Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Introduction

EN 1993-5 Piling

EN 1993-6 Crane supporting structures

Eurocode 3 Part 1 has 12 sub-parts:

Development of Eurocode 3

EN 1993-1-1 General Rules

Aim: to create a common structural language

EN 1993-1-2 Fire

EN 1993-1-3 Cold-formed thin gauge

EN 1993-1-4 Stainless steel

EN 1993-1-5 Plated elements

National Annex

EN 1993-1-6 Shells

EN 1993-1-7 Plates transversely

loaded

EN 1993-1-8 Joints

EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue

EN 1993-1-10 Fracture Toughness

EN 1993-1-11 Cables

EN 1993-1-12 High strength steels

And make allowances for National

Choice through the use of a National
Annex

Eurocode 3 allows some parameters and

design methods to be determined at a
national level.
Where a national choice is allowed, this is
indicated in the Eurocodes under the
relevant clause.
values or methods to be used in a
particular country are given in the
National Annex.

Nationally Determined Parameters

(NDPs)

The recommended values of the

parameters and design methods are
collectively referred to as Nationally
Determined Parameters (NDPs).

NDPs determine various aspects of

design but perhaps most importantly the
level of safety of structures during
construction and service.

Key Differences between EC3 and

BS 5950
There are several differences between EC3
and BS 5950:
BS 5950 Structure

EC3 Structure

Separate sections
for different
elements types

Sub-parts are based

on structural
phenomena

Structure of Eurocode 3

e.g. Beams,

Eurocode 3 is broken into 6 parts:

Plate Girders,

e.g. Tension,
Compression,
Bending, Shear

EN 1993-1 Generic rules

EN 1993-2 Bridges

EN 1993-3 Towers, masts and

chimneys

EN 1993-4 Silos, tanks and pipelines

Compression
members...

Sub-parts can be
applied to any
element
The arrangement of
the sub-parts means
less duplication of
rules

Different Axes

Informative subscripts
BS 5950

Along the
member
Major Axis
Minor Axis

Eurocode 3

Ed means design effect

Rd means design resistance

Therefore:

NEd is an design axial force

NRd is the design resistance to the axial force

Gamma Factors
Partial factor
M

UK NA
value

Application

M0

1.00

Cross-sections

M1

1.00

Member
Buckling

M2

1.25

Fracture

Figure 1 (Source: Arya (2009) Design of

Structural Elements Pg.377)

Different Wording
Action force or imposed displacement

Permanent action (Dead Load)

Variable action (Live Load)

Effect internal force or moment, deflections

Omissions

Verification check

Notable omissions:

Resistance capacity

Effective lengths
Use BS 5950 effective lengths

Different Symbols

Formulae for Mcr

Use SN003 NCCI Document

BS
5950

EC3

BS
5950

EC3

BS
5950

EC3

py

fy

Wel

Mx

My

pb

LTfy

Wpl

pc

fy

Ix

Iy

Iw

Iy

Iz

It

Deflection limits
Refer to National Annex

Combination Factors

Loading
Introduction to EN 1990

Covers the Basis of Structural Design

Use with the other Eurocodes

Gives safety factors needed for ULS and

SLS verifications

partial factors (see Table 1)

combination factors (See Table 2)

ULS Checks

Action
0 1
Imposed loads in buildings,
Category A : domestic/residential
areas
0.7 0.5
Category B : office areas
0.7 0.5
Category C : congregation areas 0.7 0.7
Category D : shopping areas
0.7 0.7
Category E : storage areas
1.0 0.9
Category F : traffic area, < 30kN 0.7 0.7
Category G : traffic area, 30 160 0.7 0.5
kN
0.7 0
Category H : roofs
Snow (sites up to 1000m)
0.5 0.2
Wind
0.5 0.2
Table 2: Extract from Table NA.A1.1

EQU: static equilibrium

Combinations of Actions

STR: strength/buckling etc

Can use either:

GEO: Failure of excessive deformation of

ground

Equation 6.10

Less favourable of 6.10a and 6.10b

Method: Get the factors from Tables 1 and 2

FAT: fatigue failure

and substitute them into the equation you are

using, check for a range of different loading
combinations and take the least favourable

Actions

result.

Permanent actions , G (Dead loads)

Equation 6.10

Variable actions , Q (Live loads)

G,jGk,j + PP + Q,1Qk,1 + Q,i0,iQk,i

Qk

0Qk Combination value

1Qk Frequent value

2Qk Quasi-permanent value

Characteristic value ( = 1.0)

Equation 6.10a
Partial Factors

G,jGk,j + PP + Q,10,iQk,1 + Q,i0,iQk,i

Unfavourable

Favourable

1.35

1.0

Q
1.5
0
Table 1: Partial Factor values from the UK NA

Equation 6.10b
jG,jGk,j + PP + Q,1Qk,1 + Q,i0,iQk,i
j is 0.925 (From NA 2.2.3.2)

2
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.3
0
0
0

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Structural Analysis

The choice between a first- and second- order

analysis should be based on:

the flexibility of the structure

in particular, the extent to which ignoring

Analysis Types

second-order effects might lead to an unsafe

There are four types of global analysis:

approach due to underestimation of some of

First-order elastic

Second-order elastic

Non-linear material
behaviour

Linear material
behaviour

Clause 5.2.1(2) states that second order effects

shall be considered:

Second-order elastic
First-order plastic

Deformed Geometry

Analysis Type

Initial Geometry

the internal forces and moments.

if they increase the action effects

significantly

or modify significantly the structural

behaviour

Table 1: Summary of Analysis Types

First-Order Analysis
A first-order analysis may be used if the
following criteria is satisfied:
cr 10 for elastic analysis
cr 15 for plastic analysis
cr =Fcr/FEd

Figure 1: Load-Deformation graph for different analysis types

(Source: Designers Guide to EN 1993-1-1 Page 21)

cr

is the factor by which the design loading

would have to increased to cause elastic
instability in a global mode (cr in BS 5950-1)

FEd

is the design loading on the structure

Fcr

is the elastic critical buckling load for global

instability based on initial elastic stiffness.

Joints
Clause 5.1.2 deals with joint modelling

For portal frames (with shallow roof slopes less

than 26) and beam and column plane frames:

Eurocode 3 recognises the same three types of

joint, in terms of their effect on the behaviour of
the frame structure, as BS 5950: Part 1.

HEd

is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the

storey

VEd

is the total vertical load at the bottom of the

storey

H,Ed is the horizontal deflection at the top of the

storey under consideration relative to the
bottom of the storey, with all horizontal loads
applied to the structure.
Figure 2: Joint stiffness effects (Source: SCI CPD Course
Material)

is the storey height.

Amplifier

(h is the height of the structure in metres)

If 10 > cr 3.0

m is the reduction factor for columns

Increase all lateral loads by the amplifier:

Limits on cr
cr >10

Action
First order Analysis
First order analysis plus amplification
10>cr >3
or effective length method
cr 3
Second order analysis
Table 2: Actions to be taken once cr has been
calculated

(m is the number of columns contributing to the

effect on the bracing system)

Summary
1) Model the Frame

Imperfections

2) Put all the loads on the frame

(Including the EHFs)
3) Calculate cr
4) Check to see if second-order effects are
significant

5) If necessary use the amplifier

Figure 2: Typical Imperfections that will be present

when designing a structure

Frame imperfections appear in (almost) every load

case. We can represent initial sway imperfections
by using Equivalent Horizontal Forces (EHFs)
which are based on 1/200 of the factored vertical
load, with reduction factors.

Figure3:Replacing initial sway imperfections with

equivalent horizontal forces

EHF = x Vertical Forces

= 0hm

= 1/200 = 0.005

h is the reduction factor for height:

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Brittle Fracture
Steel sub-grade selection
Brittle failure is most likely to occur at very low
temperatures. It should be considered where there are
tensile stresses. It can be avoided by choosing a steel
with sufficient fracture toughness
Failure mainly dependent on:

Steel strength grade

Thickness

Lowest service temperature

Material toughness

Tensile Stress

Notches or defects in the element

Steel toughness
Steel toughness is measured by Charpy V-notch
value. The Charpy test measures how much energy is
absorbed by a steel sample, at a given temperature.

S275 JR

- Charpy value of 27 J can be

obtained at +20C

S275 J0

- Charpy value of 27J can be

obtained at 0C

S275 J2

- Charpy value of 27J can be

obtained at -20C

EN 1993-1-10
The method given in the Eurocodes can be quite
complex to use, it is recommended that you use
Published Document PD 6695 instead.
The service temperature is lowered i.e. it becomes a
reference temperature. Refer to table 2.1 of the
Eurocodes so determine the steel sub grade, below is
an extract from that table.

fy(t)
fy(t) = fy,nom 0.25 (t/t0)
but t0 = 1mm, so fy(t) = fy,nom 0.25 (t) .

PD 6695-1-10
Published Document is much Simpler to use

Internal Tmd is -5C (Table 2)

External is Tmd -15C (Table 3)

NOTE: Can only use this document for design in the

UK

PD 6695-1-10 Tables
Table 2 Maximum thicknesses for internal steelwork in buildings for T md = -5C

Table 3 Maximum thicknesses for external steelwork in buildings for T md = -15C

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Local Buckling and CrossSection Classification
In Eurocode 3 you will need to refer to the following
clauses when classifying a section and determining the
cross-sectional resistance:

Clause 5.5 covers the cross section classification

Clauses 6.1 and 6.2 covers the cross-sectional

resistance

Sections with slender webs or flanges will be more

susceptible to local buckling, where the element will
fail before the design strength is reached. Eurocode 3
takes into account the effects of local through the
process of cross section classification.

Classes

Class 2 cross-sections are those which can develop

their plastic moment resistance, but have limited
rotation capacity because of local buckling.
Class 3 cross-sections are those in which the stress in
the extreme compression fibre of the steel member
assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach
the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent
development of the plastic moment resistance.
Class 4 cross-sections are those in which local
buckling will occur before the attainment of yield stress
in one or more parts of the cross-section.

Limits
The limits between the classes depend on the factor
which is calculated using fy, the yield strength of the
steel.

Factor

BS 5950

EC3

Plastic

Class 1

Compact

Class 2

Semi-compact

Class 3

Slender

Class 4

BS 5950

EC3

= (275/py)0.5

= (235/fy)0.5

Values of are given at the bottom of Table 5.2:

fy

235

275

355

420

460

1.00

0.92

0.81

0.75

0.71

EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2

Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Image
Source: http://www.steel-insdag.org/new/pdfs/Chapter8.pdf

The UK National Annex says that material properties

should be taken from the product standards.
Extract from EN 10025-2 - fy (yield strength) values for
hot rolled steel:
2

fy (N/mm )
nominal thickness of element,
t (mm)
16< t 40

40 < t 63

63 < t 80

Steel
Grade
t16

Similarly to BS 5950, cross sections will be placed into

one of four behaviour classes. Class 1 is the least
susceptible to local buckling and class 4 is the most
susceptible.

fy Yield Strength

Eurocode 3 defines the classes in Clause 5.5.2:

S 275

275

265

255

245

Class 1 cross-sections are those which can form a

plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required from
plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance.

S 355

355

345

335

325

The classification of a section will depend mainly on:

The material yield strength, fy

c/t ratio

EN 10025-2 (Table 7)

c/t Width-to-Thickness Ratio

Class 3: Semi-compact

BS 5950

EC3

Limits

The width-to-thickness ratios differ in EC3 differs from

BS 5950:

Flange
outstand
Web in
bending
Web in
compression

BS (Table 11)

EC3 (Table 5.2)

b/T = < 15

c/tf = < 14

d/t = < 120

d/tw = < 142

d/tw = < 42

Class 4: Slender

Outstand
Flange

b = B/2

c = (b tw
2 r)/2

Internal
Compressio
n
Part

d=
D2T2r

c=
h 2 tf 2 r

Appropriate values of c and t are defined at the top of

Table 5.2 for different types of sections.

Table 5.2

An element that doesnt meet the class 3 limits should

be taken as a class 4 section. Effective widths are
assigned to Class 4 compression elements to make
allowance for the reduction in resistance as a result of
local buckling
To calculate the effective width of a Class 4 section,
refer to the relevant section in the Eurocodes:
Section Type

Reference

Cold-formed sections

EN 1993-1-3

Hot-rolled and
fabricated section

EN 1993-1-5

CHS

EN 1993-1-6

Internal compression parts and outstand flanges are

assessed against the limiting width to thickness ratios
for each class. The limits are provided in table 5.2.

Overall Cross-Section Classification

Table 5.2 is made up of three sheets:

Sheet 1 Internal Compression Parts
Sheet 2 Outstand Flanges

Clause 5.5.2(6) states that a cross-section is classified

according to the highest (least favourable) class of its
compression parts.

Sheet 3 Angles and Tubular Sections

Summary

Cross-section Classification

1. Determine fy (UK NA recommends you use the

product standards)

Limits

Class 1: Plastic

Flange
outstand
Web in
bending
Web in
compression

BS (Table 11)

EC3 (Table 5.2)

b/T = < 9

c/tf = < 9

d/t = < 80

d/tw = < 72

Limits

3. Substitute the value of into the class limits in

Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange and
web

Class 1

Flange
outstand
limiting
value, c/tf
9

Class 2

10

d/tw = < 33

Class 2: Compact

Flange
outstand
Web in
bending
Web in
compression

2. Determine from Table 5.2

BS (Table 11)

EC3 (Table 5.2)

b/T = < 10

c/tf = < 10

d/t = < 100

d/tw = < 83
d/tw = < 38

Class 3
Class 4

Web in bending
limiting value, d/tw
72
83

14
124
If it does not meet Class 3
requirements, the section is classified
as Class 4

4. Take the least favourable class from the flange

and web results

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Section Modulus, W

Restrained Beams

Subscripts are used to identify whether or not the

section modulus is plastic or elastic and the axis
about which it acts.

A beam is considered restrained if:

The section is bent about its minor axis

Full lateral restraint is provided
Closely spaced bracing is provided making
the slenderness of the weak axis low
The compressive flange is restrained again
torsion
The section has a high torsional and lateral
bending stiffness

There are a number of factors to consider when

designing a beam, and they all must be satisfied
for the beam design to be adopted:

Bending Moment Resistance

Shear Resistance
Combined Bending and Shear
Serviceability

Bending Moment
Resistance
In Eurocode 3:
Clause 6.2 covers the cross-sectional
resistance
o Clause 6.2.5 deals with the crosssectional resistance for bending.
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.4 Equation 6.12 states
that the design moment (MEd) must be less than
the design cross-sectional moment resistance
(Mc,Rd)
(6.12)

The equation to calculate Mc,Rd is dependent on

the class of the section. A detailed assessment of
cross-section classification can be found in the
Local Buckling and Cross-Section Classification
handout.
For Class 1 and 2 cross-sections:
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = W plfy/M0(6.13)
For Class 3 cross-sections:
Mc,Rd = Mel,Rd = W el,minfy/M0
(6.14)
For Class 4 cross sections:
Mc,Rd = W eff,minfy/M0
M0 =1.0

(6.15)

BS
EC3
5950
Elastic modulus about the major axis
Zxx
W el,y
Elastic modulus about the minor axis
Zyy
W el,z
Plastic modulus about the major axis
Sxx
W pl,y
Plastic modulus about the minor axis
Syy
W pl,z
Table 1.0 Section modulus terminology comparison
between BS 5950 and EC3

Cross-section Classification
Summary
1. Get fy from Table 3.1
2. Get from Table 5.2
3. Substitute the value of into the class limits in
Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange
and web
4. Take the least favourable class from the
flange outstand, web in bending and web in
compression results to get the overall section
class

Bending Moment Resistance

Summary
1. Determine the design moment, MEd
2. Choose a section and determine the section
classification
3. Determine Mc,Rd, using equation 6.13 for Class
1 and 2 cross-sections, equation 6.14 for
Class 3 cross-sections, and equation 6.15 for
Class 4 sections. Ensure that the correct
value of W, the section modulus is used.
4. Carry out the cross-sectional moment
resistance check by ensuring equation 6.12 is
satisfied.

Shear Resistance
In Eurocode 3:
Clause 6.2 covers the cross-sectional
resistance
o Clause 6.2.6 deals with the crosssectional resistance for shear.
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.6 Equation 6.17 states
that the design shear force (VEd) must be less than
the design plastic shear resistance of the crosssection (Vpl,Rd)
(6.17)

(6.18)

Shear Resistance Summary

1. Calculate the shear area, Av

M0 =1.0

2. Substitute the value of Av into equation 6.18

to get the design plastic shear resistance

Shear Area, Av
EC3 should provide a slightly larger shear area
compared to BS 5950 meaning that the overall
resistance will be larger as shown in Figure 1.

3. Carry out the cross-sectional plastic shear

resistance check by ensuring equation 6.17 is
satisfied.

Serviceability
Deflection checks should be made against
unfactored permanent actions and unfactored
variable actions.

Figure 1: Differences in shear area calculated using BS

5950 and EC3
Type of member

Shear Area, Av

Rolled I and H sections

(load parallel to web)
Rolled Channel sections
(load parallel to web)
Rolled PHS of uniform
thickness (load parallel to
depth)
CHS and tubes of uniform
thickness
Plates and solid bars

Av = A 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf

but hwtw
Av = A 2btf + (tw + r)tf
Av =Ah/(b+h)
Av =2A/
Av =A

Table 2.0: Shear area formulas

Term
A
b
h
hw
r
tf
tw

Definition
Cross-sectional area
Overall breadth
Overall depth
Depth of web
Root radius
Flange thickness
Web thickness (taken as the minimum value
is the web is not of constant thickness)

Constant which may be conservatively taken

as 1.0
Table 3.0: Shear area parameter descriptions

Figure 1: Visual definition

of the parameters used in
the shear area
calculation. (Source:
Blue Book)

Figure 2: Standard case deflections and corresponding

maximum deflection equations

The maximum deflection calculated must not

exceed the deflection limit. The deflection limits
are not given directly in Eurocode 3, instead,
reference must be made to the National Annex.
Design Situation

Deflection limit

Cantilever

Length/180

Beams carrying plaster of

other brittle finish
Other beams (except
purlins and sheeting rails)

Span/360
Span/200

To suit the characteristics

of particular cladding
Table 4.0: Vertical Deflection Limits from NA 2.23
Clause 7.2.1(1) B

Purlins and sheeting rails

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

(6.54)

Unrestrained Beams
Beams without continuous lateral restraint are prone to
buckling about their major axis, this mode of buckling
is called lateral torsional buckling (LTB).
This handout is a continuation of the Restrained
Beams one and covers the design of unrestrained
beams that are prone to lateral torsional buckling.

(6.55)
where M1 =1.0 (from UK NA)

Section Modulus Wy
For Class 1 and 2 cross-sections:
W y = W pl,y

Lateral torsional buckling can be discounted when:

Eurocode 3 Approach
There are three methods for calculating the LTB
resistance of a member in Eurocode 3:
1. Primary method (Clauses 6.3.2.2 and Clauses
6.3.2.3)
2. Simplified assessment method (Clause
6.3.2.4)
3. General method (Clause 6.3.4)
Note: This handout will only deal with the primary
method.

General and Special Cases

When using the primary method, there are two cases
which are available for you to use. The first case is the
General Case which can be used for all sections, and
the second case is the Special Case which is
specifically for rolled sections of standard dimensions.

For Class 4 cross-sections:

W y = W eff,y

Yield Strength, fy
The UK National Annex says that we should obtain the
value of the yield strength from the product standards.
Extract from EN 10025-2 - fy (yield strength) values for
hot rolled steel:
fy (N/mm2)
nominal thickness of element,
t (mm)
Steel
Grade

63 < t 80

W y = W el,y

40 < t 63

For Class 3 cross-sections:

16< t 40

The section is bent about its minor axis

Full lateral restraint is provided
Closely spaced bracing is provided making the
slenderness of the weak axis low
The compressive flange is restrained again
torsion
The section has a high torsional and lateral
bending stiffness
The non-dimensional slenderness,
< 0.2

t16

S 275

275

265

255

245

S 355

355

345

335

325

Extract from EN 10025-2 (Table 7)

Reduction Factor, LT
General Case:
(6.56)

The methods for both cases are very similar with the
addition of a few extra parameters in the Special Case.
This small amount of extra work for the Special Case
is worthwhile as it provides greater resistance of the
section.

LTB Resistance
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.3.2.1 Equation 6.54 states that
the design moment (MEd) must be less than the design
buckling resistance moment (Mb,Rd)

where

To get LT, determine the buckling curve that you

need to use from table 6.4 and then refer to table
6.3 to get the corresponding value of LT
Crosssection
Rolled
I
sections
Welded I
sections
Other

Buckling
curve
LT

(6.58)

f= 1- 0.5(1 - kc)[1-2.0(

Limits

Buckling
Curve
h/b 2
a
h/b >2
s
h/b 2
c
h/b >2
d
d
EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.4
a

- 0.8)2]

but f 1.0
kc can be obtained from Table 6.6 in the
Eurocodes:

0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.3

Special Case (for rolled sections):

(6.57)

where

EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.6

UK NA sets = 0.75 and

= 0.4

To get LT, determine the buckling curve that you

need to use from the table from the National
Annex NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1) and then refer
to table 6.3 to get the corresponding value of LT
Cross-section

Limits

Buckling
Curve

Rolled bi-symmetric I
h/b 2
and H sections and hot2.0 < h/b 3.1
finished hollow sections
Angles (for moments in
the major principal
plane) and other hotrolled sections
Welded bi-symmetric
h/b 2
sections and coldh/b > 2
formed hollow sections
Table from NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1)
Buckling
curve
LT

b
c

You will need the value of

special cases.

for both the general and

(6.56)

Mcr
Refer to SN003 document (NCCI) for detailed
description of how to get Mcr

c
d

0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.3

You can use a modified value of LT in the special

case to give some extra resistance:

where
L is the distance between points of lateral restraint (Lcr)
E is the Youngs Modulus = 210000 N/mm2
G is the shear modulus = 80770 N/mm2
Iz is the second moment of area about the weak axis
It is the torsion constant
Iw is the warping constant

k is an effective length factor (usually 1.0)

kw is an effective length factor (usually 1.0)
zg is the distance between the point of load application
and the shear centre. The value will be positive or
negative depending on where the load is applied as
shown in figure 1.

Table 3.1 from SN003 (Values of C1 for members with

end moments)
where

Figure 3.1 from SN003

Summary
Figure 1 (from SN003 document)
C1 and C2 are coefficients.
For transverse loading, C1 and C2 are obtained from
Table 5.2 in SN003:

1. Draw the bending moment diagram to obtain the

value of the maximum bending moment, MEd
2. Determine fy (UK NA recommends you use the
product standards) and calculate the class of the
section. Once you know the class of the section
then you will know which value of the section
modulus you will need to use in the equation 6.55.
3. Work out the effective length, Lcr
4. Refer to SN003 document and work out the value
of Mcr, the critical moment
5. Work out

Table 5.2 from SN003 (C1 and C2 values for

transverse loading)

For members with end moments, the value of C1 is

obtained from Table 3.1 in SN003:

using expression 6.56.

6. Determine the values of LT

a. For the general case use Table 6.4 to work
out the buckling curve and then refer to Table
6.3 to get a value of LT
b. For the special case, refer to the table in the
National Annex (NA.2.17 Clause 6.3.2.3(1))
to get the buckling curve and then refer to
Table 6.3 to get the value of LT
7. Work out LT
a. For the general case use expression 6.56
b. For the special case, use expression 6.57
8. Work out LT
a. For the general case use expression 6.56
b. For the special case, use expression 6.57
9. Calculate the design buckling resistance Mc,Rd
using equation 6.55.
10. Carry out the buckling resistance check in
expression 6.54.

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Compression Members

must be less than the design cross-sectional

resistance of the sections to uniform compression
force (Nc,Rd)
(6.9)

Columns are vertical members used to carry axial

compression loads and due to their slender nature,
they are prone to buckling. The behaviour of a
column will depend on its slenderness as shown in
Figure 1

Cross-section resistance in compression depends

on cross-section classification. For Classes 1, 2
and 3:
(6.10)

For Class 4 sections:

(6.11)

M0 =1.0
Figure 1 Behaviour of columns is determined by their
slenderness

Stocky Columns are not affected by buckling and

the strength is related to the material yield stress fy.
Nmax = Npl = Aeff fy

Cross-section Classification Summary

1. Get fy from Product Standards
2. Get from Table 5.2
3. Substitute the value of into the class limits in
Table 5.2 to work out the class of the flange
and web

4. Take the least favourable class from the flange

outstand, web in bending and web in
compression results to get the overall section
class

Figure 2: Resistance of columns depends on different

factors

Eurocode 3 Approach
To take into account the various imperfections
which the Euler formula does not allow for, the
Eurocode uses the Perry-Robertson approach. This
is approach is the similar to that used in BS 5950.
Table 1 shows the checks required for both slender
and stocky columns:
Slender
column
> 0.2

Stocky
Column
< 0.2

Cross-section Resistance check, Nc,Rd

Buckling Resistance Check, Nb,Rd

Table 1.0 Resistance checks required for slender and

stocky columns

Cross-Section Resistance
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.4 Equation 6.9 states that
the design value of the Compression force (NEd)

For a more detailed description of cross-section

classification, please refer to the Cross-section
Classification handout.

Cross-section
Summary

Resistance

Check

1. Determine the design compression force

2. Choose a section and determine the section
classification

3. Determine Nc,Rd, using equation 6.10 for Class

1,2 and 3 sections, and equation 6.11 for Class
4 sections.

4. Carry out the cross-sectional resistance check

by ensuring equation 6.9 is satisfied.

Effective Area Aeff

The effective area of the cross-section used for
design of compression members with Class 1, 2 or
3 cross-sections, is calculated on the basis of the
gross cross-section using the specified dimensions.
Holes, if they are used with fasteners in
connections, need not be deducted.

Member Buckling Resistance

EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.3.1 Equation 6.46 states
that the design values of the Compression force
(NEd) must be less than the buckling resistance of
the compression member (Nb,Rd)
(6.46)

Non-dimensional Slenderness
For sections with Classes 1, 2 and 3:
(6.50)

or

For Class 4 sections:

(6.51)

or

Similarly to cross-section resistance, buckling

resistance is dependent on the cross-section
classification. For sections with Classes 1, 2 and 3:

where

(6.47)

Imperfection Factor,

For Class 4 sections:

(6.48)

M1 =1.0

is an imperfection factor, first you will need to

determine the required buckling curve from Table
6.2 and refer to Table 6.1 to get the value of :

Buckling Curves

Buckling Curve
Imperfection
Factor

Buckling curve selection is dependent on the

section geometry. Table 6.2 in EN 1993-1-1
provides guidance on a range of sections.

a0

0.13

0.21

0.34

0.49

0.76

EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.1

Reduction Factor,

Effective Buckling Lengths

The effective length of a member will depend on its
end conditions. EC3 gives no direct guidance on
calculating the buckling length, therefore it is
acceptable to use those given in BS 5950 Table
13. Some typical effective lengths are given in
Figure 3.

(6.49)

where
Alternatively, may be read from Figure 6.4 in the
Eurocodes by using and the required buckling
curve.

Buckling Resistance Check Summary

Pinned Pinned

Fixed - Fixed

Fixed - Pinned

Figure 3: Effective Lengths for three types of end

conditions

Elastic Critical Buckling Load

Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load for the
relevant buckling mode based on the gross
properties of the cross section

1.
2.
3.
4.

Determine the design axial load, NEd

Choose a section and determine the class
Calculate the effective length Lcr
Calculate Ncr using the effective length Lcr, and
E and I which are section properties
5. Calculate
6. Determine by first determining the required
buckling curve from Table 6.2 and then reading
off the required value of from Table 6.1.
7. Calculate by substituting in the values of
and
8. Calculate by substituting in the values of
and
9. Determine the design buckling resistance of
the member by using equation 6.47 or 6.48
and substituting in the value of
10. Make sure that the conditions of equation 6.46
are satisfied.

Partial Factors M
M
M0

S 275

275

265

255

245

S 355

355

345

335

325

Design Plastic Resistance Npl,Rd

Design Ultimate Resistance Nu,Rd

3 < t 100

Steel
grade

fu (N/mm2)

t<3

fy (N/mm2)

430580
510680

410560
470630

Extract from Table 7 of EN 10025-2

(6.5)

The tensile resistance is limited by the lesser of:

1.25

The UK National Annex says you should get the

values of fy and fu from the product standards. For
hot-rolled sections you can use the table below.

Tensile Resistance
EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.3(1) Equation 6.5 states
that the design tensile force (Nt,Ed) must be less
than the design tensile resistance moment (Nt,Rd)

UK N.A. Value
1.0

Characteristic Strengths fy and fu

40 < t 63

A tension member fails when it reached the

ultimate stress and the failure load is independent
of the length of the member. Tension members
are generally designed using rolled section, bars
or flats.

M2

16 < t 40

As the tensile force increases on a member it will

straighten out as the load is increased. For a
member that is purely in tension, we do not need
to worry about the section classification since it will
not buckle locally.

t 16

Tension Members

Resistance of cross-sections
Resistance of cross-sections
in tension to fracture

63 < t 80

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Anet for Non staggered fasteners

Anet = A d0t

Design Plastic Resistance, Npl,Rd

Npl,Rd is the plastic design resistance, and is
concerned with the yielding of the gross crosssection.
Equation 6.6 gives the expression used to
calculate Npl,Rd:

Anet for Staggered Fasteners:

(6.6)

Design Ultimate Resistance, N u,Rd

Nu,Rd is the design ultimate resistance of the net
cross-section, and is concerns with the ultimate
fracture of the net cross-section, which will
normally occur at fastener holes.
Equation 6.7 gives the expression used to
calculate Nu,Rd:

The total area to be deducted should be taken as

the greater of:
a) The maximum sum of the sectional areas
of the holes on any line perpendicular to
the member axis

(6.7)

b)

Tension Member Design Steps Summary

where:
t is the thickness of the plate

1. Determine the design axial load NEd

p is the spacing of the centres of the same two

holes measured perpendicular to the member axis

2. Choose a section

s is the staggered pitch of the two consecutive

holes

4. Get the gross area A and the net area Anet

n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal

or zig-zag line progressively across the section

3. Find fy and fu from the product standards

5. Substitute the values into the equations to
work out Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd
(6.6)

d0 is the diameter of the hole

Angles with welded end connections

(6.7)

Clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8 states that for an

equal angle, or unequal angle welded along its
larger leg, the effective area = gross area.

Angles Connected by a single row of bolts

For angles connected by a single row of bolts,

use the required equation to work out N u,Rd
from EN 1993-1-8 which will depend on the
number of bolts.

Refer to EN 1993-1-8.

For 1 bolt:
(3.11)

For 2 bolts:

For 1 bolt:

(3.12)

(3.11)

For 3 or more bolts:

For 2 bolts:
(3.12)

(3.13)

For 3 or more bolts:

(3.13)

6. The design tensile Resistance is the lesser of

the values of Npl,Rd and Nu,Rd
7. Carry out the tension check:

Values of reduction factors 2 and 3 can be found

in Table 3.8:
Pitch p1
2.5 d0
5.0 d0
2 (for 2 bolts)
0.4
0.7
3 (for 3 or
0.5
0.7
more bolts)
Note: For intermediate values of pitch p 1 values of
may be determined by linear interpolation.

EN 1993-1-8Table 3.8

(6.5)

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

Combined axial
compression and bending

Clause 6.3.3(4)
Members which are subjected to combined
bending and axial compression should satisfy
both:

Equation 6.61
Uniform members in bending and axial
compression demonstrate complex structural
behaviour

Interaction Method

Equation 6.62

When using the interaction method you will need

to refer to Clause 6.3.3 of EN 1993-1-1, and you
will also need to refer to Annex A or B depending
on the specific method being used.
where:

Clause 6.3.3(1)
When checking uniform members in bending and
axial compression, a distinction is made for:
members not susceptible to torsional
deformation (e.g. SHS, CHS, fully restrained
members)

members susceptible to torsional deformation

NEd
My,Ed

design values of the compression force

and the maximum moments about the y-y
and z-z axes along the member,

Mz,Ed

respectively

My,Rd

moments due to the shift of the centroidal

Mz,Rk

axis according to 6.2.9.3

reduction factors due to flexural buckling

from clause 6.3.1

Clause 6.3.3(2)
The resistance of the cross-sections at each end
of the member should also satisfy the
requirements given in Clause 6.2

Clause 6.3.3(3)
For members of structural systems the resistance
check may be carried out on the basis of the
individual single span members regarded as cut
out of the system.
Second-order effects of the sway system (P-
effects) have to be taken into account, whether by
the end moments of the member or by means of
appropriate buckling lengths respectively.

LT

kyy,
kyz,
kzy,
kzz

reduction factor due to lateral torsional

buckling from clause 6.3.2

interaction factors kij.

Table 6.7 Values for NRk, Mi,Rk and

Mi,Ed
NRk = fyAi

Mi,Rk = fyW i

Class

AI

Aeff

Wy

Wpl,y

Wpl,y

W el,y

W eff,y

Wz

Wpl,z

Wpl,z

W el,z

W eff,z

MY,Ed

eN,yNEd

Mz,Ed

eN,zNEd

NOTE1 : For members not susceptible to

torsional deformation LT would be LT = 1.0
NOTE 2: Nb,Rd = NRk/M1

Interaction Factors kij

Interaction factors are obtained from one of two
methods:

Method 1 (given in Annex A)

Method 2 (given in Annex B)

Annex A (Method 1)

Use Table A.1 of EN 1993-1-1

Equivalent uniform moment factors Cmi,0 depend

on the shape of the bending moments diagram
and these factors are determined from Table A.2
of EN 1993-1-1

Annex B (Method 2)

Use Table B.1 of EN 1993-1-1 for members

not susceptible to LTB
Use Table B.2 of EN 1993-1-1for members
that are susceptible to LTB.

Determine the equivalent uniform moment factors

from Table B.3 of EN 1993-1-1.

Annex A
Table A.1 Interaction factors kij for interaction formula in clause 6.3.3 (4)

Table A.2 Equivalent uniform moment factors Cmi,0

Annex B
Table B.1 - Interaction factors kij for members not susceptible to torsional deformations

Table B.2 - Interaction factors kij for members susceptible to torsional deformations

Table B.3 Equivalent uniform factors Cm in Tables B.1 and B.2

Steel Design to Eurocode 3

EN 1993-1-8 Clause 2.2

Joints

Partial safety factors, M for joints are given in

Table 2.1 of EC 3-8.

Eurocode 3 Part: 1-8

Refer to NA to get the required values of the

different partial safety factors

Resistance of bolts and welds, M2 = 1.25

Joint Types
CL 5.2.2.2 Nominally pinned joints are capable of
transmitting internal forces without developing
significant moments, and capable of accepting the
resulting rotations under the design loads.
CL 5.2.2.3 Rigid and full strength joints have
sufficient rotational stiffness to justify analysis based
on full continuity.

Bolted Joints Table 3.4

Table 3.4 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the different checks
required for individual fasteners subjected to shear
and/or tension.
Checks need to be carried out for a number of possible
failure modes:

Semi-rigid joints lie somewhere between nominally

pinned and rigid.

Eurocode 3

Principles mostly the same as BS 5950

Results are similar although EC3 results are slightly

more conservative and this is due to the larger

Shear resistance per shear plate

Bearing Resistance

Tension Resistance

Combined shear and tension

Bolted Joints Tension

Tension resistance for ordinary bolts:

partial safety factor (M2=1.25)

Bolt Strength
These values should be adopted as characteristic
values in design calculations :
Bolt classes

4.6

5.6

8.8

10.9

fyb (N/mm2)

240

300

640

900

fub (N/mm2)

400

500

800

1000

EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.1 - Nominal values of fyb and fub

for bolts

Steel Strength
2

fy (N/mm )
Steel
grade

S 275
S 355

fu (N/mm )

Nominal thickness of element

t (mm)
t 16

16 < t
40

40 < t
63

63 < t
80

275

265

255

245

355

345

335

325

Nominal
thickness of
element t
(mm)
3t
t<3
100
430
410
to
to
580
560
510
470
to
to
680
630

Extract from Table 7 of EN 10025-2

where:

As is the tensile stress area of the bolt

M2 = 1.25

fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt

k2 = 0.63 for countersunk bolt, otherwise k2 = 0.9

Bolted Joints Shear

Shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts
where the shear plane passes through the threaded
portion of the bolt:

where:

As is the tensile stress area of the bolt

fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt

M2 = 1.25

Bolt classes

4.6

4.8

5.6

5.8

6.8

8.8

10.9

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.5

Shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts

where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded
portion of the bolt:

Welded Joints
Simplified method for design resistance of fillet
weld (CL 4.5.3.3 and Table 4.1 EN 1993-1-8)

Fw,Ed Fw,Rd

where:
A is the gross cross-section of the bolt
fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
M2 = 1.25

Fw,Ed

Bolted Joints Bearing

Fw,Rd

(4.2)

is the design value of the weld force per unit

length
is the design resistance per unit length

Bearing resistance for ordinary bolts:

Fw,Rd = fvw,da
where:

d
t
M2
fu

is the bolt diameter

is the thickness
= 1.25
is the ultimate tensile strength

fvw,d

is the design shear strength of the weld

is the effective throat thickness (see Figure 1)

for end bolts

for inner bolts

Perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:

for edge bolts

for inner bolts

Figure 1 effective throat thickness

Image Source: Design of Structural Elements (Arya,
2009) Page 421

Bolted Joints Position of Holes

Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the maximum and
minimum spacing, end and edge distances

(4.4)

fu

is the minimum ultimate tensile strength of the

connected parts

is a correlation factor (See Table 4.1)

M2 = 1.25
Image Source: ESDEP
Minimum distance

Steel grade

Correlation factor w

End distance e1

1.2d0

S275

0.85

Edge distance e2

1.2d0

S355

0.90

Spacing p1

2.2d0

Spacing p2

2.4d0

where d0 =hole diameter

Extract from Table 4.1 from EN 1993-1-8: Values for

correlation factor w