, we have
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
1
c
a b c
a b c
1
1
1
b
b
1
1
1
c
c

1
b
1
c

1
b

= abc

1
a

Applying R1

Since
1 + xyz = 0

x2

1 x
= (1+xyz ) (y x ) (z x) 0 1
0 1

DETERMINANTS

1
b

1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
c b b
b
1
1
1
1
c
c
c
C3 C1, we get

1
a

= abc 1+

119

1
1 1 0
c

1
c

0 1

= abc + bc + ca + ab = R.H.S.

Note Alternately try by applying C1

C1 a C3.

C1

1 0

1
b

1
b
1
c

1
b

1
c

1
a

= abc 1+

1
a

1
b

= abc 1

1
a

= abc 1+

C1 C2 and C3

C2 C1, C3

Now applying C2

C3 C2, then apply

EXERCISE 4.2
Using the property of determinants and without expanding in Exercises 1 to 7, prove
that:

1 bc a b c
1 ca b c a
1 ab c a b

a b

p q

c a

2 b

q r

b c

4.

5 9 86

5.

3 8 75

c a a b b c

2 7 65
3.

2.

z c

y b

a b b c c a
b c c a a b

y b
z

1.

x a

x a

ab

ac

ba

7.

bc

ca

cb

a2

b
c 0

c2

0 a
a 0

6.

MATHEMATICS

120

4 a2 b2 c2

By using properties of determinants, in Exercises 8 to 14, show that:

1 a a2
1 c

a b b c c a

2
8. (i) 1 b b

x
y

yz
zx = (x y) (y z) (z x) (xy + yz + zx)
xy

x + 4 2x
2x
10. (i) 2 x x + 4 2x
2x
2x x + 4

y+k

y+k

k 2 3y k

a b c
2a
2a
2b
b c a
2b
11. (i)
2c
2c
c a b

y 2z
y

z 2x

x 2y

a b c

2 x

(ii)

(ii)

y+k

5x 4 4 x

9.

x2

a b b c c a a b c

(ii)

DETERMINANTS

x2
1
2ab

2a

b2 1

bc

cb

b2

c2 1

1 a2

ab
ca

b2

c2

14.

b2

ac

ab

1 a2

a2 1

1 a2

2a

2b

b2

2b

1 a2

2ab

13.

b2

1 a2

x2

1 x3

x2
x

12.

121

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 15 and 16.

15. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 3, then | kA | is equal to
(A) k| A |
(B) k 2 | A |
(C) k 3 | A |
(D) 3k | A |
16. Which of the following is correct
(A) Determinant is a square matrix.
(B) Determinant is a number associated to a matrix.
(C) Determinant is a number associated to a square matrix.
(D) None of these

4.4 Area of a Triangle

In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are

1
[x (y y ) + x2 (y3y1) +
2 1 2 3
x3 (y1y2)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
(x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3), is given by the expression

x1
1
x2
=
2
x3

y1 1
y2 1

... (1)

y3 1

Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).

122

MATHEMATICS

(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 17 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), ( 4, 2) and (5, 1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
3 8 1
1
4 2 1
=
2
5 1 1

1
3 72 14
2

1 4 10

1
3 2 1 8 4 5
2

61
2

Example 18 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using determinants
and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq units.
Solution Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?). So
0 0 1
1
1 3 1 =0
2
x y 1

1
y 3 x = 0 or y = 3x,
2
which is the equation of required line AB.
Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have

This gives

1 3 1
1
0 0 1 =3
2
k 0 1

3k
2

3 , i.e., k =

This gives,

2.

EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the following :
(i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3)
(ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (2, 3), (3, 2), (1, 8)

DETERMINANTS

123

2. Show that points

A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(ii) (2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then k is
(B) 2
(C) 12, 2
(D) 12, 2
(A) 12

4.5 Minors and Cofactors

In this section, we will learn to write the expansion of a determinant in compact form
using minors and cofactors.
Definition 1 Minor of an element aij of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which element aij lies. Minor of an element aij is
denoted by Mij.
2) is a determinant of

Example 19 Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant

Remark Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n

order n 1.

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M23 is given by
1 2
= 8 14 = 6 (obtained by deleting R2 and C3 in ).
7 8

M23 =

Definition 2 Cofactor of an element aij , denoted by Aij is defined by

Aij = (1)i + j Mij , where Mij is minor of aij .
Example 20 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
Solution Minor of the element aij is Mij
Here a11 = 1. So M11 = Minor of a11= 3
M12 = Minor of the element a12 = 4
M21 = Minor of the element a21 = 2

124

MATHEMATICS

M22 = Minor of the element a22 = 1

Now, cofactor of aij is Aij. So
A11 = (1)1 + 1 M11 = (1)2 (3) = 3
A12 = (1)1 + 2 M12 = (1)3 (4) = 4
A21 = (1)2 + 1 M21 = (1)3 (2) = 2
A22 = (1)2 + 2 M22 = (1)4 (1) = 1
Example 21 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a11, a21 in the determinant

a11

a12

a13

= a21
a31

a22

a23

a32

a33

Solution By definition of minors and cofactors, we have

Minor of a11 = M11 =

a22

a23

a32

a33

= a22 a33 a23 a32

Cofactor of a11 = A11 = (1)1+1 M11 = a22 a33 a23 a32

Minor of a21 = M21 =

a12

a13

a32

a33

= a12 a33 a13 a32

Cofactor of a21 = A21 = (1)2+1 M21 = (1) (a12 a33 a13 a32) = a12 a33 + a13 a32

Remark Expanding the determinant , in Example 21, along R1, we have

a21 a22
a22 a23
a21 a23
1+1
1+2
1+3
= (1) a11 a
a + (1) a12 a
a + (1) a13 a31 a32

32

33

31

33

= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13, where Aij is cofactor of aij
= sum of product of elements of R1 with their corresponding cofactors
Similarly, can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R2, R3,
C1, C2 and C3.
Hence = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.

Note If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example,

DETERMINANTS

= a11 A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23

= a11 (1)1+1

a12

a13

a32

a33

a11
= a11
a31

a13
a13 = 0 (since R and R are identical)
1
2
a33

a12
a12
a32

+ a12 (1)1+2

a11

a13

a31 a33

+ a13 (1)1+3

a11

a12

a31 a32

Similarly, we can try for other rows and columns.

Example 22 Find minors and cofactors of the elements of the determinant

2 3

6
1

4 and verify that a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33= 0

7

0
5

Solution We have M11 =

0 4
= 0 20 = 20; A11 = (1)1+1 (20) = 20
5 7

M12 =

6 4
= 42 4 = 46;
1 7

A12 = (1)1+2 ( 46) = 46

M13 =

6
1

A13 = (1)1+3 (30) = 30

M21 =

3 5
= 21 25 = 4;
5 7

A21 = (1)2+1 ( 4) = 4

M22 =

2 5
= 14 5 = 19;
1 7

A22 = (1)2+2 (19) = 19

M23 =

2
1

3
= 10 + 3 = 13;
5

A23 = (1)2+3 (13) = 13

M31 =

3 5
= 12 0 = 12;
0 4

A31 = (1)3+1 (12) = 12

0
= 30 0 = 30;
5

125

126

MATHEMATICS

M32 =

2
6

5
= 8 30 = 22;
4

and

M33 =

2
6

Now

a11 = 2, a12 = 3, a13 = 5; A31 = 12, A32 = 22, A33 = 18

So

a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33

3
= 0 + 18 = 18;
0

A32 = (1)3+2 (22) = 22

A33 = (1)3+3 (18) = 18

= 2 (12) + (3) (22) + 5 (18) = 24 66 + 90 = 0

EXERCISE 4.4
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
3

1 0 0
2. (i) 0 1 0
0 0 1

(ii)

b d

1 0 4
3 5 1
0 1

3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate

4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate

5. If

a11
= a21
a31

a12
a22
a32

5 3 8
= 2 0 1 .
1 2 3
1 x
= 1 y
1 z

a13
a23 and Aij is Cofactors of aij , then value of
a33

(A) a11 A31+ a12 A32 + a13 A33

(C) a21 A11+ a22 A12 + a23 A13

(ii)

2 4

1. (i)

yz
zx .
xy

is given by

(B) a11 A11+ a12 A21 + a13 A31

(D) a11 A11+ a21 A21 + a31 A31

4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix

In the previous chapter, we have studied inverse of a matrix. In this section, we shall
discuss the condition for existence of inverse of a matrix.
To find inverse of a matrix A, i.e., A1 we shall first define adjoint of a matrix.

DETERMINANTS

127

4.6.1 Adjoint of a matrix

Definition 3 The adjoint of a square matrix A = [aij]n n is defined as the transpose of
the matrix [Aij]n n, where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij . Adjoint of the matrix A
is denoted by adj A.

a13

A = a21

a22

a23

a31

a32

a33

A12

A13

A11

A 21

A 31

adj A = Transpose of A 21

A 22

A 22

A 32

A31

A32

A 23 = A12
A 33
A13

A 23

A33

2 3
1 4

Example 23 Find adj A for A =

Then

A11

Let

a12

a11

Solution We have A11 = 4, A12 = 1, A21 = 3, A22 = 2

A 21
A 22

Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by

a11
a21

a12
a22

4 3
1 2

A=

A11
A12

adj A =

Hence

The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a11 and a22 and by changing signs
of a12 and a21, i.e.,

We state the following theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 If A be any given square matrix of order n, then

where I is the identity matrix of order n

A(adj A) = (adj A) A =

128

MATHEMATICS

Verification

a12

A11

A 21

A 31

a23 , then adj A = A12

a33
A13

A 22

A32

A 23

A 33

A = a21 a22
a31 a32

a13

Let

a11

Since sum of product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding

cofactors is equal to | A | and otherwise zero, we have

0
0
A

0
A
0

= A

1 0 0

A (adj A) =

A
0
0

0 1 0 = A I
0 0 1

Similarly, we can show (adj A) A = A I

Hence A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I
Definition 4 A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0.
1 2
For example, the determinant of matrix A = 4 8 is zero

Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A

1 2
3 4

A=

. Then A =

1 2
3 4

=46=2

Let

Hence A is a singular matrix.

0.

Hence A is a nonsingular matrix

We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, AB = A B , where A and B are square matrices of
the same order
0
A

0
0

Remark We know that (adj A) A = A I =

A
0

DETERMINANTS

129

Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have

A
(adj A) A = 0
0

0
A
0

0
0
A

1 0 0
3

|(adj A)| |A| = A 0 1 0

0 0 1

i.e.

(Why?)

i.e.
|(adj A)| |A| = | A |3 (1)
i.e.
|(adj A)| = | A | 2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then | adj (A) | = | A |n 1.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
A B =1

(since I 1, AB

A B)

0. Hence A is nonsingular.

Conversely, let A be nonsingular. Then A

or

This gives

AB = I. So AB = I

Now

Now

A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I

or

or

AB = BA = I, where B =

Thus

A is invertible and A1 =

1
adj A
|A|

1
adj A
|A|

1 3 3

1
adj A A I
|A|

1
adj A
|A|

(Theorem 1)

Example 24 If A = 1 4 3 , then verify that A adj A = | A | I. Also find A1.

1 3 4

Solution We have A = 1 (16 9) 3 (4 3) + 3 (3 4) = 1

130

MATHEMATICS

Now A11 = 7, A12 = 1, A13 = 1, A21 = 3, A22 = 1,A23 = 0, A31 = 3, A32 = 0,

A33 = 1
3
0

3 3 0

1
1

1
0

, then verify that (AB)1 = B1A1.

0 =
1

14

0, (AB)1 exists and is given by

14
5

1
11

1 14 5
11 5 1

1
adj (AB)
AB

(AB)1 =

1 0 0
0 1 0 = A .I
0 0 1

AB = 11

Solution We have AB =
Since,

and B

3 0 4

Example 25 If A =

3 0 3

3 0 3

Also

3 4 0

1 0 0
= 0 1 0 = (1)
0 0 1

1
1
adj A =
1
A

3 3 0

= 7 4 3
7 3 4

7 3 3

A (adj A) = 1 4 3
1 3 4

Now

1 3 3

adj A =

3
1

Therefore

7
1

Further, A = 11 0 and B = 1 0. Therefore, A1 and B1 both exist and are given by

3
,B 1
2

4
1

1
11

3 2
1 1

A1 =

DETERMINANTS

1
11

14
5

3
2

5
1

Hence (AB)1 = B1 A1

4
1

1 14 5
11 5 1

1 3 2
11 1 1

B 1A 1

Therefore

131

2 3
satisfies the equation A2 4A + I = O,
1 2
where I is 2 2 identity matrix and O is 2 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A1.
7 12
4 7

0 0
0 0

Hence

A 2 4A I

Now
Therefore
or
or
or

A2 4A + I = O
A A 4A = I
A A (A1) 4 A A1 = I A1 (Post multiplying by A1 because |A|
A (A A1) 4I = A1
AI 4I = A1

or

A1 = 4I A =

Hence

2
1

3
2

2
1

2 3
1 2

EXERCISE 4.5
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.

2.

1 2

3
0

5
1

1.

1 2
3 4

Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I in Exercises 3 and 4

4.

1
3
1

3
6

3.

2
4

3
2

4 0
0 4

1 0
0 1

8 12
4 8

7 12
4 7

2 3
1 2

2 3
1 2

Solution We have A 2 A.A

Example 26 Show that the matrix A =

0)

132

MATHEMATICS

Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.

0
3

2
2

cos

3 7
6 8
and B =
. Verify that (AB)1 = B1 A1.
2 5
7 9

12. Let A =

10.

0 0 5

0 sin

0
sin

1 0

5 2

9.

0 2 4

7.

1 2 3

3 3

3 1
, show that A2 5A + 7I = O. Hence find A1.
1 2

3 2
, find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = O.
1 1

15. For the matrix A = 1

2

2
1

14. For the matrix A =

13. If A =

1
0
0 cos

6.

11.

1 0

1 5
3 2

8.

2
3

5.

2
4

Show that A3 6A2 + 5A + 11 I = O. Hence, find A1.

16. If A =

1
1

Verify that A3 6A2 + 9A 4I = O and hence find A1

17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 3. Then | adj A | is equal to
(A) | A |
(B) | A | 2
(C) | A | 3
(D) 3 | A |
1
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A ) is equal to
1
(A) det (A)
(B) det (A)
(C) 1
(D) 0

DETERMINANTS

133

4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss application of determinants and matrices for solving the
system of linear equations in two or three variables and for checking the consistency of
the system of linear equations.
Consistent system A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one
or more) exists.
Inconsistent system A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution
does not exist.

Note In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to the system of linear equations

having unique solutions only.

4.7.1 Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix

Let us express the system of linear equations as matrix equations and solve them using
inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Consider the system of equations
a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3

b1

c1

A = a2
a3

b2

c2 , X

y and B

b3

c3

Let

a1

d1

d2
d3

Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,

a1

b1

c1

a2

b2

c2

a3

b3

c3

d1

y = d2
z
d3

Case I If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now

AX = B
or
A (AX) = A1 B
(premultiplying by A1)
or
(A1A) X = A1 B
(by associative property)
or
I X = A1 B
or
X = A1 B
This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations as
inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is known as
Matrix Method.
1

134

MATHEMATICS

Case II If A is a singular matrix, then | A | = 0.

In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.
If (adj A) B O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the
system of equations is called inconsistent.
If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according
as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.

Example 27 Solve the system of equations

2x + 5y = 1
3x + 2y = 7
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
x
and B
y

1
7

0, Hence, A is nonsingular matrix and so has a unique solution.

1 2
11 3

5
2

1 2
11 3

Hence

1 33
11 11

3
1

x
=
y

i.e.

5 1
2 7

X = A1B =

Therefore

A1 =

Note that

Now, A = 11

2 5
,X
3 2

A=

x = 3, y = 1

Example 28 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.

3x 2y + 3z = 8
2x + y z = 1
4x 3y + 2z = 4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where

1 ,X

y and B
z

1
4

We see that

A = 3 (2 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 ( 6 4) = 17

DETERMINANTS

Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists. Now

A11 = 1,
A12 = 8,
A21 = 5,
A22 = 6,
A31 = 1,
A32 = 9,

10

17
34

1
2

51

5
6

8
1
4

Hence

1
17

1
17

i.e.

x
y =
z

X= A B=

1
9

So

10

5
6

1
8

A13 = 10
A23 = 1
A33 = 7

A1 =

Therefore

1
17

135

x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.

Example 29 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add
second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we get double of the
second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z, respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x+y+z=6
y + 3z = 11
x + z = 2y or x 2y + z = 0
This system can be written as A X = B, where

0 1 3 , X = y and B = 11
1 2 1
0
z

A11 = 1 (1 + 6) = 7,
A21 = (1 + 2) = 3,
A31 = (3 1) = 2,

0 1

1 1 6 (0 3)

Here A

A=

0 . Now we find adj A

A12 = (0 3) = 3,
A22 = 0,
A32 = (3 0) = 3,

A13 = 1
A23 = ( 2 1) = 3
A33 = (1 0) = 1

7
3

3 2
0 3

7 3 2
1
1
3 0 3
A 1 =
adj (A) =
A
9
1 3 1

X = A1 B

Since

Thus

adj A =

Hence

MATHEMATICS

136

7 3 2 6
1
3 0 3 11
X=
9
1 3 1 0

x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

18 0 0 = 1
9
6 33 0

42 33 0

Thus

y = 1
9
z

or

18 = 2
27
3

EXERCISE 4.6
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2
2. 2x y = 5
3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3
x+y=4
2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1
5. 3xy 2z = 2
6. 5x y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 2z = 2
2y z = 1
2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4
3x 5y = 3
5x 2y + 6z = 1
Solve system of linear equations, using matrix method, in Exercises 7 to 14.
9. 4x 3y = 3
7. 5x + 2y = 4
8. 2x y = 2
7x + 3y = 5
3x + 4y = 3
3x 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3
11. 2x + y + z = 1
12. x y + z = 4
3
3x + 2y = 5
x 2y z =
2x + y 3z = 0
2
3y 5z = 9
x+y+z=2
13. 2x + 3y +3 z = 5
14. x y + 2z = 7
x 2y + z = 4
3x + 4y 5z = 5
3x y 2z = 3
2x y + 3z = 12

DETERMINANTS

15. If A = 3
1

2 3

137

2 4 , find A 1. Using A1 solve the system of equations

1 2

2x 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y 4z = 5
x + y 2z = 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is Rs 60. The cost of 2 kg onion,
4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is Rs 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg
rice is Rs 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 30 If a, b, c are positive and unequal, show that value of the determinant

Solution Applying C1

a b c
= b c a is negative.
c a b

C1 + C2 + C3 to the given determinant, we get

a b c b c

1 b c
= a b c c a = (a + b + c) 1 c a
1 a b
a b c a b

R2R1,and R3

1
b
c
= (a + b + c) 0 c b a c (Applying R2
0 ab bc

R3 R1)

= (a + b + c) [(c b) (b c) (a c) (a b)] (Expanding along C1)

= (a + b + c)( a2 b2 c2 + ab + bc + ca)
=

1
(a + b + c) (2a2 + 2b2 + 2c2 2ab 2bc 2ca)
2

1
(a + b + c) [(a b)2 + (b c)2 + (c a)2]
2

which is negative (since a + b + c > 0 and (a b)2 + (b c)2 + (c a)2 > 0)

138

MATHEMATICS

Example 31 If a, b, c, are in A.P, find value of

2y 4 5y 7 8y a

3y 5 6 y 8 9 y b
4 y 6 7 y 9 10 y c
R1 + R3 2R2 to the given determinant, we obtain

Solution Applying R1

3y 5 6 y 8 9 y b = 0
4 y 6 7 y 9 10 y c

(Since 2b = a + c)

Example 32 Show that

2

xy

xy

x z

yz

xR1, R2

yR2 , R3

x2 y

xy 2

y x z

xz 2

yz 2

z R3 to

and dividing by xyz, we get

x2 z
2

y2 z
z x y

1
xyz

x y

x y z
=

= 2xyz (x + y + z)3

xz

Solution Applying R1

yz

zx
2

y z

Taking common factors x, y, z from C1 C2 and C3, respectively, we get

y2

x2

y2

z2

x2 y

y2

x y

C3 C1, we have

z2

y2

x z

z2

C2 C1, C3

x2

xyz
xyz

x2

Applying C2

y z

z2

DETERMINANTS

139

Taking common factor (x + y + z) from C2 and C3, we have

z2

x y z
0

R1 (R2 + R3), we have

2y
0

x yz

C3

y2

x z

z2

0
y2
z

z2
y

x y

= (x + y + z)2

2 yz

1
C1 , we get
z

1
C ) and C3
y 1

(C2 +

2z
x y+z

= (x + y + z)2

2 yz
y2
z2

Applying C2

y z

x y z
x z y

= (x + y + z)

Applying R1

Finally expanding along R1, we have

= (x + y + z)2 (2yz) [(x + z) (x + y) yz] = (x + y + z)2 (2yz) (x2 + xy + xz)
= (x + y + z)3 (2xyz)

Example 33 Use product 0 2 3

3 2 4

2 0
9
6

1 1

2 3 to solve the system of equations

1 2

x y + 2z = 1
2y 3z = 1
3x 2y + 4z = 2

2
3

1
2

2
9

0
2

1
3

1
Solution Consider the product 0
3

MATHEMATICS

2 0

Hence

1 0 0
2 9 12 0 2 2 1 3 4
0 18 18 0 4 3 0 6 6 = 0 1 0
6 18 24 0 4 4 3 6 8
0 0 1

140

2 3

3 2 4
6 1 2
Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows

2 0 2
9 2 6

2 0 1
1
1 = 9 2 3
6 1 2
2

0
5

2
3
4

1
2
2

or

1
y = 0
z
3

6 1 4
3
x = 0, y = 5 and z = 3

Hence
Example 34 Prove that

px q
w

(1 x ) b d

= (1 x ) ax b cx d
u
v

px q
w

p
px q
w

cx d
v

p (1 x 2 )

ax b
u
2

R1 x R2 to , we get

a (1 x 2 ) c (1 x 2 )

a c
2

Solution Applying R1

= ax b cx d
u
v

p qx

a bx c dx

u v w

3 2

y = 1
z
2

1
2

DETERMINANTS

Applying R2

R2 x R1, we get

a c

= (1 x ) b d q
u v w

Miscellaneous Exercises on Chapter 4

cos
1

is independent of .

sin
x

x
1. Prove that the determinant sin
cos

a a2

bc

1 a2

a3

2
2. Without expanding the determinant, prove that b b
c c2

ca

1 b2

b3 .
c3

c a a b

b c

cos cos
cos sin
sin
sin
cos
0
3. Evaluate
sin cos
sin sin
cos
4. If a, b and c are real numbers, and

ab

= c a a b b c = 0,
a b b c c a
Show that either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.
x a

x
x

x a

ac
1

0 , find AB

7. If A1 = 15 6 5 and B
5 2 2

= 4a2b2c2

ac c 2

2
b2
6. Prove that a ab
ab
b 2 bc

0, a

bc

a2

x a
5. Solve the equation x
x

1 c2

141

MATHEMATICS

2 1

8. Let A = 2
1

142

1 . Verify that
5

(i) [adj A]1 = adj (A1)

x
y

x y

x y
x

x y

9. Evaluate

(ii) (A1)1 = A

1
x
10. Evaluate 1 x y
1
x

y
y

x+ y

Using properties of determinants in Exercises 11 to 15, prove that:

2

=( ) ( )( ) ( +

+ )

11.

x 2 1 px 3

y 2 1 py 3 = (1 + pxyz) (x y) (y z) (z x), where p is any scalar.

z2

1 pz 3

3a

a+ b a+ c

b a

3b

c a

c+ b

10
z

cos
cos
cos

3
y

2
x

16. Solve the system of equations

15.

cos
cos
cos

14.

sin
sin
sin

1 p q
4 3 p 2q = 1
3 6 3 p 10 6 p 3 q

1 1 p
2 3 2p

b c = 3(a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca)

3c

13.

12.

DETERMINANTS

9 20

y
z

6
x

5
z

4 6

x y

143

Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.

17. If a, b, c, are in A.P, then the determinant

x 2 x 3 x 2a

x 3 x 4 x 2b is
x 4 x 5 x 2c
(C) x

(D) 2x

18. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix A

(A) Det (A) = 0

(C) Det (A)

(2, 4)

sin
1

, where 0

2 . Then

(B) Det (A)

(D) Det (A)

sin

sin

19. Let A =

sin

1 0 0
1
0 1 0
(D)
xyz
0 0 1

x 0 0
1
0 y 0
(C)
xyz
0 0 z

(B) xyz

(2,

(A)

[2, 4]

(B) 1

x 0 0

(A) 0

0 y 0 is
0 0 z

144

MATHEMATICS

Summary
Determinant of a matrix A = [a11]1 1 is given by | a11| = a11

c3

a1

is given by

a12
a22 = a11 a22 a12 a21

a1
a2

b1
b2

a3

b3

b2

c2

b3

c3

c1
c2 is given by (expanding along R1)
c3

b3

a22

b1

a2

c2

a3

c3

a3

c1
c2

a21

b1
b2

a12

a11
a21

Determinant of a matrix A

a1
a2

a11

Determinant of a matrix A

c1

a2

b2

a3

b3

For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.

|A | = |A|, where A = transpose of A.

If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of determinant

changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then value
of determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by constant
k, then value of determinant is multiplied by k.
Multiplying a determinant by k means multiply elements of only one row
(or one column) by k.

If A [aij ]3 3 , then k .A k 3 A

If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the equimultiples of

corresponding elements of other rows or columns are added, then value of
determinant remains same.

If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as sum

of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be expressed as
sum of two or more determinants.

DETERMINANTS

145

Area of a triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by

y1 1

x1
1
x2
2
x3

y2 1
y3 1

Minor of an element aij of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant

obtained by deleting ith row and jth column and denoted by Mij.
Cofactor of aij of given by Aij = ( 1)i + j Mij
Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements
of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For example,

A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13.

If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements
of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example, a11 A21 + a12
A22 + a13 A23 = 0
a13
a23 , then adj A
a33

a12
a22

A11
A12

A 21
A 22

A31
A32 , where A ij is

If A

a11
a21

a31 a32
A13 A 23 A33
cofactor of aij
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I, where A is square matrix of order n.
A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according as
| A | = 0 or | A | 0.
If AB = BA = I, where B is square matrix, then B is called inverse of A.
Also A1 = B or B1 = A and hence (A1)1 = A.
A square matrix A has inverse if and only if A is non-singular.

1
( adj A)
A

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3,
then these equations can be written as A X = B, where

b1

c1

a2

b2

c2 , X = y and B= d 2

a3

b3

c3

a1

d1
d3

If

A 1

MATHEMATICS

Unique solution of equation AX = B is given by X = A1 B, where A 0 .

A system of equation is consistent or inconsistent according as its solution
exists or not.
For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
(i) | A | 0, there exists unique solution
(ii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B 0, then there exists no solution
(iii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may or may not be consistent.

146

Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns of
several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally led to the
discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods was precisely
that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore, early developed the
idea of subtracting columns and rows as in simplification of a determinant
Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work Kai Fukudai no Ho in 1683 showed that he had the idea of
determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in eliminating a
quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equations. T. Hayashi, The Fakudoi and Determinants in Japanese
Mathematics, in the proc. of the Tokyo Math. Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent functions.
He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave general method of
expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors. In 1773 Lagrange
treated determinants of the second and third orders and used them for purpose
other than the solution of equations. In 1801, Gauss used determinants in his
theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812) who
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-columns and nrows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same subject. He
used the word determinant in its present sense. He gave the proof of multiplication
theorem more satisfactory than Binets.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, after
this the word determinant received its final acceptance.

Chapter

CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement
of everyday thinking. ALBERT EINSTEIN

5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.

Sir Issac Newton

(1642-1727)

5.2 Continuity

We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function

1, if x 0

f ( x)

2, if x 0

This function is of course defined at every

point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01,

Fig 5.1

148

MATHEMATICS

0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In
particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the value
of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we try to draw
the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the plane of the
paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when
we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being not continuous at x = 0.
Now, consider the function defined as
1, if x 0
2, if x 0

f ( x)

This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x = 0
are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that point without
lifting the pen from the plane of the paper.

Fig 5.2

Mathematically, it may be phrased precisely as follows:

Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if

lim f ( x)

f (c)

More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c. Recall that
if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that the common
value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase the definition of
continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at
x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at
x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

149

Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value is 5.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly
lim (2 x 3)

lim f ( x )

Thus

2(1) 3 5

lim f ( x )

f (1)

Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.
Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly

lim f ( x)
x

lim x 2

Thus

02

lim f ( x)

f (0)

Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition
x, if x 0

f (x) =

x, if x 0

Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is

lim ( x ) 0

lim f ( x)

lim f ( x)
x

Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is

lim x

Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at
x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by

is not continuous at x = 0.

f (x) =

1,

3, if x

x3

if x 0

MATHEMATICS

Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x

function is given by a polynomial. Hence,
x

3) 03

0, the

3 3

lim f ( x) = lim ( x 3

150

Since the limit of f at x = 0 does not coincide with f (0), the function is not continuous
at x = 0. It may be noted that x = 0 is the only point of discontinuity for this function.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant function f (x) = k is continuous.
Solution The function is defined at all real numbers and by definition, its value at any
real number equals k. Let c be any real number. Then
c

lim f ( x) = lim k

Since f (c) = k = lim f (x) for any real number c, the function f is continuous at
x c

every real number.

Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real numbers given by f (x) = x is
continuous at every real number.
Solution The function is clearly defined at every point and f (c) = c for every real
number c. Also,
x

lim f ( x) = lim x

Thus, lim f (x) = c = f (c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.

Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural

extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point
in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means

lim f ( x ) = f (a)

and continuity of f at b means

lim f ( x) = f(b)

Observe that lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) do not make sense. As a consequence

of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

151

Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a continuous function?

Solution We may rewrite f as
x, if x 0
x, if x 0

f (x) =

By Example 3, we know that f is continuous at x = 0.

Let c be a real number such that c < 0. Then f (c) = c. Also

Since lim f ( x)

lim f ( x) = lim ( x)

(Why?)

f (c ) , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.

Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim f ( x) = lim x c
x c
x c

Since lim f ( x)

(Why?)

f (c ) , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f

is continuous at all points.

Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = x3 + x2 1.
Solution Clearly f is defined at every real number c and its value at c is c3 + c2 1. We
also know that

x 2 1) c 3

Thus lim f ( x)

c2 1

lim f ( x) = lim ( x 3

f (c ) , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means

f is a continuous function.

1
,x
x

Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) =

0.

Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have

1
c x

lim f ( x ) lim

1
c

1
, we have lim f ( x) f (c ) and hence, f is continuous
x c
c
at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function.

Also, since for c 0, f (c)

152

MATHEMATICS

We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by analysing

1
the function f (x) = near x = 0. To carry out this analysis we follow the usual trick of
x
finding the value of the function at real numbers close to 0. Essentially we are trying to
find the right hand limit of f at 0. We tabulate this in the following (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1

x
f (x)

0.2

0.3

1 3.333...

0.1 = 101

0.01 = 102

10

100 = 102

0.001 = 103 10n

1000 = 103

10n

We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) shoots up
higher. This may be rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger than any given
number by choosing a positive real number very close to 0. In symbols, we write
0

lim f ( x)

(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to emphasise
that + is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as
a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.

Table 5.2

x
f (x)

0.3

1 3.333...

0.2

101

102

103

10n

10

102

103

10n

From the Table 5.2, we deduce that the

value of f (x) may be made smaller than any
given number by choosing a negative real
number very close to 0. In symbols,
we write
0

lim f ( x)

(to be read as: the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is

minus infinity). Again, we wish to emphasise
that is NOT a real number and hence the
left hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as a real
number). The graph of the reciprocal function
given in Fig 5.3 is a geometric representation
of the above mentioned facts.

Fig 5.3

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

153

Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by

x 2, if x 1

f (x) =

x 2, if x 1

Solution The function f is defined at all points of the real line.

Case 1 If c < 1, then f (c) = c + 2. Therefore, lim f ( x ) lim f ( x 2) c 2

lim (x 2) = c 2 = f (c)
x

lim f ( x)

Thus, f is continuous at all real numbers less than 1.

Case 2 If c > 1, then f (c) = c 2. Therefore,
c

Thus, f is continuous at all points x > 1.

Case 3 If c = 1, then the left hand limit of f at
x = 1 is
lim ( x 2) 1 2 3

x 1

lim f ( x )

x 1

The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is

lim ( x 2) 1 2

x 1

lim f ( x )

x 1

Since the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1

Fig 5.4
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The graph of the function is given in Fig 5.4.
Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the function f defined by

x 2, if x 1

f (x) =

0, if x 1

x 2, if x 1

Solution As in the previous example we find that f

is continuous at all real numbers x 1. The left
hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim f ( x ) lim ( x 2) 1 2 3

x 1

x 1

The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is

lim f ( x ) lim ( x 2) 1 2

x 1

x 1

Since, the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1

do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The
graph of the function is given in the Fig 5.5.

Fig 5.5

154

MATHEMATICS

Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function defined by

x 2, if x 0
x 2, if x 0

f (x) =

Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0. Domain
of definition of this function is
D2 where D1 = {x
D2 = {x

R : x < 0} and
R : x > 0}

D1, then lim f ( x ) lim (x + 2)

Case 1 If c

D1

= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D1.

D2, then lim f ( x ) lim ( x + 2)
c

Case 2 If c

= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D2.

Since f is continuous at all points in the domain of f,
we deduce that f is continuous. Graph of this
function is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to graph
Fig 5.6
this function we need to lift the pen from the plane
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by
x, if x 0

x 2 , if x 0

f (x) =

Solution Clearly the function is defined at

every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
D1 = {x
D3 = {x

Let

R : x < 0}, D2 = {0} and

R : x > 0}

Fig 5.7

Case 1 At any point in D1, we have f (x) = x2 and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D3, we have f (x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

155

Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f (0) = 0.
The left hand limit of f at 0 is

lim x 2
0

02

lim f ( x )

The right hand limit of f at 0 is

lim x 0

lim f ( x )

Thus lim f ( x) 0 = f (0) and hence f is continuous at 0. This means that f is

0

continuous at every point in its domain and hence, f is a continuous function.

Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is continuous.
Solution Recall that a function p is a polynomial function if it is defined by
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn for some natural number n, an 0 and ai R. Clearly this
function is defined for every real number. For a fixed real number c, we have

lim p ( x)

p (c)

By definition, p is continuous at c. Since c is any real number, p is continuous at

every real number and hence p is a continuous function.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the greatest integer function defined
by f (x) = [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Solution First observe that f is defined for all real numbers. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.8. From the graph it looks like that f is discontinuous at every integral
point. Below we explore, if this is true.

Fig 5.8

156

MATHEMATICS

Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from the
graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c]; i.e.,
lim f ( x) lim [ x] [c] . Also f (c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real

numbers not equal to integers.

Case 2 Let c be an integer. Then we can find a sufficiently small real number
r > 0 such that [c r] = c 1 whereas [c + r] = c.
This, in terms of limits mean that
lim f (x) = c 1, lim f (x) = c
x

Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt some
algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of continuous functions.
Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function at
that point, it is reasonable to expect results analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.

f
g

is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c)

(4)

0).

Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at

x = c. We have

g ) ( x ) = lim [ f ( x ) g ( x )]
x

lim( f

= lim f ( x) lim g ( x)
c

= f (c) + g(c)
= (f + g) (c)
Hence, f + g is continuous at x = c.

(by definition of f + g)
(by the theorem on limits)
(as f and g are continuous)
(by definition of f + g)

Proofs for the remaining parts are similar and left as an exercise to the reader.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

157

Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f (x) = for some
real number , then the function ( . g) defined by ( . g) (x) = . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if = 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f (x) = , then the

( x)

g ( x)

is also continuous wherever g (x)

defined by

function

0. In

1
.
g
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions. They
also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following examples
illustrate this:
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of

Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.

Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by

p( x )
, q( x) 0
q ( x)
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14), f is
continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.

f ( x)

Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.

Solution To see this we use the following facts

lim sin x

We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f (x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
c we know that h
0. Therefore
number. Put x = c + h. If x

lim f ( x ) = lim sin x

x c
x c

= lim sin(c h)
h 0

= lim [sin c cos h cos c sin h]

h 0

lim
= lim [sin c cos h] h 0 [cos c sin h]
h 0

= sin c + 0 = sin c = f (c)

Thus lim f (x) = f (c) and hence f is a continuous function.

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MATHEMATICS

Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.
Solution The function f (x) = tan x =

sin x
. This is defined for all real numbers such
cos x

. We have just proved that both sine and cosine

2
functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions.
Theorem 2 Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c.
The following examples illustrate this theorem.
0, i.e., x

that cos x

(2n +1)

Example 19 Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function
f may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x2. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2,
it can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 x + | x | |,
where x is any real number, is a continuous function.
Solution Define g by g (x) = 1 x + | x | and h by h (x) = | x | for all real x. Then
(h o g) (x) = h (g (x))
= h (1 x + | x |)
= | 1 x + | x | | = f (x)
In Example 7, we have seen that h is a continuous function. Hence g being a sum
of a polynomial function and the modulus function is continuous. But then f being a
composite of two continuous functions is continuous.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

159

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f (x) = 5x 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = 3 and at x = 5.
2. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) = 2x2 1 at x = 3.
3. Examine the following functions for continuity.
(a) f (x) = x 5

(b) f (x) =

x 5

x 2 25
(d) f (x) = | x 5 |
x 5
4. Prove that the function f (x) = xn is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by

f ( x)

x, if x 1
5, if x > 1

(c) f (x) =

continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by

if x 1

x2 ,

13. Is the function defined by

a continuous function?

x 5, if x 1

f ( x)

x 5, if x 1

x10 1, if x 1

x 3 3, if x 2

1, if x 1

f ( x)

11.

x 1, if x 1

f ( x)

9.

x
, if x 0
| x|
1, if x 0

f ( x)

6 x 2, if x 3

12.

f ( x)

10.

f ( x)

f ( x)

8.

| x|
, if x 0
x
0, if x 0

7.

f ( x)

| x | 3, if x
3
2 x, if 3 x < 3

6.

2 x 3, if x 2
2 x 3, if x > 2

x 2 1, if x 2

160

MATHEMATICS

Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is defined by

f ( x)

5, if 3 x 10

0, if 0

x 1

4 x, if x > 1

2, if x
1
2 x, if 1 x 1

f ( x)

15.

16.

f ( x)

2 x, if x 0

14.

3, if 0 x 1
4, if 1 x 3

2, if x 1

17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
ax 1, if x 3

f ( x)

bx 3, if x 3

is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of is the function defined by
4 x 1,

2 x), if x 0
if x 0

continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?

Show that the function defined by g (x) = x [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Is the function defined by f (x) = x2 sin x + 5 continuous at x = ?
Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x
(b) f (x) = sin x cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where

is a continuous function?

1
x 2 sin , if x 0
x
0,
if x 0

f ( x)

24. Determine if f defined by

f ( x)

sin x
, if x 0
x
x 1, if x 0

22.
23.

20.
21.

19.

( x2

f ( x)

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

161

25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by

sin x cos x, if x 0
1,
if x 0
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous at the indicated point in Exercises
26 to 29.

at x =

kx 2 , if x 2

at x = 2

if x 2

kx 1, if x

cos x, if x

3,

at x =

f ( x)

28.

27.

f ( x)

if x

3,

f ( x)

26.

k cos x
, if x
2x

f ( x)

kx 1, if x 5
at x = 5
3 x 5, if x 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by

if x 2

ax b, if 2

31.
32.
33.
34.

f ( x)

5,
21,

f ( x)

29.

x 10

if x 10

is a continuous function.
Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x2) is a continuous function.
Show that the function defined by f (x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = | x | | x + 1 |.

5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a real
function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
0

f (c h )
h

lim

f (c)

162

MATHEMATICS

provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f (c) or

d
( f ( x)) | c . The
dx

function defined by

f ( x h)
h

f ( x) lim

f ( x)

wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is

dy
d
( f ( x )) or if y = f (x) by
or y . The process of finding
dx
dx
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f (x) with respect to x to mean find f (x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u v) = u v
(2) (uv) = u v + uv (Leibnitz or product rule)

denoted by f (x) or

u
u v uv , wherever v 0 (Quotient rule).
v
v2
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard functions:

(3)

Table 5.3

f (x)

xn

sin x

cos x

tan x

f (x)

nx n 1

cos x

sin x

sec2 x

Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesnt? The question is quite pertinent and so is

f (c h) f (c)
does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable at c.
h 0
h
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if both

its answer. If lim

f (c h) f (c )
f (c h) f (c )
and lim
are finite and equal. A function is said
h 0
h 0
h
h
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and left hand
limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative of the function
at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).

lim

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

163

Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c, then it is also continuous at that

point.
Proof Since f is differentiable at c, we have

f ( x ) f (c)
. ( x c)
x c

f (c)] = lim

f ( x) f (c)
. ( x c)
x c

f ( x) f (c)
. lim [( x c)]
x c
x c
x c
= f (c) . 0 = 0

lim [ f ( x)] lim [ f (c )] = lim

x c
x c

or

lim f ( x ) = f (c)

or

lim [ f ( x )

f (x) f (c) =
Therefore

f (c )

c, we have

But for x

f ( x) f ( c)
x c

lim

Hence f is continuous at x = c.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
We remark that the converse of the above statement is not true. Indeed we have
seen that the function defined by f (x) = | x | is a continuous function. Consider the left
hand limit

f (0)

h
h

h
1
h

f (0 h)
h

lim

f (0)

The right hand limit

f (0 h)
h

lim

f (0 h) f (0)
h 0
h
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.

Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal, lim

5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions

To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example. Say,
we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)3

164

MATHEMATICS

One way is to expand (2x + 1)3 using binomial theorem and find the derivative as
a polynomial function as illustrated below.

Now, observe that

d
(8 x 3 12 x 2
dx
= 24x2 + 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)2
f (x) = (h o g) (x)
=

6 x 1)

d
d
(2 x 1)3
f ( x) =
dx
dx

where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x3. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t3. Thus

df
dh dt
= 6 (2x + 1)2 = 3(2x + 1)2 . 2 = 3t2 . 2 =
dx
dt dx

The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in finding
the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in the following
theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
functions u and v ; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u (x) and if both

dt
dv
and
exist, we have
dx
dt

df dv dt
dx dt dx
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows. Suppose
f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and w ; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then
dw ds dt
ds dt dx

d ( w o u ) dt
dt
dx

df
dx

provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate chain
rule for composite of more functions.
Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = sin (x2).
Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x2 and v(t) = sin t, then
f (x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x2) = sin x2

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

dv
dt

cos t and

dt
dx

Put t = u(x) = x2. Observe that

165

2 x exist. Hence, by chain rule

df
dv dt
cos t 2 x
=
dx
dt dx
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus

df
= cos t 2 x 2 x cos x 2
dx
Alternatively, We can also directly proceed as follows:
dy
dx

= cos x2

y = sin (x2)

d
(sin x2)
dx

d 2
(x ) = 2x cos x2
dx

Example 22 Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).

Solution Let f (x) = tan (2x + 3), u (x) = 2x + 3 and v(t) = tan t. Then
(v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) = f (x)

sec 2 t and

2 exist. Hence, by chain rule

dv dt
dt dx

df
dx

2sec 2 (2 x 3)

dt
dx

dv
dt

Thus f is a composite of two functions. Put t = u(x) = 2x + 3. Then

Example 23 Differentiate sin (cos (x2)) with respect to x.

Solution The function f (x) = sin (cos (x2)) is a composition f (x) = (w o v o u) (x) of the
three functions u, v and w, where u(x) = x2, v(t) = cos t and w(s) = sin s. Put

dw ds dt
= (cos s) . ( sin t) . (2x) = 2x sin x2 . cos (cos x2)
ds dt dx

df
dx

dw
ds
dt
cos s,
sin t and
ds
dt
dx
exist for all real x. Hence by a generalisation of chain rule, we have
t = u(x) = x2 and s = v (t) = cos t. Observe that

2x

166

MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, we can proceed as follows:

y = sin (cos x2)

dy
dx

Therefore

d
d
sin (cos x2) = cos (cos x2)
(cos x2)
dx
dx
= cos (cos x2) ( sin x2)

d
(x2)
dx

= sin x2 cos (cos x2) (2x)

= 2x sin x2 cos (cos x2)

EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.
2. cos (sin x)
3. sin (ax + b)
1. sin (x2 + 5)

sin ( ax b)
5. cos (cx d )

8. cos x
2 cot x 2
9. Prove that the function f given by

7.

6. cos x3 . sin2 (x5)

4. sec (tan ( x ))

f (x) = | x 1 |, x R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by

f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3

is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.
5.3.2 Derivatives of implicit functions
Until now we have been differentiating various functions given in the form y = f (x).
But it is not necessary that functions are always expressed in this form. For example,
consider one of the following relationships between x and y:
xy =0
x + sin xy y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the relationship as y = x . In
the second case, it does not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y. Nevertheless,
there is no doubt about the dependence of y on x in either of the cases. When a
relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to solve for y and
write y = f (x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x. In the latter case it

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

167

is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate implicit
functions.

dy
if x y = .
dx

Example 24 Find

Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as

y=x

dy
=1
dx
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
But then

d
dx

y) =

d
means to differentiate the constant function taking value
dx
everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus

Recall that

d
d
( x)
( y) = 0
dx
dx

which implies that

dy
dx
1
=
dx
dx

Example 25 Find

dy
, if y + sin y = cos x.
dx

Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x, i.e.,

dy d
d
(sin y ) =
(cos x)
dx dx
dx
which implies using chain rule

dy
= sin x
dx

sin x
1 cos y

(2n + 1)

dy
=
dx

where

This gives

cos y

dy
dx

d
(x
dx

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MATHEMATICS

5.3.3 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are continuous functions, but we will
not prove this. Now we use chain rule to find derivatives of these functions.
Example 26 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = sin1 x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = sin1 x. Then, x = sin y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

dy
dx

0, i.e., sin1 x

Observe that this is defined only for cos y

1
cos (sin 1 x )

, , i.e., x 1, 1,
2 2

dy
1
=
dx
cos y

which implies that

1 = cos y

i.e., x ( 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following manipulation.
Recall that for x ( 1, 1), sin (sin1 x) = x and hence

cos2 y = 1 (sin y)2 = 1 (sin (sin1 x))2 = 1 x2

Thus, for x

( 1, 1),

,
, cos y is positive and hence cos y =
2 2

1
cos y

1 x2

dy
dx

1 x2

Also, since y

Example 27 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = tan1 x assuming it exists.

Solution Let y = tan1 x. Then, x = tan y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 = sec2 y

dy
dx

which implies that

1
1 (tan (tan 1 x)) 2

1
1 tan 2 y

1
sec2 y

1
1 x2

dy
dx

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

169

Finding of the derivatives of other inverse trigonometric functions is left as exercise.

The following table gives the derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions
(Table 5.4):
Table 5.4

( , 1)

(1,

(1, 1)

x x2 1

x x2 1
)

( , 1)

Domain of f

1 x2

1
1 x2

f ( x)

cosec1x

sec 1x

(1,

EXERCISE 5.3
dy
in the following:
dx
1. 2x + 3y = sin x
4. xy + y2 = tan x + y

2. 2x + 3y = sin y
5. x2 + xy + y2 = 100

3. ax + by2 = cos y
6. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81

7. sin2 y + cos xy =

8. sin2 x + cos2 y = 1

9. y = sin1

Find

1 x2 ,
0
1 x2

x 1

2x ,
1 x 1
1 x2

2x 1 x2 ,

,0 x

2x

1
2

x 1

y sec

15.

sin

1 x2 ,
0
1 x2

1
3

14.

y cos

13.

12.

sin

1
3

1
2

1
2

cos

11.

3x x3
,
1 3x2

10. y = tan1

2x
1 x2

cot 1x

cos 1x

f (x)

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MATHEMATICS

5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Till now we have learnt some aspects of different classes of functions like polynomial
functions, rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this section, we shall
learn about a new class of (related)
functions called exponential functions and
logarithmic functions. It needs to be
emphasized that many statements made
in this section are motivational and precise
proofs of these are well beyond the scope
of this text.
The Fig 5.9 gives a sketch of
y = f1(x) = x, y = f2(x) = x2, y = f3(x) = x3
and y = f4(x) = x4. Observe that the curves
get steeper as the power of x increases.
Steeper the curve, faster is the rate of
growth. What this means is that for a fixed
Fig 5.9
increment in the value of x (> 1), the
increment in the value of y = fn (x) increases as n increases for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. It is
conceivable that such a statement is true for all positive values of n, where fn (x) = xn.
Essentially, this means that the graph of y = fn (x) leans more towards the y-axis as n
increases. For example, consider f10(x) = x10 and f15(x) = x15. If x increases from 1 to
2, f10 increases from 1 to 210 whereas f15 increases from 1 to 215. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f15 grow faster than f10.
Upshot of the above discussion is that the growth of polynomial functions is dependent
on the degree of the polynomial function higher the degree, greater is the growth.
The next natural question is: Is there a function which grows faster than any polynomial
function. The answer is in affirmative and an example of such a function is
y = f (x) = 10x.
Our claim is that this function f grows faster than fn (x) = xn for any positive integer n.
For example, we can prove that 10x grows faster than f100 (x) = x100. For large values
3

of x like x = 103, note that f100 (x) = (103)100 = 10300 whereas f (103) = 1010 = 101000.
Clearly f (x) is much greater than f100 (x). It is not difficult to prove that for all
x > 103, f (x) > f100 (x). But we will not attempt to give a proof of this here. Similarly, by
choosing large values of x, one can verify that f (x) grows faster than fn (x) for any
positive integer n.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

171

Definition 3 The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the function
y = f (x) = bx
The graph of y = 10x is given in the Fig 5.9.
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for particular values of b like 2, 3 and 4.
Following are some of the salient features of the exponential functions:
(1) Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of all real numbers.
(2) Range of the exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers.
(3) The point (0, 1) is always on the graph of the exponential function (this is a
restatement of the fact that b0 = 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we move from left to right, the
graph rises above.
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0. In
other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series

1 1
...
1! 2!
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain an
extremely important exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists and
has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.

Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if

bx = a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a. Thus logb a = x if bx = a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 23 = 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, 104 = 10000 is equivalent to
saying log10 10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 54 = 252 is equivalent to saying log5 625 = 4 or
log25 625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
logb : R+
R
logb x = y if by = x
x

172

MATHEMATICS

As before if the base b = 10, we say it

is common logarithms and if b = e, then
we say it is natural logarithms. Often
natural logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the logarithm
function to base e, i.e., ln x will be written
as simply log x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots
of logarithm function to base 2, e and 10.
Some of the important observations
about the logarithm function to any base
b > 1 are listed below:

Fig 5.10

(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of logarithm of non-positive numbers

and hence the domain of log function is R+.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing,
i.e., as we move from left to right
the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value
of log x can be made lesser than
any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the
graph approaches y-axis (but never
meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = ex and
y = ln x. It is of interest to observe
that the two curves are the mirror
images of each other reflected in the line y = x.

Fig 5.11

Two properties of log functions are proved below:

(1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain loga p in terms of logb p. Let
loga p = , logb p = and logb a = . This means a = p, b = p and b = a.

(b ) = b = p
Using this in the second equation, we get
b =p=b

Substituting the third equation in the first one, we have

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

or

loga p =

. But then

which implies

173

log b p
logb a

(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its effect on products. Let
logb pq = . Then b = pq. If logb p = and logb q = , then b = p and b = q.
But then b = pq = b b = b +

= + , i.e.,

which implies

logb pq = logb p + logb q

A particularly interesting and important consequence of this is when p = q. In
this case the above may be rewritten as
logb p2 = logb p + logb p = 2 log p
An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is
logb pn = n log p
for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any real number n, but we will
not attempt to prove this. On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify

log b

x
= logb x logb y
y

Example 28 Is it true that x = elog x for all real x?

Solution First, observe that the domain of log function is set of all positive real numbers.
So the above equation is not true for non-positive real numbers. Now, let y = elog x. If
y > 0, we may take logarithm which gives us log y = log (elog x) = log x . log e = log x. Thus
y = x. Hence x = elog x is true only for positive values of x.
One of the striking properties of the natural exponential function in differential
calculus is that it doesnt change during the process of differentiation. This is captured
in the following theorem whose proof we skip.
Theorem 5
(1) The derivative of ex w.r.t., x is ex; i.e.,
(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is

d x
(e ) = ex.
dx

d
1
1
; i.e.,
(log x) = .
dx
x
x

174

MATHEMATICS

Example 29 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

(ii) sin (log x), x > 0
(iii) cos1 (ex)
(i) e x

(iv)

ecos x

Solution
(i) Let y = e x. Using chain rule, we have

dy
x d
= e
( x) = e x
dx
dx
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have

ex

1 e2 x

1 (e x )2

d x
(e )
dx

dy
=
dx

cos (log x)
x

dy
d
(log x)
= cos (log x )
dx
dx
(iii) Let y = cos1 (ex). Using chain rule, we have

(iv) Let y = ecos x. Using chain rule, we have

dy
= ecos x ( sin x)
dx

(sin x ) e cos x

EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
ex
sin x

2. esin

1.

3. e x

5. log (cos ex)

x
6. e

7.

8. log (log x), x > 1

, x

... e x

cos x
9. log x , x 0

ex

4. sin (tan1 ex)

10. cos (log x + ex), x > 0

5.5. Logarithmic Differentiation

In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain special class of functions given in
the form
y = f (x) = [u(x)]v (x)
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
log y = v(x) log [u(x)]

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

175

Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get

1 .
u (x) + v (x) . log [u(x)]
u( x)

v( x)

1 dy
y dx

which implies that

v( x)
u ( x ) v ( x) log u ( x )
u ( x)

dy
dx

The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and u(x) must always be
positive as otherwise their logarithms are not defined. This process of differentiation is
known as logarithms differentiation and is illustrated by the following examples:

( x 3) ( x 2 4)
w.r.t. x.
3x 2 4 x 5

( x 3) ( x 2 4)
(3 x 2 4 x 5)

Solution Let y

Example 30 Differentiate

Taking logarithm on both sides, we have

1
[log (x 3) + log (x2 + 4) log (3x2 + 4x + 5)]
2
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
log y =

Example 31 Differentiate ax w.r.t. x, where a is a positive constant.

Solution Let y = ax. Then
log y = x log a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have

1 dy
y dx = log a

6x 4
3x 4 x 5

2x
2

( x 3) ( x 2 4)
1
2
3 x 4 x 5 ( x 3)

6x 4
3x 4 x 5
2

2x
2

1
2

y
1
dy
=
2 ( x 3)
dx

6x 4
3x 4 x 5
2

or

2x
2

1
1
1 dy
=
2 ( x 3)
y dx

176

MATHEMATICS

dy
= y log a
dx

or

d x
(a ) = ax log a
dx

Alternatively

d x
d x log a
(a ) =
(e
)
dx
dx

e x log a

Thus

d
( x log a)
dx

= ex log a . log a = ax log a.

Example 32 Differentiate xsin x, x > 0 w.r.t. x.
Solution Let y = xsin x. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y = sin x log x

1 dy
d
d
.
sin x (log x ) log x (sin x )
y dx =
dx
dx

Therefore

sin x x sin x cos x log x

cos x log x

Example 33 Find

= xsin x

sin x
x

sin x
= x

cos x log x

dy
sin x
= y
x
dx

or

log x cos x

1 dy
1
= (sin x)
y dx
x

or

dy
, if yx + xy + xx = ab.
dx

Solution Given that yx + xy + xx = ab.

Putting u = yx, v = xy and w = xx, we get u + v + w = ab

dv
dx

du
dx

dw
dx

Therefore

Now, u = yx. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have

log u = x log y
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have

... (1)

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

177

1 du
d
d
= x (log y ) log y ( x)
dx
dx
u dx

1 dy
log y 1
y dx
x dy
y dx

yx

log y

log y

x dy
du
= u
y dx
dx

So

= x

... (2)

Also v = xy
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log v = y log x
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have

1 dv
d
dy
= y (log x) log x
v dx
dx
dx

1
dy
log x
x
dx

dy
dx

... (3)

log x

y
x

dy
dx

y
= x

log x

dv
y
= v
x
dx

So

= y

Again
w = xx
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log w = x log x.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have

1 dw
d
d
( x)
= x (log x) log x
w dx
dx
dx

log x 1

i.e.

1
x

= x

dw
= w (1 + log x)
dx
= xx (1 + log x)

... (4)

178

MATHEMATICS

From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have

y
x

log x

dy
dx

+ xx (1 + log x) = 0

dy
= xx (1 + log x) y . xy1 yx log y
dx
[ y x log y y . x y 1 x x (1 log x)]
x . y x 1 x y log x

dy
=
dx

Therefore

(x . yx 1 + xy . log x)

or

xy

log y

x dy
y dx

yx

EXERCISE 5.5
Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x.

( x 1) ( x 2)
( x 3) ( x 4) ( x 5)

1. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x

2.

3. (log x)cos x

4. xx 2sin x

5. (x + 3)2 . (x + 4)3 . (x + 5)4

6.

7. (log x)x + xlog x

8. (sin x)x + sin1

1
x

x2 1
x2 1

1
( x sin x) x

dy
of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
dx
13. yx = xy
xy + yx = 1
(cos x)y = (cos y)x
15. xy = e(x y)
Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 + x8)
and hence find f (1).
Differentiate (x2 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?

17.

12.
14.
16.

11. (x cos x) +

x x cos x

Find

10.

+ (sin x)

9. x

cos x

1
x

sin x

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

179

18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that

d
du
dv
dw
(u. v. w) =
v. w + u .
.w+u.v
dx
dx
dx
dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by logarithmic
differentiation.

5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms

Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but some
link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a relation
between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation between
them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the parameter. More
precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form
x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain rule.

dy
dy dx
=
dx dt
dt

Solution Given that

Therefore

dx
dy
= a sin ,
= a cos
d
d

Hence

dy
dy
d
=
dx
dx
d

x = a cos , y = a sin

cot

a cos
a sin

dy
, if x = a cos , y = a sin .
dx

dx
dt

f (t ) [provided f (t)

g (t ) and

dy
dt

Example 34 Find

as

g (t )
dy
=
f (t )
dx

dx
dt

Thus

whenever

or

dy
dy
= dt
dx
dx
dt

0]

180

MATHEMATICS

dy
, if x = at2, y = 2at.
dx
Solution Given that x = at2, y = 2at

Example 35 Find

dx
= 2at and
dt

Therefore

dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dx
dt

2a
2at

dy
= 2a
dt

So

1
t

Example 36 Find

dy
, if x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1 cos ).
dx

Solution We have

dx
dy
= a(1 + cos ),
= a (sin )
d
d

a sin
a (1 cos )

tan

Therefore

dy
dy
d
=
dx
dx
d

dy
is expressed in terms of parameter only
dx
without directly involving the main variables x and y.
Note It may be noted here that

Example 37 Find dy , if x 3 y 3 a 3 .
dx
Solution Let x = a cos3 , y = a sin3 . Then

2
a 3 (cos 2

( a sin

2
)3
2

(sin 2 ) a 3

2
)3

= (a cos

2
y3

2
x3

a3

and

dy
= 3a sin2
d

sin

dx
= 3a cos2
d

Now

y3

cos

Hence, x = a cos3 , y = a sin3 is parametric equation of x 3

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

3a sin 2 cos
3a cos 2 sin

Therefore

tan

dy
dy
d
=
dx
dx
d

181

y
x

Note Had we proceeded in implicit way, it would have been quite tedious.

EXERCISE 5.6
If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises 1 to 10,

3. x = sin t, y = cos 2t
sin 2

sin 3 t

6. x = a ( sin ), y = a (1 + cos ) 7. x =

cos3 t
cos 2t

dy
dx

a cos t , show that

a sin t , y

11. If x

, y

t
y = a sin t 9. x = a sec , y = b tan
2
sin ), y = a (sin cos )

a cos t log tan

10. x = a (cos

cos 2t

8.

4
t

cos 2 , y = sin

5. x = cos

4. x = 4t, y =

1. x = 2at2, y = at4

dy
.
dx
2. x = a cos , y = b cos

without eliminating the parameter, Find

y
x

5.7 Second Order Derivative

Let

y = f (x). Then

dy
= f (x)
... (1)
dx
If f (x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand

side becomes

d dy
dx dx

is denoted by

d2y
. The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f (x). It is also
dx 2

which is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t. x and

182

MATHEMATICS

denoted by D2 y or y or y2 if y = f (x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be

defined similarly.

d2y
, if y = x3 + tan x.
2
dx
Solution Given that y = x3 + tan x. Then

Example 38 Find

dy
= 3x2 + sec2 x
dx
d
d2y
3x 2 sec 2 x
2 =
dx
dx
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x = 6x + 2 sec2 x tan x

d2y
dx 2

Example 39 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that

Therefore

0.

Solution We have

dy
= A cos x B sin x
dx
d
d2y
(A cos x B sin x)
2 =
dx
dx
= A sin x B cos x = y

and

d2y
+y=0
dx 2

d2y
dy
5
6y 0 .
2
dx
dx

Example 40 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, prove that

Hence

Solution Given that y = 3e2x + 2e3x. Then

dy
= 6e2x + 6e3x = 6 (e2x + e3x)
dx
d2y
= 12e2x + 18e3x = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx 2

Therefore

d2y
dy
5
+ 6y = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
2
dx
dx
30 (e2x + e3x) + 6 (3e2x + 2e3x) = 0

Hence

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

dy
dx

d2y
dx 2

Example 41 If y = sin1 x, show that (1 x2)

0.

Solution We have y = sin1 x. Then

dy
=
dx

1
(1 x 2 )

dy
2x
dx 2 1 x 2

(1 x 2 )

d2y
dx 2

dy d
dx dx

or

(1 x 2 )

d2y
dx 2

or

(1 x 2 )

dy
dx

(1 x 2 ) .

d
dx

So

dy
1
dx

(1 x 2 )

or

d2y
dy
x
0
Hence
2
dx
dx
Alternatively, Given that y = sin1 x, we have
, i.e., 1 x 2 y 2 1
1

1 x

(1 x 2 ) . 2 y1 y2 y12 (0 2 x) 0
(1 x2) y2 xy1 = 0

Hence

So

y1

(1 x 2 )

EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to 10.
1. x2 + 3x + 2

2. x 20

3. x . cos x

4. log x

5. x3 log x

6. ex sin 5x
9. log (log x)

7. e6x cos 3x
8. tan1 x
10. sin (log x)
d2y
11. If y = 5 cos x 3 sin x, prove that
dx 2

183

184

MATHEMATICS

12. If y = cos1 x, Find

d2y
in terms of y alone.
dx 2

13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0

d2y
dx 2

dy
dx

mny 0

49 y

dy
dx

d2y
dx 2

16. If ey (x + 1) = 1, show that

15. If y = 500e7x + 600e 7x, show that

(m n )

nx

d2y
14. If y = Ae + Be , show that
dx2
mx

17. If y = (tan1 x)2, show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2

5.8 Mean Value Theorem

In this section, we will state two fundamental results in Calculus without proof. We
shall also learn the geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Theorem 6 (Rolles Theorem) Let f : [a, b]
R be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers.
Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
In Fig 5.12 and 5.13, graphs of a few typical differentiable functions satisfying the
hypothesis of Rolles theorem are given.

Fig 5.12

Fig 5.13

Observe what happens to the slope of the tangent to the curve at various points
between a and b. In each of the graphs, the slope becomes zero at least at one point.
That is precisely the claim of the Rolles theorem as the slope of the tangent at any
point on the graph of y = f (x) is nothing but the derivative of f (x) at that point.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

185

Theorem 7 (Mean Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b]

R be a continuous function on
[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

f (b) f (a )
b a

f ( c)

Observe that the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is an extension of Rolles theorem.
Let us now understand a geometric interpretation of the MVT. The graph of a function
y = f(x) is given in the Fig 5.14. We have already interpreted f (c) as the slope of the

f (b) f (a)
b a
is the slope of the secant drawn between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). The MVT states that
there is a point c in (a, b) such that the slope of the tangent at (c, f(c)) is same as the
slope of the secant between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). In other words, there is a point c in
(a, b) such that the tangent at (c, f (c)) is parallel to the secant between (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).

tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (c, f (c)). From the Fig 5.14 it is clear that

Fig 5.14

Example 42 Verify Rolles theorem for the function y = x2 + 2, a = 2 and b = 2.

Solution The function y = x2 + 2 is continuous in [ 2, 2] and differentiable in ( 2, 2).
Also f ( 2) = f ( 2) = 6 and hence the value of f (x) at 2 and 2 coincide. Rolles
theorem states that there is a point c ( 2, 2), where f (c) = 0. Since f (x) = 2x, we
get c = 0. Thus at c = 0, we have f (c) = 0 and c = 0 ( 2, 2).

Example 43 Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function f (x) = x2 in the interval [2, 4].
Solution The function f (x) = x2 is continuous in [2, 4] and differentiable in (2, 4) as its
derivative f (x) = 2x is defined in (2, 4).

f (2) = 4 and f (4) = 16. Hence

f (b) f (a )
b a

16 4
4 2

Now,

MATHEMATICS

186

MVT states that there is a point c (2, 4) such that f (c) = 6. But f (x) = 2x which
implies c = 3. Thus at c = 3 (2, 4), we have f (c) = 6.

EXERCISE 5.8
1. Verify Rolles theorem for the function f (x) = x2 + 2x 8, x [ 4, 2].
2. Examine if Rolles theorem is applicable to any of the following functions. Can
you say some thing about the converse of Rolles theorem from these example?
(i) f (x) = [x] for x [5, 9]
(ii) f (x) = [x] for x [ 2, 2]
2
(iii) f (x) = x 1 for x [1, 2]
3. If f : [ 5, 5]
R is a differentiable function and if f (x) does not vanish
anywhere, then prove that f ( 5) f (5).
4. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x2 4x 3 in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 4.
5. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x3 5x2 3x in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 3. Find all c (1, 3) for which f (c) = 0.
6. Examine the applicability of Mean Value Theorem for all three functions given in
the above exercise 2.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 44 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:

= (3x

(2 x

4)

1
2

Note that this function is defined at all real numbers x

d
(3x 2)
dx

1
(2 x 2
2

1
dy
1
(3x 2) 2
=
dx
2

4)

1
1
2

2 x2

1
2) 2

2
. Therefore
3

3x 2

(iii) log7 (log x)

d
(2 x 2
dx

3cos 1 x

(i) Let y =

Solution

(ii) esec

2x

3x 2

(i)

4)

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

3cos 1 x

0 . Therefore

1
1 x2

1 x2

2
sec
= 2sec x tan x e

1 x2

sec
= 2sec x (sec x tan x ) e

d
(sec x)
dx

2sec x

1 x2

sec
= e

dy
sec2 x d
(sec 2 x ) 3
= e
dx
dx

This is defined at every real number in [ 1,1]

2
.
3

esec

4x

3
2

2x

2 3x 2

This is defined for all real numbers x

(ii) Let y

3
2

2x

4)

(3)

1
(2 x 2
2

1
2

1
= (3x 2)
2

187

Observe that the derivative of the given function is valid only in [ 1,1] 0 as
the derivative of cos1 x exists only in ( 1, 1) and the function itself is not
defined at 0.

1 d
dy
(log (log x))
=
log 7 dx
dx
=

1
1
d
(log x )
log 7 log x dx

1
x log 7 log x

log (log x)
(by change of base formula).
log 7
The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore

(iii) Let y = log7 (log x) =

188

MATHEMATICS

Example 45 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.

(iii) sin

2x 1
1 4x

sin x
1 cos x

(ii) tan

(i) cos 1 (sin x)

Solution
(i) Let f (x) = cos 1 (sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real numbers.
We may rewrite this function as
f (x) = cos 1 (sin x)

cos

= cos

x
2
Thus
f (x) = 1.
sin x
. Observe that this function is defined for all real
(ii) Let f (x) = tan 1
1 cos x
numbers, where cos x 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of . We may rewrite this
function as

x
2

x
2

x
in both numerator and denominator as it
2

1.
2

2x 1
. To find the domain of this function we need to find all
1 4x

2x 1
1 4x

x such that 1

is not equal to zero. Thus f (x) =

tan

x
x
cos
2
2
2 x
2cos
2

Observe that we could cancel cos

(iii) Let f (x) = sin 1

2 sin

= tan

sin x
1 cos x

= tan

f (x) = tan

1 . Since the quantity in the middle is always positive,

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

2x 1
1 4x

1 , i.e., all x such that 2x + 1

we need to find all x such that

189

1 + 4x. We

1
+ 2x which is true for all x. Hence the function
x
2
is defined at every real number. By putting 2x = tan , this function may be
rewritten as

may rewrite this as 2

2x 1
1 4x

2x 2

= sin

2 tan
1 tan 2

2x

= sin

f (x) = sin

= sin 1 [sin 2 ]
= 2 = 2 tan 1 (2x)

x 2

d
(2 x )
dx

2
(2 x )log 2
1 4x

f (x) = 2

Thus

2 x 1 log 2
1 4x
Example 46 Find f (x) if f (x) = (sin x)sin x for all 0 < x < .
Solution The function y = (sin x)sin x is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)sin x = sin x log (sin x)

1 dy
d
=
(sin x log (sin x))
y dx
dx
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x .
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x
= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x

1
d
(sin x)
sin x dx

Then

190

MATHEMATICS

dy
= y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x)sin x cos x
dx
dy
, where
dx

Example 47 For a positive constant a find

1
t,

1
t
Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t

a 1

a 1

1
t

d
1
t
dt
t
1

1
t2

1. Thus for t

1
log a
t2

= a t

0. Clearly

log a

1
t

dx
1
= a t
dt
t

Similarly

0 only if t

d
1
t
dt
t

1
t
a t

= a

dx
dt

and x

1
t

dy
d t
=
dt a
dt

Thus

1,
1

log a
a 1

Solution Let u (x) = sin2 x and v (x) = e cos x. We want to find du

dv

du
dv
= 2 sin x cos x and
= e cos x ( sin x) = (sin x) e cos x
dx
dx

1
a t
t
Example 48 Differentiate sin2 x w.r.t. e cos x.

1
t

dy
dx

t
1
dy
a t 1 2 log a
t
dt
=
a 1
dx
1
1
a t
1 2
dt
t
t

du / dx . Clearly
dv / dx

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

2sin x cos x
du
=
dv
sin x e cos x

Thus

2cos x
ecos x

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

x
2 ,2<x<2
2x 7

5.

cos

Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11.

2. sin3 x + cos6 x
1. (3x2 9x + 5)9
4. sin1(x x ), 0
3. (5x) 3 cos 2x
1

10.

1 sin x
1 sin x
,0<x<
1 sin x
1 sin x
2
(log x)log x, x > 1
cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b.
3
(sin x cos x) (sin x cos x),
x
4
4
xx + xa + ax + aa, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0

11.

xx

x 3

x2

, for x > 3

dy
, if y = 12 (1 cos t), x = 10 (t sin t),
2
dx
dy
13. Find
, if y = sin1 x + sin1 1 x 2 , 1 x 1
dx

12. Find

y 1 x

14. If x 1 y

0 , for , 1 < x < 1, prove that

dy
1
2
dx
1 x
15. If (x a)2 + (y b)2 = c2, for some c > 0, prove that

dy
dx
d2y
dx 2
is a constant independent of a and b.

3
2 2

9.

7.
8.

cot

6.

191

MATHEMATICS

1, prove that

dy
dx

16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a

cos2 ( a y )
.
sin a

192

d2y
.
dx 2

17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t t cos t), find

18. If f (x) = | x |3, show that f (x) exists for all real x and find it.

nx n

d n
x
dx

19. Using mathematical induction prove that

for all positive

integers n.
20. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation,
obtain the sum formula for cosines.
21. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable
at exactly two points? Justify your answer.

f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )

,1

2
1, show that 1 x 2 d y
dx 2

23. If y = ea cos

dy
dx

a2 y

f ( x ) g ( x) h ( x)

22. If y

dy
, prove that
dx

0.

Summary

A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.

Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.

i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f g) (x) = f (x) g (x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g (x) is continuous.
f ( x)
(wherever g (x)
g ( x)

f
( x)
g

0) is continuous.

Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

193

Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x)

and if both

dt
dv
and
exist then
dx
dt

df dv dt
dx dt dx
Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):

d
cos 1 x
dx

1 x2

1
1 x2

d
cosec 1 x
dx

x 1 x2

1
1 x2

x 1 x2

d x
d
1
e
ex
log x
dx
dx
x
Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions
of the form f (x) = [u (x)]v (x). Here both f (x) and u (x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
Rolles Theorem: If f : [a, b] R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b), then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
f (c) = 0.
Mean Value Theorem: If f : [a, b]
R is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

f (b) f (a )
b a

f ( c)

d
sec 1 x
dx

d
cot 1 x
dx

1 x2

d
tan 1 x
dx

d
sin 1 x
dx

Chapter

APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
With the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied
to the explanation of the course of Nature. WHITEHEAD

6.1 Introduction

In Chapter 5, we have learnt how to find derivative of composite functions, inverse

trigonometric functions, implicit functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
In this chapter, we will study applications of the derivative in various disciplines, e.g., in
engineering, science, social science, and many other fields. For instance, we will learn
how the derivative can be used (i) to determine rate of change of quantities, (ii) to find
the equations of tangent and normal to a curve at a point, (iii) to find turning points on
the graph of a function which in turn will help us to locate points at which largest or
smallest value (locally) of a function occurs. We will also use derivative to find intervals
on which a function is increasing or decreasing. Finally, we use the derivative to find
approximate value of certain quantities.

6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities

ds
, we mean the rate of change of distance s with
dt
respect to the time t. In a similar fashion, whenever one quantity y varies with another
Recall that by the derivative

f ( x ) , then

x x0

dy
change of y with respect to x and dx

dy
(or f (x)) represents the rate of
dx

quantity x, satisfying some rule y

(or f (x0)) represents the rate of change

of y with respect to x at x x0 .
Further, if two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.,
if x f (t ) and y g (t ) , then by Chain Rule

dx
dx
, if
dt
dt

dy
dy
=
dt
dx

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

195

Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of
change of y and that of x both with respect to t.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to
its radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = r2. Therefore, the rate

d
( r2 ) 2 r .
dr

dA
10 . Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of
dr

When r = 5 cm,

dA
dr

of change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by

10 cm2/s.

Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per

second. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10
centimetres ?
Solution Let x be the length of a side, V be the volume and S be the surface area of
the cube. Then, V = x3 and S = 6x2, where x is a function of time t.

dV
= 9cm3/s (Given)
dt

2
= 3x

dV
dt

9=

d 3
(x )
dt

Therefore

d 3 dx
(x )
(By Chain Rule)
dx
dt

Now

dx
dt

or

3
dx
= 2
x
dt

Now

d
dS
(6 x 2 )
=
dt
dt

dS
dt

3.6 cm 2 /s

x = 10 cm,

Hence, when

3
x2

d
dx
(6 x 2 )
dx
dt

= 12x

... (1)

36
x

(By Chain Rule)

(Using (1))

196

MATHEMATICS

Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed
of 4cm per second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how
fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = r2. Therefore, the rate
of change of area A with respect to time t is

dr
d
dr
( r2)
=2 r
dt
dr
dt

(By Chain Rule)

dA
d
( r2 )
=
dt
dt

dr
= 4cm/s
dt

It is given that

dA
= 2 (10) (4) = 80
dt
Thus, the enclosed area is increasing at the rate of 80 cm2/s, when r = 10 cm.

Therefore, when r = 10 cm,

dy
is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if y decreases
dx
as x increases.
Note

Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and

the width y is increasing at the rate of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Solution Since the length x is decreasing and the width y is increasing with respect to
time, we have

dx
dy
3 cm/min
and
dt
dt
(a) The perimeter P of a rectangle is given by
P = 2 (x + y)

2 cm/min

dA
dx
dy
y x
=
dt
dt
dt
= 3(6) + 10(2) (as x = 10 cm and y = 6 cm)
= 2 cm2/min

Therefore

(b) The area A of the rectangle is given by

A=x . y

2 ( 3 2)

dy
dt

dP
dx
= 2
dt
dt

Therefore

2 cm/min

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

197

Example 5 The total cost C(x) in Rupees, associated with the production of x units of
an item is given by
C (x) = 0.005 x3 0.02 x2 + 30x + 5000
Find the marginal cost when 3 units are produced, where by marginal cost we
mean the instantaneous rate of change of total cost at any level of output.
Solution Since marginal cost is the rate of change of total cost with respect to the
output, we have

dC
dx

0.005(3x 2 ) 0.02(2 x ) 30

Marginal

cost (MC) =

When

2
x = 3, MC = 0.015(3 ) 0.04(3) 30

= 0.135 0.12 + 30 = 30.015

Hence, the required marginal cost is Rs 30.02 (nearly).
Example 6 The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product
is given by R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by
marginal revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of items sold at an instant.
Solution Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to
the number of units sold, we have

dR
6 x 36
dx
When
x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is Rs 66.

(MR) =

Marginal Revenue

EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when
(a) r = 3 cm
(b) r = 4 cm
2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. How fast is the
surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate
at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of
5 cm/s. At the instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is
the enclosed area increasing?

198

MATHEMATICS

6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of
increase of its circumference?
7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the
width y is increasing at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on inflation, is being inflated by pumping
in 900 cubic centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of
the balloon increases when the radius is 15 cm.
9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at
which its volume is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled
along the ground, away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height
on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 +2. Find the points on the curve at
which the y-coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.

1
cm/s. At what rate is the
2
volume of the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?

12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of

3
(2 x 1) .
2

13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter

Find the rate of change of its volume with respect to x.

14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3/s. The falling sand forms a cone
on the ground in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the
radius of the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing when the
height is 4 cm?
15. The total cost C (x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an
item is given by
C (x) = 0.007x3 0.003x2 + 15x + 4000.
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced.
16. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R (x) = 13x2 + 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7.
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 17 and 18.
17. The rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r at r = 6 cm is
(A) 10
(C) 8
(D) 11
(B) 12

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

199

18. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. The marginal revenue, when x = 15 is
(A) 116
(B) 96
(C) 90
(D) 126

6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

In this section, we will use differentiation to find out whether a function is increasing or
decreasing or none.
Consider the function f given by f (x) = x2, x R. The graph of this function is a
parabola as given in Fig 6.1.

Values left to origin

x

f (x) = x

2
3
2

Values right to origin

f (x) = x2

4
9
4

0
1
2

0
1
4

1
1
2

1
1
4

1
3
2

1
9
4

as we move from left to right, the

height of the graph increases

as we move from left to right, the

height of the graph decreases

Fig 6.1
First consider the graph (Fig 6.1) to the right of the origin. Observe that as we
move from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously increases.
For this reason, the function is said to be increasing for the real numbers x > 0.
Now consider the graph to the left of the origin and observe here that as we move
from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously decreases.
Consequently, the function is said to be decreasing for the real numbers x < 0.
We shall now give the following analytical definitions for a function which is
increasing or decreasing on an interval.
Definition 1 Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real valued function
f. Then f is said to be

(ii) strictly increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I

f (x2) for all x1, x2

I.

f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2

f (x1)

(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I

I.

MATHEMATICS

f (x1) f (x2) for all x1, x2 I.

(iii) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I
f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2
(iv) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I
For graphical representation of such functions see Fig 6.2.

200

I.

Fig 6.2
We shall now define when a function is increasing or decreasing at a point.
Definition 2 Let x0 be a point in the domain of definition of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing at
x0 if there exists an open interval I containing x0 such that f is increasing, strictly
increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing, respectively, in I.
Let us clarify this definition for the case of increasing function.
A function f is said to be increasing at x0 if there exists an interval I = (x0 h, x0 + h),
h > 0 such that for x1, x2 I
f (x1)
f (x2)
x1 < x2 in I
Similarly, the other cases can be clarified.

Example 7 Show that the function given by f (x) = 7x 3 is strictly increasing on R.

Solution Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in R. Then

7x1 < 7x2

7x1 3 < 7x2 3

x1 < x2

f (x1) < f (x2)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

201

Thus, by Definition 1, it follows that f is strictly increasing on R.

We shall now give the first derivative test for increasing and decreasing functions.
The proof of this test requires the Mean Value Theorem studied in Chapter 5.
Theorem 1 Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a,b). Then
(a, b)
(a, b)

(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f (x) = 0 for each x

Proof (a) Let x1, x2

(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f (x) < 0 for each x

(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f (x) > 0 for each x

(a, b)

[a, b] be such that x1 < x2.

Then, by Mean Value Theorem (Theorem 8 in Chapter 5), there exists a point c
between x1 and x2 such that
f (x2) f (x1) = f (c) (x2 x1)
i.e.
Thus, we have

f (x2) > f (x 1)
f ( x1 )

x2

f ( x2 ), for all x1 , x2 [ a, b ]

x1

(as f (c) > 0 (given))

f (x2) f (x1) > 0

i.e.

Hence, f is an increasing function in [a,b].

The proofs of part (b) and (c) are similar. It is left as an exercise to the reader.
Remarks

(ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if f (x) < 0 for each x

(i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b) if f (x) > 0 for each x

(a, b)
(a, b)

(iii) A function will be increasing (decreasing) in R if it is so in every interval of R.

Example 8 Show that the function f given by
is strictly increasing on R.

f (x) = x3 3x2 + 4x, x

Solution Note that

f (x) = 3x2 6x + 4
= 3(x2 2x + 1) + 1

= 3(x 1)2 + 1 > 0, in every interval of R

Therefore, the function f is strictly increasing on R.

202

MATHEMATICS

Example 9 Prove that the function given by f (x) = cos x is

(a) strictly decreasing in (0, )
(b) strictly increasing in ( , 2 ), and
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2 ).

Solution Note that f (x) = sin x

(a) Since for each x (0, ), sin x > 0, we have f (x) < 0 and so f is strictly
decreasing in (0, ).
(b) Since for each x ( , 2 ), sin x < 0, we have f (x) > 0 and so f is strictly
increasing in ( , 2 ).
(c) Clearly by (a) and (b) above, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2 ).

Note One may note that the function in Example 9 is neither strictly increasing in
[ , 2 ] nor strictly decreasing in [0, ]. However, since the function is continuous at
the end points 0 and , by Theorem 1, f is increasing in [ , 2 ] and decreasing in [0, ].

Example 10 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x2 4x + 6 is

(a) strictly increasing
(b) strictly decreasing
Solution We have
f (x) = x2 4x + 6
or
f (x) = 2x 4
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives x = 2. Now the point x = 2 divides the real line into two
disjoint intervals namely, ( , 2) and (2, ) (Fig 6.3). In the interval ( , 2),
f (x) = 2x 4 < 0.
Therefore, f is strictly decreasing in this

interval. Also, in the interval (2, ) , f ( x ) 0

and so the function f is strictly increasing in this
interval.

Fig 6.3

Note Note that the given function is continuous at 2 which is the point joining
the two intervals. So, by Theorem 1, we conclude that the given function is decreasing
in ( , 2] and increasing in [2, ).

Example 11 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 6x2 72x + 30
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = 4x3 6x2 72x + 30

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

203

f (x) = 12x2 12x 72

= 12(x2 x 6)
= 12(x 3) (x + 2)
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives x = 2, 3. The
points x = 2 and x = 3 divides the real line into
three disjoint intervals, namely, ( , 2), ( 2, 3)
Fig 6.4
and (3, ).
In the intervals ( , 2) and (3, ), f (x) is positive while in the interval ( 2, 3),
f (x) is negative. Consequently, the function f is strictly increasing in the intervals
( , 2) and (3, ) while the function is strictly decreasing in the interval ( 2, 3).
However, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in R.
or

Sign of f (x)

Nature of function f

( , 2)

() () > 0

f is strictly increasing

( 2, 3)

() (+) < 0

f is strictly decreasing

(3, )

(+) (+) > 0

f is strictly increasing

Example 12 Find intervals in which the function given by f (x) = sin 3x, x
(a) increasing (b) decreasing.

Interval

0,

is

Solution We have
f (x) = sin 3x
f (x) = 3cos 3x

as 0

3
.
2

6 2

3x

Fig 6.5

0 3x

as

, .
6 2

0,

divides the interval 0,

0 for all x

and f ( x)

Now, f ( x)
all x

. The point x

0,

and

into two disjoint intervals 0,

and

3
). So x
2

0,

implies 3 x

3
(as x
2 2
,

Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives cos 3x = 0 which in turn gives 3x

or

0 for

204

MATHEMATICS

and strictly decreasing in

and decreasing on

,
.
6 2

. Therefore, by Theorem 1,

f is increasing on 0,

Also, the given function is continuous at x = 0 and x

Therefore, f is strictly increasing in 0,

,
.
6 2

Example 13 Find the intervals in which the function f given by

x

f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0

is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
Solution We have

f(x) = sin x + cos x,

f (x) = cos x sin x

or

5
,2
4

Fig 6.6

0,

5
,2
4

f is strictly increasing in the intervals 0,

5
4 4

f ( x) 0 if x

or

f is strictly decreasing in

5
4 4

Also

and

5
,2
4

f ( x) 0 if x

or

and

Note that

5
4 4
,

5
divide the interval [0, 2 ] into three disjoint intervals,
4

namely, 0,

and x

5
as 0
4

The points x

0 gives sin x = cos x which gives that x

Now f ( x)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

Interval

Sign of f ( x)

Nature of function

>0

f is strictly increasing

<0

f is strictly decreasing

>0

f is strictly increasing

0,

5
,2
4

5
,
4 4

205

EXERCISE 6.2
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is strictly increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is strictly increasing on R.
3. Show that the function given by f (x) = sin x is

(b) strictly decreasing in

(a) strictly increasing in 0,

(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, )

4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x2 3x is
(a) strictly increasing
(b) strictly decreasing
5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x3 3x2 36x + 7 is
(a) strictly increasing
(b) strictly decreasing
6. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or
decreasing:
(b) 10 6x 2x2
(a) x2 + 2x 5
(c) 2x3 9x2 12x + 1
(d) 6 9x x2
(e) (x + 1)3 (x 3)3

log(1 x )

7. Show that y

2x
, x > 1, is an increasing function of x
2 x

throughout its domain.

8. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x 2)]2 is an increasing function.

is an increasing function of

in 0,

4sin
(2 cos )

9. Prove that y

206

MATHEMATICS

10. Prove that the logarithmic function is strictly increasing on (0, ).

11. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = x2 x + 1 is neither strictly increasing
nor strictly decreasing on ( 1, 1).

12. Which of the following functions are strictly decreasing on 0,

(A) cos x
(B) cos 2x
(C) cos 3x
(D) tan x
13. On which of the following intervals is the function f given by f (x) = x100 + sin x 1
strictly decreasing ?

,
(C) 0,
(D) None of these
2
2
14. Find the least value of a such that the function f given by f (x) = x2 + ax + 1 is
strictly increasing on (1, 2).
15. Let I be any interval disjoint from (1, 1). Prove that the function f given by
(A) (0,1)

f ( x)

(B)

1
is strictly increasing on I.
x

16. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log sin x is strictly increasing on 0,

, .
2
17. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log cos x is strictly decreasing on
and strictly decreasing on

, .
and strictly increasing on
2
2
18. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x3 3x2 + 3x 100 is increasing in R.
19. The interval in which y = x2 ex is increasing is
(B) ( 2, 0)
(C) (2, )
(D) (0, 2)
(A) ( , )

6.4 Tangents and Normals

0,

In this section, we shall use differentiation to find the equation of the tangent line and
the normal line to a curve at a given point.
Recall that the equation of a straight line passing through a given point (x0, y0)
having finite slope m is given by
y y0 = m (x x0)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

207

Note that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x)

( f ( x0 )) . So

( x0 , y0 )

dy
dx

at the point (x0, y0) is given by

the equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) to the curve y = f (x)

is given by
y y0 = f (x0)(x x0)
Also, since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent,
the slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0, y0) is

1
, if f ( x0 )
f ( x0 )

Fig 6.7

0 . Therefore, the equation of the

normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0, y0) is given by

y0 ) f ( x0 ) ( x x0 ) = 0

(y

i.e.

1
( x x0 )
f ( x0 )

y y0 =

Note If a tangent line to the curve y = f (x) makes an angle with x-axis in the

slope of the tangent

dy
dx

tan .

positive direction, then

Particular cases

(i) If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tan = 0 and so = 0 which means the
tangent line is parallel to the x-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
the point (x0, y0) is given by y = y0.

, then tan
, which means the tangent line is perpendicular to the
2
x-axis, i.e., parallel to the y-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
(x0, y0) is given by x = x0 (Why?).

(ii) If

Example 14 Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 x at x = 2.

Solution The slope of the tangent at x = 2 is given by
2
= 3x 1

x 2

x 2

dy
dx

11.

MATHEMATICS

2
.
3
Solution Slope of tangent to the given curve at (x, y) is

Example 15 Find the point at which the tangent to the curve y

4 x 3 1 has its

208

slope

4x 3

2
.
3

The slope is given to be

1
dy
1
= (4 x 3) 2 4
dx
2

2
2
=
4x 3
3
4x 3 = 9
x=3

So

4(3) 3 1 2 .

4 x 3 1 . So when x = 3, y
Now y
Therefore, the required point is (3, 2).

or
or

Example 16 Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 and being tangent to the curve

0.
x 3
Solution Slope of the tangent to the given curve at any point (x,y) is given by
dy
2
=
dx
( x 3) 2
But the slope is given to be 2. Therefore
2
=2
( x 3) 2

(x 3)2 = 1
x 3=1
x = 2, 4
Now x = 2 gives y = 2 and x = 4 gives y = 2. Thus, there are two tangents to the
given curve with slope 2 and passing through the points (2, 2) and (4, 2). The equation
of tangent through (2, 2) is given by
y 2 = 2(x 2)
or
y 2x + 2 = 0
and the equation of the tangent through (4, 2) is given by
y ( 2) = 2(x 4)
or
y 2x + 10 = 0
or
or
or

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

x2
4

y2
25

Example 17 Find points on the curve

209

1 at which the tangents are (i) parallel

to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.

y2
25

x
2

x2
4

2 y dy
=0
25 dx

Solution Differentiating

1 with respect to x, we get

25 x
dy
= 4 y
dx
(i) Now, the tangent is parallel to the x-axis if the slope of the tangent is zero which

or

x2 y2
25 x
1 for x = 0 gives
0 . This is possible if x = 0. Then
4 25
4 y
y2 = 25, i.e., y = 5.
Thus, the points at which the tangents are parallel to the x-axis are (0, 5) and
(0, 5).
(ii) The tangent line is parallel to y-axis if the slope of the normal is 0 which gives

gives

x2 y2
4y
1 for y = 0 gives x = 2. Hence, the
, i.e., y = 0. Therefore,
0
4 25
25 x
points at which the tangents are parallel to the y-axis are (2, 0) and (2, 0).

point where it cuts the x-axis.

x 7
at the
( x 2)( x 3)

Example 18 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y

Solution Note that on x-axis, y = 0. So the equation of the curve, when y = 0, gives
x = 7. Thus, the curve cuts the x-axis at (7, 0). Now differentiating the equation of the
curve with respect to x, we obtain

dy
1 y(2 x 5)
=
dx
( x 2)( x 3)

(7,0)

1 0
(5) (4)

1
20

dy
dx

or

(Why?)

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MATHEMATICS

Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (7, 0) is

1
. Hence, the equation of the
20

tangent at (7, 0) is

1
( x 7)
20

20 y

or

x 7 0

y 0

y3

2 with respect to x, we get

2 3 dy
y
=0
dx
3

Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is

1
3

dy
dx

or

y
x

(1, 1)

dy
=
dx

2 3
x
3

y3

Solution Differentiating x 3

Example 19 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x 3
at (1, 1).

1.

So the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is

y 1 = 1 (x 1)
or
y+x2=0
Also, the slope of the normal at (1, 1) is given by

1
=1
slope of the tangent at (1,1)

Therefore, the equation of the normal at (1, 1) is

y 1 = 1 (x 1)
or
yx=0
Example 20 Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by
y = b cos3 t
x = a sin3 t ,

at a point where t

Solution Differentiating (1) with respect to t, we get

3a sin 2 t cos t

and

dy
dt

dx
dt

3b cos2 t sin t

... (1)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

b cos

a sin

is

curve at t

b cos t
a sin t

Also, when t

dy
dx

Therefore, slope of the tangent at t

or

dy
3b cos 2 t sin t
dt
dx = 3a sin 2 t cos t
dt

dy
dx

211

, x = a and y = 0. Hence, the equation of tangent to the given

, i.e., at (a, 0) is
y 0 = 0 (x a), i.e., y = 0.

EXERCISE 6.3
1. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x4 4x at x = 4.

x 1
, x 2 at x = 10.
x 2
3. Find the slope of the tangent to curve y = x3 x + 1 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 2.
4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 3x + 2 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 3.

b cos 2

at

a sin 3

a cos3 , y

5. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x

2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y

.
2
7. Find points at which the tangent to the curve y = x3 3x2 9x + 7 is parallel to
the x-axis.
8. Find a point on the curve y = (x 2)2 at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
joining the points (2, 0) and (4, 4).
at

6. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x 1 a sin , y

212

MATHEMATICS

9. Find the point on the curve y = x3 11x + 5 at which the tangent is y = x 11.
10. Find the equation of all lines having slope 1 that are tangents to the curve

, x 1.
x 1
11. Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 which are tangents to the curve

, x 3.
x 3
12. Find the equations of all lines having slope 0 which are tangent to the curve
1
.
2x 3
x2
9

13. Find points on the curve

y2
16

1 at which the tangents are

(i) parallel to x-axis

(ii) parallel to y-axis.
14. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the given curves at the indicated
points:
(i) y = x4 6x3 + 13x2 10x + 5 at (0, 5)
(ii) y = x4 6x3 + 13x2 10x + 5 at (1, 3)
(iii) y = x3 at (1, 1)
(iv) y = x2 at (0, 0)

(v) x = cos t, y = sin t at t

4
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 2x +7 which is
(a) parallel to the line 2x y + 9 = 0
(b) perpendicular to the line 5y 15x = 13.
16. Show that the tangents to the curve y = 7x3 + 11 at the points where x = 2 and
x = 2 are parallel.
17. Find the points on the curve y = x3 at which the slope of the tangent is equal to
the y-coordinate of the point.
18. For the curve y = 4x3 2x5, find all the points at which the tangent passes
through the origin.
19. Find the points on the curve x2 + y2 2x 3 = 0 at which the tangents are parallel
to the x-axis.
20. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am2,am3) for the curve ay2 = x3.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

213

21. Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x3 + 2x + 6 which are parallel
to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0.
22. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
(at2, 2at).
23. Prove that the curves x = y2 and xy = k cut at right angles* if 8k2 = 1.

x2
a2

y2
b2

24. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyperbola

1 at the

point (x0, y0).

line 4 x 2 y 5 0 .

3 x 2 which is parallel to the

25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 26 and 27.

26. The slope of the normal to the curve y = 2x2 + 3 sin x at x = 0 is

1
1
(C) 3
(D)
3
3
27. The line y = x + 1 is a tangent to the curve y2 = 4x at the point
(A) (1, 2)
(B) (2, 1)
(C) (1, 2)
(D) ( 1, 2)
(B)

(A) 3

6.5 Approximations
In this section, we will use differentials to approximate values of certain quantities.
Let f : D R, D R, be a given function
and let y = f (x). Let x denote a small
increment in x. Recall that the increment in y
corresponding to the increment in x, denoted
by y, is given by y = f (x + x) f (x). We
define the following

(i) The differential of x, denoted by dx, is

defined by dx = x.

(ii) The differential of y, denoted by dy,

is defined by dy = f ( x) dx or

dy
dx

dy

Fig 6.8

x.

* Two curves intersect at right angle if the tangents to the curves at the point of intersection
are perpendicular to each other.

MATHEMATICS

214

In case dx = x is relatively small when compared with x, dy is a good approximation

of y and we denote it by dy
y.
For geometrical meaning of x, y, dx and dy, one may refer to Fig 6.8.

Note In view of the above discussion and Fig 6.8, we may note that the
differential of the dependent variable is not equal to the increment of the variable
where as the differential of independent variable is equal to the increment of the
variable.

Example 21 Use differential to approximate

36.6 .

Solution Take y

x . Let x = 36 and let x = 0.6. Then

y=

36.6

36

36.6 6

or
36.6 = 6 + y
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by

dy
dx

2 x

Thus, the approximate value of

(0.6) =

1
(0.6) = 0.05
2 36

36.6 is 6 + 0.05 = 6.05.

1

Example 22 Use differential to approximate (25) 3 .

x 3 . Let x = 27 and let x = 2. Then

Solution Let y

x 3 = (25) 3

x) 3

y = (x

(27) 3

(25) 3

(25) 3 = 3 + y
or
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by
dy =

dy
dx

x =

1
3((27) 3 ) 2

Thus, the approximate value of

2
3x 3

( 2)

1
(25) 3

( 2)
2
27

(as y

0.074

is given by
3 + ( 0. 074) = 2.926

x3 )

(as y

dy =

x)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

215

Example 23 Find the approximate value of f (3.02), where f (x) = 3x2 + 5x + 3.

Solution Let x = 3 and x = 0.02. Then

f (3. 02) = f (x + x) = 3 (x + x)2 + 5(x + x) + 3

Note that y = f (x + x) f (x). Therefore
f (x + x) = f (x) + y
f (x) + f (x) x
(as dx = x)
2
or
f (3.02) (3x + 5x + 3) + (6x + 5) x
= (3(3)2 + 5(3) + 3) + (6(3) + 5) (0.02) (as x = 3, x = 0.02)
= (27 + 15 + 3) + (18 + 5) (0.02)
= 45 + 0.46 = 45.46
Hence, approximate value of f (3.02) is 45.46.

Example 24 Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x meters
caused by increasing the side by 2%.
Solution Note that
V = x3

dV
dx

dV =

x = (3x2) x

or

= (3x2) (0.02x) = 0.06x3 m3

Thus, the approximate change in volume is 0.06 x3 m3.

(as 2% of x is 0.02x)

Example 25 If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm with an error of 0.03 cm,

then find the approximate error in calculating its volume.
Solution Let r be the radius of the sphere and r be the error in measuring the radius.
Then r = 9 cm and r = 0.03 cm. Now, the volume V of the sphere is given by

dV
= 4 r2
dr

or

4 3
r
3

V=

dV
r (4 r 2 ) r
dr
= 4 (9)2 (0.03) = 9.72 cm3
Thus, the approximate error in calculating the volume is 9.72 cm3.

dV =

Therefore

216

MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 6.4
1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following up to 3
places of decimal.
(i)
(iv)

(ii)

25.3

(iii)

49.5

0.6

(vi)

1
(15) 4

1
(0.009) 3

(v) (0.999)10

(vii) (26) 3

(viii) (255) 4

(ix) (82) 4

(x) (401) 2

(xi) (0.0037) 2

(xii) (26.57) 3

(xiii) (81.5) 4

(xiv) (3.968) 2

(xv) (32.15) 5

2. Find the approximate value of f (2.01), where f (x) = 4x2 + 5x + 2.

3. Find the approximate value of f (5.001), where f (x) = x3 7x2 + 15.
4. Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x metres caused
by increasing the side by 1%.
5. Find the approximate change in the surface area of a cube of side x metres
caused by decreasing the side by 1%.
6. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 7 m with an error of 0.02 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its volume.
7. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 m with an error of 0.03 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its surface area.
8. If f(x) = 3x2 + 15x + 5, then the approximate value of f (3.02) is
(A) 47.66

(B) 57.66

(C) 67.66

(D) 77.66

9. The approximate change in the volume of a cube of side x metres caused by

increasing the side by 3% is
(A) 0.06 x3 m3

(B) 0.6 x3 m3 (C) 0.09 x3 m3 (D) 0.9 x3 m3

6.6 Maxima and Minima

In this section, we will use the concept of derivatives to calculate the maximum or
minimum values of various functions. In fact, we will find the turning points of the
graph of a function and thus find points at which the graph reaches its highest (or

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

217

lowest) locally. The knowledge of such points is very useful in sketching the graph of
a given function. Further, we will also find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
of a function that are necessary for the solution of many applied problems.
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by P(x) = ax + bx2, where a,b
are constants and x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per
acre will maximise the profit?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path
x2
, where x is the horizontal distance from the building
60
and h(x) is the height of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will
reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the path given by the curve
f (x) = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter
when it is nearest to him. What is the nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to find out
the maximum or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems,
we first formally define maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
Definition 3 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c ) f ( x ) , for all x I.
60 x

given by h( x )

The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a
point of maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) f (x), for all x I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point
c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c
is called an extreme point.

Remark In Fig 6.9(a), (b) and (c), we have exhibited that graphs of certain particular
functions help us to find maximum value and minimum value at a point. Infact, through
graphs, we can even find maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it
is not even differentiable (Example 27).

218

MATHEMATICS

Fig 6.9

Example 26 Find the maximum and the minimum values,

if any, of the function f given by
f (x) = x2, x R.

Solution From the graph of the given function (Fig 6.10),

we have f (x) = 0 if x = 0. Also
f (x) 0, for all x R.
Therefore, the minimum value of f is 0 and the point
of minimum value of f is x = 0. Further, it may be observed
from the graph of the function that f has no maximum
value and hence no point of maximum value of f in R.

Fig 6.10

Note If we restrict the domain of f to [ 2, 1] only,

then f will have maximum value( 2)2 = 4 at x = 2.

Example 27 Find the maximum and minimum values

of f , if any, of the function given by f (x) = | x |, x R.

Solution From the graph of the given function

(Fig 6.11) , note that
f (x) 0, for all x R and f (x) = 0 if x = 0.
Therefore, the function f has a minimum value 0
and the point of minimum value of f is x = 0. Also, the
graph clearly shows that f has no maximum value in
R and hence no point of maximum value in R.

Fig 6.11

Note

(i) If we restrict the domain of f to [ 2, 1] only, then f will have maximum value
| 2| = 2.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

219

(ii) One may note that the function f in Example 27 is not differentiable at
x = 0.
Example 28 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if any, of the function
given by
f (x) = x, x (0, 1).

Solution The given function is an increasing (strictly) function in the given interval
(0, 1). From the graph (Fig 6.12) of the function f , it
seems that, it should have the minimum value at a
point closest to 0 on its right and the maximum value
at a point closest to 1 on its left. Are such points
available? Of course, not. It is not possible to locate
such points. Infact, if a point x0 is closest to 0, then

x0
2

x0 for all x0

we find

(0,1) . Also, if x1 is

x1 1
x1 for all x1 (0,1) .
Fig 6.12
2
Therefore, the given function has neither the maximum value nor the minimum
value in the interval (0,1).

closest to 1, then

Remark The reader may observe that in Example 28, if we include the points 0 and 1
in the domain of f , i.e., if we extend the domain of f to [0,1], then the function f has
minimum value 0 at x = 0 and maximum value 1 at x = 1. Infact, we have the following
results (The proof of these results are beyond the scope of the present text)
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the end
points of the domain of definition of the function.
A more general result is
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum
value.
Note By a monotonic function f in an interval I, we mean that f is either
increasing in I or decreasing in I.

Maximum and minimum values of a function defined on a closed interval will be

discussed later in this section.
Let us now examine the graph of a function as shown in Fig 6.13. Observe that at
points A, B, C and D on the graph, the function changes its nature from decreasing to
increasing or vice-versa. These points may be called turning points of the given
function. Further, observe that at turning points, the graph has either a little hill or a little
valley. Roughly speaking, the function has minimum value in some neighbourhood
(interval) of each of the points A and C which are at the bottom of their respective

220

MATHEMATICS

Fig 6.13

valleys. Similarly, the function has maximum value in some neighbourhood of points B
and D which are at the top of their respective hills. For this reason, the points A and C
may be regarded as points of local minimum value (or relative minimum value) and
points B and D may be regarded as points of local maximum value (or relative maximum
value) for the function. The local maximum value and local minimum value of the
function are referred to as local maxima and local minima, respectively, of the function.
We now formally give the following definition
Definition 4 Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain
of f. Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) f (x), for all x in (c h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) f (x), for all x in (c h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f,
then the graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig 6.14(a). Note that the function f is
increasing (i.e., f (x) > 0) in the interval (c h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f (x) < 0) in the
interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f (c) must be zero.

Fig 6.14

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

221

Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then the graph of f around c will be as

shown in Fig 6.14(b). Here f is decreasing (i.e., f (x) < 0) in the interval (c h, c) and
increasing (i.e., f (x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h). This again suggest that f (c) must
be zero.
The above discussion lead us to the following theorem (without proof).

Theorem 2 Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c I be any

point. If f has a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f (c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable at c.
Remark The converse of above theorem need
not be true, that is, a point at which the derivative
vanishes need not be a point of local maxima or
local minima. For example, if f (x) = x3, then f (x)
= 3x2 and so f (0) = 0. But 0 is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima (Fig 6.15).

Note A point c in the domain of a function

f at which either f (c) = 0 or f is not differentiable
is called a critical point of f. Note that if f is
continuous at c and f (c) = 0, then there exists
an h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the interval
(c h, c + h).

Fig 6.15

We shall now give a working rule for finding points of local maxima or points of
local minima using only the first order derivatives.
Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.
Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) < 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
maxima.
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) > 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
minima.
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of
inflection (Fig 6.15).

222

MATHEMATICS

Note If c is a point of local maxima of f , then f (c) is a local maximum value of

f. Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then f(c) is a local minimum value of f.
Figures 6.15 and 6.16, geometrically explain Theorem 3.

Fig 6.16

Example 29 Find all points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = x3 3x + 3.
Solution We have
f (x) = x3 3x + 3
or
f (x) = 3x2 3 = 3 (x 1) (x + 1)
or
f (x) = 0 at x = 1 and x = 1
Thus, x = 1 are the only critical points which could possibly be the points of local
maxima and/or local minima of f . Let us first examine the point x = 1.
Note that for values close to 1 and to the right of 1, f (x) > 0 and for values close
to 1 and to the left of 1, f (x) < 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point
of local minima and local minimum value is f (1) = 1. In the case of x = 1, note that
f (x) > 0, for values close to and to the left of 1 and f (x) < 0, for values close to and
to the right of 1. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point of local maxima
and local maximum value is f (1) = 5.

to the left (say 0.9 etc.)

to the right (say 0.9 etc.)

to the left (say 1.1 etc.)

>0
<0

Close to 1

Sign of f (x) = 3(x 1) (x + 1)

to the right (say 1.1 etc.)

Close to 1

Values of x

0
0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

223

Example 30 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 6x2 + 6x + 5
f (x) = 6x2 12x + 6 = 6 (x 1)2
f (x) = 0 at x = 1

or
or

Thus, x = 1 is the only critical point of f . We shall now examine this point for local
maxima and/or local minima of f. Observe that f (x) 0, for all x R and in particular
f (x) > 0, for values close to 1 and to the left and to the right of 1. Therefore, by first
derivative test, the point x = 1 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
minima. Hence x = 1 is a point of inflexion.

Remark One may note that since f (x), in Example 30, never changes its sign on R,
graph of f has no turning points and hence no point of local maxima or local minima.

We shall now give another test to examine local maxima and local minima of a
given function. This test is often easier to apply than the first derivative test.
Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I
and c I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .

0 and f (c) > 0

(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f (c)

In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .

(iii) The test fails if f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is a point of
local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.

Note As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean

second order derivative of f exists at c.

Example 31 Find local minimum value of the function f

given by f (x) = 3 + | x |, x R.

Solution Note that the given function is not differentiable

at x = 0. So, second derivative test fails. Let us try first
derivative test. Note that 0 is a critical point of f . Now
to the left of 0, f (x) = 3 x and so f (x) = 1 < 0. Also

Fig 6.17

224

MATHEMATICS

to the right of 0, f (x) = 3 + x and so f (x) = 1 > 0. Therefore, by first derivative test,
x = 0 is a point of local minima of f and local minimum value of f is f (0) = 3.

Example 32 Find local maximum and local minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 12x2 + 12
Solution We have

or

f (0)

or
or
Now

= 3x4 + 4x3 12x2 + 12

= 12x3 + 12x2 24x = 12x (x 1) (x + 2)
= 0 at x = 0, x = 1 and x = 2.
= 36x2 + 24x 24 = 12 (3x2 + 2x 1)

12 0

f (1)
f ( 2)

f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)

48 0
84 0

Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 0 is a point of local maxima and local

maximum value of f at x = 0 is f (0) = 12 while x = 1 and x = 2 are the points of local
minima and local minimum values of f at x = 1 and 2 are f (1) = 7 and f (2) = 20,
respectively.
Example 33 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 6x2 + 6x +5

f ( x) 12( x 1)

or

f ( x) 6 x 2 12 x 6 6( x 1) 2

Now f (x) = 0 gives x =1. Also f (1) = 0. Therefore, the second derivative test
fails in this case. So, we shall go back to the first derivative test.
We have already seen (Example 30) that, using first derivative test, x =1 is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and so it is a point of inflexion.

Example 34 Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose
squares is minimum.
Solution Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number is (15 x). Let S(x)
denote the sum of the squares of these numbers. Then

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

225

S(x) = x2 + (15 x)2 = 2x2 30x + 225

15
15
. Also S
2
2

4 0 . Therefore, by second derivative

15
is the point of local minima of S. Hence the sum of squares of numbers is
2
15
15
and 15
2
2

minimum when the numbers are

15
.
2

test, x

Now S (x) = 0 gives x

S ( x ) 4 x 30
S ( x) 4

or

Remark Proceeding as in Example 34 one may prove that the two positive numbers,
whose sum is k and the sum of whose squares is minimum, are

k
k
and .
2
2

Example 35 Find the shortest distance of the point (0, c) from the parabola y = x2,
where 0 c 5.

Solution Let (h, k) be any point on the parabola y = x2. Let D be the required distance
between (h, k) and (0, c). Then

h2

( k c) 2

(h 0) 2

(k c)2

... (1)

Since (h, k) lies on the parabola y = x2, we have k = h2. So (1) gives

k ( k c) 2

D(k) =

1 2( k c)

D (k) =

Now

D (k) = 0 gives k

2 k ( k c )2

c ) 1 0 , i.e., D ( k ) 0 . Also when

2c 1
, then 2(k
2

2c 1
2

or

Observe that when k

2c 1
, then D ( k ) 0 . So, by first derivative test, D (k) is minimum at k
2
Hence, the required shortest distance is given by

2c 1
.
2

MATHEMATICS

2c 1
2

2c 1
c
2

2c 1
D
2

4c 1
2

226

Note The reader may note that in Example 35, we have used first derivative
test instead of the second derivative test as the former is easy and short.

Example 36 Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at

points A and B, respectively. If AP = 16 m, BQ = 22 m
and AB = 20 m, then find the distance of a point R on
AB from the point A such that RP2 + RQ2 is minimum.
Solution Let R be a point on AB such that AR = x m.
Then RB = (20 x) m (as AB = 20 m). From Fig 6.18,
we have
RP2 = AR2 + AP2
Fig 6.18
and
RQ2 = RB2 + BQ2
Therefore
RP2 + RQ2 = AR2 + AP2 + RB2 + BQ2
= x2 + (16)2 + (20 x)2 + (22)2
= 2x2 40x + 1140
Let
S S(x) = RP2 + RQ2 = 2x2 40x + 1140.
Therefore
S (x) = 4x 40.
Now S (x) = 0 gives x = 10. Also S (x) = 4 > 0, for all x and so S (10) > 0.
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 10 is the point of local minima of S. Thus, the
distance of R from A on AB is AR = x =10 m.

Example 37 If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm,
then find the area of the trapezium when it is maximum.
Solution The required trapezium is as given in Fig 6.19. Draw perpendiculars DP and

Fig 6.19

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

227

CQ on AB. Let AP = x cm. Note that APD ~ BQC. Therefore, QB = x cm. Also, by

Pythagoras theorem, DP = QC = 100 x 2 . Let A be the area of the trapezium. Then

100 x 2

2 x 2 10 x 100

2 100 x

( 2 x)

A (x) = ( x 10)

or

100 x 2

= ( x 10)

100 x 2

1
(2 x 10 10)
2

1
(sum of parallel sides) (height)
2

A(x) =

100 x 2

Now
A (x) = 0 gives 2x2 + 10x 100 = 0, i.e., x = 5 and x = 10.
Since x represents distance, it can not be negative.
So,
x = 5. Now

100 x 2

(100

3
2 2
(5) )

2250
75 75

300(5) 1000

2(5)3

A (5) =

(on simplification)

(100

3
2 2
x )

30
75

2 x 3 300 x 1000

or

2 100 x 2

A (x) =

( 2 x)

100 x 2 ( 4 x 10) ( 2 x 2 10 x 100)

Thus, area of trapezium is maximum at x = 5 and the area is given by

15 75

A (5) = (5 10) 100 (5) 2

75 3 cm 2

Example 38 Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface area which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Solution Let OC = r be the radius of the cone and OA = h be its height. Let a cylinder
with radius OE = x inscribed in the given cone (Fig 6.20). The height QE of the cylinder
is given by

MATHEMATICS

QE
EC
=
OA
OC

(since QEC ~ AOC)

or

QE
r x
=
h
r

or

QE =

228

h (r

x)

r
Let S be the curved surface area of the given
cylinder. Then

2 x h (r
r

x)

2 h
( rx x 2 )
r

S (x) =

Fig 6.20

2 h
(r 2 x)
r
4 h
S ( x)
r

or

S ( x)

r
r
r
0 . So x
. Since S (x) < 0 for all x, S
is a
2
2
2
point of maxima of S. Hence, the radius of the cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.

Now S (x) = 0 gives x

6.6.1 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval

Let us consider a function f given by

f (x) = x + 2, x

(0, 1)

Observe that the function is continuous on (0, 1) and neither has a maximum value
nor has a minimum value. Further, we may note that the function even has neither a
local maximum value nor a local minimum value.
However, if we extend the domain of f to the closed interval [0, 1], then f still may
not have a local maximum (minimum) values but it certainly does have maximum value
3 = f (1) and minimum value 2 = f (0). The maximum value 3 of f at x = 1 is called
absolute maximum value (global maximum or greatest value) of f on the interval
[0, 1]. Similarly, the minimum value 2 of f at x = 0 is called the absolute minimum
value (global minimum or least value) of f on [0, 1].
Consider the graph given in Fig 6.21 of a continuous function defined on a closed
interval [a, d]. Observe that the function f has a local minima at x = b and local

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

229

Fig 6.21

minimum value is f (b). The function also has a local maxima at x = c and local maximum
value is f (c).
Also from the graph, it is evident that f has absolute maximum value f (a) and
absolute minimum value f (d). Further note that the absolute maximum (minimum)
value of f is different from local maximum (minimum) value of f .
We will now state two results (without proof) regarding absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of a function on a closed interval I.
Theorem 5 Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute
minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Theorem 6 Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any
interior point of I. Then
(i) f (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.
(ii) f (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c.
In view of the above results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute
maximum and/or absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval
[a, b].

Working Rule
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either
f ( x ) 0 or f is not differentiable.

Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.

Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in
Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .

230

MATHEMATICS

Example 39 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f (x) = 2x3 15x2 + 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 15x2 + 36x + 1
or
f (x) = 6x2 30x + 36 = 6 (x 3) (x 2)
Note that f (x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the
interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5. So
f (1) = 2 (13) 15 (12) + 36 (1) + 1 = 24
f (2) = 2 (23) 15 (22) + 36 (2) + 1 = 29
f (3) = 2 (33) 15 (32) + 36 (3) + 1 = 28
f (5) = 2 (53) 15 (52) + 36 (5) + 1 = 56
Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at
x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.

Example 40 Find absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by

4

1
6x 3

2
x3

2(8 x 1)
2
x3

1
. Further note that f (x) is not defined at x = 0. So the
8

critical points are x = 0 and x

1
. Now evaluating the value of f at critical points
8

1
and at end points of the interval x = 1 and x = 1, we have
8
4

f (1) = 12( 1) 3

1
1) 3

6(
f (0) = 12 (0) 6 (0) = 0

x = 0,

Thus, f (x) = 0 gives x

f (x) = 16 x 3

or

4
12 x 3

f (x) =

Solution We have

6 x 3 , x [ 1, 1]

f ( x ) 12 x 3

18

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

1
6
8

1
3

4
3

9
4

1
1
f
= 12
8
8

231

f (1) = 12(1) 3 6(1) 3 6

Hence, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f is 18 that occurs at x = 1

9
that occurs at x
4

and absolute minimum value of f is

1
.
8

Example 41 An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by

y = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at (3, 7), wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is
nearest to him. Find the nearest distance.
Solution For each value of x, the helicopters position is at point (x, x 2 + 7).
Therefore, the distance between the helicopter and the soldier placed at (3,7) is
7 7) 2 , i.e.,

( x 3) 2

( x2

( x 3) 2

x4 .

f (x) = (x 3)2 + x4
f (x) = 2(x 3) + 4x3 = 2 (x 1) (2x2 + 2x + 3)
Thus, f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 or 2x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 for which there are no real roots.
Also, there are no end points of the interval to be added to the set for which f is zero,
i.e., there is only one point, namely, x = 1. The value of f at this point is given by
f (1) = (1 3)2 + (1)4 = 5. Thus, the distance between the solider and the helicopter is
Let
or

5 is either a maximum value or a minimum value. Since

(0 3) 2

f (0) =

it follows that

(0) 4

Note that

5.

f (1)

f ( x ) . Hence,
5 is the minimum value of
distance between the soldier and the helicopter.

5,

5 is the minimum

EXERCISE 6.5
1. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(ii) f (x) = 9x2 + 12x + 2
(i) f (x) = (2x 1)2 + 3
(iv) g (x) = x3 + 1
(iii) f (x) = (x 1)2 + 10

232

MATHEMATICS

2. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = | x + 2 | 1
(ii) g (x) = | x + 1| + 3
(iii) h (x) = sin (2x) + 5
(iv) f (x) = | sin 4x + 3|
(v) h (x) = x + 1, x ( 1, 1)
3. Find the local maxima and local minima, if any, of the following functions. Find
also the local maximum and the local minimum values, as the case may be:
(ii) g (x) = x3 3x
(i) f (x) = x2

(iii) h (x) = sin x + cos x, 0

(iv) f (x) = sin x cos x, 0

2
x 2

(vii) g ( x)

x
2

2
, x 0
x

(vi) g ( x )

(v) f (x) = x3 6x2 + 9x + 15

1

(viii) f ( x) x 1 x , x 0
x 2
4. Prove that the following functions do not have maxima or minima:
(i) f (x) = ex
(ii) g (x) = log x
3
2
(iii) h (x) = x + x + x +1
5. Find the absolute maximum value and the absolute minimum value of the following
functions in the given intervals:
(i) f (x) = x3, x [ 2, 2]
(ii) f (x) = sin x + cos x , x [0, ]

9
(iv) f ( x ) ( x 1) 2
2

2,

3, x [ 3,1]

1 2
x , x
2

(iii) f (x) = 4 x

6. Find the maximum profit that a company can make, if the profit function is
given by
p (x) = 41 24x 18x2
7. Find both the maximum value and the minimum value of
3x4 8x3 + 12x2 48x + 25 on the interval [0, 3].
8. At what points in the interval [0, 2 ], does the function sin 2x attain its maximum
value?
9. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x?
10. Find the maximum value of 2x3 24x + 107 in the interval [1, 3]. Find the
maximum value of the same function in [3, 1].

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

233

11. It is given that at x = 1, the function x4 62x2 + ax + 9 attains its maximum value,
on the interval [0, 2]. Find the value of a.
12. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2 ].
13. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
14. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy3 is maximum.
15. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y5
is a maximum.
16. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is
minimum.
17. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the flaps to form the box. What
should be the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is the
maximum possible.
18. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top,
by cutting off square from each corner and folding up the flaps. What should be
the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
19. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has
the maximum area.
20. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
21. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic
centimetres, find the dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface
area?
22. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be
made into a square and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the
two pieces so that the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
23. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of
8
of the volume of the sphere.
radius R is
27
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has

an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of the base.

25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of
given slant height is tan 1 2 .
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and

1
.
3

maximum volume is sin

234

MATHEMATICS

Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 27 and 29.

27. The point on the curve x2 = 2y which is nearest to the point (0, 5) is
(B) (2 2,0)

(C) (0, 0)

28. For all real values of x, the minimum value of

(A) 0

(B) 1

(D) (2, 2)

1 x x2
is
1 x x2

(A) (2 2,4)

(C) 3

1
3

(D)

(A)

1
3

1
3

(B)

1
2

x 1 is

29. The maximum value of [ x( x 1) 1]3 , 0

(C) 1

(D) 0

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 42 A car starts from a point P at time t = 0 seconds and stops at point Q. The
distance x, in metres, covered by it, in t seconds is given by

t
3

x t2 2

Find the time taken by it to reach Q and also find distance between P and Q.
Solution Let v be the velocity of the car at t seconds.

t
3

Now

x = t2 2

Therefore

v=

dx
= 4t t2 = t (4 t)
dt

Thus, v = 0 gives t = 0 and/or t = 4.

Now v = 0 at P as well as at Q and at P, t = 0. So, at Q, t = 4. Thus, the car will
reach the point Q after 4 seconds. Also the distance travelled in 4 seconds is given by

4
3

16

2
3

2
x]t = 4 = 4 2

32
m
3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

235

Example 43 A water tank has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with its axis
vertical and vertex lowermost. Its semi-vertical angle is tan1 (0.5). Water is poured
into it at a constant rate of 5 cubic metre per hour. Find the rate at which the level of
the water is rising at the instant when the depth of water in the tank is 4 m.

or

r.
h

r
.
h
= tan1 (0.5) (given)

But

So

be as in Fig 6.22. Then tan

Solution Let r, h and

= tan

r
= 0.5
h

or

r=

h
2

Let V be the volume of the cone. Then

Fig 6.22

dh
dt

(by Chain Rule)

dh
dt

5 m3/h and h = 4 m.

(4) 2

Thus, the rate of change of water level is

35
m/h
88

35
m/h .
88

5
dh
=
4
dt

dh
dt

22
7

or

5=

h3
12

Therefore

dV
dt

Now rate of change of volume, i.e.,

h2

d
h3
dV
=
dh 12
dt

h
2

Therefore

1
3

1 2
r h
V=
3

Example 44 A man of height 2 metres walks at a uniform speed of 5 km/h away from
a lamp post which is 6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
increases.

236

MATHEMATICS

Solution In Fig 6.23, Let AB be the lamp-post, the

lamp being at the position B and let MN be the man
at a particular time t and let AM = l metres. Then,
MS is the shadow of the man. Let MS = s metres.
MSN ~ ASB

Note that

or

MS
MN
=
AS
AB

or
Thus
So

AS = 3s (as MN = 2 and AB = 6 (given))

AM = 3s s = 2s. But AM = l
l = 2s

dl
ds
= 2
dt
dt

Therefore

dl
dt

Since

Fig 6.23

5 km/h. Hence, the length of the shadow increases at the rate

5
km/h.
2

Example 45 Find the equation of the normal to the curve x2 = 4y which passes through
the point (1, 2).
Solution Differentiating x2 = 4y with respect to x, we get

dy
x
=
dx
2
Let (h, k) be the coordinates of the point of contact of the normal to the curve
x2 = 4y. Now, slope of the tangent at (h, k) is given by

dy
dx

(h , k )

h
2

2
h
Therefore, the equation of normal at (h, k) is

Hence, slope of the normal at (h, k) =

2
( x h)
h
Since it passes through the point (1, 2), we have

2
(1 h) or k
h

2
(1 h)
h

2 k

... (1)

yk=

... (2)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

237

Since (h, k) lies on the curve x2 = 4y, we have

... (3)
h2 = 4k
From (2) and (3), we have h = 2 and k = 1. Substituting the values of h and k in (1),
we get the required equation of normal as

2
( x 2) or x + y = 3
2

y 1

Example 46 Find the equation of tangents to the curve

y = cos (x + y), 2
x 2
that are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0.

Solution Differentiating y = cos(x + y) with respect to x, we have

sin ( x y )
dy
=
dx 1 sin ( x y )

sin ( x y )
1 sin ( x y )

slope of tangent at (x, y) =

or

Since the tangents to the given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0, whose slope

1
, we have
2

sin( x y )
1
1 sin( x y ) = 2
sin (x + y) = 1

given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0 only at points

Therefore, the required equation of tangents are

. Thus, tangents to the

3
,0 and
2

and x

3
2

2 , we get x

, n

, n

Also, since

= 0, for all n

( 1) n

y = cos(x + y) = cos n

Then

x + y = n + ( 1)n

or

or

is

,0 .

MATHEMATICS

3
2

or 2 x 4 y 3

36
x 11
5

4 3
x 3x 2
5

3 4 4 3
x
x 3x 2
10
5
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
f (x) =

4y

36
x 11
5

y0=

1
x
or 2 x
2
2
Example 47 Find intervals in which the function given by
and

1
x
2

y0=

238

Solution We have
f (x) =
f (x) =

3
4
36
(4 x 3 )
(3x 2 ) 3(2 x)
10
5
5

6
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3)
5

Now f (x) = 0 gives x = 1, x = 2, or x = 3. The

points x = 1, 2, and 3 divide the real line into four
disjoint intervals namely, ( , 2), ( 2, 1), (1, 3)
and (3, ) (Fig 6.24).

Therefore

3 4
x
10

(on simplification)

Consider the interval ( , 2), i.e., when

Fig 6.24

< x < 2.

In this case, we have x 1 < 0, x + 2 < 0 and x 3 < 0.

(In particular, observe that for x = 3, f (x) = (x 1) (x + 2) (x 3) = ( 4) ( 1)
( 6) < 0)

f (x) < 0 when

Therefore,

< x < 2.

Thus, the function f is strictly decreasing in ( , 2).

Consider the interval ( 2, 1), i.e., when 2 < x < 1.

In this case, we have x 1 < 0, x + 2 > 0 and x 3 < 0
(In particular, observe that for x = 0, f (x) = (x 1) (x + 2) (x 3) = (1) (2) (3)
= 6 > 0)

So

f (x) > 0 when 2 < x < 1.

Thus,

f is strictly increasing in ( 2, 1).

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

239

Now consider the interval (1, 3), i.e., when 1 < x < 3. In this case, we have
x 1 > 0, x + 2 > 0 and x 3 < 0.
So,

f (x) < 0 when 1 < x < 3.

Thus,

f is strictly decreasing in (1, 3).

Finally, consider the interval (3, ), i.e., when x > 3. In this case, we have x 1 > 0,
x + 2 > 0 and x 3 > 0. So f (x) > 0 when x > 3.

Thus, f is strictly increasing in the interval (3, ).

Example 48 Show that the function f given by

f (x) = tan1(sin x + cos x), x > 0

is always an strictly increasing function in 0,

Solution We have

f (x) = tan1(sin x + cos x), x > 0

1
(cos x sin x )
1 (sin x cos x) 2

cos x sin x
2 sin 2 x

f (x) =

Therefore

(on simplification)

Note that 2 + sin 2x > 0 for all x in 0,

Therefore
or

.
4
f (x) > 0 if cos x sin x > 0
f (x) > 0 if cos x > sin x or cot x > 1

Now

cot x > 1 if tan x < 1, i.e., if 0

Thus

f (x) > 0 in 0,

Hence f is strictly increasing function in 0,

.
4
Example 49 A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its
radius increases at the rate of 0.05 cm/s. Find the rate at which its area is increasing
when radius is 3.2 cm.

240

MATHEMATICS

Solution Let r be the radius of the given disc and A be its area. Then
A = r2

dA
dr
= 2 r
dt
dt

or

(by Chain Rule)

dr
t 0.05 cm/s.
dt
Therefore, the approximate rate of increase in area is given by

Now approximate rate of increase of radius = dr =

dr
dA
t
( t) = 2 r
dt
dt

dA =

= 2 (3.2) (0.05) = 0.320 cm2/s (r = 3.2 cm)

Example 50 An open topped box is to be constructed by removing equal squares from

each corner of a 3 metre by 8 metre rectangular sheet of aluminium and folding up the
sides. Find the volume of the largest such box.
Solution Let x metre be the length of a side of the removed squares. Then, the height
of the box is x, length is 8 2x and breadth is 3 2x (Fig 6.25). If V(x) is the volume
of the box, then

Fig 6.25

V (x) = x (3 2x) (8 2x)

= 4x3 22x2 + 24x

2
3

3 (Why?)

44

24

2
3

2
. But x
3

28 0 .

2
. Now V
3

3,

V ( x) 24 x 44

V (x) = 0 gives x

Thus, we have x

44 x 24 4( x 3)(3x 2)

Now

V ( x ) 12 x 2

Therefore

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

241

2
2
is the point of maxima, i.e., if we remove a square of side
3
3
metre from each corner of the sheet and make a box from the remaining sheet, then
the volume of the box such obtained will be the largest and it is given by

2
2
= 4
3
3

2
3

24

2
3

200 3
m
27

Example 51 Manufacturer can sell x items at a price of rupees 5

maximum profit.

x
500 . Find the number of items he should sell to earn
5

cost price of x items is Rs

x
each. The
100

22

Therefore, x

Solution Let S (x) be the selling price of x items and let C (x) be the cost price of x
items. Then, we have

x
x2
x 5x
100
100

C (x) =

x
500
5
Thus, the profit function P (x) is given by

i.e.

P(x) =
P (x) =

24
5

x2
100

x
500
5

x2
24
x
500
5
100

or

P(x) = S( x) C( x ) 5 x

and

S(x) = 5

1
0
50

1
. So P (240)
50

Now P (x) = 0 gives x = 240. Also P ( x)

x
50

Thus, x = 240 is a point of maxima. Hence, the manufacturer can earn maximum
profit, if he sells 240 items.

242

MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following:
(b)

33

1
4

(a)

17
81

1
5

log x
has maximum at x = e.
x
3. The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle with fixed base b are decreasing at
the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the area decreasing when the two equal
sides are equal to the base ?
4. Find the equation of the normal to curve x2 = 4y which passes through the point
(1, 2).
to the curve

sin , y = a sin a cos

x = a cos + a

5. Show that the normal at any point

2. Show that the function given by f ( x)

is at a constant distance from the origin.

6. Find the intervals in which the function f given by

4sin x 2 x x cos x
2 cos x
is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.

(i) increasing

x3

7. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f ( x)

1
,x
x3

f ( x)

0 is

(ii) decreasing.

x2 y 2
1
8. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle inscribed in the ellipse 2
a
b2
with its vertex at one end of the major axis.
9. A tank with rectangular base and rectangular sides, open at the top is to be
constructed so that its depth is 2 m and volume is 8 m3. If building of tank costs
Rs 70 per sq metres for the base and Rs 45 per square metre for sides. What is
the cost of least expensive tank?
10. The sum of the perimeter of a circle and square is k, where k is some constant.
Prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square is double the
radius of the circle.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

243

11. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening.

The total perimeter of the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to
admit maximum light through the whole opening.
12. A point on the hypotenuse of a triangle is at distance a and b from the sides of
the triangle.
2

Show that the maximum length of the hypotenuse is (a 3

b3 )2 .

13. Find the points at which the function f given by f (x) = (x 2)4 (x + 1)3 has
(i) local maxima
(ii) local minima
(iii) point of inflexion
14. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = cos2 x + sin x, x [0, ]
15. Show that the altitude of the right circular cone of maximum volume that can be

4r
.
3
16. Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such that f (x) > 0, for all x (a, b). Then
prove that f is an increasing function on (a, b).
17. Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
inscribed in a sphere of radius r is

2R
. Also find the maximum volume.
3
18. Show that height of the cylinder of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of height h and semi vertical angle is one-third that of the

a sphere of radius R is

4
h3 tan 2 .
27
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises from 19 to 24.
19. A cylindrical tank of radius 10 m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314
cubic metre per hour. Then the depth of the wheat is increasing at the rate of
(B) 0.1 m3/h
(A) 1 m3/h
(D) 0.5 m3/h
(C) 1.1 m3/h
20. The slope of the tangent to the curve x = t2 + 3t 8, y = 2t2 2t 5 at the point
(2, 1) is
(B)

6
7

(C)

7
6

(D)

6
7

22
7

(A)

cone and the greatest volume of cylinder is

244

MATHEMATICS

21. The line y = mx + 1 is a tangent to the curve y2 = 4x if the value of m is

(A) 1

(B) 2

(C) 3

(D)

1
2

22. The normal at the point (1,1) on the curve 2y + x2 = 3 is

(A) x + y = 0
(B) x y = 0
(C) x + y +1 = 0
(D) x y = 0
2
23. The normal to the curve x = 4y passing (1,2) is
(A) x + y = 3
(B) x y = 3
(C) x + y = 1
(D) x y = 1
2
3
24. The points on the curve 9y = x , where the normal to the curve makes equal
intercepts with the axes are

(D)

3
8

(B)

4,

8
3

4,

3
8

4,

(C)

8
3

4,

(A)

Summary

dy
(or f ( x) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x and
dx

x x0

(or f (x0 ) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at

dy
dx

f ( x) ,

x0 .

If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if
x f (t ) and y g (t ) , then by Chain Rule

dy
dt

dx
dx
, if
dt
dt

A function f is said to be
(a) increasing on an interval (a, b) if
f (x1) f (x2) for all x1, x2
x1 < x2 in (a, b)

0.

dy
dx

then

If a quantity y varies with another quantity x, satisfying some rule y

(a, b).

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

245

Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)

(b) decreasing on (a,b) if
f (x1) f (x2) for all x1, x2 (a, b).
x1 < x2 in (a, b)
Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)
The equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) to the curve y = f (x) is given by

dy
dx

(x
( x0 , y0 )

y0

x0 )

dy
does not exist at the point ( x0 , y0 ) , then the tangent at this point is
dx
parallel to the y-axis and its equation is x = x0.
If

If tangent to a curve y = f (x) at x = x0 is parallel to x-axis, then

dy
dx

0.

x x0

Equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at a point ( x0 , y0 ) is given by

If

y0

dy
dx

(x

x0 )

( x0 , y0 )

dy
at the point ( x0 , y0 ) is zero, then equation of the normal is x = x0.
dx

dy
at the point ( x0 , y0 ) does not exist, then the normal is parallel to x-axis
dx
and its equation is y = y0.
Let y = f (x), x be a small increment in x and y be the increment in y
corresponding to the increment in x, i.e., y = f (x + x) f (x). Then dy
given by
If

f ( x )dx or dy

dy
dx

x.

is a good approximation of y when dx

x is relatively small and we denote
it by dy
y.
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f (c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable is called a critical point of f.

dy

MATHEMATICS

First Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let

f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c,
i.e., if f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local maxima.
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c,
i.e., if f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point
is called point of inflexion.
Second Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an interval I and
c I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0
The values f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is
a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.
Working rule for finding absolute maxima and/or absolute minima
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where
either f (x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2:Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values
calculated in Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum
value of f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of f .

246

ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

3.
5.
9.
13.
15.

Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.

Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(a) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(b) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(c) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(e) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(i) {1, 5, 9}, (ii) {1}
12. T1 is related to T3.
The set of all triangles
14. The set of all lines y = 2x + c, c
B
16. C

EXERCISE 1.2
1. No
2. (i) Injective but not surjective
(ii) Neither injective nor surjective
(iii) Neither injective nor surjective (iv) Injective but not surjective
(v) Injective but not surjective
(ii) Neither one-one nor onto.
7. (i) One-one and onto
9. No
10. Yes
11. D
12. A

EXERCISE 1.3
1. gof = {(1, 3), (3,1), (4,3)}
3. (i) (gof ) (x) = | 5 | x | 2|, (fog) (x) = |5x 2|
(ii) (g o f ) (x) = 2x, (f o g) (x) = 8x
4. Inverse of f is f itself

ANSWERS

5. (i) No, since f is many-one

269

(ii) No, since g is many-one.

(iii) Yes, since h is one-one-onto.

11. f

2y
,y
1 y

1 7. f 1 is given by f 1 (y) =

y 3
4

6. f 1 is given by f 1 (y) =

is given by f 1 (a) = 1, f 1 (b) = 2 and f 1 (c) = 3.

13. (C)

14. (B)

EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) No
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
3.

2. (i)

(ii) Yes

(iii) Yes

(iv) Yes

(v) Yes

is neither commutative nor associative

is commutative but not associative
is both commutative and associative
is commutative but not associative
is neither commutative nor associative
is neither commutative nor associative
1

4. (i) (2 * 3) * 4 = 1 and 2 * (3 * 4) = 1

(ii) Yes

(iii) 1

(iii) Yes

(iv) 1

5. Yes
6. (i) 5 * 7 = 35, 20 * 16 = 80

9. (ii) , (iv), (v) are commutative; (v) is associative.

11. Identity element does not exist.
12. (ii) False

(v) 1

is both commutative and associative; does not have any identity in N

7. No 8.

(ii) Yes

(ii) True

13. B

270

MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1

3.
11.
15.
19.

g ( y)

y 7
10

1.

2. The inverse of f is f itself

x4 6x3 + 10x2 3x
8. No
1
1
(i) F = {(3, a), (2, b), (1, c)}, (ii) F does not exist
Yes
16. A
17. B
B

10. n!
12. No
18. No

EXERCISE 2.1

3
4

12.

2
3

8.

4
14. B

8.

11.

10.

3
4
13. B
9.

7.

6.

4.

2
3

5.

3.

2.

1.

EXERCISE 2.2

x
a

7.

x
2

11.

15.

18.

17
6

1
2

19. B

4
21. B

17.

1
5

12. 0

14.

16.

10. 3tan

sec1 x

6.

1
tan 1 x
2
1 x
9. sin
a
x y
13. 1 xy
5.

20. D

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

x

17. C

6
16. C

13.

6
15. D

2.

14.

1.

1
3

ANSWERS

271

EXERCISE 3.1
5
2
2. 1 24, 2 12, 3 8, 4 6, 6 4, 8 3, 12 2, 24 1; 1 13, 13 1
3. 1 18, 2 9, 3 6, 6 3, 9 2, 18 1; 1 5, 5 1

1 0

3
2
1
5. (i)
2
7
5
4
3
2
2
6. (i) x = 1, y = 4,

(ii)

5
2

1
2

1
2

(iii)

3 2

25
2
18

5 4

9
2
8

(ii)

9
2

1
2
1

9
2

(iii) 19, 35, 5, 12,

4. (i)

(ii) 12

1. (i) 3 4

z=3

(ii) x = 4,

y = 2,

z = 0 or x = 2,

(iii) x = 2,

y = 4,

y = 4, z = 0

z=3

7. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4
8. C
9. B

10. D

EXERCISE 3.2
1
3

( a b )2

(b c) 2

(a c ) 2

(a b ) 2

1 1
1 1

(v) BA =

6 26
1 19

(iv)

AB =

1
5

11 10
11 2

(ii)

16 5 21
5 10 9

(iv)

B=

11 11 0

(iii)

2a 2b
0 2a

8 7
6 2

2. (i)

C=

(ii) A

(iii) 3A

3 7
1 7

1. (i) A + B =

MATHEMATICS

(ii) X

9. x = 3, y = 3

2
5
11
5

12
5 ,
Y
3

2
5
14
5

10

17. k = 1

19. (a) Rs 15000, Rs 15000

(b) Rs 5000, Rs 25000
20. Rs 20160
21. A
22. B

EXERCISE 3.3

(ii)

(iii)

1 2
1 3

5
6

3
5
6

1. (i)

1
5
2

13
5

10. x = 3, y = 6, z = 9, t = 6

12. x = 2, y = 4, w = 3, z = 1

2 0
1 1

1 3

15.

2 0

6
5

1 0
0 1

14
4

(vi)

5 0
, Y
1 4

6.

1 1
2 1
11. x = 3, y = 4

8.

7. (i)

0 0 0

7 , B C= 4

0 0 0

0 0 0

2 2 0

4 5

A+B = 9

2 3

(v)

4 1
8 13
9

(iii)

6 9 12

2 70

1 56

4 6

22

42

18

14

b2

5.

a2

(ii)

2 3

4.

(iv)

b2

3. (i)

a2

272

3
1

ANSWERS

0
0

0
0

5
2
3
2

3
2
3

(iv)

5
2

1 2
2 2

0 3
3 0

5
2

12. B

EXERCISE 3.4

9.

5
2

1
2

3
1

11.

5
4

4
3

3
1

1
2
3
2

6.

1
2

8.

4
7

7
2

1
3

2
5

3.

5.

1
2

10.

3
2

1
1

7.

7
5

2.

4.

1
5
1
5

1.

3
5
2
5

7
2

10
3

12. Inverse does not exist.

0
0

11. A

1
2
5
2

3
1

1
2

(iii) A

1
3

2
2

0 c
c 0

2 0

a
b

(ii)

0 0 0 ,
0 0 0

10. (i) A

9.

0 0 0

4.

4 5
1 6

273

16.

2
5

17.

15

2
5
3
5

3
5
11
25
9
25

1
5
1
5

2
5
4
25
1
25

3
5

2
5
1
5
2
5

14. Inverse does not exist.

3
2

2
1

15.

13.

MATHEMATICS

274

18. D

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

1

,y

,z

6.

4 3
7. x = 1
9. x
10. (a) Total revenue in the market - I = Rs 46000

Total revenue in the market - II = Rs 53000

(b) Rs 15000, Rs 17000

1
2

2
0

11.

13. C

14. B

15. C

EXERCISE 4.1
2. (i) 1, (ii) x3 x2 + 2

1. (i) 18

5. (i) 12, (ii) 46, (iii) 0, (iv) 5

6. 0

7. (i)

8. (B)

3 , (ii) x = 2

EXERCISE 4.2
15. C

16. C

ANSWERS

275

EXERCISE 4.3
15
47
, (ii)
, (iii) 15
2
2
3. (i) 0, 8, (ii) 0, 8 4. (i) y = 2x, (ii) x 3y = 0

1. (i)

5. (D)

EXERCISE 4.4
1. (i) M11 = 3, M12 = 0, M21 = 4, M22 = 2, A11 = 3, A12 = 0, A21 = 4, A22 = 2
(ii) M11 = d, M12 = b, M21 = c,

M22 = a

A11 = d, A12= b, A21 = c, A22 = a

2. (i) M11= 1, M12= 0, M13 = 0, M21 = 0, M22 = 1, M23 = 0, M31 = 0, M32 = 0, M33 = 1,
A11= 1, A12= 0, A13= 0, A21= 0, A22= 1, A23= 0, A31= 0, A32= 0, A33= 1
M11= 11, M12= 6, M13= 3, M21= 4, M22= 2, M23= 1, M31= 20, M32= 13, M33= 5

(ii)

A11=11, A12= 6, A13= 3, A21= 4, A22= 2, A23= 1, A31= 20, A32= 13, A33= 5
3. 7

4. (x y) (y z) (z x)

5. (D)

EXERCISE 4.5

11.

14. a = 4, b = 1

15.

0 cos

sin

0 sin

cos

3
1
9
11
5

1 0
2 3

8.

3
1
3
3
9

10

1 3 2
14 4 2

10.

11

12

23

2 0

5.

10
1
0
7.
10
0
3

1
3

13.

1 2
7 1

12 5

5
1

11

9.

2.

1 2
6.
13 3

1
3

2
1

1.

4
3

276

MATHEMATICS

16.

1
4

3 1

1 3
1 1

1
3

17. B

18. B

EXERCISE 4.6
2. Consistent

3. Inconsistent

4. Consistent

5. Inconsistent

6. Consistent

7. x = 2, y = 3

8.

6
,y
11

19
11

3
2

12. x = 2, y = 1, z = 1

1
, z
2

11. x = 1, y

10. x = 1, y = 4

9.

5
12
, y
11
11

1. Consistent

13. x = 1, y = 2, z = 1

14. x = 2, y = 1, z = 3

15.

2 9
1 5

23 , x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
13

16. cost of onions per kg Rs 5

cost of wheat per kg Rs 8
cost of rice per kg
Rs 8

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 4

a
3

17. A

7.

9. 2(x3 + y3)

5.

3. 1

3 5

1 0
0 2

10. xy

16. x = 2, y = 3, z = 5

18. A

19. D

ANSWERS

277

EXERCISE 5.1
2.
3.
5.
6.
8.
10.
12.
14.
15.

f is continuous at x = 3
(a), (b), (c) and (d) are all continuous functions
f is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2; Not continuous at x = 1
Discontinuous at x = 2
7. Discontinuous at x = 3
Discontinuous at x = 0
9. No point of discontinuity
No point of discontinuity
11. No point of discontinuity
f is continuous at x = 1
13. f is not continuous at x = 1
f is not continuous at x = 1 and x = 3
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity

2
3
18. For no value of , f is continuous at x = 0 but f is continuous at x = 1 for any
value of .
20. f is continuous at x =
21. (a), (b) and (c) are all continuous
22. Cosine function is continuous for all x R; cosecant is continuous except for
17.

3
4

28.

EXERCISE 5.2
1. 2x cos (x2 + 5)
4.

2. cos x sin (sin x)

3. a cos (ax + b)

sec (tan x).tan (tan x ).sec 2 x

2 x

5. a cos (ax + b) sec (cx + d) + c sin (ax + b) tan (cx + d) sec (cx + d)
6. 10x4 sinx5 cosx5 cosx3 3x2 sinx3 sin2 x5

Z and

25. f is continuous for all x

9
30. a = 2, b = 1
5
34. There is no point of discontinuity.

29.

,n

27.

26. k = 6

24. Yes, f is continuous for all x

cotangent function is continuous except for x = n , n

23. There is no point of discontinuity.

Z; secant is continuous except for x = (2n 1)

x=n ,n

a b

16. Continuous

2 2x

7.

MATHEMATICS

sin x

sin 2 x

8.

278

sin x
2 x

EXERCISE 5.3

y sin xy
sin 2 y x sin xy 8.
2
1 x2

sin 2 x
sin 2 y

9.

2
1 x2

10.

2
1 x2

13.

2
1 x2

14.

3
1 x2

12.

11.

(3x 2 2 xy y 2 )
( x 2 2 xy 3 y 2 )

1 x2

7.

6.

(2 x y)
( x 2 y)

5.

sec 2 x y
x 2y 1

a
2by sin y

3.

4.

2
cos y 3

2.

cosx 2
3

1.

1 x2

15.

EXERCISE 5.4

cos (tan 1 e x )
1 e 2x

4 x 3e x

5x 4e x

1
,x>1
x log x

1 x
e sin (log x e x ), x > 0
x

0 10.

( x sin x log x cos x) ,

x
x (log x) 2

3x2e x

x2

8.

,x>0

, x ( 1,1)

9.

, n N 6. e x 2 x e

4 xe

1 x2

4.

esin 1 x

Z 2.

5. ex tan ex, e x (2n 1)

7.

3. 3 x2 e x

e x (sin x cosx)
,x
sin 2 x

1.

ANSWERS

279

EXERCISE 5.5
1. cos x cos 2x cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]

x 3 x 4

x 5

(log x )cos x

cos x
sin x log (log x)
x log x
4. xx (1 + log x) 2sin x cos x log 2

3.

1
( x 1) ( x 2)
1
1
2 ( x 3)( x 4)( x 5) x 1 x 2

2.

5. (x + 3) (x + 4)2 (x + 5)3 (9x2 + 70x + 133)

1

1
1
x2 1
1
x 1 log x
log ( x ) x x
2
x
x
x 1
x2
7. (log x)x-1 [1 + log x . log (log x)] + 2x logx1 . logx
1
1
8. (sin x)x (x cot x + log sin x) +
2 x x2

6.

sin x
cos x log x + (sin x)cos x [cos x cot x sin x log sin x]
x

9. x sinx

4x
( x 1) 2

10. x x cosx [cos x . (1 + log x) x sin x log x]

13.

y y
x x

14.

y tan x log cos y

x tan y log cos x

15.

y ( x 1)
x ( y 1)

x log y
y log x

yx y 1 y x log y
x y log x xy x 1

12.

x cot x 1 log ( x sin x )

x2

1
x

11. (x cos x)x [1 x tan x + log (x cos x)] + (x sin x)

8x7
; f (1) = 120
1 x8

4 x3
1 x4

1 x

2x
1 x2

17. 5x4 20x3 + 45x2 52x + 11

16. (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 +x4) (1 + x8)

EXERCISE 5.6
2.

b
a

3. 4 sin t

4.

1. 2t2

1
t2

MATHEMATICS

9.

b
cosec
a

6.

cot

10. tan

7. cot 3t

8. tan t

cos 2cos 2
2sin 2 sin

5.

280

EXERCISE 5.7
2. 380 x18

6. 2ex (5 cos 5x 12 sin 5x)

7. 9 e6x (3 cos 3x 4 sin 3x)

2x
(1 x 2 ) 2

sin (log x) cos (log x)

x2

(1 log x)
10.
( x log x) 2
12. cot y cosec2 y

9.

8.

1
x2

4.

3. x cos x 2 sin x

5. x(5 + 6 log x)

1. 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

8. (a sin x b cos x) sin (a cos x + b sin x)

1
x

(2 x 7)

log (log x)
,x
x

log x
7. (log x )

x
2
3
2

1
2

4 x2 2x 7

5.

cos

6.

3
x
2 1 x3

6sin 2 x log 5 x

9. (sinx cosx)sin x cos x (cosx + sinx) (1 + log (sinx cos x)), sinx > cosx
10. xx (1 + log x) + ax a1 + ax log a

2 x log x

x2

( x 3) x

x2

x 3

xx

11.

2 x log( x 3)

4.

3cos 2 x
x

3. (5 x ) 3cos 2 x

2. 3sinx cosx (sinx 2 cos4 x)

1. 27 (3x2 9x + 5)8 (2x 3)

ANSWERS

13. 0

17.

sec3 t
,0 t
at

t
6
cot
5
2

12.

281

EXERCISE 6.1
1. (a) 6 cm2/s

(b) 8 cm2/s

8
cm2/s
3

3. 60 cm2/s

5. 80 cm2/s

6. 1.4 cm/s

(b) 2 cm2/min

7. (a) 2 cm/min

9. 400 cm3/s

cm/s

16. Rs 208

31
3

27
(2 x 1) 2
8

4,

8
cm/s
3

12. 2 cm3/s

11. (4, 11) and

13.

10.

1
48

14.

15. Rs 20.967

cm/s

8.

4. 900 cm3/s

2.

17. B

18. D

EXERCISE 6.2

(b)

5. (a) ( , 2) and (3, )

3
,
4

3
4

4. (a)

(b) ( 2, 3)

6. (a) Strictly decreasing for x < 1 and strictly increasing for x > 1

3
3
and strictly increasing for x
2
2
(c) Strictly increasing for 2 < x < 1 and strictly decreasing for x < 2 and
x>1
9
and strictly decreasing for x
2

(d) Strictly increasing for x

(b) Strictly decreasing for x

9
2

MATHEMATICS

), strictly decreasing in (

(e) Strictly increasing in (1, 3) and (3,

and ( 1, 1).
8. 0 < x < 1 and x > 2
13. D
14. a = 2

12. A, B
19. D

EXERCISE 6.3
2.

1
64

1. 764

3. 11

4. 24

a
7. (3, 20) and (1, 12)
2b
8. (3, 1)
9. (2, 9)
10. (i) y + x +1 = 0 and y + x 3 = 0
11. No tangent to the curve which has slope 2.

14. (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

1
13. (i) (0, 4) (ii) ( 3, 0)
2
Tangent: 10x + y = 5;
Normal: x 10y + 50 = 0
Tangent: y = 2x + 1;
Normal: x + 2y 7 = 0
Tangent: y = 3x 2;
Normal: x + 3y 4 = 0
Tangent: y = 0;
Normal: x = 0

(v) Tangent: x + y

2 = 0; Normal x = y

(a) y 2x 3 = 0
(b) 36 y + 12x 227 = 0
(0, 0), (3, 27)
18. (0, 0), (1, 2), (1, 2)
(1, 2)
20. 2x + 3my am2 (2 + 3m2) = 0
x + 14y 254 = 0, x + 14y + 86 = 0
ty = x + at2, y = tx + 2at + at3

x x0 y y0
y y
x x0
1, 2 0
2
2
a
b
a y0
b 2 x0
25. 48x 24y = 23
26. D

24.

15.
17.
19.
21.
22.

12.

6.

5. 1

0
27. A

EXERCISE 6.4
1. (i) 5.03
(iv) 0.208

(ii) 7.035
(v) 0.9999

(iii) 0.8
(vi) 1.96875

282

, 1)

ANSWERS

(viii) 3.9961

(x) 20.025
(xiii) 3.0046

(ix) 3.009

(xi) 0.06083

(xii) 2.948

(xiv) 7.904

2. 28.21

3. 34.995

5. 0.12 x2 m2

6. 3.92

8. D

9. C

m3

(xv) 2.00187
4. 0.03 x3 m3
7. 2.16

(vii) 2.9629

m3

EXERCISE 6.5
1. (i) Minimum Value = 3

(ii) Minimum Value = 2

(iii) Maximum Value = 10

(iv) Neither minimum nor maximum value

2. (i) Minimum Value = 1; No maximum value

(ii) Maximum Value = 3; No minimum value
(iii) Minimum Value = 4; Maximum Value = 6
(iv) Minimum Value = 2; Maximum Value = 4
(v) Neither minimum nor Maximum Value
3. (i) local minimum at x = 0,

local minimum value = 0

(ii) local minimum at x = 1,

local minimum value = 2

local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 2

,

local maximum value =

, local maximum value =

7
, local minimum value = 2
4

local minimum at x

(iv) local maximum at x

(iii) local maximum at x

(v) local maximum at x = 1,

local maximum value = 19

local minimum at x = 3,

local minimum value = 15

(vi) local minimum at x = 2,

local minimum value = 2

283

284

MATHEMATICS

(vii) local maximum at x = 0,

(viii) local maximum at x

2
,
3

local maximum value =

1
2

local maximum value =

2 3
9

5. (i) Absolute minimum value = 8, absolute maximum value = 8

(ii) Absolute minimum value = 1, absolute maximum value =

(iii) Absolute minimum value = 10, absolute maximum value = 8

(iv) Absolute minimum value = 19,

absolute maximum value = 3

6. Maximum profit = 49 unit.

7. Minima at x = 2, minimum value = 39, Maxima at x = 0, maximum value = 25.

and

5
4

8. At x

9. Maximum value =

10. Maximum at x = 3, maximum value 89; maximum at x = 2, maximum value = 139

11. a = 120
12. Maximum at x = 2 , maximum value = 2 ; Minimum at x = 0, minimum value = 0

14. 45, 15
18. x = 5 cm
1
3

cm and height = 2

50

112
28
cm,
cm 27. A
4
4

22.

21. radius =

50

15. 25, 10

17. 3 cm

13. 12, 12

1
3

cm

28. D

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. (a) 0.677
3. b 3 cm2/s

(b) 0.497
4. x + y 3 = 0

16. 8, 8

29. C

ANSWERS

3 3
ab
4

3
2

9. Rs 1000

20
10
m, breadth =
m
4
4

13. (i) local maxima at x = 2 (ii) local minima at x

11. length =

(ii) 1 < x < 1

8.

(ii)

7. (i) x < 1 and x > 1

3
<x<2
2

and

6. (i) 0 < x <

2
7

(iii) point of inflection at x = 1

14. Absolute maximum =

3 3

22. B

19. A

20. B

23. A

24. A

17.

4 R3

5
, Absolute minimum = 1
4

21. A

285

Appendix

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
Proofs are to Mathematics what calligraphy is to poetry.
Mathematical works do consist of proofs just as
poems do consist of characters.
VLADIMIR ARNOLD

A.1.1 Introduction

In Classes IX, X and XI, we have learnt about the concepts of a statement, compound
statement, negation, converse and contrapositive of a statement; axioms, conjectures,
theorems and deductive reasoning.
Here, we will discuss various methods of proving mathematical propositions.

A.1.2 What is a Proof?

Proof of a mathematical statement consists of sequence of statements, each statement
being justified with a definition or an axiom or a proposition that is previously established
by the method of deduction using only the allowed logical rules.
Thus, each proof is a chain of deductive arguments each of which has its premises
and conclusions. Many a times, we prove a proposition directly from what is given in
the proposition. But some times it is easier to prove an equivalent proposition rather
than proving the proposition itself. This leads to, two ways of proving a proposition
directly or indirectly and the proofs obtained are called direct proof and indirect proof
and further each has three different ways of proving which is discussed below.
Direct Proof It is the proof of a proposition in which we directly start the proof with
what is given in the proposition.
(i) Straight forward approach It is a chain of arguments which leads directly from
what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions or already proved
theorems, to what is to be proved using rules of logic.
Consider the following example:
Example 1 Show that if x2 5x + 6 = 0, then x = 3 or x = 2.
Solution x2 5x + 6 = 0 (given)

248

MATHEMATICS

(x 3) (x 2) = 0 (replacing an expression by an equal/equivalent expression)

x 3 = 0 or x 2 = 0 (from the established theorem ab = 0
either a = 0 or
b = 0, for a, b in R)
x 3 + 3 = 0 + 3 or x 2 + 2 = 0 + 2 (adding equal quantities on either side of the
equation does not alter the nature of the
equation)
x + 0 = 3 or x + 0 = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
x = 3 or x = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
Hence, x2 5x + 6 = 0 implies x = 3 or x = 2.

Explanation Let p be the given statement x2 5x + 6 = 0 and q be the conclusion

statement x = 3 or x = 2.
From the statement p, we deduced the statement r : (x 3) (x 2) = 0 by
replacing the expression x2 5x + 6 in the statement p by another expression (x 3)
(x 2) which is equal to x2 5x + 6.
There arise two questions:
(i) How does the expression (x 3) (x 2) is equal to the expression x2 5x + 6?
(ii) How can we replace an expression with another expression which is equal to
the former?
The first one is proved in earlier classes by factorization, i.e.,
x2 5x + 6 = x2 3x 2x + 6 = x (x 3) 2 (x 3) = (x 3) (x 2).
The second one is by valid form of argumentation (rules of logic)
Next this statement r becomes premises or given and deduce the statement s
x 3 = 0 or x 2 = 0 and the reasons are given in the brackets.
This process continues till we reach the conclusion.
q
The symbolic equivalent of the argument is to prove by deduction that p
is true.
Starting with p, we deduce p r s q. This implies that p q is true.

Example 2 Prove that the function f : R

R
defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.

Solution Note that a function f is one-one if

x1 = x2 (definition of one-one function)
f (x1) = f (x2)
Now, given that
f (x1) = f (x2), i.e., 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5
2x1+ 5 5 = 2x2 + 5 5 (adding the same quantity on both sides)

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

249

2x1+ 0 = 2x2 + 0
2x1 = 2x2 (using additive identity of real number)

2
2
x1 = x2 (dividing by the same non zero quantity)
2
2

x1 = x 2
Hence, the given function is one-one.

(ii) Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction, is a strategy, of proving a proposition which is deductive in
nature. The whole basis of proof of this method depends on the following axiom:
For a given subset S of N, if
S and

(ii) the natural number k + 1

S whenever k

(i) the natural number 1

S, then S = N.

According to the principle of mathematical induction, if a statement S(n) is true

for n = 1 (or for some starting point j), and if S(n) is true for n = k implies that S(n)
is true for n = k + 1 (whatever integer k j may be), then the statement is true for any
positive integer n, for all n j.

We now consider some examples.

Example 3 Show that if
sin n

cos n

cos n
sin n

sin n
cos n

sin

cos k

P(k) : Ak =

sin k

cos

Therefore, P(1) is true.

Assume that P(k) is true, i.e.,

sin

sin k
cos k

P(1) : A1 =

cos

We note that

sin n

P(n) : An =

Solution We have

cos

cos n

, then An =

sin

sin

cos

A=

250

MATHEMATICS

We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true, i.e.,

sin

cos k

sin k

cos

cos

cos

(by matrix multiplication)

1)
1)

sin k

sin

sin

sin

sin

sin ( k
cos ( k

cos ( k 1)
sin(k 1)

cos k

cos k

cos k

cos

sin

cos

sin k

sin k

sin k

sin k

cos

cos k

Ak+1 =
cos k

1)
1)

Ak+1 = Ak . A

Now
Since P(k) is true, we have

sin ( k
cos (k

cos ( k 1)
sin(k 1)

P(k + 1) : Ak+1 =

Thus, P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.

Hence, P(n) is true for all n 1 (by the principle of mathematical induction).

(iii) Proof by cases or by exhaustion

This method of proving a statement p q is possible only when p can be split into
several cases, r, s, t (say) so that p = r s t (where is the symbol for OR).
If the conditionals
r
q;
q;
s
and
t
q
s
t)
q, is proved and so p
q is proved.
are proved, then (r
The method consists of examining every possible case of the hypothesis. It is
practically convenient only when the number of possible cases are few.

Example 4 Show that in any triangle ABC,

a = b cos C + c cos B
Solution Let p be the statement ABC is any triangle and q be the statement
a = b cos C + c cos B
Let ABC be a triangle. From A draw AD a perpendicular to BC (BC produced if
necessary).
As we know that any triangle has to be either acute or obtuse or right angled, we
can split p into three statements r, s and t, where

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

r : ABC is an acute angled triangle with C is acute.

s : ABC is an obtuse angled triangle with C is obtuse.
t : ABC is a right angled triangle with C is right angle.
Hence, we prove the theorem by three cases.
Case (i) When C is acute (Fig. A1.1).
From the right angled triangle ADB,

BD
= cos B
AB
i.e.

BD = AB cos B
= c cos B

From the right angled triangle ADC,

CD
= cos C
AC
CD = AC cos C
= b cos C
Now
a = BD + CD
= c cos B + b cos C
Case (ii) When C is obtuse (Fig A1.2).
From the right angled triangle ADB,

Fig A1.1

i.e.

... (1)

BD
= cos B
AB
i.e.

BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,

i.e.

=
=
CD =
=

CD
= cos
AC

ACD

cos (180 C)
cos C
AC cos C
b cos C

Fig A1.2

251

252

MATHEMATICS

Now
i.e.

a = BC = BD CD
a = c cos B ( b cos C)
a = c cos B + b cos C
Case (iii) When C is a right angle (Fig A1.3).
From the right angled triangle ACB,

... (2)

BC
= cos B
AB
i.e.
BC = AB cos B
a = c cos B,
Fig A1.3
and
b cos C = b cos 900 = 0.
Thus, we may write
a = 0 + c cos B
= b cos C + c cos B
... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3). We assert that for any triangle ABC,
a = b cos C + c cos B
q is proved.
By case (i), r
By case (ii), s
q is proved.
By case (iii), t q is proved.
s
t) q is proved, i.e., p q is proved.
Hence, from the proof by cases, (r
Indirect Proof Instead of proving the given proposition directly, we establish the proof
of the proposition through proving a proposition which is equivalent to the given
proposition.
(i) Proof by contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) : Here, we start with the
assumption that the given statement is false. By rules of logic, we arrive at a
conclusion contradicting the assumption and hence it is inferred that the assumption
is wrong and hence the given statement is true.
Let us illustrate this method by an example.

Example 5 Show that the set of all prime numbers is infinite.

Solution Let P be the set of all prime numbers. We take the negation of the statement
the set of all prime numbers is infinite, i.e., we assume the set of all prime numbers
to be finite. Hence, we can list all the prime numbers as P1, P2, P3,..., Pk (say). Note
that we have assumed that there is no prime number other than P1, P2, P3,..., Pk .
Now consider N = (P1 P2 P3Pk) + 1 ... (1)
N is not in the list as N is larger than any of the numbers in the list.
N is either prime or composite.

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

253

If N is a prime, then by (1), there exists a prime number which is not listed.
On the other hand, if N is composite, it should have a prime divisor. But none of the
numbers in the list can divide N, because they all leave the remainder 1. Hence, the
prime divisor should be other than the one in the list.
Thus, in both the cases whether N is a prime or a composite, we ended up with
contradiction to the fact that we have listed all the prime numbers.
Hence, our assumption that set of all prime numbers is finite is false.
Thus, the set of all prime numbers is infinite.

Note Observe that the above proof also uses the method of proof by cases.

(ii) Proof by using contrapositive statement of the given statement

Instead of proving the conditional p

~ p. (students can verify).
~q

q, we prove its equivalent, i.e.,

The contrapositive of a conditional can be formed by interchanging the conclusion

and the hypothesis and negating both.

Example 6 Prove that the function f : R

R defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.

x1 = x2.
Solution A function is one-one if f (x1) = f (x2)
Using this we have to show that 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5 x1 = x2. This is of the form
p q, where, p is 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5 and q : x1 = x2. We have proved this in Example 2
of direct method.
We can also prove the same by using contrapositive of the statement. Now
~ p, i.e., contrapositive of if f (x1) = f (x2),
contrapositive of this statement is ~ q
then x1 = x2 is if x1 x2, then f (x1) f (x2).

2x1
2x1+ 5
f (x1)

Since ~ q

x1

Now

~ p, is equivalent to p

x2

2x 2

2x2 + 5
f (x 2 ).
q the proof is complete.

Example 7 Show that if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.

Solution Writing the above statement in symbolic form, we have

p q, where, p is matrix A is invertible and q is A is non singular

Instead of proving the given statement, we prove its contrapositive statement, i.e.,
if A is not a non singular matrix, then the matrix A is not invertible.

254

MATHEMATICS

If A is not a non singular matrix, then it means the matrix A is singular, i.e.,
|A| = 0
A1 =

Then

adj A
does not exist as | A | = 0
|A|

Hence, A is not invertible.

Thus, we have proved that if A is not a non singular matrix, then A is not invertible.
i.e., ~ q
~ p.

Hence, if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.

(iii) Proof by a counter example
In the history of Mathematics, there are occasions when all attempts to find a
valid proof of a statement fail and the uncertainty of the truth value of the statement
remains unresolved.
In such a situation, it is beneficial, if we find an example to falsify the statement.
The example to disprove the statement is called a counter example. Since the disproof
of a proposition p q is merely a proof of the proposition ~ (p q). Hence, this is
also a method of proof.

Example 8 For each n, 22 1 is a prime (n N).

This was once thought to be true on the basis that

1 = 28 + 1 = 257 is a prime.

22

1 = 24 + 1 = 17 is a prime.

1 = 22 + 1 = 5 is a prime.

22

22

1 = 232 + 1 = 4294967297

However, at first sight the generalisation looks to be correct. But, eventually it was
22

shown that

which is not a prime since 4294967297 = 641 6700417 (a product of two numbers).
1 is a prime (n

N) is false.

1 is sufficient to disprove the generalisation. This is the

Thus, we have proved that the generalisation For each n, 22

(n N) is not true in general.

Just this one example 22

counter example.

So the generalisation For each n, 2 2

1 is a prime

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

255

Example 9 Every continuous function is differentiable.

Proof We consider some functions given by
(i) f (x) = x2
(ii) g(x) = ex
(iii) h (x) = sin x
These functions are continuous for all values of x. If we check for their
differentiability, we find that they are all differentiable for all the values of x. This
makes us to believe that the generalisation Every continuous function is differentiable
may be true. But if we check the differentiability of the function given by (x) = | x |
which is continuous, we find that it is not differentiable at x = 0. This means that the
statement Every continuous function is differentiable is false, in general. Just this
one function (x) = | x | is sufficient to disprove the statement. Hence, (x) = | x |
is called a counter example to disprove Every continuous function is differentiable.

Appendix

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
A.2.1 Introduction
In class XI, we have learnt about mathematical modelling as an attempt to study some
part (or form) of some real-life problems in mathematical terms, i.e., the conversion of
a physical situation into mathematics using some suitable conditions. Roughly speaking
mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make models to describe the behaviour
of various phenomenal activities of our interest in many ways using words, drawings or
sketches, computer programs, mathematical formulae etc.
In earlier classes, we have observed that solutions to many problems, involving
applications of various mathematical concepts, involve mathematical modelling in one
way or the other. Therefore, it is important to study mathematical modelling as a separate
topic.
In this chapter, we shall further study mathematical modelling of some real-life
problems using techniques/results from matrix, calculus and linear programming.

A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling?

Students are aware of the solution of word problems in arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry
and linear programming etc. Sometimes we solve the problems without going into the
physical insight of the situational problems. Situational problems need physical insight
that is introduction of physical laws and some symbols to compare the mathematical
results obtained with practical values. To solve many problems faced by us, we need a
technique and this is what is known as mathematical modelling. Let us consider the
following problems:
(i) To find the width of a river (particularly, when it is difficult to cross the river).
(ii) To find the optimal angle in case of shot-put (by considering the variables
such as : the height of the thrower, resistance of the media, acceleration due to
gravity etc.).
(iii) To find the height of a tower (particularly, when it is not possible to reach the top
of the tower).
(iv) To find the temperature at the surface of the Sun.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

257

(v) Why heart patients are not allowed to use lift? (without knowing the physiology
of a human being).
(vi) To find the mass of the Earth.
(vii) Estimate the yield of pulses in India from the standing crops (a person is not
allowed to cut all of it).
(viii) Find the volume of blood inside the body of a person (a person is not allowed to
bleed completely).
(ix) Estimate the population of India in the year 2020 (a person is not allowed to wait
till then).
All of these problems can be solved and infact have been solved with the help of
Mathematics using mathematical modelling. In fact, you might have studied the methods
for solving some of them in the present textbook itself. However, it will be instructive if
you first try to solve them yourself and that too without the help of Mathematics, if
possible, you will then appreciate the power of Mathematics and the need for
mathematical modelling.

A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling

Mathematical modelling is a principled activity and so it has some principles behind it.
These principles are almost philosophical in nature. Some of the basic principles of
mathematical modelling are listed below in terms of instructions:
(i) Identify the need for the model. (for what we are looking for)
(ii) List the parameters/variables which are required for the model.
(iii) Identify the available relevent data. (what is given?)
(iv) Identify the circumstances that can be applied (assumptions)
(v) Identify the governing physical principles.
(vi) Identify
(a) the equations that will be used.
(b) the calculations that will be made.
(c) the solution which will follow.
(vii) Identify tests that can check the
(a) consistency of the model.
(b) utility of the model.
(viii) Identify the parameter values that can improve the model.

258

MATHEMATICS

The above principles of mathematical modelling lead to the following: steps for
mathematical modelling.
Step 1: Identify the physical situation.
Step 2: Convert the physical situation into a mathematical model by introducing
parameters / variables and using various known physical laws and symbols.
Step 3: Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
Step 4: Interpret the result in terms of the original problem and compare the result
with observations or experiments.
Step 5: If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify
the hypotheses / assumptions according to the physical situation and go to
Step 2.
The above steps can also be viewed through the following diagram:

Fig A.2.1
Example 1 Find the height of a given tower using mathematical modelling.
Solution Step 1 Given physical situation is to find the height of a given tower.
Step 2 Let AB be the given tower (Fig A.2.2). Let PQ be an observer measuring the
height of the tower with his eye at P. Let PQ = h and let height of tower be H. Let
be the angle of elevation from the eye of the observer to the top of the tower.

Fig A.2.2

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

l = PC = QB
=

AC H h
PC
l

H = h + l tan

... (1)

or

tan

Now

Let

259

Step 3 Note that the values of the parameters h, l and (using sextant) are known to
the observer and so (1) gives the solution of the problem.

Step 4 In case, if the foot of the tower is not accessible, i.e., when l is not known to the
observer, let be the angle of depression from P to the foot B of the tower. So from
PQB, we have

Step 5 is not required in this situation as exact values of the parameters h, l,

are known.

and

PQ h
or l = h cot
QB l

tan

Example 2 Let a business firm produces three types of products P1, P2 and P3 that
uses three types of raw materials R1, R2 and R3. Let the firm has purchase orders from
two clients F1 and F2. Considering the situation that the firm has a limited quantity of
R1, R2 and R3, respectively, prepare a model to determine the quantities of the raw
material R1, R2 and R3 required to meet the purchase orders.
Solution Step 1 The physical situation is well identified in the problem.
Step 2 Let A be a matrix that represents purchase orders from the two clients F1 and
F2. Then, A is of the form

P1 P2 P3
F1
F2

Let B be the matrix that represents the amount of raw materials R1, R2 and R3,
required to manufacture each unit of the products P1, P2 and P3. Then, B is of the form

R1 R 2 R 3
P1

P3

B P2

260

MATHEMATICS

Step 3 Note that the product (which in this case is well defined) of matrices A and B
is given by the following matrix
R1 R 2 R 3
F1
AB
F2

which in fact gives the desired quantities of the raw materials R1, R2 and R3 to fulfill
the purchase orders of the two clients F1 and F2.
Example 3 Interpret the model in Example 2, in case
3 4 0
10 15 6
A=
, B
7 9 3
10 20 0
5 12 7
and the available raw materials are 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3.

Solution Note that

10 20 0

AB =

3 4 0
7 9 3

10 15 6

5 12 7
R1 R 2 R 3
F 165 247 87
= 1
F2 170 220 60
This clearly shows that to meet the purchase order of F1 and F2, the raw material
required is 335 units of R1, 467 units of R2 and 147 units of R3 which is much more than
the available raw material. Since the amount of raw material required to manufacture
each unit of the three products is fixed, we can either ask for an increase in the
available raw material or we may ask the clients to reduce their orders.

Remark If we replace A in Example 3 by A1 given by

9 12 6
10 20 0

A1 =

i.e., if the clients agree to reduce their purchase orders, then

5 12 7

141 216 78
170 220 60

3 4 0
7 9 3

9 12 6
A1 B =
10 20 0

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

261

This requires 311 units of R1, 436 units of R2 and 138 units of R3 which are well
below the available raw materials, i.e., 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of
R3. Thus, if the revised purchase orders of the clients are given by A1, then the firm
can easily supply the purchase orders of the two clients.

Note One may further modify A so as to make full use of the available
raw material.

Query Can we make a mathematical model with a given B and with fixed quantities of
the available raw material that can help the firm owner to ask the clients to modify their
orders in such a way that the firm makes the full use of its available raw material?
The answer to this query is given in the following example:
Example 4 Suppose P1, P2, P3 and R1, R2, R3 are as in Example 2. Let the firm has
330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3 available with it and let the amount
of raw materials R1, R2 and R3 required to manufacture each unit of the three products
is given by
R1 R2 R3
P1 3 4 0
B P2 7 9 3

P3 5 12 7

How many units of each product is to be made so as to utilise the full available raw
material?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Suppose the firm produces x units of P1, y units of P2 and z units of P3. Since
product P1 requires 3 units of R1, P2 requires 7 units of R1 and P3 requires 5 units of R1
(observe matrix B) and the total number of units, of R1, available is 330, we have
3x + 7y + 5z = 330 (for raw material R1)
Similarly, we have
4x + 9y + 12z = 455 (for raw material R2)
and
3y + 7z = 140 (for raw material R3)
This system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as

3 7 5

330

4 9 12

455

0 3 7

140

262

MATHEMATICS

Step 3 Using elementary row operations, we obtain

20

35

0 1 0

0 0 1

1 0 0

This gives x = 20, y = 35 and z = 5. Thus, the firm can produce 20 units of P1, 35
units of P2 and 5 units of P3 to make full use of its available raw material.
Remark One may observe that if the manufacturer decides to manufacture according
to the available raw material and not according to the purchase orders of the two
clients F1 and F2 (as in Example 3), he/she is unable to meet these purchase orders as
F1 demanded 6 units of P3 where as the manufacturer can make only 5 units of P3.
Example 5 A manufacturer of medicines is preparing a production plan of medicines
M1 and M2. There are sufficient raw materials available to make 20000 bottles of M1
and 40000 bottles of M2, but there are only 45000 bottles into which either of the
medicines can be put. Further, it takes 3 hours to prepare enough material to fill 1000
bottles of M1, it takes 1 hour to prepare enough material to fill 1000 bottles of M2 and
there are 66 hours available for this operation. The profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and
Rs 7 per bottle for M2. How should the manufacturer schedule his/her production in
order to maximise profit?
Solution Step 1 To find the number of bottles of M1 and M2 in order to maximise the
profit under the given hypotheses.
Step 2 Let x be the number of bottles of type M1 medicine and y be the number of
bottles of type M2 medicine. Since profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and Rs 7 per bottle
for M2, therefore the objective function (which is to be maximised) is given by
Z Z (x, y) = 8x + 7y
The objective function is to be maximised subject to the constraints (Refer Chapter
12 on Linear Programming)

y 40000

x 20000

x y 45000
3 x y 66000

x 0, y 0

... (1)

Step 3 The shaded region OPQRST is the feasible region for the constraints (1)
(Fig A.2.3). The co-ordinates of vertices O, P, Q, R, S and T are (0, 0), (20000, 0),
(20000, 6000), (10500, 34500), (5000, 40000) and (0, 40000), respectively.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

263

Fig A.2.3
Note that
Z at P (0, 0) = 0
Z at P (20000, 0) = 8 20000 = 160000
Z at Q (20000, 6000) = 8 20000 + 7 6000 = 202000
Z at R (10500, 34500) = 8 10500 + 7 34500 = 325500
Z at S = (5000, 40000) = 8 5000 + 7 40000 = 320000
Z at T = (0, 40000) = 7 40000 = 280000
Now observe that the profit is maximum at x = 10500 and y = 34500 and the
maximum profit is Rs 325500. Hence, the manufacturer should produce 10500 bottles
of M1 medicine and 34500 bottles of M2 medicine in order to get maximum profit of
Rs 325500.
Example 6 Suppose a company plans to produce a new product that incur some costs
(fixed and variable) and let the company plans to sell the product at a fixed price.
Prepare a mathematical model to examine the profitability.
Solution Step 1 Situation is clearly identifiable.

264

MATHEMATICS

Step 2 Formulation: We are given that the costs are of two types: fixed and variable.
The fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced (e.g., rent and rates),
while the variable costs increase with the number of units produced (e.g., material).
Initially, we assume that the variable costs are directly proportional to the number of
units produced this should simplify our model. The company earn a certain amount
of money by selling its products and wants to ensure that it is maximum. For convenience,
we assume that all units produced are sold immediately.
The mathematical model
Let
x = number of units produced and sold
C = total cost of production (in rupees)
I = income from sales (in rupees)
P = profit (in rupees)
Our assumptions above state that C consists of two parts:
(i) fixed cost = a (in rupees),
(ii) variable cost = b (rupees/unit produced).
Then
C = a + bx
... (1)
Also, income I depends on selling price s (rupees/unit)
Thus
I = sx
... (2)
The profit P is then the difference between income and costs. So
P=I C
= sx (a + bx)
= (s b) x a
... (3)
We now have a mathematical model of the relationships (1) to (3) between
the variables x, C, I, P, a, b, s. These variables may be classified as:
independent
x
dependent
C, I, P
parameters
a, b, s
The manufacturer, knowing x, a, b, s can determine P.
Step 3 From (3), we can observe that for the break even point (i.e., make neither profit
nor loss), he must have P = 0, i.e., x

units.
s b
Steps 4 and 5 In view of the break even point, one may conclude that if the company

a
s b

produces few units, i.e., less than x

units , then the company will suffer loss

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

and if it produces large number of units, i.e., much more than

a
s b

265

units , then it can

make huge profit. Further, if the break even point proves to be unrealistic, then another
model could be tried or the assumptions regarding cash flow may be modified.
Remark From (3), we also have

s b

dP
dx

This means that rate of change of P with respect to x depends on the quantity
s b, which is the difference of selling price and the variable cost of each product.
Thus, in order to gain profit, this should be positive and to get large gains, we need to
produce large quantity of the product and at the same time try to reduce the variable
cost.
Example 7 Let a tank contains 1000 litres of brine which contains 250 g of salt per
litre. Brine containing 200 g of salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 25 litres per
minute and the mixture flows out at the same rate. Assume that the mixture is kept
uniform all the time by stirring. What would be the amount of salt in the tank at
any time t?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Let y = y (t) denote the amount of salt (in kg) in the tank at time t (in minutes)
after the inflow, outflow starts. Further assume that y is a differentiable function.
When t = 0, i.e., before the inflowoutflow of the brine starts,
y = 250 g 1000 = 250 kg
Note that the change in y occurs due to the inflow, outflow of the mixture.
Now the inflow of brine brings salt into the tank at the rate of 5 kg per minute
(as 25 200 g = 5 kg) and the outflow of brine takes salt out of the tank at the rate of

y
1000

25

y
y
kg per minute (as at time t, the salt in the tank is
kg).
1000
40

Thus, the rate of change of salt with respect to t is given by

dy
y
=5
dt
40

dy 1
y =5
dt 40

or

(Why?)
... (1)

266

MATHEMATICS

This gives a mathematical model for the given problem.

Step 3 Equation (1) is a linear equation and can be easily solved. The solution of (1) is
given by
t

200 e 40

C or y (t) = 200 + C e

y e 40

t
40

... (2)

where, c is the constant of integration.

Note that when t = 0, y = 250. Therefore, 250 = 200 + C
or
C = 50
Then (2) reduces to

y 200
= e
50

or

e 40 =

Therefore

t = 40log e

or

y = 200 + 50 e

t
40

... (3)

t
40

50
y 200

50
y 200

... (4)

Here, the equation (4) gives the time t at which the salt in tank is y kg.
t

Step 4 Since e 40 is always positive, from (3), we conclude that y > 200 at all times
Thus, the minimum amount of salt content in the tank is 200 kg.
Also, from (4), we conclude that t > 0 if and only if 0 < y 200 < 50 i.e., if and only
if 200 < y < 250 i.e., the amount of salt content in the tank after the start of inflow and
outflow of the brine is between 200 kg and 250 kg.

Limitations of Mathematical Modelling

Till today many mathematical models have been developed and applied successfully
to understand and get an insight into thousands of situations. Some of the subjects like
mathematical physics, mathematical economics, operations research, bio-mathematics
etc. are almost synonymous with mathematical modelling.
But there are still a large number of situations which are yet to be modelled. The
reason behind this is that either the situation are found to be very complex or the
mathematical models formed are mathematically intractable.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

267

The development of the powerful computers and super computers has enabled us
to mathematically model a large number of situations (even complex situations). Due
to these fast and advanced computers, it has been possible to prepare more realistic
models which can obtain better agreements with observations.
However, we do not have good guidelines for choosing various parameters / variables
and also for estimating the values of these parameters / variables used in a mathematical
model. Infact, we can prepare reasonably accurate models to fit any data by choosing
five or six parameters / variables. We require a minimal number of parameters / variables
to be able to estimate them accurately.
Mathematical modelling of large or complex situations has its own special problems.
These type of situations usually occur in the study of world models of environment,
oceanography, pollution control etc. Mathematical modellers from all disciplines
mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, social sciences, etc., are involved
in meeting these challenges with courage.

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 35)
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and reasonable restrictions)

guarantees these

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Right against Exploitation

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