SrrlsaacNewton,Io42 I727)wasanEnglrshnaturalphrlosopher,aprolessorol

mathematrcsatCambrrdgeUnrversrty,andpresrdentoltheRoyalSocrety.Hrs
Pr|n.||aMa//ema/|.a ,Io7),whrchdealswrththelawsandcondrtronsol
motron,rsconsrderedtobethegreatestscrentrlrcworkeverproduced.Thedelrnr-
tronsollorce,mass,andmomentumandhrsthreelawsolmotroncropupcontrn-
uallyrndynamrcs.Qurtelrttrngly,theunrtollorcenamed newton rnSlunrts
happenstobetheapproxrmatewerghtolanaverageapple,thelallrngobjectthat
rnsprredhrmtostudythelawsolgravrty. ,lllustratronolDavrdEugeneSmrth,
H|s/oryo]Ma//ema/|.s,\o|.I Cenera|Sarveyo]//eH|s/oryo]E|emen/ary
Ma//ema/|.s, DoverPublrcatrons,lnc.,NewYork,I95.)
C U A | T | k 2
|ree\iora|ion
o|Single-|egree-
o|-|reeJomSys|ems
I24
thap/er0a///ne
CapteOJt`e 24
.eagOo|ectves 25
2. `todJcto 2O
2.2 eeVoatoofaJda~pedTas`atoa`
3yste~ 29
2.3 eeVoatoofaJda~pedTosoa`
3yste~ 4O
2.4 Resposeofst-Ode3yste~sadT~e
Costat 5
2.5 Ray`eg segyVetod 53
2.O eeVoatowtVscoJs9a~pg 58
2.Z Oapca`RepesetatoofCaactestcRoots
adCoespodg3o`Jtos Z4
2.8 aa~eteVaatosadRoot.ocJs
Repesetatos ZO
2.9 eeVoatowtCoJ`o~o9a~pg 85
2.0 eeVoatowtysteetc9a~pg 92
2. 3tao`tyof3yste~s 98
2.2 xa~p`esJsgVAT.A3 202
Capte3J~~ay 208
Refeeces 209
RevewOJestos 209
oo`e~s 24
9esgo|ects 25O
||AkN|N00J|CT|\|S I25
Thrschapterstartswrthaconsrderatronolthelreevrbratronolanundampedsrngle-degree-
ol-lreedom ,sprrng-mass) system. Free vrbratron means that the mass rs set rnto motron
due to rnrtral drsturbance wrth no externally applred lorce other than the sprrng lorce,
damperlorce,orgravrtatronallorce.Tostudythelree-vrbratronresponseolthemass,we
needtoderrvethegovernrngequatron,knownastheeqaa/|ono]mo/|on.Theequatronol
motronoltheundampedtranslatronalsystemrsderrvedusrnglourmethods. Thenatural
lrequencyolvrbratronolthesystemrsdelrnedandthesolutronoltheequatronolmotron
rs presented usrng approprrate rnrtral condrtrons. The solutron rs shown to representhar-
monrcmotron.Theequatronolmotronandthesolutroncorrespondrngtolreevrbratronol
anundampedtorsronalsystemarepresented.Theresponseollrrst-ordersystemsandthe
trmeconstantareconsrdered.Raylergh smethod,basedontheprrncrpleolconservatronol
energy,rspresentedwrthrllustratrveexamples.
Next,thederrvatronoltheequatronlorthelreevrbratronolavrscouslydampedsrngle-
degree-ol-lreedomsystemandrtssolutronareconsrdered.Theconceptsolcrrtrcaldamp-
rng constant, damprng ratro, and lrequency ol damped vrbratron are rntroduced. The
drstrnctrons between underdamped, crrtrcally damped, and overdamped systems are
explarned.Theenergydrssrpatedrnvrscousdamprngandtheconceptsolspecrlrcdamp-
rngandlosscoellrcrentareconsrdered.Vrscouslydampedtorsronalsystemsarealsocon-
srdered analogous to vrscously damped translatronal systems wrth applrcatrons. The
graphrcalrepresentatronolcharacterrstrcrootsandthecorrespondrngsolutronsaswellas
theconceptolparametervarratronsandrootlocusplotsareconsrdered.Theequatronsol
motronandtherrsolutronsolsrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystemswrthCoulombandhys-
teretrc damprng are presented. The concept ol complex strllness rs also presented. The
rdeaolstabrlrtyandrtsrmportancersexplarnedalongwrthanexample.Thedetermrna-
tronoltheresponsesolsrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystemsusrngMATLABrsrllustrated
wrthexamples.
Learn/n0|]ec//ces
Altercompletrngthrschapter,youshouldbeabletodothelollowrng.
Derrvetheequatronolmotronolasrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystemusrngasurtable
technrquesuchasNewton ssecondlawolmotron,D Alembert sprrncrple,theprrn-
crpleolvrrtualdrsplacements,andtheprrncrpleolconservatronolenergy.
Lrnearrzethenonlrnearequatronolmotron.
Solveasprrng-mass-dampersystemlordrllerenttypesollree-vrbratronresponse
dependrngontheamountoldamprng.
Computethenaturallrequency,dampedlrequency,logarrthmrcdecrement,andtrme
constant.
Determrnewhetheragrvensystemrsstableornot.
FrndtheresponsesolsystemswrthCoulombandhysteretrcdamprng.
Frndthelree-vrbratronresponseusrngMATLAB.
I20 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

,,

a) b) c)

StretcheJlength
Ireelength

||0|k|2.I Asprrng-masssystemrnhorrzontalposrtron.
2.I |n|roJuc|ion
Asystemrssardtoundergolreevrbratronwhenrtoscrllatesonlyunderanrnrtraldrstur-
bancewrthnoexternallorcesactrngalterward.Someexamplesaretheoscrllatronsolthe
pendulumolagrandlatherclock,thevertrcaloscrllatorymotronleltbyabrcyclrstalterhrt-
trngaroadbump,andthemotronolachrldonaswrngalteranrnrtralpush.
Frgure2.I,a) showsasprrng-masssystemthatrepresentsthesrmplestpossrblevrbra-
torysystem.ltrscalledas|ng|e-degree-o]-]reedomsys/em,srnceonecoordrnate,x)rssul-
lrcrenttospecrlytheposrtronolthemassatanytrme.Therersnoexternallorceapplredto
the mass, hence the motron resultrng lrom an rnrtral drsturbance wrll be lree vrbratron.

eq

eq
||0|k|2.2
Equrvalentsprrng-
masssystemlor
thecam-lollower
systemolFrg.I.2.
2.I |NTk0||CT|0N I27
||0|k|2.3 Thespaceneedle,structure).
Srncetherersnoelementthatcausesdrssrpatronolenergydurrngthemotronolthemass,
theamplrtudeolmotronremarnsconstantwrthtrme,rtrsan system.lnactual
practrce, except rn a vacuum, the amplrtude ol lree vrbratron drmrnrshes gradually over
trme,duetotheresrstanceolleredbythesurroundrngmedrum,suchasarr).Suchvrbra-
trons are sard to be Thestudy ol thelree vrbratronolundamped anddamped
srngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystemsrslundamentaltotheunderstandrngolmoreadvanced
toprcsrnvrbratrons.
Severalmechanrcalandstructuralsystemscanberdealrzedassrngle-degree-ol-lreedom
systems.lnmanypractrcalsystems,themassrsdrstrrbuted,butlorasrmpleanalysrs,rtcan
beapproxrmatedbyasrngleporntmass.Srmrlarly,theelastrcrtyolthesystem,whrchmay
bedrstrrbutedthroughoutthesystem,canalsoberdealrzedbyasrnglesprrng.Forthecam-
lollowersystemshownrnFrg.I.9,lorexample,thevarrousmasseswerereplacedbyan
equrvalent mass rn Example I.7. The elements ol the lollower system ,pushrod,
rockerarm,valve,andvalvesprrng)areallelastrcbutcanbereducedtoasrngleequrvalent
sprrngolstrllness Forasrmpleanalysrs,thecam-lollowersystemcanthusberdealrzed
asasrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsprrng-masssystem,asshownrnFrg.2.2.
Srmrlarly,thestructureshownrnFrg.2. canbeconsrderedacantrleverbeamthatrs
lrxedattheground.Forthestudyoltransversevrbratron,thetopmasscanbeconsrdereda

eq

eq

I2S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

b) Lquivalentspring-
masssystem
a) BuilJinglrame
Llasticcolumns
massisnegligible)
RigiJlloor
mass)
)
) )

||0|k|2.5 ldealrzatronolaburldrnglrame.
a) IJealizationolthe
tallstructure
b) Lquivalent
spring-masssystem
)

)
3

||0|k|2.4 Modelrngoltallstructureassprrng-masssystem.
pornt mass and the supportrng structure ,beam) can be approxrmated as a sprrng to
obtarnthesrngle-degree-ol-lreedommodelshownrnFrg.2.4.Theburldrnglrameshownrn
Frg.2.5,a) canalsoberdealrzedasasprrng-masssystem,asshownrnFrg.2.5,b).lnthrs
case,srncethesprrngconstant rsmerelytheratroollorcetodellectron,rtcanbedeter-
mrnedlromthegeometrrcandmaterralpropertresolthecolumns.Themassoltherdeal-
rzedsystemrsthesameasthatolthelloorrlweassumethemassolthecolumnstobe
neglrgrble.
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I29
UsrngNewton ssecondlawolmotron,rnthrssectronwewrllconsrderthederrvatronolthe
equatronolmotron.Theprocedurewewrllusecanbesummarrzedaslollows.
Selectasurtablecoordrnatetodescrrbetheposrtronolthemassorrrgrdbodyrnthe
system.Usealrnearcoordrnatetodescrrbethelrnearmotronolaporntmassorthe
centrordolarrgrdbody,andanangularcoordrnatetodescrrbetheangularmotronol
arrgrdbody.
Determrnethestatrcequrlrbrrumconlrguratronolthesystemandmeasurethedrs-
placementolthemassorrrgrdbodylromrtsstatrcequrlrbrrumposrtron.
Drawthelree-bodydragramolthemassorrrgrdbodywhenaposrtrvedrsplacement
andvelocrtyaregrventort.lndrcatealltheactrveandreactrvelorcesactrngonthe
massorrrgrdbody.
ApplyNewton ssecondlawolmotrontothemassorrrgrdbodyshownbythelree-
bodydragram.Newton ssecondlawolmotroncanbestatedaslollows.
I/era/eo]./angeo]momen/amo]amass|seqaa|/o//e]or.ea./|ngon|/.
Thus,rlmassm rsdrsplacedadrstance whenacteduponbyaresultantlorce rn
thesamedrrectron,Newton ssecondlawolmotrongrves
llmassm rsconstant,thrsequatronreducesto
,2.I)
where
rstheacceleratronolthemass.Equatron,2.I)canbestatedrnwordsas
Forarrgrdbodyundergorngrotatronalmotron,Newton slawgrves
,2.2)
where rs the resultant moment actrng on the body and and are the
resultrng angular drsplacement and angular acceleratron, respectrvely. Equatron ,2.I) or
,2.2)representstheequatronolmotronolthevrbratrngsystem.
The procedure rs now applred to the undamped srngle-degree-ol-lreedom system
shown rn Frg. 2.I,a). Here the mass rs supported on lrrctronless rollers and can have

d
2
/)d/
2

/) J

Resultantlorceonthemass mass acceleratron

x

d
2
x

/)
d/
2
F

/) m
d
2
x

/)
d/
2
mx

/)
d
d/
m
dx

/)
d/

/) x

/)
2.2.I
|ua|iono|
Ho|ion|sing
New|on sSeconJ
|awo|Ho|ion
2.2 |ree\iora|iono|an|nJampeJTransla|ionalSys|em
I30 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
translatorymotronrnthehorrzontaldrrectron.Whenthemassrsdrsplacedadrstance
lromrtsstatrcequrlrbrrumposrtron,thelorcernthesprrngrs andthelree-bodydragram
olthemasscanberepresentedasshownrnFrg.2.I,c).TheapplrcatronolEq.,2.I)tomass
yreldstheequatronolmotron
or
,2.) mx

/x 0
F/) /x mx

x
2.2.2
|ua|iono|
Ho|ion|sing
0|herHe|hoJs
AsstatedrnSectronI.o,theequatronsolmotronolavrbratrngsystemcanbederrvedusrng
severalmethods.TheapplrcatronsolD Alembert sprrncrple,theprrncrpleolvrrtualdrs-
placements,andtheprrncrpleolconservatronolenergyareconsrderedrnthrssectron.
D A|embert sPrincip|e. Theequatronsolmotron,Eqs.,2.I)and,2.2),canberewrrttenas
,2.4a)
,2.4b)
Theseequatronscanbeconsrderedequrlrbrrumequatronsprovrdedthat and are
treatedasalorceandamoment.Thrslrctrtrouslorce,ormoment)rsknownasthernertra
lorce ,or rnertra moment) and the artrlrcral state ol equrlrbrrum rmplred by Eq. ,2.4a) or
,2.4b)rsknownasdynamrcequrlrbrrum.Thrsprrncrple,rmplredrnEq.,2.4a)or,2.4b),rs
called D Alembert s prrncrple. Applyrngrtto the system shown rn Frg. 2.I,c) yrelds the
equatronolmotron.
,2.)
Princip|eofVirtua|Disp|acements. Theprrncrpleolvrrtualdrsplacementsstatesthat
rlasystemthatrsrnequrlrbrrumundertheactronolasetollorcesrssubjectedtoavrrtual
drsplacement,thenthetotalvrrtualworkdonebythelorceswrllbezero. Herethevrrtual
drsplacementrsdelrnedasanrmagrnaryrnlrnrtesrmaldrsplacementgrvenrnstantaneously.
ltmustbeaphysrcallypossrbledrsplacementthatrscompatrblewrththeconstrarntsolthe
system.Thevrrtualworkrsdelrnedastheworkdonebyallthelorces,rncludrngthernertra
lorcesloradynamrcproblem,duetoavrrtualdrsplacement.
Consrderasprrng-masssystemrnadrsplacedposrtronasshownrnFrg.2.o,a),where
denotesthedrsplacementolthemass.Frgure2.o,b) showsthelree-bodydragramolthe
masswrththereactrveandrnertralorcesrndrcated.Whenthemassrsgrvenavrrtualdrs-
placement asshownrnFrg.2.o,b),thevrrtualworkdonebyeachlorcecan becom-
putedaslollows.
Vrrtualworkdonebythernertralorce h
|
mx

)x
Vrrtualworkdonebythesprrnglorce h
s
/x)x
x,
/x mx

0 or mx

/x 0
J

mx

/) J

0
F

/) mx

0
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I3I
Whenthetotalvrrtualworkdonebyallthelorcesrssetequaltozero,weobtarn
,2.5)
Srnce the vrrtual drsplacement can have an arbrtrary value, Eq. ,2.5) grves the
equatronolmotronolthesprrng-masssystemas
,2.)
Princip|eofConservationofEnergy. Asystemrssardtobeconservatrverlnoenergy
rslostduetolrrctronorenergy-drssrpatrngnonelastrcmembers.llno workrsdoneona
conservatrvesystembyexternallorces,otherthangravrtyorotherpotentrallorces),then
thetotalenergyolthesystemremarnsconstant.Srncetheenergyolavrbratrngsystemrs
partly potentral and partly krnetrc, the sum ol these two energres remarns constant. The
krnetrcenergy rsstoredrnthemassbyvrrtueolrtsvelocrty,andthepotentralenergy rs
storedrnthesprrngbyvrrtueolrtselastrcdelormatron.Thustheprrncrpleolconservatron
olenergycanbeexpressedas.
or
,2.o)
Thekrnetrcandpotentralenergresaregrvenby
,2.7)
and
,2.)
SubstrtutronolEqs.,2.7)and,2.)rntoEq.,2.o)yreldsthedesrredequatron
,2.) mx

/x 0
|
l
2
/x
2
I
l
2
mx

2
d
d/
I |) 0
I | constant
mx

/x 0
x 0,
mx

x /xx 0
a) MassunJera
Jisplacement
b) Iree-boJyJiagram

reactive
lorce)

inertia
lorce)
,,
||0|k|2.0 Massundervrrtualdrsplacement.
I32 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
2.2.3
|ua|iono|
Ho|iono|a
Spring-Hass
Sys|emin
\er|ical|osi|ion
Consrder the conlrguratron ol the sprrng-mass system shown rn Frg. 2.7,a). The mass
hangsatthelowerendolasprrng,whrchrnturnrsattachedtoarrgrdsupportatrtsupper
end. At rest, the mass wrll hang rn a posrtron called the s/a/|. eqa|||/r|am os|/|on, rn
whrchtheupwardsprrnglorceexactlybalancesthedownwardgravrtatronallorceonthe
mass.lnthrsposrtronthelengtholthesprrngrs where rsthestatrcdellectron
theelongatronduetothewerghtholthemassm. FromFrg.2.7,a),welrndthat,lorstatrc
equrlrbrrum,
,2.9)
whereg rstheacceleratronduetogravrty.Letthemassbedellectedadrstance lromrts
statrcequrlrbrrumposrtron,thenthesprrnglorcers asshownrnFrg.2.7,c).
TheapplrcatronolNewton ssecondlawolmotrontomassm grves
andsrnce weobtarn
,2.I0) mx

/x 0
/
st
h,
mx

/x
st
) h
/x
st
),
x
h mg /
st

st
|
0

st
,
Staticequilibrium
position
Iinalposition
a)
Springlorce
Potential
energy
Staticequilibrium
position
J) c)

b)

0

st

st

st
)

st
||0|k|2.7 Asprrng-masssystemrnvertrcalposrtron.
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I33
NotrcethatEqs.,2.)and,2.I0)arerdentrcal.Thrsrndrcatesthatwhenamassmoves
rnavertrcaldrrectron,wecanrgnorertswerght,provrdedwemeasurex lromrtsstatrcequr-
lrbrrumposrtron.
No/e Equatron ,2.I0), the equatron ol motron ol the system shown rn Frg. 2.7, can
alsobederrvedusrngD Alembert sprrncrple,theprrncrpleolvrrtualdrsplacements,orthe
prrncrple ol conservatron ol energy. ll we use the latter, lor example, we note that the
expressronlorthekrnetrcenergy,I, remarnsthesameasEq.,2.7).However,theexpres-
sronlorthepotentralenergy,|, rstobederrvedbyconsrderrngthewerghtolthemass.For
thrswenotethatthesprrnglorceatstatrcequrlrbrrumposrtron rsmg. Whenthe
sprrngdellectsbyanamountx, rtspotentralenergyrsgrvenby,seeFrg.2.7,d)).
Furthermore,thepotentralenergyolthesystemduetothechangernelevatronolthemass
,notethat rsdownward)rs Thusthenetpotentralenergyolthesystemaboutthe
statrcequrlrbrrumposrtronrsgrvenby
Srnce the expressrons ol I and | remarn unchanged, the applrcatron ol the prrncrple ol
conservatronolenergygrvesthesameequatronolmotron,Eq.,2.).
mgx
l
2
/x
2
mgx
l
2
/x
2
changernpotentralenergyduetochangernelevatronolthemassm
| potentralenergyolthesprrng
mgx. x
mgx
l
2
/x
2
x 0)
2.2.4
Solu|ion
ThesolutronolEq.,2.)canbeloundbyassumrng
,2.II)
where C and s are constants to be determrned. Substrtutron ol Eq. ,2.II) rnto Eq. ,2.)
grves
SrnceC cannotbezero,wehave
,2.I2)
andhence
,2.I) s
/
m

l}2
|
n
ms
2
/ 0
Cms
2
/) 0
x/) Ce
s/
I34 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
2.2.5
Uarmonic
Ho|ion
Equatrons ,2.I5),,2.Io),and,2.I)areharmonrclunctronsoltrme.The motronrssym-
metrrcabouttheequrlrbrrumposrtronolthemassm. Thevelocrtyrsamaxrmumandthe
acceleratronrszeroeachtrmethemasspassesthroughthrsposrtron.Attheextremedrs-
placements,thevelocrtyrszeroandtheacceleratronrsamaxrmum.Srncethrsrepresents
srmple harmonrc motron ,see Sectron I.I0), the sprrng-mass system rtsell rs called a
/armon|.os.|||a/or. Thequantrty grvenbyEq.,2.I4),representsthesystem snatural
lrequencyolvrbratron.
Equatron,2.Io)canbeexpressedrnadrllerentlormbyrntroducrngthenotatron
,2.I9) A
2
Asrn
A
l
Acos

n
where and
,2.I4)
Equatron,2.I2)rscalledtheaax|||ary orthe./ara./er|s/|. equatroncorrespondrngtothedrl-
lerentralEq.,2.).Thetwovaluesols grvenbyEq.,2.I)aretherootsolthecharacterrstrc
equatron,alsoknownasthee|genva|aes orthe./ara./er|s/|.va|aes oltheproblem.Srnce
bothvaluesols satrslyEq.,2.I2),thegeneralsolutronolEq.,2.)canbeexpressedas
,2.I5)
where and areconstants.Byusrngtherdentrtres
Eq.,2.I5)canberewrrttenas
,2.Io)
where and arenewconstants.Theconstants and or and canbedeter-
mrnedlromthernrtralcondrtronsolthesystem.Twocondrtronsaretobespecrlredtoeval-
uate these constants unrquely. Note that the number ol condrtrons to be specrlred rs the
sameastheorderolthegovernrngdrllerentralequatron.lnthepresentcase,rlthevaluesol
drsplacementx,/)andvelocrty arespecrlredas and at we
have,lromEq.,2.Io),
,2.I7)
Hence and ThusthesolutronolEq.,2.)subjecttothernrtralcon-
drtronsolEq.,2.I7)rsgrvenby
,2.I) x/) x
0
cos
n
/
x

n
srn
n
/
A
2
x

0
}
n
. A
l
x
0
x

/ 0)
n
A
2
x

0
x/ 0) A
l
x
0
/ 0, x

0
x
0
x

/) dx}d/)/)
A
2
A
l
C
2
C
l
A
2
A
l
x/) A
l
cos
n
/ A
2
srn
n
/
e
| /
cos/ |srn/
C
2
C
l
x/) C
l
e
|
n
/
C
2
e
|
n
/

n

/
m

l}2
| l)
l}2
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I35
where and arethenewconstants,whrchcanbeexpressedrntermsol and as
,2.20)
lntroducrngEq.,2.I9)rntoEq.,2.Io),thesolutroncanbewrrttenas
,2.2I)
Byusrngtherelatrons
,2.22)
Eq.,2.Io)canalsobeexpressedas
,2.2)
where
,2.24)
and
,2.25)
The nature ol harmonrc oscrllatroncan be represented graphrcally as rnFrg.2.,a). ll
denotes a vector ol magnrtude whrch makes an angle wrth respect to the
vertrcal,)axrs,thenthesolutron,Eq.,2.2I),canbeseentobetheprojectronolthevector
onthe-axrs.Theconstants and olEq.,2.Io),grvenbyEq.,2.I9),aremerelythe
rectangularcomponentsol alongtwoorthogonalaxesmakrngangles and
wrth respect to the vector Srnce the angle rs a lrnear lunctron ol trme, rt
rncreaseslrnearlywrthtrme,theentrredragramthusrotatescounterclockwrseatanangular
velocrty Asthedragram,Frg.2.a)rotates,theprojectronol ontothe-axrsvarres
harmonrcallysothatthemotronrepeatsrtselleverytrmethevector sweepsanangleol
Theprojectronol namely,),rsshownplottedrnFrg.2.,b) asalunctronol
andasalunctronol rnFrg.2.,c).Thephaseangle canalsobernterpretedastheangle
betweentheorrgrnandthelrrstpeak.

n
/, A

, 2.
A

n
.

n
/ A

2
) A

A
2
A
l
A

n
/
A

0
tan
l

x
0

n
x

0
A
0
A x
0
2

x

n
2

l}2
x/) A
0
srn
n
/
0
)
A
2
A
0
cos
0
A
l
A
0
srn
0
x/) Acos
n
/ )
tan
l

A
2
A
l
tan
l

0
x
0

n
phaseangle
A A
l
2
A
2
2
)
l}2
x
0
2

x

n
2

l}2
amplrtude
A
2
A
l

I30 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

Notethelollowrngaspectsolthesprrng-masssystem.
llthesprrng-masssystemrsrnavertrcalposrtron,asshownrnFrg.2.7,a),thecrrcu-
larnaturallrequencycanbeexpressedas
,2.2o)

a) b)
Velocitymaximum
)cos

)
)cos

c)
AmplituJe,

Slope
0

0

0
2

0
2
2

2
2
||0|k|2.S Graphrcalrepresentatronolthemotronolaharmonrcoscrllator.
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I37
Thesprrngconstant canbeexpressedrntermsolthemass lromEq.,2.9)as
,2.27)
SubstrtutronolEq.,2.27)rntoEq.,2.I4)yrelds
,2.2)
Hencethenaturallrequencyrncyclespersecondandthenaturalperrodaregrvenby
,2.29)
,2.0)
Thus,whenthemassvrbratesrnavertrcaldrrectron,wecancomputethenaturallre-
quencyandtheperrodolvrbratronbysrmplymeasurrngthestatrcdellectron We
don tneedtoknowthesprrngstrllness andthemass
FromEq.,2.2I),thevelocrty andtheacceleratron olthemass attrme can
beobtarnedas
,2.I)
Equatron,2.I)showsthatthevelocrtyleadsthedrsplacementby andtheaccel-
eratronleadsthedrsplacementby
llthernrtraldrsplacement rszero,Eq.,2.2I)becomes
,2.2)
llthernrtralvelocrty rszero,however,thesolutronbecomes
,2.)
x/) x
0
cos
n
/
x

0
)
x/)
x

n
cos
n
/

2

x

n
srn
n
/
x
0
)
.
}2
x

/)
d
2
x
d/
2
/)
n
2
Acos
n
/ )
n
2
Acos
n
/ )
x

/)
dx
d/
/)
n
Asrn
n
/ )
n
Acos
n
/

/) x

/)

st
.

l
]
n
2

st
g

l}2
]
n

l
2

g

st

l}2

n

g

st

l}2
/
h

st

mg

st
I3S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
The response ol a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom system can be represented rn the drs-
placement ,)-velocrty -plane, known as the state space or phase plane. For thrs we
consrderthedrsplacementgrvenbyEq.,2.2I)andthecorrespondrngvelocrty.
or
,2.4)
or
,2.5)
where BysquarrngandaddrngEqs.,2.4)and,2.5),weobtarn
or
,2.o)
ThegrapholEq.,2.o)rnthe,)-planersacrrcle,asshownrnFrg.2.9,a),and
rt constrtutes the phase-plane or state-space representatronolthe undampedsys-
tem.Theradrusolthecrrcle, rsdetermrnedbythernrtralcondrtronsolmotron.
NotethatthegrapholEq.,2.o)rnthe -planewrllbeanellrpse,asshownrn
Frg.2.9,b).
x,x

)
x
2
A
2

y
2
A
2
l
cos
2

n
/ ) srn
2

n
/ ) l
y x

}
n
.
srn
n
/ )
x

A
n

y
A
x

/) A
n
srn
n
/ )
cos
n
/ )
x
A
x/) Acos
n
/ )

||0|k|2.9 Phase-planerepresentatronolanundampedsystem.
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I39
|XAH||| 2. I
Uarmonickesponseo|aWa|erTank
ThecolumnolthewatertankshownrnFrg.2.I0,a) rs00lthrghandrsmadeolrernlorcedconcrete
wrthatubularcrosssectronolrnnerdrameterltandouterdrameterI0lt.Thetankwerghs lb
whenlrlledwrthwater.ByneglectrngthemassolthecolumnandassumrngtheYoung smodulusol
rernlorcedconcreteas psr,determrnethelollowrng.
a. thenaturallrequencyandthenaturaltrmeperrodoltransversevrbratronolthewatertank.
b. thevrbratronresponseolthewatertankduetoanrnrtraltransversedrsplacementolI0rn.
c. themaxrmumvaluesolthevelocrtyandacceleratronexperrencedbythewatertank.
So|ution. Assumrngthatthewatertankrsaporntmass,thecolumnhasaunrlormcrosssectron,and
the mass ol the column rs neglrgrble, the system can be modeled as a cantrlever beam wrth a
concentratedload,werght)atthelreeendasshownrnFrg.2.I0,b).
a. Thetransversedellectronolthebeam, duetoaload rsgrvenby where rsthelength,
rsthe Young s modulus, and rs the area moment ol rnertra ol the beam s cross sectron. The
strllnessolthebeam,columnolthetank)rsgrvenby
/
P

`EI
|
`
P|
`
`EI
, ,
4 l0
o
o l0
5

||0|k|2.I0 Elevatedtank.,PhotocourtesyolWestLalayetteWaterCompany.)
I40 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
lnthepresentcase,
andhence
Thenaturallrequencyolthewatertankrnthetransversedrrectronrsgrvenby
Thenaturaltrmeperrodoltransversevrbratronolthetankrsgrvenby
Usrngthernrtraldrsplacementol andthernrtralvelocrtyolthewatertank as
zero,theharmonrcresponseolthewatertankcanbeexpressed,usrngEq.,2.2),as
wheretheamplrtudeoltransversedrsplacement rsgrvenby
andthephaseangle by
Thus
,E.I)
ThevelocrtyolthewatertankcanbeloundbydrllerentratrngEq.,E.I)as
,E.2)
andhence
x

max
A
0

n
l00.9977) 9.977rn./sec
x

/) l00.9977)cos 0.9977/

2
x/) l0srn 0.9977/

2
l0cos0.9977/rn.

0
tan
l

x
0

n
0

0
)
A
0
x
0
2

x

n
2

l}2
x
0
I0rn.
A
0
)
x/) A
0
srn
n
t
0
)
x

0
) x
0
I0rn.

2
0.9977
o.2977sec

/
m

l545.oo72 `o.4
o l0
5
0.9977rad/sec
/
`4 l0
o
)o00.9554 l0
4
)
`o00
`
I545.oo72lb/rn.
I

o4
d
0
4
d
|
4
)

o4
l20
4
9o
4
) o00.9554 l0
4
rn.
4
| o00rn.,E 4 l0
o
psr,
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I4I
TheacceleratronolthewatertankcanbedetermrnedbydrllerentratrngEq.,E.2)as
,E.)
andhencethemaxrmumvalueolacceleratronrsgrvenby

max
A
0

n
)
2
l00.9977)
2
9.9540rn./sec
2
x

/) l00.9977)
2
srn 0.9977/

|XAH||| 2 . 2
|ree-\iora|ionkesponse|ue|o|mpac|
Acantrleverbeamcarrresamass atthelreeendasshownrnFrg.2.II,a).Amass lallslroma
herght ontothemass andadherestortwrthoutreboundrng.Determrnetheresultrngtransverse
vrbratronolthebeam.
When the mass lalls through a herght rt wrll strrke the mass wrth a velocrty ol
where rs the acceleratron due to gravrty. Srnce the mass adheres to wrthout
reboundrng,thevelocrtyolthecombrnedmass rmmedratelyalterthermpact canbe
loundusrngtheprrncrpleolconservatronolmomentum.
m
m
M m)x

0
x

0
) M m)

m
2g/,
n
M Y Y Y Y
x
0

ng
k
n
M
k
3LI
/
3
YoungsmoJulus,L
Momentolinertia,I
/
h
x/)
Z Z
x/)
k
M
n
k
2gh
a)
YY staticequilibriumpositionolM
ZZ staticequilibriumpositionolM n
b) c)

||0|k|2.II Responseduetormpact.
I42 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
or
,E.I)
Thestatrcequrlrbrrumposrtronolthebeamwrththenewmass rslocatedatadrstanceol
belowthestatrcequrlrbrrumposrtronoltheorrgrnalmass,)asshownrnFrg.2.II,c).Here
denotesthestrllnessolthecantrleverbeam,grvenby
Srncelreevrbratronolthebeamwrththenewmass occursaboutrtsownstatrcequrlrbrrum
posrtron,thernrtralcondrtronsoltheproblemcanbestatedas
,E.2)
Thustheresultrnglreetransversevrbratronolthebeamcanbeexpressedas,seeEq.,2.2I)).
where
wrth and grvenbyEq.,E.2).

0
x
0

/
M m

`EI
|
`
M m)
tan
l

0
x
0

n
A x
0
2

x

n
2

l}2
x/) Acos
n
/ )
x
0

mg
/
,x

0

m
M m
2g/
M m)
/
`EI
|
`
mg
/
M m)
x

0

m
M m

m

m
M m
2g/
|XAH||| 2 . 3
Young sHoJulus|romNa|ural|reuencyHeasuremen|
Asrmplysupportedbeamolsquarecrosssectron andlengthI carryrngamassol
2.kgatthemrddle,rsloundtohaveanaturallrequencyoltransversevrbratronol0rad/s.Deter-
mrnetheYoung smodulusolelastrcrtyolthebeam.
Byneglectrngthesellwerghtolthebeam,thenaturallrequencyoltransversevrbratronol
thebeamcanbeexpressedas
,E.I)
n

/
m
5mm 5mm
2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I43
where
,E.2)
where rstheYoung smodulus, rsthelength,and rstheareamomentolrnertraolthebeam.
Srnce and Eqs.,E.I)and,E.2)yreld
or
Thrsrndrcatesthatthematerralolthebeamrsprobablycarbonsteel.

E
m
n
2
|
`
l92I

2.``0.0)
2
l.0)
`
l920.520 l0
l0
)
207.0l`2 l0
9
N/m
2
/
l92EI
|
`
m
n
2

n
0.0rad/s, m 2.kg,| I.0m,
I
l
l2
5 l0
`
)5 l0
`
)
`
0.520 l0
l0
m
4
/
l92EI
|
`
|XAH||| 2 . 4
Na|ural|reuencyo|Cockpi|o|a|ire|ruck
Thecockprtolalrretruckrslocatedattheendolatelescoprngboom,asshownrnFrg.2.I2,a).The
cockprt,alongwrththelrreman,werghs2000N.Frndthecockprt snaturallrequencyolvrbratronrn
thevertrcaldrrectron.
Young smodulusolthematerral. lengths. cross-
sectronalareas.
Todetermrnethesystem snaturallrequencyolvrbratron,welrndtheequrvalentstrllness
ol the boom rn the vertrcal drrectron and use a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom rdealrzatron. For thrs we
assume that the mass ol the telescoprng boom rs neglrgrble and the telescoprng boom can delorm
onlyrntheaxraldrrectron,wrthnobendrng).Srncethelorcernducedatanycrosssectron rs
equaltotheaxralloadapplredattheendoltheboom,asshownrnFrg.2.I2,b),theaxralstrllnessol
theboom rsgrvenby
,E.I)
where denotestheaxralstrllnessolthethsegmentoltheboom.
,E.2)
From the known data
/
/
l

20 l0
4
)2.l l0
ll
)
`
l4 l0
7
N/m
E
`
2.l l0
ll
N/m
2
),
E
l
E
2
A
`
5cm
2
, A
2
I0cm
2
, |
l
|
2
|
`
m,A
l
20cm
2
,
/
/
|

A
|
E
|
|
|
,| l,2,`
/
/
|
l
/
/

l
/
/
l

l
/
/
2

l
/
/
`
/
/
)
(
l
(
2
A
l
20cm
2
,A
2
I0cm
2
,A
`
5cm
2
.
|
l
|
2
|
`
m, E 2.l l0
ll
N/m
2
,
I44 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
ThusEq.,E.I)grves
or
Thestrllnessolthetelescoprngboomrnthevertrcaldrrectron, canbedetermrnedas
Thenaturallrequencyolvrbratronolthecockprtrnthevertrcaldrrectronrsgrvenby

/
m

l0
7
)9.l)
2000
22I.472rad/s
/ /
/
cos
2
45 l0
7
N/m
/
/
2 l0
7
N/m
l
/
/

l
l4 l0
7

l
7 l0
7

l
`.5 l0
7

l
2 l0
7
/
/
`

5 l0
4
)2.l l0
ll
)
`
`.5 l0
7
N/m
/
/
2

l0 l0
4
)2.l l0
ll
)
`
7 l0
7
N/m
a)
b)
I
/
3
,
3
/
2
,
2
/

Bucket
S
R
Telescopingarm
15
Q
I
O

O
2
/
3
/
2
/

||0|k|2.I2 Telescoprngboomolalrretruck.

2.2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||TkANS|AT|0NA|SYST|H I45

|XAH||| 2. 5
Na|ural|reuencyo||ulleySys|em
DetermrnethenaturallrequencyolthesystemshownrnFrg.2.I,a).Assumethepulleystobelrrc-
tronlessandolneglrgrblemass.
To determrne the natural lrequency, we lrnd the equrvalent strllness ol the system and
solvertasasrngle-degree-ol-lreedomproblem.Srncethepulleysarelrrctronlessandmassless,the
tensronrntheropersconstantandrsequaltothewerghtolthemass Fromthestatrcequrlrbrrum
olthepulleysandthemass,seeFrg.2.I,b)),rtcanbeseenthattheupwardlorceactrngonpulleyI
rs2andthedownwardlorceactrngonpulley2rs2 ThecenterolpulleyI,pornt)movesupby
a drstance and the center ol pulley 2 ,pornt ) moves down by Thus the total
movementolthemass ,pornt)rs
astheropeonerthersrdeolthepulleyrslreetomovethemassdownward.ll denotestheequrv-
alentsprrngconstantolthesystem,
Werghtolthemass
Equrvalentsprrngconstant
Netdrsplacementolthemass

eq

Pulley
k
2
k

Pulley2
n

2W
x

W W
W
Wng
nx
O
n
x

2W
k

B
B
k
2
x
2
k
2
x
2
2W
x
2

W W
x
2
2W
k
2
O
x2x

x
2
)
a) b)

||0|k|2.I3 Pulleysystem.
I40 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
,E.I)
Bydrsplacrngmassm lromthestatrcequrlrbrrumposrtronbyx, theequatronolmotronolthemass
canbewrrttenas
,E.2)
andhencethenaturallrequencyrsgrvenby
,E.)
or
,E.4)

2.3 |ree\iora|iono|an|nJampeJTorsionalSys|em
ll a rrgrd body oscrllates about a specrlrc relerence axrs, the resultrng motron rs called
/ors|ona|v|/ra/|on. lnthrscase,thedrsplacementolthebodyrsmeasuredrntermsolan
angularcoordrnate.lnatorsronalvrbratronproblem,therestorrngmomentmaybedueto
thetorsronolanelastrcmemberortotheunbalancedmomentolalorceorcouple.
Frgure2.I4 shows adrsc,whrchhasapolar massmoment ol rnertra mounted at
oneendolasolrdcrrcularshalt,theotherendolwhrchrslrxed.Lettheangularrotatronol
thedrscabouttheaxrsoltheshaltbe alsorepresentstheshalt sangleoltwrst.From
thetheoryoltorsronolcrrcularshalts2.I|,wehavetherelatron
,2.7)
where rsthetorquethatproducesthetwrst C rstheshearmodulus,| rsthelengthol
theshalt, rsthepolarmomentolrnertraolthecrosssectronoltheshalt,grvenby
,2.)
andd rsthedrameteroltheshalt.llthedrscrsdrsplacedby lromrtsequrlrbrrumposrtron,
the shalt provrdes a restorrng torque ol magnrtude Thus the shalt acts as a torsronal
sprrngwrthatorsronalsprrngconstant
,2.9) /
/

M
/

CI
0
|

Cd
4
`2|
M
/
.

I
0

d
4
`2
I
o
, M
/
M
/

CI
0
|

,
J
0
,
]
n

n
2

l
4

/
l
/
2
m/
l
/
2
)

l}2
cycles/sec

n

/
eq
m
l}2

/
l
/
2
4m/
l
/
2
)

l}2
rad/sec
mx

/
eq
x 0
/
eq

/
l
/
2
4/
l
/
2
)

h
/
eq
4h
l
/
l

l
/
2

4h/
l
/
2
)
/
l
/
2
2.3 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||T0kS|0NA|SYST|H I47
2.3.I
|ua|ion
o|Ho|ion
TheequatronoltheangularmotronolthedrscaboutrtsaxrscanbederrvedbyusrngNew-
ton ssecondlaworanyolthemethodsdrscussedrnSectron2.2.2.Byconsrderrngthelree-
bodydragramolthedrsc,Frg.2.I4b),wecanderrvetheequatronolmotronbyapplyrng
Newton ssecondlawolmotron.
,2.40)
whrchcanbeseentoberdentrcaltoEq.,2.)rlthepolarmassmomentolrnertra the
angulardrsplacement andthetorsronalsprrngconstant arereplacedbythemass the
drsplacement andthelrnearsprrngconstant respectrvely.Thusthenaturalcrrcularlre-
quencyolthetorsronalsystemrs
,2.4I)
andtheperrodandlrequencyolvrbratronrncyclespersecondare
,2.42)
,2.4) ]
n

l
2

/
/
J
0

l}2

n
2
J
0
/
/

l}2

n

/
/
J
0

l}2
/
/
,
J
0
,
J
0

/
/
0

a) b)

Shalt
Disc

, ,

||0|k|2.I4 Torsronalvrbratronoladrsc.
I4S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Notethelollowrngaspectsolthrssystem.
I. llthecrosssectronoltheshaltsupportrngthedrscrsnotcrrcular,anapproprratetor-
sronalsprrngconstantrstobeused2.4,2.5|.
2. Thepolarmassmomentolrnertraoladrscrsgrvenby
where rsthemassdensrty,/ rsthethrckness,D rsthedrameter,andh rsthewerght
olthedrsc.
3. Thetorsronalsprrng-rnertrasystemshownrnFrg.2.I4 rsrelerredtoasa/ors|ona|
enda|am. Oneolthemostrmportantapplrcatronsolatorsronalpendulumrsrna
mechanrcalclock,wherearatchetandpawlconverttheregularoscrllatronolasmall
torsronalpendulumrntothemovementsolthehands.

J
0

/D
4
`2

hD
2
g
2.3.2
Solu|ion
ThegeneralsolutronolEq.,2.40)canbeobtarned,asrnthecaseolEq.,2.).
,2.44)
where rsgrvenbyEq.,2.4I)and and canbedetermrnedlromthernrtralcondr-
trons.ll
,2.45)
theconstants and canbelound.
,2.4o)
Equatron,2.44)canalsobeseentorepresentasrmpleharmonrcmotron.
A
2

0
}
n
A
l

0
A
2
A
l
/ 0)
0
and

/ 0)
d
d/
/ 0)

0
A
2
A
l

n
/) A
l
cos
n
/ A
2
srn
n
/
|XAH||| 2 . 0
Na|ural|reuencyo|CompounJ|enJulum
Anyrrgrdbody prvoted atapornt other thanrtscenterol masswrlloscrllateabout the prvotpornt
underrtsowngravrtatronallorce.Suchasystemrsknownasacompoundpendulum,Frg.2.I5).Frnd
thenaturallrequencyolsuchasystem.
So|ution. Let( betheporntolsuspensronandC bethecenterolmassolthecompoundpendulum,
asshownrnFrg.2.I5.Lettherrgrdbodyoscrllaternthexy-planesothatthecoordrnate canbeused
todescrrbertsmotron.Letd denotethedrstancebetween( andC, and themassmomentolrnertra
ol the body about the z-axrs ,perpendrcular to both x and y). For a drsplacement the restorrng
torque,duetothewerghtolthebodyh)rs andtheequatronolmotronrs
,E.I) J
0

hdsrn 0
hdsrn)
,
J
0

2.3 |k||\|kAT|0N0|AN|N|AH|||T0kS|0NA|SYST|H I49

NotethatEq.,E.I)rsasecond-ordernonlrnearordrnarydrllerentralequatron.Althoughrtrspossrble
tolrndanexactsolutronolthrsequatron,seeSectronI.),exactsolutronscannotbeloundlormost
nonlrneardrllerentralequatrons.AnapproxrmatesolutronolEq.,E.I)canbeloundbyoneoltwo
methods.AnumerrcalprocedurecanbeusedtorntegrateEq.,E.I).Alternatrvely,Eq.,E.I)canbe
approxrmatedbyalrnearequatronwhoseexactsolutroncanbedetermrnedreadrly.Tousethelatter
approach,weassumesmallangulardrsplacementssothat rssmalland HenceEq.,E.I)
canbeapproxrmatedbythelrnearequatron.
,E.2)
Thrsgrvesthenaturallrequencyolthecompoundpendulum.
,E.)
ComparrngEq.,E.)wrththenaturallrequencyolasrmplependulum, ,seeProblem
2.oI),wecanlrndthelengtholtheequrvalentsrmplependulum.
,E.4)
ll rsreplacedby where rstheradrusolgyratronolthebodyabout Eqs.,E.)and,E.4)
become
,E.5)
,E.o) |
/
0
2
d

n

gd
/
0
2

l}2
/
0
m/
0
2
, J
0
|
J
0
md

n
g}|)
l}2

n

hd
J
0

l}2

mgd
J
0

l}2
J
0

hd 0
srn .
,
x
Wng

G
B
O
d

||0|k|2.I5 Compoundpendulum.
I50 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
ll denotestheradrusolgyratronolthebodyaboutC, wehave
,E.7)
andEq.,E.o)becomes
,E.)
llthelrne(C rsextendedtoporntA suchthat
,E.9)
Eq.,E.)becomes
,E.I0)
Hence,lromEq.,E.5), rsgrvenby
,E.II)
Thrsequatronshowsthat,nomatterwhetherthebodyrsprvotedlrom( orA, rtsnaturallrequencyrs
thesame.TheporntA rscalledthe.en/ero]er.ass|on.

Center of Percussion. The concepts ol compound pendulum and center ol percussron

canbeusedrnmanypractrcalapplrcatrons.
I. Ahammercanbeshapedtohavethecenterolpercussronatthehammerheadwhrle
thecenterolrotatronrsatthehandle.lnthrscase,thermpactlorceatthehammer
headwrllnotcauseanynormalreactronatthehandle,Frg.2.Io,a)).
2. lnabaseballbat,rlononehandtheballrsmadetostrrkeatthecenterolpercussron
whrlethecenterolrotatronrsatthehands,noreactronperpendrculartothebatwrll
beexperrencedbythebatter,Frg.2.Io,b)).Ontheotherhand,rltheballstrrkesthe
batnearthelreeendornearthehands,thebatterwrllexperrenceparnrnthehandsas
aresultolthereactronperpendrculartothebat.
3. lnlzod,rmpact)testrngolmaterrals,thespecrmenrssurtablynotchedandheldrna
vrselrxedtothebaseolthemachrne,seeFrg.2.Io,c)).Apendulumrsreleasedlrom
astandardherght,andthelreeendolthespecrmenrsstruckbythependulumasrt
passesthroughrtslowestposrtron.Thedelormatronandbendrngolthependulum
canbereducedrlthecenterolpercussronrslocatednearthestrrkrngedge.lnthrs
case,theprvotwrllbelreeolanyrmpulsrvereactron.
4. lnanautomobrle,shownrnFrg.2.Io,d)),rlthelrontwheelsstrrkeabump,thepas-
sengerswrllnotleelanyreactronrlthecenterolpercussronolthevehrclerslocated
neartherearaxle.Srmrlarly,rltherearwheelsstrrkeabumpatporntA, noreactron

n

g
/
0
2
}d)

l}2

g
|
l}2

g
(A
l}2

n
| CA d (A
CA
/
C
2
d
|
/
C
2
d
d
/
0
2
/
C
2
d
2
/
C
2.4 k|S|0NS|0|||kST-0k||kSYST|HSAN|T|H|C0NSTANT I5I
wrllbeleltatthelrontaxle,pornt)rlthecenterolpercussronrslocatednearthe
lrontaxle.ltrsdesrrable,therelore,tohavethecenteroloscrllatronolthevehrcleat
oneaxleandthecenterolpercussronattheotheraxle2.2|.
2.4 kesponseo||irs|-0rJerSys|emsanJTimeCons|an|
ConsrderaturbrnerotormountedrnbearrngsasshownrnFrg.2.I7,a).Thevrscousllurd
,lubrrcant)rnthebearrngsollersvrscousdamprngtorquedurrngtherotatronoltheturbrne
rotor.Assumrngthemassmomentolrnertraoltherotorabouttheaxrsolrotatronas and
therotatronaldamprngconstantolthebearrngsas theapplrcatronolNewton ssecond
lawolmotronyreldstheequatronolmotronoltherotoras
,2.47)
where rstheangularvelocrtyoltherotor, rsthetrmerateolchangeoltheangular
velocrty,andtheexternaltorqueapplredtothesystemrsassumedtobezero.Weassume
the rnrtral angular velocrty, as the rnput and the angular velocrty ol the
rotorastheoutputolthesystem.Notethattheangularvelocrty,rnsteadoltheangulardrs-
placement,rsconsrderedastheoutputrnordertoobtarntheequatronolmotronasalrrst
orderdrllerentralequatron.
Thesolutronoltheequatronolmotronoltherotor,Eq.,2.47),canbeloundbyassumrng
thetrralsolutronas
,2.4)
where and areunknownconstants.Byusrngthernrtralcondrtron, Eq.
,2.4)canbewrrttenas
,2.49) /)
0
e
s/
/ 0)
0
,
/) Ae
s/
0)
0
,

d
d/

.
/
0

a) b) c) J)
Pivot
PenJulum
Specimen
Vise

||0|k|2.I0 Applrcatronsolcenterolpercussron.
I52 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
BysubstrtutrngEq.,2.49)rntoEq.,2.47),weobtarn
,2.50)
Srnce leadsto nomotron oltherotor,weassume andEq.,2.50)canbe
satrslredonlyrl
,2.5I)
Equatron,2.5I) rsknown as thecharacterrstrc equatron whrch yrelds Thusthe
solutron,Eq.,2.49),becomes
,2.52)
The varratron ol the angular velocrty, grven by Eq. ,2.52), wrth trme rs shown rn Frg.
2.I7,b).Thecurvestartsat decaysandapproacheszeroas rncreaseswrthoutlrmrt.ln
0
,
/)
0
e

.
/
J
/
s
.
/
J
.
Js .
/
0

0
0
0
0

0
e
s/
Js .
/
) 0
Rotorinbearings
Variationolangularvelocity
)
)
0

0
0.3oS
0

Turbinerotor
massmomentolinertia)
Lubricant
Bearing
Lubricant
Bearing

a)
b)
||0|k|2.I7
2.5 kAY|||0U S|N|k0YH|TU0| I53
dealrngwrthexponentrallydecayrngresponses,suchastheonegrvenbyEq.,2.52),rtrs
convenrenttodescrrbetheresponserntermsolaquantrtyknownasthe/|me .ons/an/
ThetrmeconstantrsdelrnedasthevalueoltrmewhrchmakestheexponentrnEq.,2.52)
equalto BecausetheexponentolEq.,2.52)rsknowntobe thetrmeconstant
wrllbeequalto
,2.5)
sothatEq.,2.52)grves,lor
,2.54)
Thustheresponsereducesto0.otrmesrtsrnrtralvalueatatrmeequaltothetrmecon-
stantolthesystem.
2.5 kayleigh s|nergyHe|hoJ
For a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom system, the equatron ol motron was derrved usrng the
energymethodrnSectron2.2.2.lnthrssectron,weshallusetheenergymethodtolrndthe
naturallrequencresolsrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystems.Theprrncrpleolconservatronol
energy,rnthecontextolanundampedvrbratrngsystem,canberestatedas
,2.55)
wherethesubscrrptsIand2denotetwodrllerentrnstantsoltrme.Specrlrcally,weusethe
subscrrptItodenotethetrmewhenthemassrspassrngthroughrtsstatrcequrlrbrrumposr-
tronandchoose asrelerencelorthepotentralenergy.llweletthesubscrrpt2rndr-
catethetrmecorrespondrngtothemaxrmumdrsplacementolthemass,wehave
ThusEq.,2.55)becomes
,2.5o)
llthesystemrsundergorngharmonrcmotron,then and denotethemaxrmumvalues
olI and|, respectrvely,andEq.,2.5o)becomes
,2.57)
TheapplrcatronolEq.,2.57),whrchrsalsoknownasRay|e|g/ senergyme//od, grvesthe
naturallrequencyolthesystemdrrectly,asrllustratedrnthelollowrngexamples.
I
max
|
max
|
2
I
l
I
l
0 0 |
2
I
2
0.
|
l
0
I
l
|
l
I
2
|
2
/)
0
e

.
/
J

0
e
l
0.`o
0
/ ,

J
.
/

.
/
J
/, l.
).
|XAH||| 2 . 7
Hanome|er|or|iesel|ngine
Theexhaustlromasrngle-cylrnderlour-strokedreselengrnerstobeconnectedtoasrlencer,andthe
pressure therern rs to be measured wrth a srmple U-tube manometer ,see Frg. 2.I). Calculate the
mrnrmumlengtholthemanometertubesothatthenaturallrequencyoloscrllatronolthemercury
columnwrllbe.5trmesslowerthanthelrequencyolthepressurelluctuatronsrnthesrlenceratan
engrnespeedolo00rpm.Thelrequencyolpressurelluctuatronrnthesrlencerrsequalto
Numberolcylrnders Speedoltheengrne
2
I54 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
So|ution
I. Na/ara|]reqaen.yo]os.|||a/|ono]//e||qa|d.o|amn LetthedatumrnFrg.2.I betakenas
theequrlrbrrumposrtronolthelrqurd.llthedrsplacementolthelrqurdcolumnlromtheequr-
lrbrrumposrtronrsdenotedbyx, thechangernpotentralenergyrsgrvenby
,E.I)
whereA rsthecross-sectronalareaolthemercurycolumnand rsthespecrlrcwerghtolmer-
cury.Thechangernkrnetrcenergyrsgrvenby
,E.2)
where| rsthelengtholthemercurycolumn.Byassumrngharmonrcmotron,wecanwrrte
,E.)
whereX rsthemaxrmumdrsplacementand rsthenaturallrequency.Bysubstrtutrng
Eq.,E.)rntoEqs.,E.I)and,E.2),weobtarn
,E.4)
,E.5) I I
max
srn
2

n
/
| |
max
cos
2

n
/

n
x/) Xcos
n
/

l
2

A|
g
x

2
I
l
2
massolmercury)velocrty)
2

Ax)
x
2
Ax)
x
2
Ax
2
mercurydepressed drsplacementoltheC.G.olthesegment)
werghtolmercuryrarsed drsplacementoltheC.G.olthesegment) werghtol
| potentralenergyolrarsedlrqurdcolumn potentralenergyoldepressedlrqurdcolumn

||0|k|2.IS U-tubemanometer.
2.5 kAY|||0U S|N|k0YH|TU0| I55
where
,E.o)
and
,E.7)
Byequatrng to weobtarnthenaturallrequency.
,E.)
2. Leng//o]//emer.ary.o|amn Thelrequencyolpressurelluctuatronsrnthesrlencer
,E.9)
Thusthelrequencyoloscrllatronsolthelrqurdcolumnrnthemanometerrs
ByusrngEq.,E.),weobtarn
,E.I0)
or
,E.II)

|
2.0 9.l
9.0)
2
0.24m

2g
|

l}2
9.0
l0}`.5 9.0rad/sec.

`00 2
o0
l0rad/sec
00rpm

l o00
2

n

2g
|

l}2
I
max
, |
max
I
max

l
2

A|
n
2
g
X
2
|
max
AX
2
|XAH||| 2 . S
|||ec|o|Hasson o|aSpring
Determrnetheellectolthemassolthesprrngonthenaturallrequencyol thesprrng-masssystem
shownrnFrg.2.I9.
So|ution. Tolrndtheellectolthemassolthesprrngonthenaturallrequencyolthesprrng-mass
system, we add the krnetrc energy ol the system to that ol the attached mass and use the energy
method todetermrne the naturallrequency.Let | bethetotallengtholthesprrng.ll x denotes the
drsplacement ol the lower end ol the sprrng ,or mass m), the drsplacement at drstance y lrom the
supportrsgrvenbyy,x/|).Srmrlarly,rl denotesthevelocrtyolthemassm, thevelocrtyolasprrng
elementlocatedatdrstancey lromthesupportrsgrvenby Thekrnetrcenergyolthesprrng
elementollengthdy rs
,E.I) dI
s

l
2

m
s
|
dy
yx

2
yx

}|).
x

I50 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

where rsthemassolthesprrng.Thetotalkrnetrcenergyolthesystemcanbeexpressedas
,E.2)
Thetotalpotentralenergyolthesystemrsgrvenby
,E.)
Byassumrngaharmonrcmotron
,E.4)
where rsthemaxrmumdrsplacementolthemassand rsthenaturallrequency,themaxrmum
krnetrcandpotentralenergrescanbeexpressedas
,E.5)
,E.o)
Byequatrng and weobtarntheexpressronlorthenaturallrequency.
,E.7)
Thustheellectolthemassolthesprrngcanbeaccountedlorbyaddrngone-thrrdolrtsmasstothe
marnmass2.|.

n

/
m
m
s
`

l}2
|
max
, I
max
|
max

l
2
/X
2
I
max

l
2
m
m
s
`
X
2

n
2

n
x/) Xcos
n
/
|
l
2
/x
2

l
2
mx

l
2

m
s
`
x

2

l
2
mx

|
y0

l
2

m
s
|
dy
y
2
x

2
|
2

I krnetrcenergyolmassI
m
) krnetrcenergyolsprrngI
s
)
m
s

||0|k|2.I9 Equrvalentmassola
sprrng.
2.5 kAY|||0U S|N|k0YH|TU0| I57
|XAH||| 2. 9
|||ec|o|Hasso|ColumnonNa|ural|reuencyo|Wa|erTank
FrndthenaturallrequencyoltransversevrbratronolthewatertankconsrderedrnExample2.I and
Frg.2.I0 byrncludrngthemassolthecolumn.
Torncludethemassolthecolumn,welrndtheequrvalentmassolthecolumnatthelree
end usrng the equrvalence ol krnetrc energy and use a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom model to lrnd the
naturallrequencyolvrbratron.Thecolumnolthetankrsconsrderedasacantrleverbeamlrxedatone
end,ground)andcarryrngamass ,watertank)attheotherend.Thestatrcdellectronolacantrlever
beamunderaconcentratedendloadrsgrvenby,seeFrg.2.20).
,E.I)
Themaxrmumkrnetrcenergyolthebeamrtsell rsgrvenby
,E.2)
where rsthetotalmassand,)rsthemassperunrtlengtholthebeam.Equatron,E.I)canbe
usedtoexpressthevelocrtyvarratron, as
,E.)
andhenceEq.,E.2)becomes
,E.4)
l
2

m
|

max
2
4|
o

``
`5
|
7

l
2

``
l40
my

max
2
I
max

m
2|

y

max
2|
`

|
0
`x
2
| x
`
)
2
dx
y

x)
y

max
2|
`
`x
2
| x
`
)
y

x),
I
max

l
2

|
0
m
|
y

x)
2
dx
I
max
)

y
max
2|
`
`x
2
| x
`
)
yx)
Px
2
oEI
`| x)
y
max
x
2
2|
`
`| x)

||0|k|2.20 Equrvalentmassolthecolumn.
I5S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
ll denotestheequrvalentmassolthecantrlever,watertank)atthelreeend,rtsmaxrmumkrnetrc
energycanbeexpressedas
,E.5)
ByequatrngEqs.,E.4)and,E.5),weobtarn
,E.o)
Thusthetotalellectrvemassactrngattheendolthecantrleverbeamrsgrvenby
,E.7)
where M rs the massol thewater tank. The naturallrequency oltransverse vrbratronol the water
tankrsgrvenby
,E.)

2.0 |ree\iora|ionwi|h\iscous|amping

/
M
ell

/
M
``
l40
m
M
ell
M m
eq
m
eq

``
l40
m
I
max

l
2
m
eq
y

max
2
m
eq
2.0.I
|ua|ion
o|Ho|ion
AsstatedrnSectronI.9,thevrscousdamprnglorceF rsproportronaltothevelocrty orv
andcanbeexpressedas
,2.5)
where. rsthedamprngconstantorcoellrcrentolvrscousdamprngandthenegatrvesrgnrndr-
catesthatthedamprnglorcersopposrtetothedrrectronolvelocrty.Asrngle-degree-ol-lreedom
systemwrthavrscousdamperrsshownrnFrg.2.2I.llx rsmeasuredlromtheequrlrbrrumposr-
tronolthemassm, theapplrcatronolNewton slawyreldstheequatronolmotron.
or
,2.59) mx

.x

/x 0
mx

.x

/x
F .x

2.0.2
Solu|ion
TosolveEq.,2.59),weassumeasolutronrnthelorm
,2.o0)
whereC ands areundetermrnedconstants.lnsertrngthrslunctronrntoEq.,2.59)leadsto
thecharacterrstrcequatron
,2.oI) ms
2
.s / 0
x/) Ce
s/
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I59
therootsolwhrchare
,2.o2)
TheserootsgrvetwosolutronstoEq.,2.59).
,2.o)
ThusthegeneralsolutronolEq.,2.59)rsgrvenbyacombrnatronolthetwosolutrons
and .
,2.o4)
where and arearbrtraryconstantstobedetermrnedlromthernrtralcondrtronsolthe
system.
Critica| Damping Constant and the Damping Ratio. The crrtrcal damprng rs
delrnedasthevalueolthedamprngconstant lorwhrchtheradrcalrnEq.,2.o2)becomes
zero.

.
.
2m

/
m
0
.
.
C
2
C
l
C
l
e

.
2m

.
2m

/
m
/
C
2
e

.
2m

.
2m

/
m
/
x/) C
l
e
s
l
/
C
2
e
s
2
/
x
2
/)
x
l
/)
x
l
/) C
l
e
s
l
/
and x
2
/) C
2
e
s
2
/
s
l,2

. .
2
4m/
2m

.
2m

.
2m

/
m

System Iree-boJyJiagram
a) b)
||0|k|2.2I Srngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystem
wrthvrscousdamper.
I00 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
or
,2.o5)
Foranydampedsystem,thedamprngratro rsdelrnedastheratroolthedamprngconstant
tothecrrtrcaldamprngconstant.
,2.oo)
UsrngEqs.,2.oo)and,2.o5),wecanwrrte
,2.o7)
andhence
,2.o)
Thusthesolutron,Eq.,2.o4),canbewrrttenas
,2.o9)
Thenatureoltheroots and andhencethebehavrorolthesolutron,Eq.,2.o9),depends
uponthemagnrtudeoldamprng.ltcanbeseenthatthecase leadstotheundamped
vrbratronsdrscussedrnSectron2.2.Henceweassumethat andconsrderthelollow-
rngthreecases.
|nderdamedsys/em , or or ).Forthrscondrtron,
rsnegatrveandtheroots and canbeexpressedas
andthesolutron,Eq.,2.o9),canbewrrttenrndrllerentlorms.
e

n
/
C
l
cos l
2

n
/ C
2
srnl
2

n
/
e

n
/
C
l
C
2
)cos l
2

n
/ |C
l
C
2
)srn l
2

n
/
e

n
/
C
l
e
|l
2

n
/
C
2
e

|l
2

n
/

x/) C
l
e
|l
2
)
n
/
C
2
e
|l
2
)
n
/
s
2
| l
2
)
n
s
l
| l
2
)
n
s
2
s
l

2
l)
.}2m /}m . .
.
l
0
0
s
2
s
l
x/) C
l
e

2
l)
n
/
C
2
e

2
l)
n
/
s
l,2

2
l)
n
.
2m

.
.
.

.
.
2m

n
.}.
.

.
.
2m

/
m
2/m 2m
n
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I0I
,2.70)
where and are arbrtrary constants to be determrned lrom the
rnrtralcondrtrons.
Forthernrtralcondrtrons and and canbelound.
,2.7I)
andhencethesolutronbecomes
,2.72)
Theconstants and canbeexpressedas
,2.7)
,2.74)
,2.75)
The motron descrrbed by Eq. ,2.72) rs a damped harmonrc motron ol angular lrequency
butbecauseolthelactor theamplrtudedecreasesexponentrallywrth
trme,asshownrnFrg.2.22.Thequantrty
,2.7o)
rscalledthe]reqaen.yo]damedv|/ra/|on. ltcanbeseenthatthelrequencyoldamped
vrbratron rs always less than the undamped natural lrequency The decrease rn
the lrequency ol damped vrbratron wrth rncreasrng amount ol damprng, grven by Eq.
,2.7o), rs shown graphrcally rn Frg. 2.2. The underdamped case rs very rmportant rn
the study ol mechanrcal vrbratrons, as rt rs the only case that leads to an oscrllatory
motron2.I0|.

n
.
d

d
l
2

n
e

n
/
, l
2

n
,
tan
l

C
2
C
l
tan
l

x

0

n
x
0
x
0

n
l
2

0
tan
l

C
l
C
2
tan
l

x
0

n
l
2
x

0

n
x
0
X X
0
C
l
)
2
C
2
)
2

x
0
2

n
2
x

0
2
2x
0
x

n
l
2

n
X
0
,
0
) X,)

x

0

n
x
0
l
2

n
srnl
2

n
/
x/) e

n
/
x
0
cos l
2

n
/
C
l
x
0
and C
2

0

n
x
0
l
2

n
C
2
x

/ 0) x

0
,C
l
x/ 0) x
0
X
0
,
0
) C
l
,C
2
),X,),
Xe

n
/
cos l
2

n
/
X
0
e

n
/
srn l
2

n
/
0
I02 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Cr|/|.a||ydamedsys/em , or or ).lnthrscasethe
tworoots and rnEq.,2.o)areequal.
,2.77)
Becauseoltherepeatedroots,thesolutronolEq.,2.59)rsgrvenby2.o|
I
,2.7) x/) C
l
C
2
/)e

n
/
s
l
s
2

.
.
2m

n
s
2
s
l
.}2m /}m . .
.
l
)

Lq.2.72)

2
||0|k|2.22 Underdampedsolutron.

||0|k|2.23 Varratronol wrth

damprng.

d
I
Equatron,2.7)canalsobeobtarnedbymakrng approachunrtyrnthelrmrtrnEq.,2.72).As
hence and ThusEq.,2.72)yrelds
where and arenewconstants. C
2
C
2

d
C
l
C
l
x/) e

n
/
C
l
C
2

d
/) C
l
C
2
/)e

n
/
srn
d
/
d
/. cos
d
/ l
l,
n
0,
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I03
Theapplrcatronolthernrtralcondrtrons and lorthrscase
grves
,2.79)
andthesolutronbecomes
,2.0)
lt can be seen that the motron represented by Eq. ,2.0) rs aer|od|. ,r.e., nonperrodrc).
Srnce as the motron wrll eventually drmrnrsh to zero, as rndrcated rn
Frg.2.24.
(verdamedsys/em , or or ).As
Eq.,2.o)showsthattheroots and arerealanddrstrnctandaregrvenby
wrth lnthrscase,thesolutron,Eq.,2.o9),canbeexpressedas
,2.I)
Forthernrtralcondrtrons and theconstants and can
beobtarned.
C
l

x
0

n

2
l) x

0
2
n

2
l
C
2
C
l
x

/ 0) x

0
, x/ 0) x
0
x/) C
l
e

2
l)
n
/
C
2
e

2
l)
n
/
s
2
s
l
.
s
2

2
l)
n
0
s
l

2
l)
n
0
s
2
s
l

2
l 0, .}2m /}m . .
.
l
/

, e

n
/
0
x/) x
0
x

0

n
x
0
)/]e

n
/
C
2
x

0

n
x
0
C
l
x
0
x

/ 0) x

0
x/ 0) x
0
)

0
tan

0
OverJampeJ )
InJerJampeJ )
InJampeJ 0)
Critically
JampeJ )

issmaller
than

2
2
||0|k|2.24 Comparrsonolmotronswrthdrllerenttypesoldamprng.
I04 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
,2.2)
Equatron ,2.I) shows that the motron rs aperrodrc regardless ol the rnrtral condrtrons
rmposed on the system. Srnce roots and are both negatrve, the motron drmrnrshes
exponentrallywrthtrme,asshownrnFrg.2.24.
Notethelollowrngaspectsolthesesystems.
Thegraphrcalrepresentatronoldrllerenttypesolthecharacterrstrcsroots and
andthecorrespondrngresponses,solutrons)olthesystemarepresentedrnSectron
2.7.Therepresentatronoltheroots and wrthvaryrngvaluesolthesystempara-
meters, and rnthecomplexplane,knownastherootlocusplots)rsconsrdered
rnSectron2..
Acrrtrcallydampedsystemwrllhavethesmallestdamprngrequrredloraperrodrc
motron,hencethemassreturnstotheposrtronolrestrntheshortestpossrbletrme
wrthoutovershootrng.Thepropertyolcrrtrcaldamprngrsusedrnmanypractrcal
applrcatrons.Forexample,largegunshavedashpotswrthcrrtrcaldamprngvalue,so
thattheyreturntotherrorrgrnalposrtronalterrecorlrnthemrnrmumtrmewrthout
vrbratrng.llthedamprngprovrdedweremorethanthecrrtrcalvalue,somedelay
wouldbecausedbelorethenextlrrrng.
Thelreedampedresponseolasrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystemcanberepresented
rnphase-planeorstatespaceasrndrcatedrnFrg.2.25.
s
2
s
l

2
, s
l
s
2
s
l
C
2

x
0

n

2
l) x

0
2
n

2
l
CriticallyJampeJ
InJerJampeJ
OverJampeJ
)
)

0
,
0
)
||0|k|2.25 Phaseplaneoladampedsystem.
2.0.3
|ogari|hmic
|ecremen|
The logarrthmrc decrement represents the rate at whrch the amplrtude ol a lree-damped
vrbratrondecreases.ltrsdelrnedasthenaturallogarrthmoltheratroolanytwosuccessrve
amplrtudes. Let and denote the trmes correspondrng to two consecutrve amplrtudes /
2
/
l
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I05
,drsplacements), measured one cycle apart lor an underdamped system, as rn Frg. 2.22.
UsrngEq.,2.70),wecanlormtheratro
,2.)
But , where rs the perrod ol damped vrbratron. Hence
andEq.,2.)canbewrrt-
tenas
,2.4)
Thelogarrthmrcdecrement canbeobtarnedlromEq.,2.4).
,2.5)
Forsmalldamprng,Eq.,2.5)canbeapproxrmated.
,2.o)
Frgure 2.2o shows the varratron ol the logarrthmrc decrement wrth as grven by Eqs.
,2.5)and,2.o).ltcanbenotrcedthatlorvaluesupto thetwocurvesaredrllr-
culttodrstrngursh.
0.`,

2 rl l
ln
x
l
x
2

n

d

n

2
l
2

2
l
2

.
2m

x
l
x
2

n
/
l
e

n
/
l

d
)
e

0
) cos2
d
/
l

0
) cos
d
/
l

0
), cos
d
/
2

d
2}
d
/
2
/
l

d
x
l
x
2

X
0
e

n
/
l
cos
d
/
l

0
)
X
0
e

n
/
2
cos
d
/
2

0
)
1
2
0
S
o
1
2
0 0.2 0.1 0.o 0.S .0
Lq.2.S5)
Lq.2.So)

l
n

||0|k|2.20 Varratronollogarrthmrc
decrementwrthdamprng.
I00 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
The logarrthmrc decrement rs drmensronless and rs actually another lorm ol the
drmensronlessdamprngratro Once rsknown, canbeloundbysolvrngEq.,2.5).
,2.7)
llweuseEq.,2.o)rnsteadolEq.,2.5),wehave
,2.)
llthedamprngrnthegrvensystemrsnotknown,wecandetermrnertexperrmentallyby
measurrnganytwoconsecutrvedrsplacements and Bytakrngthenaturallogarrthm
oltheratrool and weobtarn ByusrngEq.,2.7),wecancomputethedamprng
ratro lnlact,thedamprngratro canalsobeloundbymeasurrngtwodrsplacementssep-
arated by any number ol complete cycles. ll and denote the amplrtudes corre-
spondrngtotrmes and , where rsanrnteger,weobtarn
,2.9)
Srnceanytwosuccessrvedrsplacementsseparatedbyonecyclesatrslytheequatron
,2.90)
Eq.,2.9)becomes
,2.9I)
Equatrons,2.9I)and,2.5)yreld
,2.92)
whrchcanbesubstrtutedrntoEq.,2.7)orEq.,2.)toobtarnthevrscousdamprngratro.

l
m
ln
x
l
x
ml

x
l
x
ml
e

d
)
m
e
m
n

d
x
]
x
]l
e

d
x
l
x
ml

x
l
x
2

x
2
x
`

x
`
x
4

x
m
x
ml
/
ml
/
l
m
d
/
l
x
ml
x
l
.
. x
2
, x
l
x
2
. x
l

2)
2

2
.
2.0.4
|nergy
|issipa|eJ
in\iscous
|amping
lnavrscouslydampedsystem,therateolchangeolenergywrthtrme,)rsgrvenby
,2.9)
usrngEq.,2.5).ThenegatrvesrgnrnEq.,2.9)denotesthatenergydrssrpateswrthtrme.
Assume a srmple harmonrc motron as where rs the amplrtude ol
motronandtheenergydrssrpatedrnacompletecyclersgrvenby
2
x/) Xsrn
d
/,
dh
d/
lorce velocrty F .
2
.
dx
d/

2
2
lnthecaseoladampedsystem,srmpleharmonrcmotron rspossrbleonlywhenthesteady-
stateresponsersconsrderedunderaharmonrclorceollrequency ,seeSectron.4).Thelossolenergydueto
thedamperrssupplredbytheexcrtatronundersteady-statelorcedvrbratron2.7|.

d
x/) Xcos
d
/
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I07
,2.94)
Thrs shows that the energy drssrpated rs proportronal to the square ol the amplrtude ol
motron.Notethatrtrsnotaconstantlorgrvenvaluesoldamprngandamplrtude,srnce
rsalsoalunctronolthelrequency
Equatron,2.94)rsvalrdevenwhentherersasprrngolstrllness paralleltothevrs-
cousdamper.Toseethrs,consrderthesystemshownrnFrg.2.27.Thetotallorceresrstrng
motroncanbeexpressedas
,2.95)
llweassumesrmpleharmonrcmotron
,2.9o)
asbelore,Eq.,2.95)becomes
,2.97)
Theenergydrssrpatedrnacompletecyclewrllbe
,2.9)

2}
d
0
.
d
X
2
cos
2

d
/

d
d
/) .
d
X
2

2}
d
0
/X
2

d
srn
d
/

cos
d
/

d
d
/)
h

2}
d
/ 0
Fd/
F /Xsrn
d
/ .
d
Xcos
d
/
x/) Xsrn
d
/
F /x . /x .x

d
.
h
.
d
X
2
h

2}
d
)
/ 0
.
dx
d/

2
d/

2
0
.X
2

d
cos
2

d
/

d
d
/)

||0|k|2.27
Sprrnganddamper
rnparallel.
I0S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
whrch can be seen to be rdentrcal wrth Eq. ,2.94). Thrs result rs to be expected, srnce the
sprrnglorcewrllnotdoanynetworkoveracompletecycleoranyrntegralnumberolcycles.
Wecanalsocomputethelractronolthetotalenergyolthevrbratrngsystemthatrsdrs-
srpatedrneachcycleolmotron aslollows.Thetotalenergyolthesystemh can
beexpressedertherasthemaxrmumpotentralenergy orasthemaxrmumkrnetrc
energy the two berng approxrmately equal lor small values ol
damprng.Thus
,2.99)
usrngEqs.,2.5)and,2.).Thequantrty rscalledthese.|]|.dam|ng.aa.-
|/y andrsuselul rn comparrng thedamprng capacrty ol engrneerrngmaterrals.Another
quantrtyknownasthe|oss.oe]]|.|en/ rsalsousedlorcomparrngthedamprngcapacrty
olengrneerrngmaterrals.Thelosscoellrcrentrsdelrnedastheratrooltheenergydrssr-
patedperradranandthetotalstrarnenergy.
,2.I00) losscoellrcrent
h}2)
h

h
2h
h}h
h
h

.
d
X
2
l
2
m
d
2
X
2
2
2

d

.
2m
2 4 constant

l
2
mv
max
2

l
2
mX
2

d
2
,

l
2
/X
2

h}h),
2.0.5
Torsional
Sys|emswi|h
\iscous
|amping
ThemethodspresentedrnSectrons2.o.I through2.o.4 lorlrnearvrbratronswrthvrscous
damprngcanbeextendeddrrectlytovrscouslydampedtorsronal,angular)vrbratrons.For
thrs,consrderasrngle-degree-ol-lreedomtorsronalsystemwrthavrscousdamper,asshown
rnFrg.2.2,a).Thevrscousdamprngtorquersgrvenby,Frg.2.2,b)).
,2.I0I)
where rsthetorsronalvrscousdamprngconstant, rstheangularvelocrtyol
thedrsc,andthenegatrvesrgndenotesthatthedamprngtorquersopposrtethedrrectronol
angularvelocrty.Theequatronolmotroncanbederrvedas
,2.I02)
where momentolrnertraolthedrsc, constantolthesystem,restor-
rngtorqueperunrtangulardrsplacement),and drsplacementolthedrsc.The
solutronolEq.,2.I02)canbeloundexactlyasrnthecaseollrnearvrbratrons.Forexam-
ple,rntheunderdampedcase,thelrequencyoldampedvrbratronrsgrvenby
,2.I0)
where
,2.I04)
n

/
/
J
0

d
l
2

n
angular
/
/
sprrng J
0
mass
J
0

.
/

/
/
0

d}d/ .
/
I .
/

2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I09

and
,2.I05)
where rsthecrrtrcaltorsronaldamprngconstant. .
/.

.
/
.
/.

.
/
2J
0

.
/
2/
/
J
0
, ,
a)
Shalt,

IluiJ,

Disc,
0
b)

0
,
. .
.
.

||0|k|2.2S Torsronalvrscousdamper.
|XAH||| 2 . I 0
kesponseo|Anvilo|a|orgingUammer
Theanvrlolalorgrnghammerwerghs5,000Nandrsmountedonaloundatronthathasastrllnessol
andavrscousdamprngconstantolI0,000N-s/m.Durrngapartrcularlorgrngopera-
tron,thetup,r.e.,thelallrngwerghtorthehammer),werghrngI,000N,rsmadetolalllromaherght
ol 2 m onto the anvrl ,Frg. 2.29,a)). ll the anvrl rs at rest belore rmpact by the tup, determrne the
responseoltheanvrlalterthermpact.Assumethatthecoellrcrentolrestrtutronbetweentheanvrland
thetuprs0.4.
Frrst we use the prrncrple ol conservatron ol momentum and the delrnrtron ol the
coellrcrent ol restrtutron to lrnd the rnrtral velocrty ol the anvrl. Let the velocrtres ol the tup just
beloreandjustalterrmpactwrththeanvrlbe and respectrvely.Srmrlarly,let and bethe
velocrtresoltheanvrljustbeloreandjustalterthermpact,respectrvely,Frg.2.29,b)).Notethatthe

a2

al

/2
,
/l
5 l0
o
N/m
I70 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

||0|k|2.29 Forgrnghammer.
drsplacement ol the anvrl rs measured lrom rts statrc equrlrbrrum posrtron and all velocrtres are
assumedtobeposrtrvewhenactrngdownward.Theprrncrpleolconservatronolmomentumgrves
,E.I)
where ,anvrlrsatrestbelorethermpact)and canbedetermrnedbyequatrngrtskrnetrc
energyjustbelorermpacttortspotentralenergybeloredropprnglromaherghtol
,E.2)
or
ThusEq.,E.I)becomes
thatrs,
,E.)
Thedelrnrtronolthecoellrcrentolrestrtutron,)yrelds.
,E.4)
thatrs,
thatrs,
,E.5)
a2

/2
2.504`9o
0.4

a2

/2
0 o.2o099

a2

/2

al

/l

5l0.20402
a2
o`.7o5` l02.040l`
/2
5000
9.l

a2
0)
l000
9.l
o.2o099
/2
)

/l
2g/ 2 9.l 2 o.2o099m/s
l
2
m
/l
2
mg/
/ 2m

/l

al
0
M
a2

al
) m
/l

/2
)
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I7I
ThesolutronolEqs.,E.)and,E.5)grves
Thusthernrtralcondrtronsoltheanvrlaregrvenby
Thedamprngcoellrcrentrsequalto
Theundampedanddampednaturallrequencresoltheanvrlaregrvenby
ThedrsplacementresponseoltheanvrlrsgrvenbyEq.,2.72).

e
9.799995/
0.0l490``5srn9.024799/m
x/) e

n
/

x

d
srn
d
/

d

n
l
2
9.994949l 0.099949
2
9.024799rad/s

/
M

5 l0
o

5000
9.l

9.994949rad/s

.
2/M

l000
2

5 l0
o
)
5000
9.l
0.099949
x
0
0,x

0
I.4o09m/s

a2
I.4o09m/s,
/2
I.0449m/s
|XAH||| 2 . I I
ShockAosoroer|oraHo|orcycle
Anunderdampedshockabsorberrstobedesrgnedloramotorcycleolmass200kg,Frg.2.0,a)).
Whentheshockabsorberrssubjectedtoanrnrtralvertrcalvelocrtyduetoaroadbump,theresultrng
drsplacement-trmecurverstobeasrndrcatedrnFrg.2.0,b).Frndthenecessarystrllnessanddamp-
rngconstantsoltheshockabsorberrlthedampedperrodolvrbratronrstobe2sandtheamplrtude
rstobereducedtoone-lourthrnonehallcycle,r.e., ).Alsolrndthemrnrmumrnrtral
velocrtythatleadstoamaxrmumdrsplacementol250mm.
Approach. Weusetheequatronlorthelogarrthmrcdecrementrntermsolthedamprngratro,equatron
lorthedampedperrodolvrbratron,trmecorrespondrngtomaxrmumdrsplacementloranunderdamped
system,andenvelopepassrngthroughthemaxrmumporntsolanunderdampedsystem.
Srnce Hencethelogarrthmrcdecrementbecomes
,E.I) ln
x
l
x
2
lnlo) 2.772o
2
l
2
x
l.5
x
l
}4,x
2
x
l.5
}4 x
l
}lo.
x
l.5
x
l
}4 x
l
I72 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
/2
/2

a)
)

2.5

.5
b)
||0|k|2.30 Shockabsorberolamotorcycle.
lromwhrchthevalueol canbeloundas Thedampedperrodolvrbratronrsgrventobe
2s.Hence
Thecrrtrcaldamprngconstantcanbeobtarned.
Thusthedamprngconstantrsgrvenby
andthestrllnessby
Thedrsplacementolthemasswrllattarnrtsmaxrmumvalueattrme grvenby
,SeeProblem2.99.)Thrsgrves
or
/
l

srn
l
0.9l49)

0.o7sec
srn
d
/
l
srn/
l
l 0.40`7)
2
0.9l49
srn
d
/
l
l
2
/
l
,
/ m
n
2
200)`.4``)
2
25.2o52N/m
. .
.
0.40`7)l`7`.54) 554.49IN-s/m
.
.
2m
n
2200)`.4``) I7.54N-s/m

2
2l 0.40`7)
2
.4rad/s
2
d

n
l
2
0.40`7.
2.0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TU\|SC0|S|AH||N0 I73
Theenvelopepassrngthroughthemaxrmumpornts,seeProblem2.99)rsgrvenby
,E.2)
Srnce Eq.,E.2)grvesat
or
Thevelocrtyolthemasscanbeobtarnedbydrllerentratrngthedrsplacement
as
,E.)
When Eq.,E.)grves

I.4294m/s
x

/ 0) x

0
X
d
X
n
l
2
0.4550)`.4``) l 0.40`7)
2
/ 0,
x

/) Xe

n
/

n
srn
d
/
d
cos
d
/)
x/) Xe

n
/
srn
d
/
X 0.4550m
0.25 l 0.40`7)
2
Xe
0.40`7)`.4``)0.`o7)
/
l
x 250mm,
x l
2
Xe

n
/
|XAH||| 2 . I 2
Analysiso|Cannon
TheschematrcdragramolalargecannonrsshownrnFrg.2.I 2.|.Whenthegunrslrred,hrgh-
pressuregasesacceleratetheprojectrlernsrdethebarreltoaveryhrghvelocrty.Thereactronlorce
pushesthegunbarrelrnthedrrectronopposrtethatoltheprojectrle.Srncertrsdesrrabletobrrngthe
gunbarreltorestrntheshortesttrmewrthoutoscrllatron,rtrsmadetotranslatebackwardagarnsta
crrtrcally dampedsprrng-dampersystem calledthe re.o|| me./an|sm. ln apartrcular case, thegun
barrelandtherecorlmechanrsmhaveamassol500kgwrtharecorlsprrngolstrllnessI0,000N/m.
Thegunrecorls0.4muponlrrrng.Frnd,I)thecrrtrcaldamprngcoellrcrentolthedamper,,2)thernr-
tralrecorlvelocrtyolthegun,and,)thetrmetakenbytheguntoreturntoaposrtron0.Imlromrts
rnrtralposrtron.
Recoilmechanism
springanJJamper)
Gunbarrel
Projectile
||0|k|2.3I Recorlolcannon.
I74 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
So|ution
I. Theundampednaturallrequencyolthesystemrs
andthecrrtrcaldamprngcoellrcrent,Eq.2.o5)olthedamperrs
2. TheresponseolacrrtrcallydampedsystemrsgrvenbyEq.,2.7).
,E.I)
where and Thetrme atwhrch,)reachesamaxrmumvaluecan
beobtarnedbysettrng ThedrllerentratronolEq.,E.I)grves
Hence yrelds
,E.2)
lnthrscase, henceEq.,E.2)leadsto Srncethemaxrmumvalueol
,)ortherecorldrstancersgrventobe wehave
or
3. ll denotesthetrmetakenbytheguntoreturntoaposrtron0.Imlromrtsrnrtralposrtron,wehave
,E.)
ThesolutronolEq.,E.)grves

2.7 0raphicalkepresen|a|iono|Charac|eris|ickoo|sanJCorresponJing
Solu|ions
/
2
0.25s.
0.l C
2
/
2
e

n
/
2
4.o2o/
2
e

4.472l/
2
/
2
x

0
x
max

n
e 0.4)4.472l)2.7l`) 4.o2om/s
x
max
x/ /
l
) C
2
/
l
e

n
/
l

n
e
l

0
e
n
x
max
0.4m,
/
l
l}
n
. x
0
C
l
0,
/
l

l

C
l
C
2

/) 0
x

/) C
2
e

n
/

n
C
l
C
2
/)e

n
/
x

/) 0.
/
l
C
2
x

0

n
x
0
. C
l
x
0
x/) C
l
C
2
/)e

n
/
.
.
2m
n
2500)4.472l) 4472.IN-s/m

/
m

l0,000
500
4.472Irad/s
2.7.I
koo|so||he
Charac|eris|ic
|ua|ion
The lree vrbratron ol a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom sprrng-mass-vrscous-damper system
shownrnFrg.2.2I rsgovernedbyEq.,2.59).
,2.I0o)
whosecharacterrstrcequatroncanbeexpressedas,Eq.,2.oI)).
,2.I07)
or
,2.I0) s
2
2
n
s
n
2
0
ms
2
.s / 0
mx

.x

/x 0
llnecessary,sectrons2.7and2.canbeskrppedwrthoutlosrngcontrnurty.
2.7 0kA|U|CA|k||k|S|NTAT|0N0|CUAkACT|k|ST|Ck00TSAN|C0kk|S|0N||N0S0||T|0NS I75
Therootsolthrscharacterrstrcequatron,calledthe ./ara./er|s/|. roo/s or,srmply,roo/s,
helpusrnunderstandrngthebehavrorolthesystem.TherootsolEq.,2.I07)or,2.I0)are
grvenby,seeEqs.,2.o2)and,2.o)).
,2.I09)
or
,2.II0) s
l
,s
2

n
|
n
l
2
s
l
,s
2

. .
2
4m/
2m
2.7.2
0raphical
kepresen|a|ion
o|koo|sanJ
CorresponJing
Solu|ions
TherootsgrvenbyEq.,2.II0)canbeplottedrnacomplexplane,alsoknownasthes-plane,
bydenotrngtherealpartalongthehorrzontalaxrsandthermagrnarypartalongthevertrcal
axrs.Notrngthattheresponseolthesystemrsgrvenby
,2.III)
where and areconstants,thelollowrngobservatronscanbemadebyexamrnrngEqs.
,2.II0)and,2.III).
Becausetheexponentolalargerrealnegatrvenumber,suchas )decayslaster
thantheexponentolasmallerrealnegatrvenumber,suchas ),therootslyrnglar-
thertotheleltrnthes-planerndrcatethatthecorrespondrngresponsesdecaylaster
thanthoseassocratedwrthrootsclosertothermagrnaryaxrs.
lltherootshaveposrtrverealvaluesols thatrs,therootslrerntherrghthallol
thes-plane thecorrespondrngresponsegrowsexponentrallyandhencewrllbe
unstable.
lltherootslreonthermagrnaryaxrs,wrthzerorealvalue),thecorrespondrng
responsewrllbenaturallystable.
lltherootshaveazerormagrnarypart,thecorrespondrngresponsewrllnot
oscrllate.
Theresponseolthesystemwrllexhrbrtanoscrllatorybehavroronlywhentheroots
havenonzerormagrnaryparts.
Thelarthertherootslretotheleltolthes-plane,thelasterthecorrespondrng
responsedecreases.
Thelargerthermagrnarypartoltheroots,thehrgherthelrequencyoloscrllatronol
thecorrespondrngresponseolthesystem.
Frgure 2.2 shows some representatrve locatrons ol the characterrstrc roots rn the
s-plane and the correspondrng responses 2.I5|. The characterrstrcs that descrrbe the
behavror ol the response ol a system rnclude oscrllatory nature, lrequency ol oscrlla-
tron,andresponsetrme.Thesecharacterrstrcsarernherenttothesystem,dependonthe
valuesolm,., and/)andaredetermrnedbythecharacterrstrcrootsolthesystembut
notbythernrtralcondrtrons.Thernrtralcondrtronsdetermrneonlytheamplrtudesand
phaseangles.
e
/
e
2/
C
2
C
l
x/) C
l
e
s
l
/
C
2
e
s
2
/
I70 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
2.S.I
|n|erpre|a|ions
o|
anJ in|he
-plane

,,
Althoughtheroots and appearascomplexconjugates,weconsrderonlytheroots
rntheupperhallolthe-plane.Theroot rsplottedaspornt wrththerealvalueas
andthecomplexvalueas ,sothatthelengthol rs ,Frg.2.).
Thus the roots lyrng on the crrcle ol radrus correspond to the same natural lre-
quency olthesystem, denotesaquarterolthecrrcle).Thusdrllerentcon-
centrrc crrcles represent systems wrth drllerent natural lrequencres as shown rn Frg.
2.4. The horrzontal lrne passrngthrough pornt corresponds to thedamped natural
lrequency, Thus,lrnesparalleltotherealaxrsdenotesystemshav-
rngdrllerentdampednaturallrequencres,asshownrnFrg.2.5.
ltcanbeseen,lromFrg.2.,thattheanglemadebythelrne wrththermagrnary
axrsrsgrvenby
,2.II2)
or
,2.II)
Thus, radral lrnes passrng through the orrgrn correspond to drllerent damprng ratros, as
shownrnFrg.2.o.Therelore,when wehavenodamprng , andthedamped
naturallrequencywrllreducetotheundampednaturallrequency.Srmrlarly,when l,
0) 0,
srn
l

srn

d

n
l
2
.

n
)

n
l
2

l
STABLLLHP) INSTABLLRHP) Im)
Re)

||0|k|2.32 Locatronsolcharacterrstrcroots, )andthecorrespondrngresponsesolthesystem.

2.S |arame|er\aria|ionsanJkoo||ocuskepresen|a|ions
2.S |AkAH|T|k\Ak|AT|0NSAN|k00T|0C|Sk||k|S|NTAT|0NS I77

Im
Re

sin

2
||0|k|2.33 lnterpretatronsol and

Im
Re

2
||0|k|2.34 rn-plane.

I7S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

we have crrtrcal damprng and the radrcal lrne lres along the negatrve real axrs. The trme
constantolthesystem, rsdelrnedas
,2.II4)
andhencethedrstance or representstherecrprocalolthetrmeconstant,
Hence drllerent lrnes parallel to the rmagrnary axrs denote recrprocals ol drllerent trme
constants,Frg.2.7).

Re
Im

2
2
||0|k|2.35 rn-plane.

Im

Re

sin

2
2
sin

2
||0|k|2.30 rn-plane.
2.S |AkAH|T|k\Ak|AT|0NSAN|k00T|0C|Sk||k|S|NTAT|0NS I79

||0|k|2.37 rn-plane.
2.S.2
koo||ocus
anJ|arame|er
\aria|ions
Aplotorgraphthatshowshowchangesrnoneoltheparametersolthesystemwrllmod-
rlytherootsolthecharacterrstrcequatronolthesystemrsknown astherootlocusplot.
Therootlocusmethodrsapowerlulmethodolanalysrsanddesrgnlorstabrlrtyandtran-
srentresponseolasystem.Foravrbratrngsystem,therootlocuscanbeusedtodescrrbe
qualrtatrvelytheperlormanceolthesystemasvarrousparameters,suchasthemass,damp-
rngconstant,orsprrngconstant,arechanged.lntherootlocusmethod,thepathorlocusol
therootsolthecharacterrstrcequatronrsplottedwrthoutactuallylrndrngtherootsthem-
selves. Thrs rs accomplrshedby usrng a set ol rules whrch leadto a reasonably accurate
plotrnarelatrvelyshorttrme2.|.Westudythebehavrorolthesystembyvaryrngone
parameter,amongthedamprngratro,sprrngconstant,andmass,atatrmerntermsolthe
locatronsolrtscharacterrstrcrootsrnthe-plane.
Iar/at/ono]thedam/ngrat/o: Wevarythedamprngconstantlromzerotornlrnrtyand
studythemrgratronolthecharacterrstrcrootsrnthe-plane.Forthrs,weuseEq.,2.I09).
Wenotrcethatnegatrvevaluesolthedamprngconstant neednotbeconsrdered,
because they result rn roots lyrng rn the posrtrve real hall-plane that correspond to an
unstablesystem.Thuswestartwrth toobtarn,lromEq.,2.I09),
,2.II5) s
l,2

4m/
2m
|

/
m
|
n
0
0)
IS0 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Thusthelocatronsolthecharacterrstrcrootsstartonthermagrnaryaxrs.Becausetheroots
appearrncomplexconjugateparrs,weconcentrateontheupperrmagrnaryhall-planeand
thenlocatetherootsrnthelowerrmagrnaryhall-planeasmrrrorrmages.Bykeeprngthe
undampednaturallrequency constant,wevarythedamprngconstant..Notrngthat
therealandrmagrnarypartsoltherootsrnEq.,2.I09)canbeexpressedas
,2.IIo)
lor welrndthat
,2.II7)
Srnce rsheldlrxed,Eq.,2.II7)representstheequatronolacrrclewrtharadrus
rnthe ,real)and ,rmagrnary)plane.Theradrusvector wrllmakeanangle
wrththeposrtrvermagrnaryaxrswrth
,2.II)
,2.II9)
wrth
,2.I20)
Thusthetworootstracelocrorpathsrnthelormolcrrculararcsasthedamprngratro
rsrncreasedlromzerotounrtyasshownrnFrg.2..Therootwrthposrtrvermagrnary
part moves rn the counterclockwrse drrectron whrle the root wrth negatrve rmagrnary
partmovesrntheclockwrsedrrectron.Whenthedamprngratro rsequaltoone,the
twolocrmeet,denotrngthatthetworootscorncrde thatrs,thecharacterrstrcequatron
has repeated roots. As we rncrease the damprng ratro beyond the value ol unrty, the
system becomes overdamped and, as seen earlrer rn Sectron 2.o, both the roots wrll
becomereal.Fromthepropertresolaquadratrcequatron,welrndthattheproductol
thetworootsrsequaltothecoellrcrentolthelowestpowerols ,whrchrsequalto
rnEq.,2.I0)).
Srncethevalueol rsheldconstantrnthrsstudy,theproductolthetworootsrsa
constant.Wrthrncreasrngvaluesolthedamprngratro onerootwrllrncreaseandthe
otherrootwrlldecrease,wrththelocusoleachrootremarnrngon thenegatrverealaxrs.
Thusonerootwrllapproach andtheotherrootwrllapproachzero.Thetwolocrwrll
jornorcorncrdeatapornt,knownasthe/rea/auayo|n/,onthenegatrverealaxrs.The
two parts ol the locrthat lreonthe negatrve real axrs,one lrom pornt P to and the
otherlromporntP totheorrgrn,areknownassegmen/s.

),

n
2
)
l
2
cos

n

srn

n

r
n

r
n

2

d
2

n
2
0 l,

.
2m

n
and
4m/ .
2
2m

n
l
2

d

n
)
2.S |AkAH|T|k\Ak|AT|0NSAN|k00T|0C|Sk||k|S|NTAT|0NS ISI
lor lor
Realaxis
Imaginaryaxis

0
0
0

||0|k|2.3S Rootlocusplotwrthvarratronoldamprngratro .
|XAH||| 2 . I 3
S|uJyo|koo|swi|h\aria|iono|
Plottherootlocusdragramolthesystemgovernedbytheequatron
,E.I)
byvaryrngthevalueol
TherootsolEq.,E.I)aregrvenby
,E.2)
We start wrth a value ol At the roots are grven by These roots are
shownasdotsonthermagrnaryaxrsrnFrg.2.9.Byusrnganrncreasrngsequenceolvaluesol,Eq.
,E.2)grvestherootsasrndrcatedrnTable2.I.
ltcanbeseenthattherootsremarncomplexconjugatesas rsrncreaseduptoavalueol
At boththerootsbecomerealandrdentrcalwrthavalueol As rncreasesbeyonda
valueolI,therootsremarndrstrnctwrthnegatrverealvalues.Onerootbecomesmoreandmore
negatrve andtheother root becomeslessand lessnegatrve.Thus, as oneroot approaches
whrletheotherrootapproaches0.ThesetrendsoltherootsareshownrnFrg2.9.

,
`.0. l,
l.
s
l,2
`|. 0, 0.
s
l,2

. .
2
`24
o
0.
`s
2
.s 27 0
IS2 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

Re
Im

,
2

2
3
0

3
0
S
3
||0|k|2.39 Rootlocusplotwrthvarratronoldamprngconstant,).
TABLE2.I
Va|ueof Va|ueof
I
Va|ueof
2
0 `| `|
2 0.```` 2.9l4| 0.```` 2.9l4|
4
0.ooo7 2.972l| 0.ooo7 2.972l|
o l.0000 2.24| l.0000 2.24|
l.```` 2.o74| l.```` 2.o74|
I0 l.ooo7 2.4944| l.ooo7 2.4944|
I2 2.0000 2.2`ol| 2.0000 2.2`ol|
I4 2.```` l.5o| 2.```` l.5o|
Io 2.ooo7 l.`744| 2.ooo7 l.`744|
I
`.0000 `.0000
20
l.0`
4.7o`
0
l.0000 9.0000
40
0.7l`l
l2.o202
50
557
lo.l079
I00
0.2722
``.0oll
I000 0.0270 ```.`0o`
2.S |AkAH|T|k\Ak|AT|0NSAN|k00T|0C|Sk||k|S|NTAT|0NS IS3
Variationofthespringconstant. Srncethesprrngconstantdoesnotappearexplrcrtlyrn
Eq.,2.I0),weconsrderaspecrlrclormolthecharacterrstrcequatron,2.I07)as.
,2.I2I)
TherootsolEq.,2.I2I)aregrvenby
,2.I22)
Srnce the sprrng strllness cannot be negatrve lor real vrbratron systems, we consrder the
varratron ol the values ol lrom zero to rnlrnrty. Equatron ,2.I22) shows that lor
boththerootsarerealandrdentrcal.As rsmadegreaterthano4,theroots
become complex conjugates. The roots lor drllerent values ol are shown rn Table 2.2.
Thevarratronsolthetworootscanbeplotted,asdots),asshownrnFrg.2.40.
Variationofthemass. Tolrndthemrgratronoltherootswrthavarratronolthemass,
weconsrderaspecrlrclormolthecharacterrstrcequatron,Eq.,2.I07),as
,2.I2)
whoserootsaregrvenby
,2.I24)
Srnce negatrve values aswell as zero value ol mass need not be consrdered lor physrcal
systems,wevarythevalueol rntherange Somevaluesol andthecor-
respondrngrootsgrvenbyEq.,2.I24)areshownrnTable2..
lt can be seen that both the roots are negatrve wrth values , ) lor
and lor Thelargerrootrsobservedtomovetotheleltandthe 2. 2, 5) l
l.ol4, l2.`52
l m

.
s
l,2

l4 l9o 0m
2m
ms
2
l4s 20 0
0 / o4,
s
l,2

lo 25o 4/
2
o4 /
s
2
los / 0
TABLE2.2
Va|ueof Va|ueof
I
Va|ueof
2
0 0 lo
Io l.07l l4.922
2 2.`4`l l`.o5o9
4 4 l2
o4
0
4| 4|
9o 5.o5o9| 5.o5o9|
II2 o.922| o.922|
I2 | |
IS4 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Re
Im
S
1
1
S

,
2
0
o 2 S
1S
2S
S0
o1
1S
S0
0
2S
||0|k|2.40 Rootlocusplotwrthvarratronolsprrngconstant,).
TABLE2.3
Va|ueof Va|ueof
I
Va|ueof
2
I l.ol4 l2.`52
2 2.0 5.0
2.I 2.07`4 4.59`2
2.4 2.5 `.````
2.45 2.57l 2.57l
2.5 2. 0.4000| 2. 0.4000|
2.```` l.l055| 2.```` l.l055|
5 l.4 l.42`| l.4 l.42`|
0.750 l.`lo9| 0.750 l.`lo9|
I0 0.7000 l.22| 0.7000 l.22|
I4 0.5000 l.05o| 0.5000 l.05o|
20 0.`500 0.9`o7| 0.`500 0.9`o7|
0 0.2``` 0.724| 0.2``` 0.724|
40 0.l750 0.o5l| 0.l750 0.o5l|
50 0.l400 0.olo7| 0.l400 0.olo7|
I00 0.0700 0.44l7| 0.0700 0.44l7|
I000 0.0070 0.l4l2| 0.0070 0.l4l2|
2.9 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUC0||0H|AH||N0 IS5
smallerrootrsloundtomovetotherrght,asshownrnFrg.2.4I.Thelargerandsmaller
rootsareloundtoconvergetothevalue asm rncreasestoavalueol2.45.Beyond
thrsvalueol therootsbecomecomplexconjugate.Asthevalueolm rncreases
lrom 2.45 to a large value the locr ol the two complex conjugates ,roots) are
shownbythecurve,crrcle)shownrnFrg.2.4I.For boththecomplexconjugate
rootsconvergetozero
2.9 |ree\iora|ionwi|hCoulomo|amping
lnmanymechanrcalsystems,Coa|om/ ordry-]r|./|on dampersareusedbecauseoltherr
mechanrcalsrmplrcrtyandconvenrence2.9|.Also,rnvrbratrngstructures,wheneverthe
componentsslrderelatrvetoeachother,dry-lrrctrondamprngappearsrnternally.Asstated
rnSectronI.9,Coulombdamprngarrseswhenbodresslrdeondrysurlaces.Coulomb slaw
ol dry lrrctron states that,when twobodres are rn contact, the lorce requrredto produce
s
l
,s
2
0).
m

),
m 2.45,
2.57l
3
2

Migrationol

as
increases
Migrationol
2
asincreases

2
3
2 3 1
2.S57
lor2.15)
5 o
lor)
||0|k|2.4I Rootlocusplotwrthvarratronolmass,m).
IS0 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
slrdrngrsproportronaltothenormallorceactrngrntheplaneolcontact.Thusthelrrctron
lorceF rsgrvenby
,2.I25)
whereN rsthenormallorce,equaltothewerghtolthemass and rsthecoellr-
crentolslrdrngorkrnetrclrrctron.Thevalueolthecoellrcrentollrrctron dependsonthe
materrals rncontact andthecondrtron ol thesurlaces rn contact. Forexample, lor
metalonmetal,lubrrcated),0.lormetalonmetal,unlubrrcated),andnearlyI.0lorrubberon
metal. The lrrctron lorce acts rn a drrectron opposrte to the drrectron ol velocrty. Coulomb
damprngrssometrmescalled.ons/an/dam|ng, srncethedamprnglorcersrndependentolthe
drsplacementandvelocrty,rtdependsonlyonthenormallorceNbetweentheslrdrngsurlaces.
0.l
)
h mg)
F N h mg
2.9.I
|ua|ion
o|Ho|ion
Consrder a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom system wrth dry lrrctron as shown rn Frg. 2.42,a).
Srncethelrrctronlorcevarreswrththedrrectronolvelocrty,weneedtoconsrdertwocases,
asrndrcatedrnFrgs.2.42,b) and,c).
Whenx rsposrtrveanddx/d/ rsposrtrveorwhenx rsnegatrveanddx/d/ rsposrtrve
,r.e., lor the hall cycle durrng whrch the mass moves lrom lelt to rrght), the equatron ol
motroncanbeobtarnedusrngNewton ssecondlaw,seeFrg.2.42,b)).
,2.I2o)
Thrsrsasecond-ordernonhomogeneousdrllerentralequatron.Thesolutroncanbeverrlred
bysubstrtutrngEq.,2.I27)rntoEq.,2.I2o).
,2.I27)
where rsthelrequencyolvrbratronand and areconstantswhoseval-
uesdependonthernrtralcondrtronsolthrshallcycle.
When x rs posrtrve and dx/d/ rs negatrve or when x rs negatrve and dx/d/ rs
negatrve ,r.e., lor the hall cycle durrng whrch the mass moves lrom rrght to lelt), the
equatronolmotroncanbederrvedlromFrg.2.42,c) as
,2.I2) /x N mx

or mx

/x N
A
2
A
l

n
/}m
x/) A
l
cos
n
/ A
2
srn
n
/
N
/
mx

/x N or mx

/x N

||0|k|2.42 Sprrng-masssystemwrthCoulombdamprng.
2.9 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUC0||0H|AH||N0 IS7
ThesolutronolEq.,2.I2)rsgrvenby
,2.I29)
where and areconstantstobeloundlromthernrtralcondrtronsolthrshallcycle.The
term appearrngrnEqs.,2.I27)and,2.I29)rsaconstantrepresentrngthevrrtualdrs-
placementolthesprrngunderthelorce rlrtwereapplredasastatrclorce.Equatrons
,2.I27)and,2.I29)rndrcatethatrneachhallcyclethemotronrsharmonrc,wrththeequr-
lrbrrumposrtronchangrnglrom to everyhallcycle,asshownrnFrg.2.4. N}/) N}/
N,
N}/
A
4
A
`
x/) A
`
cos
n
/ A
4
srn
n
/
N
/
2.9.2
Solu|ion
Equatrons,2.I2o)and,2.I2)canbeexpressedasasrngleequatron,usrng ).
,2.I0)
wheresgn,)rscalledthesrgnumlunctron,whosevaluersdelrnedasIlor lor
and0lor Equatron,2.I0)canbeseentobeanonlrneardrllerentralequa-
tronlorwhrchasrmpleanalytrcalsolutrondoesnotexrst.Numerrcalmethodscanbeused
tosolveEq.,2.I0)convenrently,seeExample2.2I).Equatron,2.I0),however,canbe
solvedanalytrcallyrlwebreakthetrmeaxrsrntosegmentsseparatedby ,r.e.,trme
rntervalswrthdrllerentdrrectronsolmotron).Tolrndthesolutronusrngthrsprocedure,let
usassumethernrtralcondrtronsas
,2.II) x

/ 0) 0
x/ 0) x
0
x

0
y 0. y 0,
y 0, l
mx

mgsgnx

) /x 0
N mg

||0|k|2.43 MotronolthemasswrthCoulombdamprng.
ISS CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Thatrs,thesystemstartswrthzerovelocrtyanddrsplacement at Srnce at
the motron starts lrom rrght to lelt. Let denote the amplrtudes ol
motronatsuccessrvehallcycles.UsrngEqs.,2.I29)and,2.II),wecanevaluatethecon-
stants and .
ThusEq.,2.I29)becomes
,2.I2)
Thrssolutronrsvalrdlorhallthecycleonly thatrs,lor When
themasswrllbeatrtsextremeleltposrtronandrtsdrsplacementlromequrlrbrrumposrtron
canbeloundlromEq.,2.I2).
Srncethemotronstartedwrthadrsplacementol and,rnahallcycle,thevalueol
became thereductronrnmagnrtudeol rntrme rs
lnthesecondhallcycle,themassmoveslromlelttorrght,soEq.,2.I27)rstobeused.
Thernrtralcondrtronslorthrshallcycleare
and
ThustheconstantsrnEq.,2.I27)become
sothatEq.,2.I27)canbewrrttenas
,2.I) x/) x
0

`N
/
cos
n
/
N
/
A
l
x
0

`N
/
, A
2
0
valueol
n
x
0

N
/
srn
n
/at/

n
0
x

/ 0) valueolx

at/

n
rnEq.,2.I2)
x/ 0) valueolxat/

n
rnEq.,2.I2) x
0

2N
/
2N}/. }
n
x
0
2N}/)],
x x
0
x
l
x/

n
x
0

N
/
cos
N
/
x
0

2N
/
/ }
n
, 0 / }
n
.
x/) x
0

N
/
cos
n
/
N
/
A
`
x
0

N
/
,A
4
0
A
4
A
`
x
0
,x
l
,x
2
, / 0,
x x
0
/ 0. x
0
2.9 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUC0||0H|AH||N0 IS9
Thrsequatronrsvalrdonlylorthesecondhallcycle thatrs,lor At
theendolthrshallcyclethevalueol,)rs
and
Thesebecomethernrtralcondrtronslorthethrrdhallcycle,andtheprocedurecanbecon-
trnued untrl the motron stops. The motron stops when srnce the restorrng
lorceexertedbythesprrng,)wrllthenbelessthanthelrrctronlorce Thusthenum-
berolhallcycles,)thatelapsebelorethemotronceasesrsgrvenby
thatrs,
,2.I4)
NotethelollowrngcharacterrstrcsolasystemwrthCoulombdamprng.
TheequatronolmotronrsnonlrnearwrthCoulombdamprng,whrlertrslrnearwrth
vrscousdamprng.
ThenaturallrequencyolthesystemrsunalteredwrththeaddrtronolCoulombdamp-
rng,whrlertrsreducedwrththeaddrtronolvrscousdamprng.
ThemotronrsperrodrcwrthCoulombdamprng,whrlertcanbenonperrodrcrnavrs-
couslydamped,overdamped)system.
ThesystemcomestorestaltersometrmewrthCoulombdamprng,whereasthe
motrontheoretrcallycontrnueslorever,perhapswrthanrnlrnrtesrmallysmallamplr-
tude)wrthvrscousandhysteresrsdamprng.
TheamplrtudereduceslrnearlywrthCoulombdamprng,whereasrtreducesexponen-
trallywrthvrscousdamprng.
lneachsuccessrvecycle,theamplrtudeolmotronrsreducedbytheamount
sotheamplrtudesattheendolanytwoconsecutrvecyclesarerelated.
,2.I5)
X
m
X
m l

4N
/
4N}/,
r
x
0

N
/
2N
/

x
0
r
2N
/
N
/
N.
x
n
N}/,
x

n
rnEq.,2.I) 0
x
2
x/

n
rnEq.,2.I) x
0

4N
/
}
n
/ 2}
n
.
I90 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Astheamplrtudersreducedbyanamount rnonecycle,r.e.,rntrme ),
theslopeoltheenveloprngstrarghtlrnes,showndotted)rnFrg.2.4 rs
Thelrnalposrtronolthemassrsusuallydrsplacedlromequrlrbrrum posrtron
andrepresentsapermanentdrsplacementrnwhrchthelrrctronlorcerslocked.Slrght
tapprngwrllusuallymakethemasscometortsequrlrbrrumposrtron.
x 0)

4N
/

n

2N
n
/
2}
n
4N}/
2.9.3
Torsional
Sys|ems
wi|hCoulomo
|amping
llaconstantlrrctronaltorqueactsonatorsronalsystem,theequatrongovernrngtheangu-
laroscrllatronsolthesystemcanbederrved,srmrlartoEqs.,2.I2o)and,2.I2),as
,2.Io)
and
,2.I7)
where denotes the constant damprng torque ,srmrlar to lor lrnear vrbratrons). The
solutronsolEqs.,2.Io)and,2.I7)aresrmrlartothoselorlrnearvrbratrons.lnpartrcular,
thelrequencyolvrbratronrsgrvenby
,2.I)
andtheamplrtudeolmotronattheendolthethhallcycle rsgrvenby
,2.I9)
where rsthernrtralangulardrsplacementat ,wrth at ).Themotron
ceaseswhen
,2.I40) r

I
/
/
2I
/
/

/ 0

0 / 0
0

r

0
r
2I
/
/

r
)

/
/
J
0
N
J
0

/
/
I
J
0

/
/

I
|XAH||| 2 . I4
Coe||icien|o||ric|ion|romHeasureJ|osi|ionso|Hass
Ametalblock,placedonaroughsurlace,rsattachedtoasprrngandrsgrvenanrnrtraldrsplacement
olI0cmlromrtsequrlrbrrumposrtron.Alterlrvecyclesoloscrllatronrn2s,thelrnalposrtronolthe
metalblockrsloundtobeIcmlromrtsequrlrbrrumposrtron.Frndthecoellrcrentollrrctronbetween
thesurlaceandthemetalblock.
Srnce lrve cycles ol oscrllatron were observed to take place rn 2 s, the perrod rs
andhencethelrequencyoloscrllatronrs Srnce
theamplrtudeoloscrllatronreducesby
4N
/

4mg
/

/
m

2
0.4
I5.70rad/s. 2}5 0.4s,

n
)
2.9 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUC0||0H|AH||N0 I9I
rneachcycle,thereductronrnamplrtudernlrvecyclesrs
or

0.09/
20mg

0.09
n
2
20g

0.09l5.70)
2
209.l)
0.ll`2
5
4mg
/
0.l0 0.0l 0.09m
|XAH||| 2 . I 5
|ulleySuoJec|eJ|oCoulomo|amping
AsteelshaltollengthImanddrameter50mmrslrxedatoneendandcarrresapulleyolmassmoment
olrnertra attheotherend.Abandbrakeexertsaconstantlrrctronaltorqueol400N-maround
thecrrcumlerenceolthepulley.llthepulleyrsdrsplacedbyo andreleased,determrne,I)thenumber
olcyclesbelorethepulleycomestorestand,2)thelrnalsettlrngposrtronolthepulley.
So|ution.
I. Thenumberolhallcyclesthatelapsebeloretheangularmotronolthepulleyceasesrsgrven
byEq.,2.I40).
,E.I)
where sprrngconstant
oltheshaltgrvenby
and lrrctrontorqueapplredtothe Equatron,E.I)grves
Thusthemotronceasesaltersrxhallcycles.
2. TheangulardrsplacementaltersrxhallcyclesrsgrvenbyEq.,2.I20).
0.l0472 o 2
400
49,07.5
0.00o9`5rad 0.`97`4
r
0.l0472
400
49,07.5

00
49,07.5
5.92o
pulley 400N-m. I constant
/
/

CJ
|

l0
l0
)

`2
0.05)
4

l
49,07.5N-m/rad

0
rnrtralangulardrsplacement o 0.I0472rad,/
/
torsronal
r

I
/
/
2I
/
/

25kg-m
2
I92 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS

||0|k|2.44 Sprrng-vrscous-dampersystem.
Thusthepulleystopsat0.974lromtheequrlrbrrumposrtrononthesamesrdeolthernrtral
drsplacement.

2.I0 |ree\iora|ionwi|hUys|ere|ic|amping
Consrderthesprrng-vrscous-damperarrangementshownrnFrg.2.44,a).Forthrssystem,
thelorce neededtocauseadrsplacement,)rsgrvenby
,2.I4I)
Foraharmonrcmotronollrequency andamplrtude
,2.I42)
Equatrons,2.I4I)and,2.I42)yreld
,2.I4) /x .X
2
x
2
/x .X
2
Xsrn/)
2
F/) /Xsrn/ .Xcos/
x/) Xsrn/

F /x .x

2.I0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUUYST|k|T|C|AH||N0 I93

When versus rsplotted,Eq.,2.I4)representsaclosedloop,asshownrnFrg.2.44,b).
Theareaoltheloopdenotestheenergydrssrpatedbythedamperrnacycleolmotronand
rsgrvenby
,2.I44)
Equatron,2.I44)hasbeenderrvedrnSectron2.o.4 also,seeEq.,2.9)).
As stated rn Sectron I.9, the damprng caused by the lrrctron between the rnternal
planesthatslrporslrdeasthematerraldelormsrscalledhysteresrs,orsolrdorstructural)
damprng.Thrscausesahysteresrslooptobelormedrnthestress-strarnorlorce-drsplacement
curve,seeFrg.2.45,a)).Theenergylossrnoneloadrngandunloadrngcyclersequaltothe
areaenclosedbythehysteresrsloop2.II 2.I|.ThesrmrlarrtybetweenFrgs.2.44,b) and
2.45,a)canbeusedtodelrneahysteresrsdamprngconstant.ltwasloundexperrmentally
thattheenergylosspercycleduetornternallrrctronrsrndependentolthelrequencybut
approxrmately proportronal to the square ol the amplrtude. ln order to achreve thrs
observedbehavrorlromEq.,2.I44),thedamprngcoellrcrent rsassumedtobernversely
proportronaltothelrequencyas
,2.I45)
where rscalledthehysteresrsdamprngconstant.Equatrons,2.I44)and,2.I45)grve
,2.I4o) h /X
2
.
/

.X
2
h

Fdx

2}
0
/Xsrn/ .Xcos/)Xcos/)d/
Stresslorce)
Hysteresis
loop
LoaJing
InloaJing
Area
Strain
Jisplacement)

) )
a) b)

||0|k|2.45 Hysteresrsloop.
I94 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Comp|exStiffness. lnFrg.2.44,a),thesprrngandthedamperareconnectedrnparallel,
andlorageneralharmonrcmotron, thelorcersgrvenby
,2.I47)
Srmrlarly,rlasprrngandahysteresrsdamperareconnectedrnparallel,asshownrnFrg.
2.45,b),thelorce-drsplacementrelatroncanbeexpressedas
,2.I4)
where
,2.I49)
rscalledthecomplexstrllnessolthesystemand rsaconstantrndrcatrngadrmen-
sronlessmeasureoldamprng.
ResponseoftheSystem. lntermsol theenergylosspercyclecanbeexpressedas
,2.I50)
Underhysteresrsdamprng,themotroncanbeconsrderedtobenearlyharmonrc,srnce
rssmall),andthedecreasernamplrtudepercyclecanbedetermrnedusrngenergybalance.
For example, the energres at pornts and ,separated by hall a cycle) rn Frg. 2.4o are
relatedas
or
,2.I5I)
X
]
X
]0.5

2
2
/X
]
2
2

/X
]
2
4

/X
]0.5
2
4

/X
]0.5
2
2
h
h /X
2
,
/}/
/ |/ /l |
/
/
/l | )
F / |/)x
F /Xe
|/
.|Xe
|/
/ |.)x
x Xe
|/
,

||0|k|2.40 Responseolahysteretrcallydampedsystem.
2.I0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUUYST|k|T|C|AH||N0 I95
Srmrlarly,theenergresatpornts_ andR grve
,2.I52)
MultrplrcatronolEqs.,2.I5I)and,2.I52)grves
,2.I5)
Thehysteresrslogarrthmrcdecrementcanbedelrnedas
,2.I54)
Srncethemotronrsassumedtobeapproxrmatelyharmonrc,thecorrespondrnglrequency
rsdelrnedby2.I0|.
,2.I55)
Theequrvalentvrscousdamprngratro canbeloundbyequatrngtherelatronlorthelog-
arrthmrcdecrement
,2.I5o)
Thustheequrvalentdamprngconstant rsgrvenby
,2.I57)
Notethatthemethodollrndrnganequrvalentvrscousdamprngcoellrcrentlorastruc-
turallydampedsystemrsvalrdonlylorharmonrcexcrtatron.Theaboveanalysrsassumes
thatthesystemrespondsapproxrmatelyharmonrcallyatthelrequency.
.
eq
.
.

eq
2m/

2
m/
/

.
eq

eq

/
2/
2
eq

/
/
.

eq

/
m
ln
X
]
X
]l
lnl )
X
]
X
]l

2
2

2 2
2
l constant
X
]0.5
X
]l

2
2
|XAH||| 2 . I 0
|s|ima|iono|Uys|ere|ic|ampingCons|an|
The experrmental measurements on a structure gave the lorce-dellectron data shown rn Frg. 2.47.
Fromthrsdata,estrmatethehysteretrcdamprngconstant andthelogarrthmrcdecrement

Aroa./ Weequatetheenergydrssrpatedrnacycle,areaenclosedbythehysteresrsloop)to
olEq.,2.I4o).
h
.
I90 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
500
100
300
200
00
0
00
200
300
100
500
0 S o 1 2 0 2 1 o S 0
IorceN)
Dellectionmm)

B
G
D
O
H
L
C
I
b)
500
100
300
200
00
0
00
200
300
100
500
0 S o 1 2 0 2 1 o S 0
IorceN)
Dellectionmm)
a)
||0|k|2.47 Force-dellectroncurve.
2.I0 |k||\|kAT|0NW|TUUYST|k|T|C|AH||N0 I97
Theenergydrssrpatedrneachlullloadcyclersgrvenbytheareaenclosedbythehysteresrscurve.
Each square rn Frg. 2.47 denotes The area enclosed by the loop can be
lound as area
square unrts. Thrs area represents an energy ol
FromEq.,2.I4o),wehave
,E.I)
Srnce the maxrmum dellectron rs 0.00 m and the slope ol the lorce-dellectron curve ,grven
approxrmatelybytheslopeolthelrne)rs thehysteretrc
damprngconstant rsgrvenby
,E.2)
andhence
Thelogarrthmrcdecrementcanbeloundas
,E.)

0.24o79) 0.7l25

/
/

l2,4``.95
50,000
0.24o79
/
h
X
2

2.5
0.00)
2
l2,4``.95
/ 400} 50N/mm 50,000N/m,
h /X
2
2.5N-m
l2.25 200}l,000 2.5N-m.
l
2
l.25)l.) l.25))
l
2
l.25)l.) l2.25
ACB areaABDE areaDFE
l
2
AB)CC) AB)AE)
l
2
DE)FH)
l00 2 200N-mm.
|XAH||| 2 . I 7
kesponseo|aUys|ere|ically|ampeJriJgeS|ruc|ure
A brrdge structure rs modeled as a srngle-degree-ol-lreedom system wrth an equrvalent mass ol
and an equrvalent strllness ol Durrng a lree-vrbratron test, the ratro ol
successrveamplrtudeswasloundtobeI.04.Estrmatethestructuraldamprngconstant andthe
approxrmatelree-vrbratronresponseolthebrrdge.
Usrng the ratro ol successrve amplrtudes, Eq. ,2.I54) yrelds the hysteresrs logarrthmrc
decrement as
or
Theequrvalentvrscousdamprngcoellrcrent canbedetermrnedlromEq.,2.I57)as
,E.I) .
eq

/
m
/m
.
eq
)
l I.04 or
0.04

0.0l27
ln
X
]
X
j I
lnl.04) lnl )
)
)
25 l0
o
N/m. 5 l0
5
kg
I9S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Usrngtheknownvaluesoltheequrvalentstrllness,/)andtheequrvalentmass,m)olthebrrdge,
Eq.,E.I)yrelds
TheequrvalentcrrtrcaldamprngconstantolthebrrdgecanbecomputedusrngEq.,2.o5)as
Srnce thebrrdgersunderdamped,andhencertslree-vrbratronresponsersgrvenbyEq.,2.72)as
where
and and denotethernrtraldrsplacementandrnrtralvelocrtygrvento thebrrdgeatthestartol
lreevrbratron.

2.II S|aoili|yo|Sys|ems
Stabrlrty rsone olthe most rmportant characterrstrcslorany vrbratrng system. Although
manydelrnrtronscanbegrvenlortheterms/a/|||/y dependrngonthekrndolsystemorthe
porntolvrew,we consrder ourdelrnrtron lorlrnear and trme-rnvarrantsystems,r.e.,sys-
temslorwhrchtheparametersm,.,and/ donotchangewrthtrme).Asystemrsdelrnedto
beasym/o/|.a||ys/a/|e ,calleds/a/|e rncontrolslrterature)rlrtslree-vrbratronresponse
approacheszeroastrmeapproachesrnlrnrty.Asystemrsconsrdered tobeans/a/|e rlrts
lree-vrbratron response grows wrthout bound ,approaches rnlrnrty) as trme approaches
rnlrnrty.Frnally,asystemrssardtobes/a/|e ,calledmarg|na||ys/a/|e rncontrolslrtera-
ture)rlrtslree-vrbratronresponsenertherdecaysnorgrows,butremarnsconstantoroscrl-
latesastrmeapproachesrnlrnrty.ltrsevrdentthatanunstablesystemwhoselree-vrbratron
response grows wrthout bounds can cause damage to the system, adjacent property, or
human lrle. Usually, dynamrc systems are desrgned wrth lrmrt stops to prevent therr
responseslromgrowrngwrthnolrmrt.
AswrllbeseenrnChapters and4,thetotalresponseolavrbratrngsystem,subjected
toexternallorces/excrtatrons,rscomposedoltwoparts onethelorcedresponseandthe
otherthelree-vrbratronresponse.Forsuchsystems,thedelrnrtronsolasymptotrcallysta-
ble,unstable,andstablesystemsgrvenabovearestrllapplrcable.Thrsrmplresthat,lorsta-
ble systems, only the lorced response remarns asthe lree-vrbratron responseapproaches
zeroastrmeapproachesrnlrnrty.
Stabrlrtycanbernterpretedrntermsoltherootsolthecharacterrstrcrootsolthesys-
tem.AsseenrnSectron2.7,therootslyrngrnthelelthall-plane,LHP)yreldertherpure
exponentraldecayordampedsrnusordallree-vrbratronresponses.Theseresponsesdecay
x

0
x
0

.
eq
.
.

40.90l` l0
`
707l.0o7 l0
`
0.00o`
x/) e

n
/
x
0
cos l
2

n
/
x

0

n
x
0
l
2

n
srn l
2

n
/
.
eq
.
.
,
.
.
2/m 225 l0
o
)5 l0
5
) 707l.0o7 l0
`
N-s/m
.
eq
0.0l27)25 l0
o
)5 l0
5
) 44.90l` l0
`
N-s/m
2.II STA|||TY0|SYST|HS I99
tozeroastrmeapproachesrnlrnrty.Thus,systemswhosecharacterrstrcsrootslrernthelelt
hallolthes-plane,wrthanegatrverealpart)wrllbeasymptotrcallystable.Therootslyrngrn
the rrght hall-plane yreld erther pure exponentrally rncreasrng or exponentrally rncreasrng
srnusordallree-vrbratronresponses.Theselree-vrbratronresponsesapproachrnlrnrtyastrme
approaches rnlrnrty. Thus, systems whose characterrstrc roots lre rn the rrght hall ol the s-
plane,wrthposrtrverealpart)wrllbeunstable.Frnally,therootslyrngonthermagrnaryaxrs
olthes-planeyreldpuresrnusordaloscrllatronsaslree-vrbratronresponse.Theseresponses
nertherrncreasenordecreasernamplrtudeastrmegrows.Thus,systemswhosecharacterrstrc
rootslreonthermagrnaryaxrsolthes-plane,wrthzerorealpart)wrllbestable.

No/es
ltrsevrdent,lromthedelrnrtronsgrven,thatthesrgnsolthecoellrcrentsolthechar-
acterrstrcequatron,Eq.,2.I07),determrnethestabrlrtybehavrorolasystem.For
example,lromthetheoryolpolynomralequatrons,rltherersanynumberolnegatrve
termsorrlanytermrnthepolynomralrns rsmrssrng,thenoneoltherootswrllbe
posrtrve,whrchresultsrnanunstablebehavrorolthesystem.Thrsaspectrsconsrd-
eredlurtherrnSectron.II aswellasrnSectron5. rnthelormoltheRouth-Hurwrtz
stabrlrtycrrterron.
lnanunstablesystem,thelree-vrbratronresponsemaygrowwrthoutboundwrthno
oscrllatronsorrtmaygrowwrthoutboundwrthoscrllatrons.Thelrrstbehavrorrs
calledd|vergen/|ns/a/|||/y andthesecondrscalled]|a//er|ns/a/|||/y.Thesecasesare
alsoknownasse|]-ex.|/edv|/ra/|on ,seeSectron.II).
llalrnearmodelolasystemrsasymptotrcallystable,thenrtrsnotpossrbletolrnda
setolrnrtralcondrtronslorwhrchtheresponseapproachesrnlrnrty.Ontheotherhand,
rlthelrnearmodelolthesystemrsunstable,rtrspossrblethatcertarnrnrtralcondrtrons
mrghtmaketheresponseapproachzeroastrmerncreases.Asanexample,consrdera
systemgovernedbytheequatronolmotron wrthcharacterrstrcrootsgrven
by Thustheresponsersgrvenby where and
areconstants.llthernrtralcondrtronsarespecrlredas and we
lrndthat and andhencetheresponsebecomes whrch
approacheszeroastrmerncreasestornlrnrty.
Typrcalresponsescorrespondrngtodrllerenttypesolstabrlrtyareshownrn
Frgs.2.4,a) ,d).
Stabrlrtyolasystemcanalsobeexplarnedrntermsolrtsenergy.Accordrngtothrs
scheme,asystemrsconsrderedtobeasymptotrcallystable,stable,orunstablerlrts
energydecreases,remarnsconstant,orrncreases,respectrvely,wrthtrme.Thrsrdea
lormsthebasrslorLyapunovstabrlrtycrrterron2.I4,2.I5|.
Stabrlrtyolasystemcanalsobernvestrgatedbasedonhowsensrtrvetheresponseor
motronrstosmallperturbatrons,orvarratrons)rntheparameters,m,. and/)and/or
smallperturbatronsrnthernrtralcondrtrons.
x/) e
/
, C
2
0 C
l
l
x

0) l, x0) l
C
2
C
l
x/) C
l
e
/
C
2
e
/
, s
l,2
l.
x
...
x 0

Strrctlyspeakrng,thestatementrstrueonlyrltherootsthatlreonthermagrnaryaxrsappearwrthmultrplrcrty
one. ll such roots appear wrth multrplrcrty the system wrll be unstable because the lree-vrbratron
responseolsuchsystemswrllbeolthelormC/
n
srn/ ).
n l,
200 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
|XAH||| 2 . IS
)
)
)
)

Stablesystem
Asymptoticallystablesystem
InstablesystemwithJivergentinstability)
Instablesystemwithllutterinstability)

a)
b)
c)
J)
||0|k|2.4S Drllerenttypesolstabrlrty.
S|aoili|yo|aSys|em
Consrderaunrlormrrgrdbar,olmass andlength prvotedatoneendandconnectedsymmetrr-
callybytwosprrngsattheotherend,asshownrnFrg.2.49.Assumrngthatthesprrngsareunstretched
whenthebarrsvertrcal,derrvetheequatronolmotronolthesystemlorsmallangulardrsplacements
olthebarabouttheprvotpornt,andrnvestrgatethestabrlrtybehavrorolthesystem.
2.II STA|||TY0|SYST|HS 20I
Whenthebarrsdrsplacedbyanangle thesprrnglorcerneachsprrngrs the
total sprrng lorce rs The gravrty lorce acts vertrcally downward through the
centerolgravrty, Themomentabouttheporntolrotatron duetotheangularacceleratron rs
Thus the equatron ol motron ol the bar, lor rotatron about the pornt can be
wrrttenas
,E.I)
Forsmalloscrllatrons,Eq.,E.I)reducesto
,E.2)
or
,E.)
where
,E.4)
Thecharacterrstrcequatronrsgrvenby
,E.5)
andhencethesolutronolEq.,E.2)dependsonthesrgnol asrndrcatedbelow.
2
s
2

2
0

2

l2/|
2
`h|
2m|
2

2
0
m|
2
`

2/|
2

h|
2
0
m|
2
`

2/|srn)|cos h
|
2
srn 0
J
0

m|
2
}`)

h mg 2/|srn.
/|srn, ,
a) b)

cos

sin sin
sin
||0|k|2.49 Stabrlrtyolarrgrdbar.
202 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
CaseI. When thesolutronolEq.,E.2)representsastablesystemwrth
stableoscrllatronsandcanbeexpressedas
,E.o)
where and areconstantsand
,E.7)
Case 2. When Eq. ,E.2) reduces to and the solutron can be
obtarneddrrectlybyrntegratrngtwrceas
,E.)
Forthernrtralcondrtrons and thesolutronbecomes
,E.9)
Equatron,E.9)showsthatthesystemrsunstablewrththeangulardrsplacementrncreasrnglrnearlyat
aconstantvelocrty However,rl Eq.,E.9)denotesastableorstatrcequrlrbrrumposrtron
wrth thatrs,thependulumremarnsrnrtsorrgrnalposrtron,delrnedby
Case3. When thesolutronolEq.,E.2)canbeexpressedas
,E.I0)
where and are constants. For the rnrtral condrtrons and Eq.
,E.I0)becomes
,E.II)
Equatron,E.II)showsthat rncreasesexponentrallywrthtrme,hencethemotronrsunstable.The
physrcalreasonlorthrsrsthattherestorrngmomentduetothesprrng whrchtrrestobrrng
the system to the equrlrbrrum posrtron, rs less than the nonrestorrng moment due to gravrty
whrchtrrestomovethemassawaylromtheequrlrbrrumposrtron.

2.I2 |xamples|singHAT|A
h|}2)],
2/|
2
),
/)
/)
l
2

0
)e
/

0

0
)e
/
]

/ 0)

0
, / 0)
0
B
2
B
l
/) B
l
e
/
B
2
e
/
l2/|
2
`h|)}2m|
2
0,

0
.
0

0
0,
0
.
/)

0
/
0

/ 0)

0
, / 0)
0
/) C
l
/ C
2

0 l2/|
2
`h|)}2m|
2
0,

n

l2/|
2
`h|
2m|
2

l}2
A
2
A
l
/) A
l
cos
n
/ A
2
srn
n
/
l2/|
2
`h|)}2m|
2
0,
|XAH||| 2 . I9
\aria|ionso|Na|ural|reuencyanJ|erioJwi|hS|a|ic|e|lec|ion
Plotthevarratronsolthenaturallrequencyandthetrmeperrodwrthstatrcdellectronolanundamped
systemusrngMATLAB.
So|ution. Thenaturallrequency andthetrmeperrod aregrvenbyEqs.,2.2)and,2.0).

n

g

st

l}2
,
n
2

st
g

l}2

n
)

)
2.I2 |XAH|||S|S|N0HAT|A 203
Usrng and areplottedovertherangeol to0.5usrngaMATLABprogram.
Ex2_19.m
g=9.1,
forJ=1:101
t(J)=0.01+(0.S-0.01)(J-1)/100,
w(J)=(g/t(J))0.S,
tao(J)=2pJ(t(J)/g)0.S,
end
pLot(t,w),
gtext( w_n ),
hoLdon,
pLot(t,tao),
gtext( T_n ),
xLabeL( DeLta_a_t ),
tJtLe( ExampLe2.11 ),

st
0
n
g 9.Im/s
2
,
n
0
0
5
0
5
20
25
30
35
0.05 0. 0.5 0.2 0.25
Delta
st
Lxample2.9
0.3 0.35 0.1 0.15 0.5

Varratronsolnaturallrequencyandtrmeperrod.
|XAH||| 2 . 2 0
|ree-\iora|ionkesponseo|aSpring-HassSys|em
Asprrng-masssystemwrthamassol andstrllness500lb/rn.rssubjecttoanrnrtraldrs-
placementol andanrnrtralvelocrtyol Plotthetrmevarratronsolthe
mass sdrsplacement,velocrty,andacceleratronusrngMATLAB.
x

0
4.0rn}sec. x
0
`.0rn.
20lb-sec
2
rn.
204 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
Thedrsplacementolanundampedsystemcanbeexpressedas,seeEq.,2.2)).
,E.I)
where
ThusEq.,E.I)yrelds
,E.2)
,E.)
,E.4) x

/) 77.o2srn5/ l.`l02)rn./sec
2
x

/) l5.524cos5/ l.`l02)rn./sec
x/) `.l04srn5/ l.`l02)rn.

0
tan
l

x
0

n
x

0
tan
l

`.0)5.0)
4.0
75.0oo I.I02rad
A
0
x
0
2

x

n
2

l}2
`.0)
2

4.0
5.0
2

l}2
.I04rn.

/
m

500
20
5rad/sec
x/) A
0
srn
n
/
0
)
0
1
2
0

)
2
1
2 3 1 5 o
0
00
50
0

)
50
00
2 3

1 5 o
0
20
0
0

)
0
20
2 3 1 5 o

Lxample2.20
Responseolanundampedsystem.
2.I2 |XAH|||S|S|N0HAT|A 205
Equatrons,E.2) ,E.4)areplottedusrngMATLABrntherange toosec.
Ex2_20.m
forJ=1:101
t(J)=6(J-1)/100,
x(J)=1.104aJn(St(J)+1.1102),
x1(J)=1S.S24ooa(St(J)+1.1102),
x2(J)=-11.62aJn(St(J)+1.1102),
end
aubpLot(111),
pLot(t,x),
yLabeL( x(t) ),
tJtLe( ExampLe2.1 ),
aubpLot(112),
pLot(t,x1),
yLabeL( x.(t) ),
aubpLot(111),
pLot(t,x2),
xLabeL( t ),
yLabeL( x..(t) ),

/ 0
|XAH||| 2 . 2 I
|ree-\iora|ionkesponseo|aSys|emwi|hCoulomo|amping
Frndthelree-vrbratronresponseolasprrng-masssystemsubjecttoCoulombdamprng lorthelol-
lowrngrnrtralcondrtrons. .
Data.
Theequatronolmotroncanbeexpressedas
,E.I)
ln order to solve the second-order drllerentral equatron, Eq. ,E.I), usrng the Runge-Kutta method
,seeAppendrxF),werewrrteEq.,E.I)asasetoltwolrrst-orderdrllerentralequatronsaslollows.
,E.2)
,E.)
Equatrons,E.2)and,E.)canbeexpressedrnmatrrxnotatronas
,E.4)
where
X

x
l
/)
x
2
/)
, ]

]
l
x
l
,x
2
)
]
2
x
l
,x
2
)
,X

/ 0)
x
l
0)
x
2
0)

)
x

2
gsgnx
2
)
/
m
x
l
]
2
x
l
,x
2
)
x

l
x
2
]
l
x
l
,x
2
)
x
l
x,x
2
x

l
x

mx

mgsgnx

) /x 0
m I0kg,/ 200N/m, 0.5
x0) 0.5m,x

0) 0
200 CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
TheMATLABprogram rsusedtolrndthesolutronolEq.,E.4)asshownbelow.
Ex2_21.m
ThJaprogramwJLLuaedfuno1.m
tapan=j0:0.0S:],
x0=jS.0,0.0],
jt,x]=ode21( dfunoL ,tapan,x0),
pLot(t,x(:,1)),
xLabeL( t ),
yLabeL( x(1) ),
tJtLe( ExampLe2.19 ),
dfuno1.m
funotJonf=dfunoL(t,x)
f=zeroa(2,1),
f(1)=x(2),
f(2)=-0.S9.1aJgn(x(2))-200x(1)/10,

0 2 3 1

5 o 7 S
5
1
3
2

2
3
1
5

)
Lxample2.2
SolutronolEq.,E4).
2.I2 |XAH|||S|S|N0HAT|A 207
|XAH||| 2 . 22
|ree\iora|ionkesponseo|a\iscously|ampeJSys|em|singHAT|A
Develop a general-purpose MATLAB program, called Program2.m, to lrnd the lree-vrbratron
responseolavrscouslydampedsystem.Usetheprogramtolrndtheresponseolasystemwrththe
lollowrngdata.
So|ution. Program2.m rsdevelopedtoacceptthelollowrngrnputdata.
strllness
constant
drsplacement
velocrty
oltrmestepsatwhrchvaluesol,t)aretobelound
rntervalbetweenconsecutrvetrmesteps
Theprogramgrvesthelollowrngoutput.
stepnumber trme
Theprogramalsoplotsthevatratronsol and wrthtrme.
>>program2
EreevJbratJonanaLyaJaofaaJngLedegreeoffreedomanaLyaJa
Data:
m= 4.S0000000e+002
k= 2.6S192000e+004
o= 1.00000000e+001
x0= S.196S1000e-001
xd0= 1.00000000e+000
n= 100
deLt= 2.S0000000e-002
ayatemJaunderdamped
ReauLta:
J tJme(J) x(J) xd(J) xdd(J)
1 2.S00000e-002 S.S40992e-001 1.S961S9e-001 -1.10061e+001
2 S.000000e-002 S.419696e-001 -6.410S4Se-001 -1.0611e+001
1 1.S00000e-002 S.22S99e-001 -1.11SSS9e+000 -2.114011e+001
4 1.000000e-001 4.199111e-001 -2.021219e+000 -2.1191S6e+001
S 1.2S0000e-001 4.224101e-001 -2.SS911e+000 -1.920S99e+001
6 1.S00000e-001 1.S29414e-001 -2.911Se+000 -1.41222e+001
.
.
.
96 2.400000e+000 2.201211e-002 2.1119Se-001 -1.12621e+000
91 2.42S000e+000 2.12209e-002 1.14092e-001 -2.012110e+000
9 2.4S0000e+000 1.11101e-002 1.114101e-001 -2.129064e+000
99 2.41S000e+000 1.11S90e-002 1.164112e-002 -2.161S96e+000
100 2.S00000e+000 1.S0S1S0e-002 2.19S11e-002 -2.1192e+000
x

x,x

,
|),x|),x

|),x

|)
/) delt trme
n number
xd
0
rnrtral
x
0
rnrtral
c damprng
k sprrng
m mass
m 450.0, / 2o5l9.2, . l000.0, x
0
0.5`9o57, x

0
l.0
20S CUA|T|k2 |k||\|kAT|0N0|S|N0||-||0k||-0|-|k|||0HSYST|HS
CUA|T|kS|HHAkY
We consrdered the equatrons ol motron and therr solutrons lor the lree vrbratron ol undamped and
dampedsrngle-degree-ol-lreedomsystems.Fourdrllerentmethods namely,Newton ssecondlaw
olmotron,D Alembert sprrncrple,theprrncrpleolvrrtualdrsplacements,andtheprrncrpleolcon-
servatronolenergy werepresentedlorderrvrngtheequatronolmotronolundampedsystems.Both
translatronalandtorsronalsystemswereconsrdered.Thelree-vrbratronsolutronshavebeenpresented
lorundampedsystems.Theequatronolmotron,rnthelormolalrrst-orderdrllerentralequatron,was
consrderedloramass-dampersystem,wrthnosprrng),andtherdeaoltrmeconstantwasrntroduced.
Thelree-vrbratronsolutronolvrscouslydampedsystemswaspresentedalongwrththeconcepts
olunderdamped,overdamped,andcrrtrcallydampedsystems.Thelree-vrbratronsolutronsolsystems
wrthCoulombandhysteretrcdamprngwerealsoconsrdered.Thegraphrcalrepresentatronolcharac-
terrstrcrootsrnthecomplexplaneandthecorrespondrngsolutronswereexplarned.Theellectsolvarr-
atronoltheparameters,,and onthecharacterrstrcrootsandtherrrepresentatronsusrngrootlocus
plotswerealsoconsrdered.Therdentrlrcatronolthestabrlrtystatusolasystemwasalsoexplarned.
Nowthatyouhavelrnrshedthrschapter,youshouldbeabletoanswertherevrewquestronsand
solvetheproblemsgrvenbelow.

0 0.5

.5 2 2.5
10
30
20
0
0
0
)

)
,

)
,

)
)
)
20
30
Varratronsol , ,and .