Coal Combustion Technologies:

Long periods of availability of cheap liquid and gaseous fuels have favorably affected industrial and technological development worldwide. At the same time, it has also resulted in an almost complete interruption of research and development of new technologies for coal and other solid fuels combustion.

Research and development supported by coal producers and their associations have been insufficient to provide prompt development of new coal combustion technologies and to maintain the previously dominant position of coal in energy production. Coal has been increasingly neglected for energy production, especially in heat production for industry and district heating systems. In many countries, coal was also suppressed for use in electric power production by large boiler units. Only countries with extensive coal reserves, traditionally oriented to coal as an energy source (for example, U.S.S.R., Great Britain, Germany, U.S.A.) continued to rely on coal, at least in large utility electric power systems. The share of certain fossil fuels in energy production varies among countries, according to available fuel reserves, local conditions, the type and level of technological and economic development However, in general, it is quite clear that in the period before the first energy crisis, coal had lost market share in industry and for district heating of buildings and urban areas as shown in figure an abrupt rise of liquid and gaseous fuel prices, has forced all of the leading countries in the world to reconsider their energy policy irrespective of their economic power and energy sources. The following principles have been generally accepted

Energy policy principles: The energy crisis at the beginning of the seventies, caused by

(a) use domestic energy resources as much as possible, (b) reintroduce coal in all areas of energy production,

(c) diversify the energy market by relying uniformly on several different energy sources and fuel suppliers, (d) stimulate development and manufacturing of domestic energy related equipment as a priority. Requirements for the energy production via coal combustion: (1) combust low-grade coals, with high content of moisture (up to 60%), ash (up to 70%) and sulphur (610%), effectively and inexpensively, (2) effectively combust miscellaneous waste fuels, biomass and industrial and domestic wastes, (3) achieve high combustion efficiency (>99%), (4) achieve boiler flexibility to type and quality of coal, and assure alternate utilization of different fuels in the same boiler, (5) Provide effective environmental protection from SO2, NOx and solid particles (SO2 <400 mg/m3, NOx<200 mg/m3, solid particles < 50 mg/m3), (6) achieve a wide range of load turndown ratio (20100%), and (7) enable automatic start-up and control of operational parameters of the plant. Requirements for power plant: Power plants, integrated into utility electric power systems, have to fulfill even more strict requirements : high steam parameters, pressure up to 175 bar, temperature up to 540C, high combustion efficiency >99%, high overall boiler thermal efficiency >90%, desulphurization efficiency >90% SO2 for coals with high sulphur content, desulphurization efficiency >70% SO2 for lignites and coals with low sulphur content, Nox emission <200 mg/m3, high availability and reliability of the plant, and load turndown ratio of 1:3, with 5%/min. load change rate.
Method of combustion for coal: Prior to the energy crisis, independent of the low oil and

gas costs, a fall in coal utilization for energy production,

 Conventional technologies for coal combustion, Pulverized coal combustion Grate combustion

Before the advent of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) no significant new concept for coal utilization and combustion had appeared.
Pulverized Coal Combustion: Pulverized coal combustion not only approached an

effectively technical perfection, but its development has probably reached the limits for this technology in terms of size. Modern boilers of this kind are probably the largest chemical reactors in industry in general. The unit power of these boilers approaches 2000 MWth. The furnace height and cross section reach 200 m and 200 m2, respectively. Boilers of this kind have a very high overall thermal efficiency (>90%) high combustion efficiency (>99%), they fail to comply with environmental protection requirements for SO2 and NOx emission without usage of very expensive equipment for flue gas cleaning. Flexibility of furnaces for different types of fuel do not fully meet contemporary requirements,
Grate Combustion: In the mid-power range (40100 MWth), before the introduction of

FBC boilers, grate combustion boilers were used. The oldest coal combustion technology was not a match for liquid fuels in either technical, economic or ecological aspects. Grate combustion has many more disadvantages than combustion of pulverized coal:

lower combustion efficiency, application limited only to high rank, coarse particle coals,

without fine particles. Bulky and heavy movable parts are exposed to high temperatures. Ash sintering in the furnace is common.

The price of the equipment for flue gas cleaning from SO2, Nox and ash particles is high compared to the price of the boiler itself and makes the energy production uncompetitive in the market.
Fluidized Bed Combustion: Intensive studies of fluidized bed combustion were initiated,

along with investigations of liquefaction and coal gasification, combustion of coal-water coal-oil mixtures, fuel cells, etc.

Numerous international conferences on coal combustion and fluidized bed combustion have demonstrated that out of all technologies intensively studied since the beginning of the energy crisis in 1972, only the FBC has become commercially available, been able to technically and economically match conventional energy technologies, and to offer many superior features especially in terms of emissions and fuel flexibility.

Computer Applications for Combustion Engineering:

Combustion: Combustion occurs when fossil fuels, such as natural gas, fuel oil, coal or gasoline, react with oxygen in the air to produce heat. e.g. CH4 + 2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O Reactants => Products + Heat The heat from burning fossil fuels is used for industrial processes, environmental heating or to expand gases in a cylinder and push a piston. Boilers, furnaces and engines are important users of fossil fuels.

Introduction: The industry situation today shows coal-fired generation as the backbone of the electric supplythe coal being an essential resource as a reasonable cost, plentiful, domestically available fuel.

If full advantage of coals availability and optimum use are to be realized in existing plants, the complexity of the total picture requires the integration of all the coal issues related to the supply, transportation, storage, costs, constituent analysis, combustion properties. This requires optimum use of computers. Computer Applications in Combustion Engineering: Computers have long been used in combustion engineering, particularly in the areas of combustion analysis and combustion control. Combustion analysis has involved extensive modeling of chemical reactions. Initial models were often simple heat and material balance models with or without temperature calculations. Combustion analysis: Combustion analysis is part of a process intended to improve fuel economy, reduce undesirable exhaust emissions and improve the safety of fuel burning equipment. Combustion analysis begins with the measurement of flue gas concentrations and gas temperature, and may include the measurement of draft pressure and soot level. To measure gas concentration, a probe is inserted into the exhaust flue and a gas sample drawn out. Exhaust gas temperature is measured using a thermocouple positioned to measure the highest exhaust gas temperature. Soot is measured from a gas sample drawn off the exhaust flue. Draft is the differential pressure between the inside and outside of the exhaust flue. Once these measurements are made, the data is interpreted using calculated combustion parameters such as combustion efficiency and excess air. A more in depth analysis will examine the concentration of the undesirable products.

Why Perform Combustion Analysis?: Improve Fuel Efficiency Reduce Emissions

Improve Safety

Whats Measured? Combustion analysis involves the measurement of gas concentrations, temperatures and pressure for boiler tune-ups, emissions checks and safety improvements. Parameters that are commonly examined include:

Oxygen (O2) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Exhaust gas temperature Supplied combustion air temperature Draft Nitric Oxide (NO) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Measurement Tools: Manual Gas Measurements

The Orsat analyzer is a gas concentration analysis tool typically used to manually sample CO2, O2 and CO from the flue of a combustion system. Portable Electronic Instruments

The electronic instruments such as the CA-CALC Combustion Analyzer has been developed to analyze combustion routinely for tune-ups, maintenance and emissions monitoring. Continuous Emission Monitors

Continuous emission monitors, or CEMS, are a class of electronic instruments designed to measure exhaust stack gases and temperature continuously. Using The Measurements: Once flue gas and temperature measurements are made, combustion parameters are calculated to help in evaluating the operating performance of the furnace or boiler.

Typical combustion parameters include:

Excess Air Carbon Dioxide Combustion Efficiency O2 Reference Emissions Conversions

Combustion control: Optimum Combustion Control is obtained by using (TDLS) Tunable Diode Laser Gas Analyzer Used in order to minimize environmental burdens such as gas emissions and heat dissipation while maintaining a stable supply of energy (heat) for plant operation. Used in order to achieve safe and optimum combustion control. Ever increasing energy prices and the need to minimize harmful emissions require now more than ever that the combustion process needs to be fully

optimized by controlling the air fuel ratio to ensure minimum energy use for maximum reward. Measurement of excess oxygen and carbon monoxide on a precise and continuous basis is the recognized methodology. Tune able diode lasers (TDLS) together with zirconia based O2 analyzers enable a range of fast and accurate measurements of waste combustion gases. Additionally, CO can for the first time be accurately measured on a continuous basis at low ppm levels using TDLS such that air fuel ratios can be precisely and continually optimized.

TDL Enables: Measurement in/near combustion zone

Before CO levels are reduced Fast Response

5 seconds High Sensitivity for CO

<10 ppm CH4 Measurement for Safety O2/CO Measurement Gas Temperature and H2O measurement capability.

Computer modeling: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), using the JANAF (Joint Army, Navy, and Air Force) thermodynamic data, produced one of many Minimization models to calculate products of combustion and temperatures at equilibrium. These models ultimately made their way from mainframe computers to desktop and laptop personal computers, and gained wide acceptance in the analysis of combustion of solid fuels.

Analytical Modeling:

Computer modeling with thermodynamic data extended beyond bulk combustion problems to the management of trace metals and the fate of inorganic matter. Models such as FACTSAGE provide key insights into slagging and fouling, and the viscosity of inorganic matter released from solid fuels during combustion processes

FACTSAGE: FactSage, one of the largest fully integrated database computing systems in chemical thermodynamics. The FactSage package runs on a PC operating under Microsoft Windows and consists of a series of information, database, calculation and manipulation modules.

With FactSage we can calculate the conditions for multiphase, multicomponent equilibria, with a wide variety of tabular and graphical output modes, under a large range of constraints. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD): The most advanced computer modeling technique is generally considered to be the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to evaluate combustion within the primary furnace. CFD is the simulation of fluids engineering systems using modeling (mathematical physical problem formulation) and numerical methods.

CFD Applications within the combustion arena: Combustion, but within the combustion arena, CFD has distinct applications. These include the following:

Temperature mapping, including temperature gradient mapping. Flame shaping, including the use of the models to provide guidance on setting of burners for optimal firing practices. Evaluation of emissions formation and control, including setting burners to minimize the formation of NOx and other pollutants. CFD modeling has achieved wide acceptance in the combustion arena. It is used not only to analyze the phenomena occurring in the furnace and boiler, but also to analyze the flow of gaseous combustion products through post-combustion systems.

 The extension of CFD modeling now being developed is the use of threedimensional models such that the analyst can enter inside the furnace or boiler and experience what is going on. Several universities and commercial companies are developing this approach. Development of techniques using computer: The capabilities of the computer have enabled a much greater understanding of the combustion process and boiler design. Prior engineering and design was largely based on the extension of empirical data to the development of new, larger equipment and boilers and, all too often, an expensive trial-and error solution process to problems. The tremendous data storage capacity and the rapid computational abilities of the computer has brought with it the development of techniques such as Complex finite element (FE) models, Three dimensional/multi mechanism heat transfer problems, Computational fluid dynamics Neural network analysis, and Data historian systems (e.g., OSI PI).

Finite element method: The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as integral equations. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary differential equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as Euler's method, Runge-Kutta etc. Finite element analysis with high accuracy has capability of computers to make many calculations in nano-time.

Three dimensional heat transfer problems: Three-dimensional problem In the special cases of wave propagation of heat in a homogeneous medium in a 3-dimensional space.

It shows thermal conductions of temperature in the x, y, and z directions, respectively;

OSI PI System: The OSI PI system was originally developed to track the complex flows and reactions in the refinery and petrochemical industry. It has inherent ability to efficiently store large volumes of data and provide accurate evolution and reliable instrumentation. The PI system has application to boiler and combustion. It allows extensive parametric studies and their relative influence. The OSI PI System with real-time data acquisition offers a central repository for data through a facility or across multiple locations. Information can be automatically collected from many different sources (Control systems, Lab equipment, Calculations, Manual Entry, and/or Custom software). Most information is gathered using OSI PI Interfaces. Users can then access this information using a common set of tools (ex. Excel, web browser, PI Process Book).

OSI PI System helps to: Analyze seasonal trends Determine if utilities is not meeting the demands of production. Compare the performance of different lots of raw material. Determine when maintenance is required on equipment. Optimize the utilization or performance of a production line. Advanced heat transfer studies are possible much in the same way as the finite element analysis. Simultaneous, multiple heat transfer mechanisms can be analyzed and, together with CFD, have enabled the development of large, high efficiency boilers.

Computer Applications for Process Control: Computers have been employed for process control of boilers, kilns, and other combustion devices for several decades.

These control systems evolved into the distributed control system (DCS) that has replaced the bench board and hard station approach in virtually all large power plants. The recent evolution being employed in some generating station is the closed loop neural network control system. This system relies on the computer learning the consequences of actions taken in the control of a boiler and then incorporating those learned lessons into the actual control of the boiler. This system is empirically driven at the present time and relies on the computers capability to learn the consequences of actions; it relies to very little extent on first principles. Neural networks are data processes enabling parametric studies of the many factors that are influential but difficult to because of the interaction with the multiplicity of other parameters. These programs analyze large volumes of process data generated over time but do require variation of parametersoften intentional disturbancesto distinguish trends of influence.

Computer Applications for Fuel Control: A recent development in the application of computers for combustion control is the use of computers to monitor and influence the quality of the fuel being fed to the boiler. This approach has become more widely applied in industries with blend fuels. One such system is , AccuTrack,.

This use of computers integrates information systems, modeling, and information management for the benefit of combustion engineers and, more significantly, plant operators. AccuTracking: AccuTracking is an online tracking service that helps you to monitor the current location of your mobile client. Replaced manual methods for coal bunker reporting Developed to: Meet the needs of plants blending two or more types of fuels

 Track on-line coal analyzer details through the bunker Track coal from its feed source to the load destination and through the bunker to the burner. Calculate and display coal properties utilizing data from on-line-coal analyzer Automatically create detailed burned reports via web interface. Automatically write consumption results to Corporate Fuel Management System. Provide information to operations, environmental, accounting, auditing, accounts payable, etc.

Successfully Applying Computer Technology to Fuels Control: The successful installation of such computer applications must address all the following considerations: Management, coordination, and mutual understanding, dispatching, and corporate fuels groups. The understanding of it is the best way to realize the desired result from properly managed coal use. There have been many advances in generating plant technology. But very few of the advances have been applied. With the closer look and realization of the fuel opportunities available through such software, the justification of remote controls, accurate sensing elements, digital information networks, and OSI PI data records are given in a new light. Subject to a design review, a plant coal-handling installation might require significant upgrades or new installations to provide the fuel flexibility required through such software application. Besides the technology aspects, the system upgrade might include additional scales, variable speed belts with blending capabilities, coal samplers, and analyzers. System upgraded costs though significant, may be readily justified with the projected savings, given the ever-increasing fuel prices, declining generation reserves, and growing sales opportunities, the best solution for outages, and significantly improved availability.

Plant personnel armed with the foreknowledge of coal quality impact can better meet their commitments.

Gasifiers
Moving Bed: Countercurrent flow reactors Coal enter from top and air or oxygen enter from bottom Heat of reaction serves as the pre heating of the coal due to countercurrent flow Low oxidant requirements Relatively high methane content in the produced gas Production of hydrocarbon liquids, such as tars an oils High cold gas thermal efficiency when the heating value of the hydrocarbon liquids are included Limited ability to handle fines Special requirements for handling caking coal LURGI GASIFIER: Oldest gasifier technology Pressure, typically 2.4 to 3.5 MPa Each batch of coal weighs about 8 ton Highest bed temperature, 615 to 760 0C Syngas and coal tar leave the gasifier at about 370 to 590 0C. Feed coal is sized to about 3 to 30 mm BGL GASIFIER: British Gas Lurgi Bituminous coal is gasified Gas leaves the gasifier at 540 0C

 Gasifier at about 2.7 MPa Fluidized Bed: Back-mixed or well-stirred reactor in which there is a consistent mixture of new coal particles mixed in with older Flow of gas into the reactor must be sufficient to float the coal particles within the bed Residence time of coal particles in a fluidized bed gasifier is shorter than that of a moving bed gasifier . Extensive solids recycling Uniform and moderate temperature Moderate oxygen and steam requirements WINKLER GASIFIER: First industrial application of fluidized bed technology Winkler gasifier operates near atmospheric pressure, in the bubbling fluidized bed regime Coal is ground to 0 - 8 mm The bubbling bed operates at about 1,000 C Oxygen reacting with The gas/solid mixture boosts the temperature to about 1,200 C, which partially melts the ash FOSTER-WHEELER PARTIAL GASIFIER: A circulating fluidized bed reactor Carbon conversions between 45 and 80% Gasses and fine solids leaving the recycle cyclone are cooled in the syngas cooler Operates at 0.7 to 0.9 MPa Bituminous coals were gasified at 995 C to 1,065 C, and the subbituminous PRB coal was gasified at 945 to 995 C

 A pilot scale gasifier, was built and tested No commercial units were built KBR TRANSPORT GASIFIER: A circulating fluidized bed gasifier Main body of the gasifier has two sections, a larger-diameter mixing zone, on the bottom, and a smaller-diameter riser section, on the top Gasifier is preheated with a gas-fired startup burner Coal is ground to 250 - 600 mm average diameter Entrained flow: Finely-ground coal is injected in co-current flow with the oxidant Residence time of an entrained flow gasifier is on the order of seconds or tens of seconds Must operate at high temperatures to achieve high carbon conversion Use oxygen rather than air and operate above the slagging temperature of the coal High-temperature slagging operation Entrainment of some molten slag in the raw syngas Relatively large oxidant requirements Large amount of sensible heat in the raw syngas Ability to gasify all coal regardless of rank, caking characteristics or amount of fines

Carbonization:
Heating of an organic compound in the absence of air to produce carbon along with liquid and gaseous products. Carbonization is the conversion of an a organic substance into carbon or a carbon-containing residue through pyrolysis or destructive distillation. It is the process in which coal is heated and volatile products (gaseous and liquid) are driven off, leaving a solid residue called char or coke.

Wood Carbonization: Heating of wood in the absence of air at 600 C for the production of wood charcoal. Physico-Chemical Changes: Four stages are involved in the carbonization of wood 1. At 100-120C, moisture of the wood is expelled first. 2. At 120-275C, initial decomposition of wood takes place resulting in the formation of little distillate gas containing acetic acid and water. 3. At 275-350C, active distillation of wood takes place resulting in the formation of liquid products such as pyroligneous acid and tar along with gaseous products such as CO,CO2,N2,H2 and Hydrocarbons. 4. At 350-600C, residual V.M are evolved from wood/charcoal formed in 3rd stage.

Scheme of wood Carbonization: Carbonization of wood is carried out in: Open Pits (Primitive method, now obsolete) Kilns (Located in forests, No By Products recovery) Metal Retorts (Located in factories) 1. Externally Fired 2. Internally Heated (forced circulation of heated gases evolved during carbonization) Uses of Charcoal.:

 As an adsorbent (large surface area) As a feed stock for gasification As a clean and smooth burning fuel having low ash content and high H.V(7500-8000 Kcal/kg) As a fuel in metallurgical furnaces Raw material for the production of carbon disulphide. Coal Carbonization: Heating of coal in the absence of air. Main Purpose to Produce coke whereas the co-product is called Coke oven gas which various liquid products like tar, benzol,phenol,naphtahlene and anthracene is separated. Mechanism of Coal Carbonization: Stage I Primary break down of coal yields decomposition product like H2O, CO, CO2, H2S, aromatics,paraffins, olefins, nitrogen containing compounds etc. Stage II Secondary thermal reaction among these librated primary products as they pass through hot coke, along hot oven walls and through highly heated free space. Stage III Progressive removal of hydrogen from residue in the oven to produce hard coke. Types of Carbonization: Low temperature carbonization(700 C ) High temperature carbonization(1100 C ) At high temperature carbonization, practically all the volatile matter is driven off as gases or liquids, leaving behind a residue that consists principally of carbon with minor amounts of hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen (which together constitute the fixed-carbon content of the coal). Comparison b/w L.T.C and H.TC

 L.T.C Produces semi coke Less yield of Coke oven gas Ammonia Yield is low

H.T.C Produces metallurgical Coke High yield of Coke oven gas Ammonia Yield is high

CV of Coke oven gas is more due CV of coke oven gas is less due high %age of methane to less H.Cs due to cracking at high temperature. VM content is high VM content is low stronger and smaller in size

Coke produced is weaker and bigger in size. Contains less hydrogen content Yield of Coke is more

More hydrogen content Yield of coke is less

Low temperature carbonization; Low-temperature carbonization was originally developed to provide town gas for residential and street lighting and to manufacture a smokeless fuel for domestic and industrial heating. It produces semi coke which is used as a smokeless domestic fuel. It can some times be used in boilers also to avoid smoke. Open Stack Burning is undesirable in L.T.C Therefore externally or internally heated stationary or rotary retorts are used. Coal is poor conductor of heat.(rotary carbonizer and fluidized bed technique) Coke produced is converted into suitable briquettes for use as a domestic and industrial fuel. High Temperature Carbonization: The main purpose of high-temperature carbonization is the production of metallurgical coke for use in blast furnaces and foundries. Some coke is used for the manufacture of calcium carbide and electrode carbons, and in foundries to produce cast iron; however, more than 90% of the coke produced is used in blast furnaces to smelt iron ore and produce pig

iron, and modern coke-making practices are virtually dictated by the coke quality in this market. High-temperature carbonization, with which this section is concerned, is practiced to produce a coke having the requisite properties for metallurgical use, as in blast furnaces or foundry.

Metallurgical Coke Production: Mainly two types of ovens are used:a) Beehive oven b) By- Products ovens I. II. Waste heat ovens Regenerative ovens Demerits of Beehive oven: No By-Products recovery Lower Yield of coke of inferior quality Lack of flexibility of the Process Large coking time (2-3 days) By-Products recovery: Coke oven gas is subjected to following treatment processes for the recovery of by-products: Cooling the gas for condensation of tar and ammoniacal liquor. Recovery of ammonia as ammonium sulphate by reaction with sulphuric acid. Gas oil is washed to recover naphthalene and Benzol. Desulphurization of gas Distribution of gas to consumer furnaces. Properties of coke: Ash & moisture content

 Low moisture and ash content are desirable in coke. Low moisture in coke can be achieved by suitable control of the water supply during quenching. Coke should contain <1.5% moisture. Maximum desirable ash content in coke is 8%. Hardness & Strength It is defined as the resistance power of material to breakage by impact Strength of coke is measured by Shatter Index and hardness is measured by Cochrane Index. Shatter Index It measure the resistance of coke to breakage by impact. Cochrane Index. It is the measure of hardness of the coke and gives the resistance of coke to breakage by attrition, rubbing. Uses: Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.

Kinetics of Gasification:
Reaction Sequence for Gasification of Coal:

For coke gasification: The volatiles have already been removed in a separate process step, only the char reactions apply The oxygen reacts with the coke and the devolatilization takes place using the hot synthesis gas. For oil gasification: The feedstock consists almost entirely of pure volatiles,the pattern is also slightly different Devolatilization: The first step, heating up of the coal particles Devolatilization takes place already at low temperatures (350800C) and in parallel with the heating up of the coal particles. The rate of devolatilization is depends upon Rate of heating Particle size Rate of gasification by the water gas reaction Reaction temperature Partial pressure of steam Influence of Heating Rate on Gasification Process: When heating up is slow: The pyrolysis reactions set in from about 350C The gasification reaction of both volatiles and char with steam is very slow concentration of volatiles outside the particle increases rapidly When rate of heating is high: both pyrolysis and gasification take place simultaneously a high concentration of volatiles is never allowed to build up The devolatilization of coal produces a variety of species, tars, hydrocarbon liquids, and gases,

methane, CO CO2 H2 H2O HCN Volatiles Combustion: The material reacts with the oxidant surrounding the coal particle. The extent to which the oxidant is completely or only partially depleted depends on the amount of volatiles produced In a combustion environment: there is an overall excess of oxygen, the combustion of the volatiles is complete Recirculated combustion flue gas consists mainly of carbon dioxide, water vapor and (in the air-blown situation) nitrogen Resulting effect is reducing the temperature In a gasification environment: It is not necessarily the case, especially where the coal has a high volatiles content recycled gas contains significant quantities of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (up to 90% for an oxygen-blown gasifier) Resulting effect is increasing the temperature Char Gasification: Slowest reactions in gasification For the Boudouard reaction, a two-step process Step 1 Step 2 Cfas +CO2 C(O) +CO C(O)CO+Cfas

In the first step, CO2 dissociates at a carbon free active site (Cfas), releasing carbon monoxide and forming an oxidized surface complex (C(O)). In the second step the carbon-oxygen complex produces a molecule of CO and a new free active site. The rate limiting step is the desorption of the carbon-oxygen surface complex.

For the water gas reaction: Step 1 Step 2 Cfas +H2O C(O)+H2 C(O)CO+Cfas

In this case the first step is the dissociation of a water molecule at a carbon-free active site (Cfas), releasing hydrogen and forming an oxidized surface complex (C(O)). In the second step, the carbon-oxygen complex produces a molecule of CO and a new free active site In some models the rate-limiting step is the desorption of the carbon-oxygen surface complex as for the Boudouard reaction. Other models include the possibility of hydrogen inhibition by the inclusion of a third step Step 3a Step 3b Cfas +H2 C(H)2 Cfas + H2 C(H)

Rate of Reaction. For the Boudouard reaction C+CO22CO being an equilibrium reaction, the reaction rate of carbon conversion

is assumed to be proportional to the concentration of CO2 in the gas, so that

where km is the mass-related reaction-rate constant, cCO2 the concentration of CO2 in the gas and the order of the reaction may be assumed to be 1 The temperature dependency of the rate constant can be expressed in Arrhenius form as

where A is a pre-exponential factor and E is the activation energy for the reaction. This can be expressed alternatively as

Comparison of Different Types of Solid Feedstocks: The reactivity of different coals and chars depends on a number of factors, in particular The porosity of the coal, that is, its inner structure, surface, and active sites. The crystal structure of the fixed carbon. Catalytic effects of ash components in the coal. Reactivity of Various Materials as a Function of Temperature: low-rank coals such as browncoal have a large specific surface and thus a high reactivity. Older coals, particularly anthracitic coals, have a poor reactivity. Reactivity is enhanced by alkalis, particularly potassium Effective Reactivities: It is necessary to distinguish between the physical and chemical steps involved and which effects control the measurable rate of reaction in different temperature zones There are 3 zone: Low temperature

Medium temperature High temperature Zone I, the low-temperature zone, in which the chemical reaction is the rate controlling step and the experimentally observed activation energy is the true activation energy Zone II, a medium-temperature zone, in which the rate of chemical reaction is higher, but is limited by internal diffusion of the gaseous reactants through the pores of the individual particles. The observed activation energy is only about half the true value. Zone III, a high-temperature zone in which external, bulk surface diffusion of the gaseous reactants is rate controlling and the apparent activation energy is very small.

FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION IN PRACTICE:

Purpose and basic concept of devices for solid fuel combustion in fluidized bed: The concept, basic parameters and dimensions of any power-generating device, depends on the nature of the fuel and the purpose of the plant Boilers can be divided into the following categories: Furnaces for production of hot gases and hot air Industrial boilers producing steam or hot water for the process industries Boilers for electric power generation at the utility scale Furnaces for production of hot gases or hot air: Purpose and applications Basic parameters and requirements Basic problems Some construction solutions Purpose and applications: In the process industries and agriculture, hot gases are needed in various processes Roasting, Heating Drying The most commonly used fuels are liquid or gas

Solid fuel combustion demand high-quality coal, and pretreatment of fuel Fluidized bed combustion boilers meet the requirements for low air emissions and also allow the automation of plant operation The basic advantages for these types of applications are as follows: Simplicity of operation, The possibility of combustion of various low-quality coals without special preliminary treatment The combustion of wastes, and in particular biomass The disadvantages include Restricted load following and change of exit gas temperature The potential for high unburned char in the solid residue streams Significant ash and sand elutriation due to high gas velocities Requirement for a relatively large amount of excess air Basic parameters and requirements: Furnaces used in agriculture are typically rather small (15 MW) The process industries requirements may go up to 15 MW and above For drying, clean air at about 150 C is required In drying highly sensitive plant products and seeds, even lower temperatures are required, typically about 40 C When combustion products are used directly, temperatures can ranging from 800 to 900 C Furnaces are usually lined by firebricks and have simple auxiliary systems Inert bed material particles are of average size from 0.5 to 1 mm For large units and higher fluidization velocities, may adopt sizes up to 1 to 2 mm Excess air can range from 1.5 to 2.5 depending on the required temperature The fluidization velocity may reach as high as 4 m/s Bed height are typically 300 to 1000 mm Combustion efficiency tends to range from 80 to 95%

Basic problems: Certain basic problems have already been mentioned: limited load following range, high particle elutriation ratei. e. overload of the flue gas cleaning system, a large surface of gas to gas heat exchanges. For these systems, large capacity high-pressure head primary air fans are required. Change in the type of fuel requires significant variation in the quantity of combustion air, which are not easy to meet given the required power and performance of the primary air fan Some construction solutions: Fig. A shows a simple industrial furnace for generation of hot gases of temperatures up to 800 C The furnace is completely walled by refractory bricks, its power ranges from 0.5 to 1 MW, bed height is 300500 mm, and it has overbed fuel feeding. Typically fuels include: lignite, brown coal, or anthracite, and particle sizes are in the range of 025 mm depending on the type of coal. There are also FBC solutions for biomass combustion for very difficult fuels such as corncobs Bubbling fluidized bed combustion hot gas generator:from slid Figure B shows a diagram of a FBC furnace for hot air generation with temperatures up to 150 C Furnaces are manufactured with unit power ranging from 1.5 to 4.5 MW. Both inbed and overbed fuel feeding is possible, depending on the coal type. Bed height is 300500 mm, and the system uses immersed stainless steel heat exchangers as well as heat transfer surfaces in the furnace walls. Fuel and coals of various quality and particle size from 0 to 25 mm are used in this system Bubbling fluidized bed combustion hot air generator: An interesting construction solution is an air heater manufactured by Encomech Engineering Services Ltd. shown in Fig.C Immersed stainless steel or ceramic pipes are used for heating air. The unit power range is from 1 to 7 MW and air temperatures are up to 600 C Bubbling fluidized bed combustion hot air generator:

Industrial boilers with bubbling fluidized bed combustion; Purpose and applications Basic parameters and requirements Basic problems in design Basic designs of industrial bubbling FBC boilers Purpose and applications: Industrial boilers supply process industries with heat energy in the form of superheated or saturated steam and hot water Industrial boilers are of small or medium power up to 100 MW. One of the major requirements for this type of boilers is high reliability majority of industrial boilers use liquid or gas fuel. If they use coal, the coal choice and quality are market driven It may be necessary that industrial boilers use a local fuel, e. g. Coal from a local mine, Waste coal left over from a previous or existing coal cleaning facility or processed coal, Waste fuel, industrial and city wastes or biomass Advantages for undeveloped countries over FBC boilers: Coal is the basic domestic primary energy source The largest reserves are typically low quality coal or lignite, with high moisture contents and low ash melting points In large systems for electric power generation, the share of coal is high Coal is primarily used in large facilities of unit power 200 MW Liquid fuels are mostly used for power generation in industry In practice there are often only very limited environmental regulations, for both large and small power generation plants Most power generation in eastern Europe, and many other countries does not use desulphurization systems, or equipment for controlling NOx emission A large number of small mines are still exploited, although they may have no market for the unwashed coal

 A large number of units (both large and small power generation plants) are at the end of their operational life and are facing the need for reconstruction and revitalization Features for bubbling FBC boilers: Replacement of imported liquid fuels with domestic coals Reduction of SO2 and NOx emission without requiring large investments for flue gas cleaning Flexibility in terms of the quality and type of fuel employed Efficient combustion of low-quality as-mined coals, biomass, industrial and city waste Full plant automation Increase of combustion efficiency The possibility of reconstruction of old plants with simultaneous increases of combustion efficiency, reduction of SO2 and NOx emissions, and the possibility of low-quality fuel use Basic parameters and requirements: These boilers have a low power range of between 5 and 15 MW, and a medium power range of up to 100 MW Steam pressures range from 10 to 70 bar, temperatures are most frequently between 170 and 510 C and steam capacity is between 2 and 160 t/h and combustion efficiency of up to 9899% Industrial boilers often require use of fuels with a very broad variety of characteristicsfrom coal (lignite) to biomass and waste fuel , as well as a considerable range of load change, even up to 1:5 in heating systems The basic parameters for these boilers are similar to those for large power boilers: Bed height from 0.5 to 1 m, Fluidization velocity from 1 to 2 m/s, Inert bed material particle size from 0.5 to 1 mm and Combustion (bed) temperature between 800 to 850 C. The specific power is 1 to 2 MWth/m2 depending on fuel type Fuel particle dimensions are from 0 to 50 mm Excess air is around 1.2

Basic problems in design: The majority of problems in designing and constructing industrial boilers with fluidized bed combustion are stable fuel feeding can be problematic, because they often burn low quality fuels with little or no pretreatment, or they burn waste or unusual fuels these units have a demand for high combustion efficiency it is necessary to ensure a wide range for load turndown it is necesaary to achieve a reduction of SO2 and NOx emission to some permitted limits it may be necessary to incorporate heat transfer surfaces immersed into fluidized bed Basic designs of industrial bubbling FBC boilers: Depending on the power, purpose of

the boiler and fuel type, there are a number of different conceptions and design solutions for industrial fluidized bed boilers FBC boilers require: High combustion efficiency, High overall boiler efficiency, The possibility of operating with a range of fuels, Continuous and automatic load following, and Maintenance with as little physical labor as possible Include all necessary auxiliary systems Figure D shows an FBC boiler with all the appropriate auxiliary systems. Boiler of 16 MW capacity manufactured by Generator, Gteborg, Sweden, made in 1982. It was fed with coal with a 0 to 30 mm size range, with steam capacity of 20 t/h, and is still used for heating the University in Gteborg