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Esguerra Theory 1 - Reviewer Page 1

THEORY I

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS, FRAMES AND TRUSSES

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its
deflection from its original unloaded position. The deflection is
measured from the original neutral surface of the beam to the neutral
surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the
deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam.


METHODS OF DETERMINING BEAM DEFLECTIONS
Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam
deflections. These methods include:
1. Double-integration method
2. Area-moment method
3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)
4. Three-moment equation
5. Conjugate-beam method
6. Method of superposition
7. Virtual work method
Of these methods, the first two are the ones that are commonly used.
This book will also introduce the strain-energy method applying
Castigliano's theorem.

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving
deflection and of a beam at any point because we will be able to get
the equation of the elastic curve. In calculus, the radius of curvature
of a curve y = f(x) is given by
3
2
2
2
2
1
, where:
dy
dx
EI
M
d y
dx

(
| |
+ (
|
\ .
(

= =
(
(



Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic
curve dy/dx is very small, and squaring this expression the value
becomes practically negligible, hence
2
2
1 1
" y d y
dx
= =
Thus
1
"
EI
M y
= or "
M
y
EI
=

If EI is constant, the equation may be written as: " EIy M =
where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure above, y is the
deflection of the beam at any distance x. E is the modulus of elasticity
of the beam, I represent the moment of inertia about the neutral axis,
and M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end of
the beam. The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.
The first integration y' yields the slope of the elastic curve and the
second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any distance
x. The resulting solution must contain two constants of integration
since EIy = M is of second order. These two constants must be
evaluated from known conditions concerning the slope deflection at
certain points of the beam. For instance, in the case of a simply
supported beam with rigid supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the deflection
y = 0, and in locating the point of maximum deflection, we simply set
the slope of the elastic curve y' to zero.

AREA-MOMENT METHOD
Another method of determining the slopes and deflections in' beams
is the area moment method, which involves the area of the moment
diagram.

Theorems on area-moment method
Theorem I
The change in slope between the tangents drawn to
the elastic curve at any two points A and B is equal
to the product of
1
EI
multiplied by the area of the
moment diagram between these two points.
( )
1
AB
AB
Area
EI
u =

Theorem II
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent
drawn to the elastic curve at 'any other point A, in
a direction perpendicular to the original position
of the beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI
multiplied by the moment of an area about B of
that part of the moment diagram between points A
and B.
( )
( )
/
/
1
1
B A B
AB
A B A
AB
t area x
EI
t area x
EI
=
=




1
1
A bh
n
=
+

1
2
G
x b
n
=
+

1
4 2
G
n
y h
n
+
=
+


STRAIN ENERGY METHODS
There are various techniques (aside from the previous discussions in
this section) for finding deformations and values of indeterminate
reaction. These techniques are based upon geometric consideration.
Strain energy method is based upon relations between the work done '
by external forces and the internal strain energy stored within the
body during the deformation process, This process is more general
and more powerful than the various geometric approaches.

STRAIN ENERGY, U
When an external force acts upon an elastic body and deforms it, the
work done by the forces is stored within a body in the form of strain
energy. The strain energy is always a scalar quantity.
For a straight bar subject to a normal force P (tension or
compression), the internal strain energy U is

2
1
2
1
2
2
U P
PL
U P
AE
P L
U
AE
o =
| |
=
|
\ .
=


If the axial force P varies along the length of the bar
2
0
2
L P dx
U
AE
=
}

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For a circular shaft of length L subject to a torque T, the internal
strain energy U is
2
1
2
1
2
2
U T
TL
U T
JG
T L
U
JG
u =
| |
=
|
\ .
=


If the torque T varies along the length of the bar, the total strain
energy is
2
0
2
L T dx
U
JG
=
}

For a bar-of length L subject to a bending moment M, the internal
strain energy U is
1 M
EI L
u

= =

ML
EI
u =
1
2
U Mu =
1
2
ML
U M
EI
| |
=
|
\ .

2
2
M L
U
EI
=

If the bending moment varies along the length of the bar, the total
internal strain energy is
2
0
2
L M dx
U
EI
=
}

where u is central angle subtended by the circular arc of radius .

CASTIGLIANO'S THEOREM
The displacernent of an elastic body under the point of application of
any force, in the direction of that force, is given by the partial
derivative of the total internal strain energy with respect to that force.
n
n
U
P
o
c
=
c

For a body subject to combined axial, torsional, and bending effects,
Castigliano's theorem is conveniently expressed as
n n n
n
P T M
P dx T M fx
P T P
AE JG EI
o
| | | | | |
c c c
| | |
c c c
\ . \ . \ .
= + +
} } }

For a body composed of a finite number of elastic subbodies, these
integrals may be replaced by finite summations. If rotation is
required,
n
P may be replaced by
n
m , which is the applied couple at
a point in question.

THREE-MOMENT EQUATION
The three-moment equation gives us the relation between the
moments between any three points in a beam and their relative
vertical distances or deviations. This method is widely used in
finding the reactions in a continuous beam. Consider three points on
the beam loaded as shown. From proportions be8veen similar
triangles:
1 / / 2
1 2
A B C B
h t t h
L L

=
/ / 1 2
1 2 1 2
(1)
A B C B
t t h h
L L L L
+ = +
( )
/
1 1
1
A B A
AB
t area x
E I
=
/ 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 2
2 3 2 3
A B A B
t Aa M L L M L L
E I
( | | | |
= + +
| | (
\ . \ .

2 2
/ 1 1 1 1
1 1
1
6 2
6
A B A B
t Aa M L M L
E I
(
= + +


( )
/
2 2
1
C B C
BC
t area x
E I
=
/ 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 1 2 1 1
2 3 2 3
C B B C
t A b M L L M L L
E I
( | | | |
= + +
| | (
\ . \ .


2 2
/ 2 2 2 2
2 2
1
6 2
6
C B B C
t A b M L M L
E I
(
= + +


Substitute
/ A B
t &
/ C B
t to Eq. (1):
2 2 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1
6 2 6 2
6 6
A B B C
h h
Aa M L M L A b M L M L
E I E I L L
( (
+ + + + + = +



Simplify
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
6 6
2 6
C A
B
M L M L L L A a A b h h
M
E I E I E I E I E I L E I L L L
| | | |
+ + + + + = +
| |
\ . \ .


If E is constant then,
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
6 6
2 6
C A
B
M L M L L L A a A b h h
M E
I I I I I L I L L L
| | | |
+ + + + + = +
| |
\ . \ .


If E and I are constant then,
( )
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
6 6
2 6
A B C
A a A b h h
M L M L L M L EI
L L L L
| |
+ + + + + = +
|
\ .

Values of
6Aa
L
and
6Ab
L
of common Loadings:
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CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
Conjugate beam method determines the slopes and deflections of a
real beam by calculating the shears and moments of a fictitious beam
called the conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram.

Slope = shear on conjugate beam
Deflection = moment on conjugate beam

PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE BEAM
1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of
the actual beam,
2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads
on the actual beam.
3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for
the conjugate beam.
4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the
conjugate beam.

5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to
point of zero slope for the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam
corresponds to a point of maximum deflection for a real beam,

VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
Deflection and rotation at any point on a beam, truss, or frame can be
obtained by using Virtual work method.


VIRTUAL WORK EQUATION FOR BEAMS AND FRAMES
The deflection in any direction at a point on a beam or frame can be
obtained by applying a unit load at that point and applying the
formula
0
L
Mm
dx
EI
o =
}

where M is the bending moment at the element under consideration
due to applied loadings, and m is the bending moment due by the unit
load applied at the point where the deflection is required.
If the rotation at a point is required, apply a unit couple at a point and
use the equation
0
L
Mm
dx
EI
u =
}

where M is the bending moment at the element under consideration
due to applied loadings, and m is the bending moment due by the unit
couple applied at the point where the rotation is required.

VIRTUAL WORK EQUATION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
CHANGE
The virtual work ' equation due to temperature change is
( ) U T L o o = A
where U is the stress in the member due to unit load, o is the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the member, and T A is the
temperature change.

VIRTUAL WORK FOR TRUSSES
The virtual work for trusses is
SuL
AE
o =

where S the stress in a member due to actual loads, L is the length of
the member, A is the cross-sectional of the member, E is the modulus
of elasticity, and u is the stress in the member due to the virtual unit
load.

DYNAMIC OR IMPACT LOADINGS
The deformations produced in elastic bodies by impact loads cause
them to act as a spring. If the equivalent spring constant for a member
is defined, as the load required causing a unit deformation, the spring
constant in each case can be determined. This constant is usually
denoted as k with a unit of N/mm and can be determined by the
equation
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or
P
k P ko
o
= =
where P is the load causing a static deformation of o .
The work done in subjecting a member or a spring to deform an
amount of 6 is given by the formula
2
1
2
W ko =
Consider a cantilever beam shown struck by a weight falling through
a height of h. For the beam, its spring constant is
st
k W o = , where
st
o is the static deformation caused by W if it were stationary.

Since the weight stopped by the beam, the work done by the weight
should be equal to the work done by the beam
( )
( )( )
( )
2
2
2
2
1
2
2 2
but
2 2 0
( 2 ) ( 2 ) 4 1 2
2 1
st
st st
st st st
W h k
Wh W
k k
W
k
h
h
o o
o
o
o
o o o o
o o o
o
+ =
+ =
=
=

=

using (+) since o should be greater than
st
o
2
2
1
st st
st
h
o o o
o
| |
= + +
|
\ .

Simplifying
2
1 1
st st
h o
o o
= + +
The maximum stress developed due to impact loading can be
determined from the equation
max
2
1 1
st
st
h
o o
o
| |
= + +
|
|
\ .


INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS
An influence line is a diagram showing the variation of certain
functions such as reaction, shear, moment, stress or any, other direct
function due to a load of unit value (1 N, 1kN, 1 lb, l kip) moving
along a structure. The ordinate to the influence line at any point is the
value of certain functions due to a unit load acting at that point.

GENERAL METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF AN
INFLUENCE LINE
An influence line is drawn by plotting under the point where the unit
load is placed an ordinate whose height represents, to a certain scale,
the value of the function under consideration for this position of the
unit load. This is done for all successive positions of the unit load
taking care to include all points where the slope of the influence line
changes.

INFLUENCE DIAGRAM AS A DEFLECTION DIAGRAM
1. To obtain the influence diagram for a reaction, remove the
support giving resistance for this reaction and introduce a unit
displacement in the direction of the reaction. The area enclosed
between the original and the final positions of the beam is the
required influence diagram.





2. To obtain the influence diagram for shear at a section, cut the
beam at the section and lift the cut end at the right a unit
displacement relative to the cut end at the left, without
introducing relative rotation at the section.




3. To obtain the influence diagram for bending at a section, insert a
hinge at the section so that there is no moment resistance at the
section and introduce a unit relative rotation at the section.





4. Note also the influence diagrams for beam with fixed support as
illustrated in the figure below.
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PROPERTIES OF INFLUENCE LINES
1. Concentrated Moving Loads:
a. The value of a function due to a single concentrated load equals
the magnitude of the load multiplied by the ordinate to the
influence line for that particular function, the ordinate being
measured where the load is placed.

b. The value of a function for several concentrated moving loads is
obtained by adding algebraically the separate effects of each
load as determined by property (a) above. The value of the
function for the loads in the right figure is:


1 1 2 2 3 4 4
(0) ( ) F Py P y P P y = + + +
c. The maximum value of a function due to a single concentrated
moving load is obtained by placing the load at the point where
the ordinate to the influence line is a maximum.


Uniformly Distributed Moving Loads:
a. The value of a function due to a uniformly distributed load
equals the load per unit length multiplied by the area of the
influence line under the load.

b. The maximum value of a function due to a uniformly distributed
moving load is obtained by placing the load over all those
portions of the structure where the ordinates to the influence line
have the same sign as the function desired.


INDETERMINATE BEAMS
Indeterminate beams are those beams in which the number of
reactions exceeds the number of equations in static equilibrium. The
degree of indeterminacy is the difference between the number of
reactions (forces and moments) to the number of 6quations in static
equilibrium

Degree = Number of reactions - Number of equilibrium equations

In such a case, it is necessary to supplement the equilibrium
equations with additional equations arising from the deformation of
the beam.


TYPES ON INDETERMINATE BEAMS
There are several types of indeterminate structures exist in practice.
The following diagrams will illustrate the nature of indeterminate
beams.

Figure (a) is called a propped beam or supported cantilever having
three unknowns R
1
, R
2
and M. This is indeterminate to the first
degree. This can be solved .by double integration method or method
of superposition using area moment method or Castigliano's theorem.
Figure (b) is fixed at one end and has a flexible springlike support at
the other end. In the case of a simple linear spring, the flexible
support exerts a force proportional to the beam deflection at that
point.
Figure (c) is fixed or clamped at both ends and is a perfectly
restrained beam. This beam is indeterminate to the second degree.
This beam can be solved by area moment method.
Figure (d) has three unknown reactions R
1
, R
2
, and R
3
. This type of
beam that rests on more than two supports is called a continuous
beam. This beam can be solved using the three-moment equation or
moment distribution method.

STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES

Stability and determinacy of a beam
Structural stability and determinacy must be judged by examining the
reactive forces together with the effects of connections such as
hinges, rollers, and/or links.
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If r = number of independent unknown reactive forces
c = number of equations of conditions (c = 0 for a beam without
internal construction details or connections; c = 1 for a hinge; c = 2
for a roller); we have the following criterions:
a. If r = c + 3, the beam is statically determinate
b. If r > c + 3, the beam is statically indeterminate
c. If r < c + 3, the beam is statically unstable (a mechanism)

Stability and determinacy of trusses
1. If m + r = 2j, the truss is statically determinate.
2. If m + r > 2j, the truss is statically indeterminate
3. If m + r < 3j, the truss is unstable (a mechanism)
Where: m = number of members
j = number of joints
r = number of reaction

Stability and determinacy rigid frames
If 3m + r = 3j + c, the frame is statically determinate.
If 3m + r > 3j + c, the frame is statically indeterminate
If 3m + r < 3j + c, the frame is unstable
Where: m = total number of members
r = number of reactive forces
j = number of rigid joints
c = number of construction devices or connections components

APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

CANTILEVER METHOD
Assumptions:
1. A point of inflection occurs at the midspan of each girder.
2. A point of inflection occurs at midheight of each column.
3. The axial force in each column is directly proportional to its
distance from the center of gravity of all columns on that level.

PORTAL METHOD
Assumptions:
1. The building frame is divided into independent portals.
2. A point of inflection occurs at the midspan of each girder.
3. A point of inflection occurs at the midheight of each column.
4. The horizontal shear at a given story is distributed among the
columns such that each interior column resists twice as much as
each exterior columbic.
Note: Portal and cantilever methods yield the same results for frames
such as shown below.