SPINE = 15/32" 20738 NCHRP Syn 325 cvr PMS 202

Significant Findings from

Full-Scale Accelerated
Pavement Testing
A Synthes is of Highway P rac tic e
NATIONAL
COOP ERATIVE
HIGHWAY
RESEARCH
P ROGRAM
NCHRP
SYNTHESIS 325
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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2004 (Membership as of January 2004)

Officers

Chair: MICHAEL S. TOWNES, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA
Vice Chairman: JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN, Commissioner, New York State DOT
Executive Director: ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR., Transportation Research Board

Members

MICHAEL W. BEHRENS, Executive Director, Texas DOT
SARAH C. CAMPBELL, President, TransManagement, Inc., Washington, DC
E. DEAN CARLSON, Director, Carlson Associates, Topeka, KS
JOHN L. CRAIG, Director, Nebraska Department of Roads
DOUGLAS G. DUNCAN, President and CEO, FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO, Director, Metrans Transportation Center and Professor, School of Policy, Planning, and Development, USC, Los Angeles
BERNARD S. GROSECLOSE, JR., President and CEO, South Carolina State Ports Authority
SUSAN HANSON, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University
JAMES R. HERTWIG, President, Landstar Logistics, Inc., Jacksonville, FL
HENRY L. HUNGERBEELER, Director, Missouri DOT
ADIB K. KANAFANI, Cahill Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University of California at Berkeley
RONALD F. KIRBY, Director of Transportation Planning, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments
HERBERT S. LEVINSON, Principal, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, CT
SUE MCNEIL, Director, Urban Transportation Center and Professor, College of Urban Planning and Public Affairs, University of Illinois, Chicago
MICHAEL D. MEYER, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology
KAM MOVASSAGHI, Secretary of Transportation, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development
CAROL A. MURRAY, Commissioner, New Hampshire DOT
JOHN E. NJORD, Executive Director, Utah DOT
DAVID PLAVIN, President, Airports Council International, Washington, DC
JOHN REBENSDORF, Vice President, Network and Service Planning, Union Pacific Railroad Company, Omaha, NE
PHILIP A. SHUCET, Commissioner, Virginia DOT
C. MICHAEL WALTON, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
LINDA S. WATSON, General Manager, Corpus Christi Regional Transportation Authority, Corpus Christi, TX


MARION C. BLAKEY, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
SAMUEL G. BONASSO, Acting Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
REBECCA M. BREWSTER, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA (ex officio)
GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering (ex officio)
THOMAS H. COLLINS (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard (ex officio)
JENNIFER L. DORN, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
ROBERT B. FLOWERS (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commander, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ex officio)
EDWARD R. HAMBERGER, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads (ex officio)
JOHN C. HORSLEY, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (ex officio)
RICK KOWALEWSKI, Acting Director, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
WILLIAM W. MILLAR, President, American Public Transit Association (ex officio)
MARY E. PETERS, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
SUZANNE RUDZINSKI, Director, Transportation and Regional Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ex officio)
JEFFREY W. RUNGE, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
ALLAN RUTTER, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
ANNETTE M. SANDBERG, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
WILLIAM G. SCHUBERT, Maritime Administrator, U.S. DOT (ex officio)
R

OBERT A. VENEZIA, Program Manager of Public Health Applications, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (ex officio)



NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
Transportation Research Board Executive Committee Subcommittee for NCHRP

MICHAEL S. TOWNES, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA (Chair)
JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN, New York State DOT
JOHN C. HORSLEY, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles
MARY E. PETERS, Federal Highway Administration
ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR., Transportation Research Board
C. MICHAEL WALTON, University of Texas, Austin

Field of Special Projects
Project Committee SP 20-5

GARY D. TAYLOR, CTE Engineers (Chair)
SUSAN BINDER, Federal Highway Administration
THOMAS R. BOHUSLAV, Texas DOT
DONN E. HANCHER, University of Kentucky
DWIGHT HORNE, Federal Highway Administration
YSELA LLORT, Florida DOT
WESLEY S.C. LUM, California DOT
JOHN M. MASON, JR., Pennsylvania State University
LARRY VALESQUEZ, New Mexico SHTD
PAUL T. WELLS, New York State DOT
J. RICHARD YOUNG, JR., Post Buckley Schuh & Jernigan, Inc.
MARK R. NORMAN, Transportation Research Board (Liaison)
WILLIAM ZACCAGNINO, Federal Highway Administration (Liaison)



Program Staff

ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
CRAWFORD F. JENCKS, Manager, NCHRP
DAVID B. BEAL, Senior Program Officer
HARVEY BERLIN, Senior Program Officer
B. RAY DERR, Senior Program Officer
AMIR N. HANNA, Senior Program Officer
EDWARD T. HARRIGAN, Senior Program Officer
CHRISTOPHER HEDGES, Senior Program Officer
TIMOTHY G. HESS, Senior Program Officer
RONALD D. MCCREADY, Senior Program Officer
CHARLES W. NIESSNER, Senior Program Officer
EILEEN P. DELANEY, Managing Editor
HILARY FREER, Associate Editor

TRB Staff for NCHRP Project 20-5

STEPHEN R. GODWIN, Director for Studies and Information Services JON WILLIAMS, Manager, Synthesis tudies S
DONNA L. VLASAK, Senior Program Officer DON TIPPMAN, Editor CHERYL Y. KEITH, Senior Secretary

NATI ONAL COOPERATI VE HI GHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM



NCHRP SYNTHESIS 325


Significant Findings from Full-Scale Accelerated
Pavement Testing

A Synthesis of Highway Practice

CONSULTANTS
FREDERICK HUGO, P.E., D.Eng., Ph.D.
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
and
AMY LOUISE EPPS MARTIN, P.E., Ph.D.
Texas A&M University


TOPIC PANEL

BOUZID CHOUBANE, Florida Department of Transportation
NICHOLAAS F. COETZEE, Dynatest Consulting, Inc.
GLENN M. ENGSTROM, Minnesota Department of Transportation
KENNETH W. FULTS, Texas Department of Transportation
VICTOR (LEE) GALLIVAN, Federal Highway AdministrationIndiana
AMIR N. HANNA, Transportation Research Board
LARRY N. LYNCH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center
STEPHEN F. MAHER, Transportation Research Board
JOHN B. METCALF, Louisiana State University
TERRY M. MITCHELL, Federal Highway Administration (Liaison)
JAMES A. SHERWOOD, Federal Highway Administration (Liaison)



SUBJECT AREAS
Pavement Design, Management, and Performance, and Materials and Construction


Research Sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in Cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration

TRANSPORTATI ON RESEARCH BOARD

WASHINGTON, D.C.
2004
www.TRB.org
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective
approach to the solution of many problems facing highway ad-
ministrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local
interest and can best be studied by highway departments individu-
ally or in cooperation with their state universities and others. How-
ever, the accelerating growth of highway transportation develops
increasingly complex problems of wide interest to highway au-
thorities. These problems are best studied through a coordinated
program of cooperative research.
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research
program employing modern scientific techniques. This program
is supported on a continuing basis by funds from participating
member states of the Association and it receives the full coopera-
tion and support of the Federal Highway Administration, United
States Department of Transportation.
The Transportation Research Board of the National Research
Council was requested by the Association to administer the re-
search program because of the Boards recognized objectivity and
understanding of modern research practices. The Board is
uniquely suited for this purpose as it maintains an extensive
committee structure from which authorities on any highway
transportation subject may be drawn; it possesses avenues of
communication and cooperation with federal, state, and local
governmental agencies, universities, and industry; its relationship
to the National Research Council is an insurance of objectivity; it
maintains a full-time research correlation staff of specialists in
highway transportation matters to bring the findings of research
directly to those who are in a position to use them.
The program is developed on the basis of research needs iden-
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departments and by committees of AASHTO. Each year, specific
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Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Re-
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qualified research agencies are selected from those that have
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contracts are the responsibilities of the National Research Council
and the Transportation Research Board.
The needs for highway research are many, and the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program can make significant
contributions to the solution of highway transportation problems
of mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program,
however, is intended to complement rather than to substitute for
or duplicate other highway research programs.







NOTE: The Transportation Research Board of the National Acad-
emies, the National Research Council, the Federal Highway Admini-
stration, the American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
tion Officials, and the individual states participating in the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program do not endorse products or
manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers names appear herein
solely because they are considered essential to the object of this
report.
NCHRP SYNTHESIS 325

Project 20-5 FY 2000 (Topic 32-04)
ISSN 0547-5570
ISBN 0-309-06974-2
Library of Congress Control No. 2003114768

2004 Transportation Research Board


Price $23.00


NOTICE

The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Co-
operative Highway Research Program conducted by the Transporta-
tion Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the Na-
tional Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing Boards judg-
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The members of the technical committee selected to monitor this pro-
ject and to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly com-
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they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical committee, they
are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the Na-
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Department of Transportation.
Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical
committee according to procedures established and monitored by the
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www.national-academies.org

FOREWORD
By Staff
Transportation
Research Board




















PREFACE


Highway administrators, engineers, and researchers often face problems for which in-
formation already exists, either in documented form or as undocumented experience and
practice. This information may be fragmented, scattered, and unevaluated. As a conse-
quence, full knowledge of what has been learned about a problem may not be brought to
bear on its solution. Costly research findings may go unused, valuable experience may
be overlooked, and due consideration may not be given to recommended practices for
solving or alleviating the problem.
Information exists on nearly every subject of concern to highway administrators and
engineers. Much of it derives from research or from the work of practitioners faced with
problems in their day-to-day work. To provide a systematic means for assembling and
evaluating such useful information and to make it available to the entire highway com-
munity, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
through the mechanism of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
authorized the Transportation Research Board to undertake a continuing study. This
study, NCHRP Project 20-5, Synthesis of Information Related to Highway Problems,
searches out and synthesizes useful knowledge from all available sources and prepares
concise, documented reports on specific topics. Reports from this endeavor constitute an
NCHRP report series, Synthesis of Highway Practice.
The synthesis series reports on current knowledge and practice, in a compact format,
without the detailed directions usually found in handbooks or design manuals. Each re-
port in the series provides a compendium of the best knowledge available on those
measures found to be the most successful in resolving specific problems.


The objective of this synthesis was to document and summarize the findings from the
various experimental activities associated with full-scale accelerated pavement testing
(APT) programs. These programs have generated significant findings and benefits with
regard to pavement design, analysis, evaluation, and construction practices over the last
30 years. For this report, accelerated pavement testing was defined as the controlled ap-
plication of wheel loading to pavement structures for the purpose of simulating the ef-
fects of long-term in-service loading conditions in a compressed time period. The focus
of the synthesis was on the reported findings and their application to research and prac-
tice. The actual and potential benefits to the U.S. pavement community are addressed.
Secondary areas of interest include relevant airfield pavement research, environmental
effects, newly initiated programs, coordination efforts between programs and partners,
future directions and strategies, and obstacles and lessons learned.
The proceedings of the First International Conference on APT held in Reno, Nevada,
in 1999, served as a point of departure for a comprehensive literature review. Various
other sources were explored, including the bibliography contained in 1996s NCHRP
Synthesis of Highway Practice 235. A questionnaire, which was distributed internation-
ally, was used to gather information that was unpublished. Summaries of the views of the
respondents were then compiled relative to evaluation, validation, and improvement of
structural design; vehiclepavementenvironment interactions; evaluation of materials
and tests; enhancement of modeling in pavement engineering; development and valida-
tion of rehabilitation, construction, and management strategies; pavement engineering
applications and issues; and improvement of pavement economics and management
through APT applications.
A panel of experts in the subject area guided the work of organizing and evaluating the
collected data and reviewed the final synthesis report. A consultant was engaged to
collect and synthesize the information and to write this report. Both the consultant and
the members of the oversight panel are acknowledged on the title page. This synthesis is
an immediately useful document that records the practices that were acceptable within the
limitations of the knowledge available at the time of its preparation. As progress in re-
search and practice continues, new knowledge will be added to that now at hand.

CONTENTS


1 SUMMARY


5 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Background, 5
Scope of the Study, 6
Information Collection, 6
Analysis of the Questionnaires, 7
Accelerated Pavement Testing Programs Introduced Since 1996, 8
Closing Remarks, 10


11 CHAPTER TWO EVALUATION, VALIDATION, AND IMPROVEMENT
OF STRUCTURAL DESIGNS
Introduction, 11
Questionnaire Survey, 11
Applications of Accelerated Pavement Testing to Asphalt Pavement
Designs, 12
Applications of Accelerated Pavement Testing to Concrete
Pavements, 13
Applications of Accelerated Pavement Testing to Composite
Structures, 15
Summary, 18


19 CHAPTER THREE VEHICLEPAVEMENTENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Introduction, 19
Questionnaire Survey, 19
Elements of the VehiclePavementEnvironment System, 19
Trafficking, 20
Load Composition and Configuration (Single or Multiple Axles), 26
Environmental Impact, 26
Minnesota Road Research ProjectA Comprehensive Case Study
of VehiclePavementEnvironment Interaction, 35
Summary, 36


37 CHAPTER FOUR EVALUATION OF MATERIALS AND TESTS
Introduction, 37
Questionnaire Survey, 37
Material Characterization, 38
Current Research, 45
Summary, 46


47 CHAPTER FIVE ENHANCEMENT OF MODELING IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
Introduction, 47
Questionnaire Survey, 47
Modeling Pavement Damage, 47
Modeling of Accelerated Pavement Testing Subgrade Rutting
Performance, 49
Modeling of Accelerated Pavement Testing Asphalt Rutting Performance, 54
Accelerated Pavement Testing Modeling of Asphalt Fatigue and Cracking
Performance, 58
Elasto-Plastic Behavior of Unbound Materials, 60
Concrete Modeling, 60
Summary, 61


63 CHAPTER SIX DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF REHABILITATION,
CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES
Introduction, 63
Questionnaire Survey, 63
Rehabilitation Designs, 63
Construction and Maintenance Issues, 67
Summary, 70


71 CHAPTER SEVEN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES
Introduction, 71
Relationship of Accelerated Pavement Testing to In-Service Pavements
with Conventional Trafficking, 71
Considering Some Constraints in the Process of Transformation of
Test Findings Between Trafficking Systems, 74
Failure Criteria, 76
Relationship Between Accelerated Pavement Testing and Long-Term
Pavement Performance Studies, 76
Application of Accelerated Pavement Testing to Block Pavers, 78
Application of Accelerated Pavement Testing to Airport Pavements, 78
Summary, 79


81 CHAPTER EIGHT IMPROVEMENT OF PAVEMENT ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
THROUGH ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING APPLICATIONS
Introduction, 81
Questionnaire Survey, 81
Examples of Pavement Economic Gains Through Accelerated Pavement Testing, 83
Some Lessons from In-Service Highway Field Accelerated Pavement
Testing Trials, 85
Enhancement of Pavement Management System Procedures, 86
Development in Accelerated Pavement Testing-Related Technologies, 86
Development in Accelerated Pavement Testing-Related Databases and
Technology Transfer, 86
Some Current and Planned Future Accelerated Pavement Testing
Applications, 87
Some International Trends, 89
Closing Remarks, 90


91 CHAPTER NINE CONCLUSIONS


93 REFERENCES


102 TOPICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

118 GLOSSARY


120 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS


122 APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE


135 APPENDIX B SUMMARY OF QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES


137 APPENDIX C GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF ANSWERS TO SELECTED QUESTIONS BY
RESPONDENTS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY (SEE APPENDIX A)


164 APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF ANSWERS TO SELECTED QUESTIONS BY RESPONDENTS TO
THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY


174 APPENDIX E CHARACTERISTICS OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING FACILITIES
ESTABLISHED SINCE 1996


183 APPENDIX F ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING SYSTEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL COOLING
AND/OR HEATING CONTROL UNITS


185 APPENDIX G SUMMARY OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING OBJECTIVES AND
APPLICATIONS


194 APPENDIX H IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESULTS OF ACCELERATED LOADING FACILITY
TRIALS INTO PRACTICE AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCELERATED
PAVEMENT TESTING AND LONG-TERM PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE TRIALS


197 INDEX




















































ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Frederick Hugo, P.E., D.Eng., Ph.D., University of Stellenbosch,
South Africa, and Amy Louise Epps Martin, P.E., Ph.D., Texas A&M
University, were responsible for collection of the data and preparation
of the report. Andr de Smit, a doctoral candidate from the Institute
of Transport Technology of South Africa, assisted the consultants
with the research and drafting of the synthesis. The assistance by
the secretarial and library staff of the Institute of Transportation
Technology is also acknowledged.
Valuable assistance in the preparation of this synthesis was pro-
vided by the Topic Panel, consisting of Bouzid Choubane, State
Pavement Evaluation Engineer, Florida Department of Transporta-
tion; Nicolaas F. Coetzee, Senior Engineer, Dynatest Consulting, Inc.;
Glenn M. Engstrom, Manager, Minnesota Road Research Section,
Minnesota Department of Transportation; Kenneth W. Fults, Director
of Pavements, Texas Department of Transportation; Victor (Lee) Gal-
livan, P.E., Pavement and Materials Engineer, Federal Highway Ad-
ministrationIndiana; Amir N. Hanna, Senior Program Officer,
Transportation Research Board; Larry N. Lynch, Research Civil En-
gineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development
Center; Stephen F. Maher, P.E., Senior Program Officer, Transporta-
tion Research Board; John B. Metcalf, FreeportMcMoRan Profes-
sor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State Univer-
sity; Terry M. Mitchell, Materials Research Engineer, Federal
Highway Administration (HRDI-11); and James A. Sherwood, High-
way Research Engineer, Federal Highway Administration (HRDI-12).
This study was managed by Jon Williams, Synthesis Studies, who
worked with the consultant, the Topic Panel, and the Project 20-5
Committee in the development and review of the report. Assistance in
project scope development was provided by Donna Vlasak, Senior
Program Officer. Don Tippman was responsible for editing and pro-
duction. Cheryl Keith assisted in meeting logistics and distribution of
the questionnaire and draft reports.
Crawford F. Jencks, Manager, National Cooperative Highway Re-
search Program, assisted the NCHRP 20-5 Committee and the Syn-
thesis staff.
Information on current practice was provided by many highway
and transportation agencies. Their cooperation and assistance are
appreciated.

SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS FROM FULL-SCALE
ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING



SUMMARY A large volume of knowledge exists globally in the field of accelerated pavement testing
(APT). The focus of this study was to tap this source of knowledge for application to re-
search and practice. In particular, the focus was on programs operational during the past 20
years. A number of the APT programs are featured prominently because they have been op-
erational for extended periods of time. For this report, accelerated pavement testing was de-
fined as the controlled application of wheel loading to pavement structures for the purpose
of simulating the effects of long-term in-service loading conditions in a compressed time pe-
riod. This included programs of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South
Africa, Frances Roads and Bridges Research Center (Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
Chaussees), the Australian Road Research Board, and, more recently, the APT program in
California in the United States. In NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 235, published in
1996, Metcalf presented a comprehensive overview of APT programs with details about the
extensive range of APT facilities in existence at that time.

A wide variety of APT programs are operational in the world today. Twenty-eight such
programs were reported as being currently active, with 15 of these in the United States. Most
of these tests are being conducted at fixed sites. However, there are still programs that focus
on field studies in the belief that this results in improved vehiclepavementenvironment
interaction. Of the new facilities, the National Airport Pavement Testing Facility is unique.
That it can simulate full-scale landing gear (undercarriages) of aircraft is indicative of its
sheer size. The other facilities are conventional linear trafficking test devices that have, in
most cases, been customized to suit specific needs. It is notable that the latest generation of
test devices either has partial or full environmental control. The test track at the National
Center for Asphalt Technology at Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, is similar to the
WesTrack test facility at Reno (Nevada), except that the former is in a different climatic
zone and the trucks have drivers instead of being remotely controlled.

The information used for this study was obtained through a questionnaire distributed in-
ternationally. The respondents to the questionnaire added considerable value to the synthesis
through their detailed answers. The information was not only relevant but of a quantitative
and qualitative nature difficult to obtain cost-effectively through any other means. This in-
formation was supplemented by a detailed study of the extensive bibliography that is avail-
able on APT. The international APT conference that was held in Reno in 1999 provided the
most recent comprehensive update on APT information.

An important aspect of APT is the Co-operative Science and Technology study program
of the European Community (COST). This organization is currently working in parallel with
the current synthesis toward establishing a knowledge base on APT in Europe. There is
some overlap; however, both efforts should benefit from the understanding that was reached
between the TRB A2B09 committee on APT and the COST 347 committee. According to
this agreement there will be as much exchange of information as possible. The agreement

2
paved the way for the European APT programs to share their knowledge by participating in
the survey conducted as part of this project.

The analysis for this synthesis was done by reviewing the available information in terms
of elements of a pavement system. The results were then synthesized and the significant
findings were categorized relative to the different pavement elements. Summaries of views
of the respondents were compiled relative to the following topics:

Evaluation, Validation, and Improvement of Structural Designs;
VehiclePavementEnvironment Interaction;
Evaluation of Materials and Tests;
Enhancement of Modeling in Pavement Engineering;
Development and Validation of Rehabilitation, Construction, and Maintenance Strategies;
Pavement Engineering Applications and Issues; and
Improvement of Pavement Economics and Management Through APT Applications.

These views were considered to be important, because they are related to the direct ex-
perience of the users and their application and use of significant findings. The questionnaire
responses also contained categorized references, which were used to compile an annotated
topical bibliography that is provided at the end of this report.

The extensive list of applications that were collated as a product of the synthesis was
primarily generated by the delegates themselves. It provides examples of what can be
achieved if APT is used prudently in a systematic manner. The following overview presents
the generic core of significant findings in terms of applications.

APT has been instrumental in validating and refining agency structural design guidelines.
Improvements in structural design have also been brought about by the insight gained on the
effect of a number of factors on pavement performance, including

The influence of water on performance and related failure mechanisms,
The importance of bond between layers and the quantification of the effect,
The interaction between structural composition and material characteristics,
The influence of concrete slab configuration, and
The influence of support under concrete slabs.

The scope of APT studies is very large, which was evident from the analysis of the ques-
tionnaire responses that were received from APT programs worldwide. This analysis and the
many case studies that were taken from the bibliography have made it possible to access the
large number of applications in a logical manner, depending on the needs of the reader.
These were included as integral parts of the various chapters, covering specific fields of
pavement engineering, and related appendixes.

This synthesis is constructed such that the details of the various aspects of APT that were
reviewed have been captured and embedded in a number of locations for subsequent re-
trieval by researchers and practitioners who are active in APT or in using the results of APT.
An index is provided that should prove useful in this regard. More particularly, the following
findings are noteworthy:

Unique, unconventional pavement structures have been tested and evaluated through
APT.

3
Diagnostic studies of failure mechanisms provided a basis for understanding and coun-
teracting distress mechanisms.
A wide range of structural design packages has been evaluated or developed and this
has greatly enhanced implementation.
Systematic investigation of the vehiclepavementenvironment interaction is feasible
through APT, but it will require a dedicated collaborative effort and commitment to
overcome the constraints owing to the extended nature of such a study.
The large number of APT tests relating to pavement materials is indicative of the po-
tential of APT to provide sound answers about pavement materials. More particularly,
it has been shown to be useful for answering questions relating to the use of new mate-
rials, composite materials, and materials with complex physical characteristics.
APT is a tool for the confirmation and validation of laboratory test procedures.
APT has become an important tool for developing and evaluating models.
APT is an important means of answering questions related to rehabilitation, construc-
tion, and maintenance. Answering those questions would be more difficult and take far
longer without APT experiments.

This synthesis provides ample evidence of the economic and management benefits that
have been generated by APT. More particularly

The economic gains as a result of APT are measurable. Details are given as to what has
been achieved in terms of benefit-cost ratios, savings on capital expenditure, and the
use of new and recycled materials and new pavement structures. Benefit-cost ratios
varying from 1:1 to greater than 20:1 have been reported.
Many ancillary artifacts have been developed in APT-related technologies in support
of programs throughout the world. These have had considerable impact on the ability
to understand pavement response and performance. A variety of examples are dis-
cussed. An important example is the improved understanding of tirepavement interac-
tion and its effect on performance.
APT has provided a quantitative basis for communicating with decision makers about
pavement performance. However, it will be necessary to upgrade APT systems to be
able to account for environmental effects on a quantifiable basis.
APT has attributes that supplement many aspects of pavement management systems
and in-service pavement evaluation. If the identified gaps in the system are addressed,
it may lead to rapid advances in pavement engineering and ultimately to long-life
pavements with reduced maintenance costs.

The growth of APT in the United States may stimulate advances in the field of pavement
engineering. This could gain additional momentum as the COST study program of the Euro-
pean Community (OECD COST 347) achieves its goals in Europe.

Several items were identified where further research could be undertaken to advance the
practice.

As a matter of course, the performance of in-service pavements that have been tested
in APT programs could be tracked for future comparative performance studies. This
would enhance continued improvement in the understanding and development of per-
formance models.
APT programs could, where possible, have closer association with in-service pavement
evaluations, formal long-term pavement performance studies, and related pavement
management systems to validate and evaluate APT results.

4
Vehiclepavementenvironment interaction could be further explored to enhance the
ability to do quantitative performance prediction of different pavement structures un-
der specific conditions, which would probably be best achieved through a comprehen-
sive collaborative APT program.

APT programs could advance pavement knowledge more rapidly by the prudent use of
the available information and collaborative research efforts. This could include some planned
replication to improve on the reliability of findings and to establish confidence limits.

The wide range of pavement types and configurations that have been tested through APT
provide a broad foundation of knowledge on pavement engineering. A new generation of re-
searchers has entered the APT field in the United States. This synthesis should assist them in
their quest to become acquainted with all aspects of APT.

Internationally, the situation is somewhat different because many facilities have reached
maturity and services are being rendered in an environment of privatization. Clients are now
often road agencies and projects are being conducted on the basis of design, build, and oper-
ate. This in turn is leading to partnering and the use of APT in support of warranty contracts
and improved management of pavement infrastructure.

With globalization it would seem prudent to anticipate similar wide-ranging changes in
the United States. It is therefore particularly fortunate that the APT programs in the United
States have entered a phase of development that should provide tools, technology, and APT
practices that enable them to be well prepared for the challenge.

This development also has a negative aspect that needs to be considered. With the trend
towards privatization and partnering, the results of APT studies are by default no longer in
the public domain. This does not necessarily eliminate access to the information, but often it
slows down the technology transfer through conferences and publications, although increasing
use of the Internet may change all of that dramatically. APT activities throughout the world
have become interlinked and this is greatly enhancing exchange of data and information.
5


CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION


BACKGROUND

A large body of knowledge exists globally in the field of
accelerated pavement testing (APT). The purpose of this
synthesis study is to tap this source of knowledge and to
ascertain how the findings from APT programs can con-
tribute and be applied to research and practice. For this re-
port, accelerated pavement testing was defined as the con-
trolled application of wheel loading to pavement structures
for the purpose of simulating the effects of long-term in-
service loading conditions in a compressed time period.

APT programs have been active for many years and al-
though it would be feasible to focus on all historical pro-
grams, it was considered more appropriate to focus on the
programs specifically operational during the past 20 years.
During this period, pavement engineering advanced con-
siderably, resulting in the establishment of many new con-
cepts and improved understanding of the response and per-
formance of pavements. This is not to say that there were
not successful programs in operation before this time. Sev-
eral such programs were very active during the 1960s and
1970s, and these have provided the basis for much of the
more recent development. These programs were discussed
in some detail in NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice
235 (Metcalf 1996).

In the United States, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) Research and Development Center (ERDC) was
already active in APT in the 1940s and currently remains
active. Washington State University had a circular test
track in operation in 1967, which was active until 1983
and was among the first full-scale APT facilities world-
wide. The Pennsylvania Transportation Institute was ac-
tive from 1971 to 1983. The South African program is
another prime example, one that has endured since 1971
after having been being inspired by the work of the
USACE. Their technology has spread to other continents,
notably Europe and the United States. The APT program of
the Transport Research Laboratory Ltd. (TRL) (formerly
Transportation Road and Research Laboratories) in the
United Kingdom dates back to 1963. A new linear test ma-
chine was installed in 1984 and the program remains ac-
tive. The Australian APT program was begun in the early
1980s and is still very active. The Australian machine de-
sign has also been exported to APT programs elsewhere,
including China and the United States. The last major pro-
gram dating back to this period is that of Frances Roads
and Bridges Research Center (Laboratoire Central des
Ponts et Chaussees in NantesLCPC). The LCPC pro-
gram, highly successful with extensive research studies
and strong interaction through partnering with industry, is
still active.

Currently, APT programs are globally distributed, pro-
viding a sound basis for cooperation in analysis and syn-
thesis. These programs vary from small efforts that have
focused on specific topics to comprehensive multifaceted
ones. The latter are multiyear programs with strategic plans
that cover a wide range of topics. In 1999, an international
conference on APT was held in Reno, Nevada, which pro-
vided a platform for debate and communication on a wide
range of aspects of the various APT programs. Mahoney
(1999) gave an overview of the historical development of
APT in his keynote address. At the close, Hugo (1999) pre-
sented a synthesis of the conference and a perspective that
provided some insight into the wide-ranging scope of the
APT programs. Substantial detail about the different as-
pects of the respective programs was presented, which was
helpful in structuring this synthesis report.

It is important to understand that APT is a facet of
pavement engineering that generates knowledge over a
wide spectrum. Figure 1 places APT programs in context to
the broad basis of pavement engineering.

APT is an activity that can stand alone and provide
some insight into the performance of a pavement. How-
ever, to gain full benefit, APT programs must be supple-
mented with laboratory testing programs. The extent of this
varies in scope, depending on the nature of the respective
APT programs. In addition, environmental conditions
prevalent during APT are of paramount importance, be-
cause the behavior of the materials that are being tested
may be significantly influenced by the conditions prevail-
ing during the tests. Not surprisingly, APT programs pay
close attention to this aspect, particularly when the envi-
ronment is not controlled.

In general, a very detailed record is kept of environ-
mental conditions during testing. This is a necessary ingre-
dient for analyzing the performance of a pavement. An-
other important aspect is the nature of the device used for
testing. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 235
(Metcalf 1996) includes an in-depth review of the devices
that were in use throughout the world at that time. This
provided a sound knowledge base for APT users. With this
information already documented, detailed discussion was
6
























FIGURE 1 Interrelationship between pavement engineering facets that collectively and individually
contribute to knowledge (Hugo et al. 1991).


not considered necessary on most of the devices that had
been used by the programs reviewed in this study.

Most of the information about devices commissioned
after the publication of the earlier synthesis was collected
as part of this study and relevant details are provided else-
where in this synthesis report.

A similar study is currently underway in Europe under
the acronym COST 347, the Co-operative Science and
Technology study program of the European Community
(Hildebrand et al. 2001). There is some overlap between
COST 347 and this synthesis study. However, the scope of
COST 347 is broader; for example, it includes scaled APT.
It was apparent that there was scope for cooperation and
indeed collaboration to warrant linkage between the two
programs. Accordingly, APT users in the European com-
munity were encouraged by COST 347 to respond to the
questionnaires that had been made available globally.


SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study was designed to capture significant
findings from full-scale APT, which is defined as the appli-
cation of wheel loading, close to or above the legal load
limit(s) to a prototype or actual, layered, structural pavement
system (Metcalf 1996). The intent of the APT is to determine
pavement response and performance under a controlled, ac-
celerated accumulation of damage in a compressed time pe-
riod. Accordingly, full-scale test tracks and roads, for exam-
ple, the Minnesota Road Research Project (Mn/ROAD) were
included. However, experimental road sections such as those
from the LTPP studies were excluded, except where they form
an integrated part of an APT program.

The objective was to document and summarize the sig-
nificant findings from the various experimental activities
associated with full-scale accelerated pavement tests. More
specifically, the focus was on reported findings and their
application to research and practice.

This synthesis includes an overview of the nature of APT
as described by the various APT users. It also discusses the
various applications that have been reported, with comments
on factors that affect pavement performance under APT.

The synthesis includes a review of the wide range of
ancillary tests that have been used in conjunction with
APT, both in the laboratory and in the field. The singular
prerequisite was that such testing had been done as an in-
tegral part of the full-scale APT program. It is apparent that
this covers a wide range of tests, including Strategic High-
way Research Program (SHRP) testing and a wide variety
of laboratory tests. It also includes trafficking and wheel
tracking tests, but only insofar as such tests have been used
in conjunction with full-scale APT.


INFORMATION COLLECTION

The proceedings of the 1999 conference in Reno, Nevada,
on APT (International Conference on APT 1999) served as
a point of departure for a comprehensive literature review.
7
A variety of other sources of information were explored,
especially the bibliography contained in NCHRP Synthesis
of Highway Practice 235 (Metcalf 1996). An extensive
questionnaire was used to capture detail that was unpub-
lished. It also provided an avenue for obtaining first-hand
responses to questions relating to operational matters and
viewpoints on significant findings.

The questionnaire was initially distributed in North
America and, shortly thereafter, internationally, to capture
the APT scene as widely as possible. It was drafted to pro-
vide information at three levels, with the intent of allowing
the respondents the freedom of deciding to what depth they
were able and willing to respond to the questionnaires. The
full questionnaire is contained in Appendix A

Figure A1 in Appendix A sets out the framework that
was used to develop the synthesis report. The relationship
between the various elements is also shown. In essence, the
primary objective was indicated to be the improvement of
performance and economics of pavements.


ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES

The response to the questionnaire was very satisfactory,
both nationally and internationally. A list of the respon-
dents is included in Appendix B.

The questionnaires contributed significantly toward the
synthesis as a result of the detail of the respective re-
sponses, which provided invaluable information on a vari-
ety of aspects of the APT programs. This information was
reviewed, analyzed, categorized, and incorporated into the
report in the following ways:

Graphical presentations reflecting answers to pertinent
questions,
A summary of views of APT users on significant find-
ings from their programs, and
Compilation of a categorized bibliography on the topics
related to the significant findings.

Graphical presentations on the response to specific
questions are shown in Appendix C. The graphs have been
structured to convey the information gathered in two ways.
In the first instance the responses have been stacked in bar
chart form to give an indication of the extent of the re-
sponse to each question. At the same time, acronyms have
been included as an integral part of the respective bars in
the graphs to identify the respondents, providing insight
into the geographic distribution of the responses. It also
serves as a contact point for further communication on a
personal basis, if required. The summaries of views of the
respondents were compiled relative to the following topics:

Evaluation, Validation, and Improvement of Structural
Designs;
VehiclePavementEnvironment Interactions;
Evaluation of Materials and Tests;
Enhancement of Modeling in Pavement Engineering;
Development and Validation of Rehabilitation, Con-
struction, and Maintenance Strategies;
Pavement Engineering Applications and Issues; and
Improvement of Pavement Economics and Manage-
ment Through APT Applications.

These views were considered to be important, because
they are related to the direct experience of the users and
their application and use of significant findings. The ques-
tionnaires also contained categorized references submitted
by the respondents, which were used to compile an anno-
tated bibliography (this is discussed further in chapter
seven). Where appropriate, responses to the questionnaire
have been included in the body of the report.

The following general observations on APT programs
were made from the analyses of the questionnaire. It
should be noted that this should be read in conjunction
with all of the components that have been included in Ap-
pendix B.

A total of 48 responses were received, 35 from the
United States. The others were from Europe, South Af-
rica, New Zealand, Australia, and China.
Twenty-eight of the programs reported that they were
active, with 15 of these in the United States. Seven fa-
cilities are understood to be active elsewhere interna-
tionally, but no survey responses were received from
them.
The nature of the APT programs is such that they cover
all aspects of pavement engineering. This is not surpris-
ing, particularly because as was indicated earlier, the
APT programs invariably are linked to both field and
laboratory/ancillary testing. It is also evident that soft-
ware development is taking place in conjunction with
APT programs, specifically as far as it pertains to mod-
eling (see Figure C2 and chapter five).
Although many of the APT machines are mobile, by far
the largest number of tests take place at fixed sites (as
can be seen in Figure C3). Furthermore, the tests are
normally conducted on specially constructed test pads.
The majority of the devices can traffic unidirectionally
and bidirectionally. A small number of the devices can
only traffic unidirectionally.
Figure C5 shows the extent of the programs. It can be
seen that each of the seven programs reported having
tested more than 50 sections.

As mentioned earlier, details about recently commis-
sioned APT programs were obtained through responses to
8
the questionnaire and, in some cases, personal contact.
This information is presented in the next section.


ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING PROGRAMS
INTRODUCED SINCE 1996

In this section, a brief overview is given of APT facilities
that have been commissioned since 1996. Of these new fa-
cilities, 90% use linear trafficking devices. Salient features
and test capabilities of the new APT facilities are summa-
rized in tabular form in Appendix E. More information, in-
cluding test capabilities, can be found on the websites that
are cited in Appendix B.


Federal Aviation Administration, New Jersey

The establishment of the Cooperative Research and Devel-
opment Agreement between the Federal Aviation Administra-
tion (FAA) and Boeing in 1999 is an excellent example of
partnering. It resulted in the construction of the National Air-
port Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF). This facility allows for
the testing of rigid and flexible pavements by simulated
undercarriages of aircraft weighing up to 591 000 kg. The
5340 kN Pavement Testing Machine spans two sets of railway
tracks that are 23.2 m apart. The vehicle has adjustable dual-
wheel loading modules. The load is applied to the wheels on
the modules through a hydraulic system.

The design of the NAPTF was primarily based on the
newly developed pavement design procedures for the latest
generation of large civil transport aircraft. Of particular
concern was the interaction between the loads of the multi-
ple wheels and the close spacing of wheel bogies (trucks)
that will be used on these aircraft. This has a direct impact
on the subgrade in flexible pavements. Test sections vary
in size depending on the test plan. A number of initial tests
have been conducted since the inauguration of the facility
in 1999 and these will be discussed later.


Florida Department of Transportation

Floridas Accelerated Pavement Testing and Research pro-
gram was established in 1999 to test highway pavements. It is
located in a new state-owned research park in Gainesville.
The loading facility is a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)
Mark IV model, with an automated transverse laser profiler.
The load can be varied sinusoidally to simulate dynamic load-
ing. During testing, the pavement temperature can be con-
trolled within the range of ambient to 70C to simulate in-
service loading conditions. The current test site has 8 linear
lanes, each being 45 m long and 3.6 m wide. Two additional
test lanes have been designed with water table control ca-
pability within the supporting base and subgrade layers.
Kansas State University Facility

The Kansas State University facility was established in
1997 and is financed through contributions to the Midwest
States Accelerated Pavement Testing Pooled Fund from the
departments of transportation (DOTs) of Iowa, Kansas,
Missouri, and Nebraska. The facility consists of a test
frame in which a bogie with dual wheels can move forward
and backwards while a load is applied by means of two
main longitudinal girders. The frame span is approximately
12.8 m long. At the end of the travel distance, an energy
absorption and release system transforms the kinetic en-
ergy of the carriage into potential energy in the springs; the
springs are used to launch the bogie in the opposite direc-
tion. The wheel assembly consists of a tandem axle with
air suspension bags. The wheel assembly is an actual bogie
from a standard truck. Loading of the axle is achieved by
varying pressure in the suspension system. It is possible to
achieve simulated one-way traffic through a hydraulic
pump that can lift the wheels off the pavement surface.

Tests can be conducted on two test pits. The wheel paths
are fixed with widths depending on the selected wheel con-
figuration. The temperature of the pavement can be con-
trolled within the range of 10C to 45C.


Ohio Research Institute for Transportation and the
Environment

The Ohio facility was constructed in 1997 as a joint ven-
ture between Ohio University and Ohio State University,
through a grant from the Ohio Board of Regents. The facil-
ity has a rolling wheel load mechanism operating between
two suspended steel girders spanning along the length of
the test pit. It can be positioned at any selected transverse
position for testing with optional random lateral wander.

The facility contains a test bed 13.7 m long 11.6 m
wide 2.4 m deep. This is equivalent to two standard
highway lanes with 1.2 m and 2.4 m shoulders. The pave-
ments that can be constructed in the pit can be tested with
dual or single wide-base tires at loads of 134 kN under
controlled environmental conditions. The test pit and wheel
load apparatus are enclosed in a room where the tempera-
ture can be maintained between 12C and 54C. Large
doors allow for standard construction equipment to be used
to build the test pavements in the pit.


Test Track of the National Center for Asphalt Technology,
Alabama

The National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) test
track is another prime example of partnering between in-
dustry and government for the purpose of improving the
9
quality of flexible pavement performance. Apart from state
and federal partners, industrial partners included material
and equipment suppliers. A unique approach was adopted
for financing the test pavements, with each of the individual
sections being sold to a user agency. The main purpose of
the facility is to test pavements by using conventional truck
trafficking without any environmental control. The project
was launched in 1996.

In the first phase of the program 10 million equivalent
single-axle loads (ESALs) were applied in 24 months, with
rutting as the expected form of distress.

The closed oval loop test track has two standard 3.4 m
lanes and inside and outside shoulders of 1.2 m and 2.4 m,
respectively. The outside lane was trafficked, although the
inside lane has been reserved for control purposes and
APT-related testing. The 46 test sections were trafficked by
four conventional manned trucks, each towing triple trail-
ers. The trailers were previously used in the WesTrack test
system in Nevada. Each train consists of a lead single-axle
semi-trailer followed by two single-axle trailers providing a
total of 10.3 ESALs per pass. Each axle of the vehicle train is
loaded to 89 kN except for the front axle of the tractor,
which has a load of 53.4 kN. An alignment schedule was
developed to counter the effect of perpetually right-
directed tangential accelerations caused by track geometry.

Trafficking was completed on December 17, 2002.
None of the 46 sections tested developed ruts greater than
12 mm despite the expectation that some would occur dur-
ing 2002. Some minor overlay work was done in the west-
ern loop for safety reasons.

The individual axle load of the trucks was limited to 88
kN, while the gross vehicle weight was approximately 69 t.
Truck and equipment maintenance was done once a week
when trafficking was stopped. Rut depths were captured
with a laser profiler and smoothness and surface texture
were measured weekly in each wheel path. Structural in-
tegrity was measured by a Falling Weight Deflectometer
(FWD). Compaction was monitored using a nuclear den-
sity gauge and an impedance density gauge.


University of Illinois/Advanced Transportation Research
and Engineering Laboratory

In 2000, the Advanced Transportation Research and Engi-
neering Laboratory developed the Accelerated Transporta-
tion Loading System (ATLaS) with funding from the Illi-
nois DOT and the state of Illinois to evaluate multiple
transportation support systems.

The wheelcarriage of ATLaS can be fitted with single or
dual wheels used for highway trucks, an aircraft wheel, or
a single-axle rail bogie. The structural gantry is mounted
on four crawler tracks to facilitate positioning of the de-
vice. The ATLaS transmits load to the pavement structure
through a hydraulic ram attached to the wheel carriage.
Loading can be unidirectional or bidirectional. A movable
structure is used to protect the ATLaS from the environ-
ment, which also minimizes environmental effects (tem-
perature and moisture) on the pavement.

The ATLaS is long enough to extend over six joints of a
jointed concrete pavement test section. The initial test pro-
gram for the ATLaS concerns continuously reinforced con-
crete pavements.


U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development
CenterCold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, New Hampshire

The test device at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (ERDC
CRREL) is a modified HVS Mark III. The modifications
include increased speed capability, automatic and man-
ual controls, and an electric motor to drive the test car-
riage. The modified device, referred to as the HVS Mark
IV, was acquired in 1997, and can accommodate dual
truck tires, a single truck tire, or a C141 aircraft tire.
The load can vary between 20 kN and 111 kN on super
singles or duals and up to 200 kN on C141 tires. Speeds
can reach 13 km/h, which yields 700 load applications per
hour in a unidirectional trafficking mode. The wheels wan-
der up to 900 mm in increments of 50 mm. The transverse
load distribution can be programmed as desired. The
maximum lateral wander is 1 m. The study is funded by the
FHWA.

The facility is housed in an environmentally con-
trolled building with a battery of test cells, each of
which is 6.5 m wide 7.6 m wide 3.7 m deep. The
water table can be varied in the test cells, and the ambi-
ent air temperature can be controlled. Six freezethaw
cycles can be simulated in a calendar year. Test sections
are 6.1 m long and 1.8 m wide.


U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development
CenterGeotechnical and Structures Laboratory,
Mississippi

An accelerated trafficking device to simulate vehicle and
aircraft trafficking on pavement sections was inaugurated
at the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
CenterGeotechnical and Structures Laboratory (ERDC
GSL) site in December 1998. The mobile and automated
device is a HVSaircraft Mark 5, and has been nicknamed
Bigfoot. Simulated trafficking ranging from single and
10
dual vehicle tires to single to twin aircraft tires can be ap-
plied. The load range is 45 to 445 kN.

The trafficking device is self-propelled (mobile), allow-
ing movement between adjacent test sections, and portable,
allowing transport to field sites. An environmental chamber
can be fitted to control pavement temperature from 5C to
45C. Trafficking can be uni- or bidirectional, with up to
15,000 passes per day in the bidirectional mode. Test sec-
tions are 3 m 12 m. Trafficking can be channelized or
normally distributed.


Technical Research Center of Finland, the Finnish National
Road Administration, and the Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute (HVSNordic), Sweden, and
Finland

Finland and Sweden have a joint APT program operating a
HVS Mark IV. The device is jointly owned by the Techni-
cal Research Center of Finland, the Finnish National Road
Administration, and the Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute (VTI). The Swedish National
Road Administration provides support to VTI to cover its
share of the capital cost. The HVSNordic (a linear full-
scale accelerated pavement testing machine) was initially
located in Finland in 1997 and 1998, and then in Sweden
from 1998 through 2000. In Finland the machine is located
at the Technical Research Center and in Sweden at VTI.
The budget for the period from 1994 through 2001 was set
at a value of FIM 45 million [approximately $17 million
US (1994)]. The loading wheels of the HVSNordic can be
dual or single with standard or wide-based tires. The lateral
movement is 750 mm and the wheel load can be varied
between 20 kN and 110 kN with speeds up to 15 km/h. The
HVSNordic is unique in that it is mobile with full tem-
perature control and the loading can be varied dynamically
20% sinusoidally.


CLOSING REMARKS

It was clear that the different time frames within which the
various programs were operational would affect the study.
There are programs that have matured greatly, and these pro-
vided an extensive source of information for this synthesis
study. On the other hand, there are programs that are just cur-
rently coming on line and these have not yet produced exten-
sive or necessarily implementable results. Nevertheless,
some information on these programs has been included in
the report in chapter nine for future updates.

During the last decade, there has been a sharp increase
in the number of APT programs launched in the United
States. In many instances, the latest programs are being
developed to enable cooperative and collaborative efforts
to use the various facilities that were being operated
around the world.

For any agency involved in APT this report will provide
insight into

Research initiativesways and means of using APT
facilities to enhance research into all aspects of
pavement engineering, and
Practical applications that have been successfully ap-
plied in practice toward enhancing APT or pavement
engineering design and construction.

This report is not intended to provide a comprehensive
review of all APT research, although it does cover a sub-
stantial portion of that research. The intent is rather to gain
useful information from lessons learned and successful ap-
plications of APT findings. An index has been included to
enhance the ability of readers to access this information.
Readers are also encouraged to consult the extensive topi-
cal bibliography provided at the end of the report or to visit
websites that have been included in Appendix B.


11


CHAPTER TWO

EVALUATION, VALIDATION, AND IMPROVEMENT OF STRUCTURAL
DESIGNS


INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses APT research to enhance the struc-
tural design of pavements. In structural design, the stiffness
and thickness of the pavement layers are selected to ensure an
adequate support structure such that the bearing capacity of
the underlying subgrade is not exceeded. The chapter cites
studies that were selected to present a generic overview of
APT practice and research on pavement structural designs.

Structural designs form the core of pavement engineer-
ing. It is therefore not surprising that APT programs focus
strongly on this topic. However, as is well known, design
cannot be considered in isolation. This is because of its
strong interaction with other fields of pavement engineer-
ing, such as materials and vehiclepavementenvironment
interaction. The net result is that discussions on the topic
must take into account the total system, and the process is
often iterative to account for changes that take place over
time, particularly in the case of materials. The same can be
said of changes that take place in vehicle configuration.
When considering designs, pavements are normally classi-
fied into two broad categories, flexible and rigid
(AASHTO 1993). Conventional flexible pavements gener-
ally have a composite layered structure with some form of
asphaltic material in the upper layers. Full-depth flexible
pavements have one or more layers of asphalt directly on
the subgrade. Nonasphaltic base and subbase courses gen-
erally consist of some type of natural material or crushed
stone that may or may not be stabilized. Rigid pavements
consist primarily of a layer(s) of concrete separated from
the subgrade by a base course layer.

This chapter will consider the various aspects of struc-
tural design in relation to the composition of the pavement,
namely AC, portland cement concrete (PCC), and composite
materials. [For this synthesis, hot-mix asphalt (HMA) was
considered to be a synonym for AC. Accordingly, the acro-
nyms HMA and AC should be read as synonyms throughout
the report, as appropriate.] The discussion will focus on guide-
lines for evaluating, validating, and improving designs with
notes on possible negative features. Unconventional struc-
tures such as block pavers will be considered in chapter
seven, as will ancillary aspects of pavement design.

The results from the survey questionnaire will be pre-
sented before discussing the wide variety of applications
that were found in the literature.
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The responses to Questions 2.1 to 2.12 on structural com-
position are reflected in Figures C15 to C26 in Appendix
C. This section of the questionnaire was seen as an oppor-
tunity for owners and managers to indicate how the capac-
ity of their facilities was being deployed for APT studies.
The responses were synthesized and the results are con-
tained in the following list. The respondents views on
structural composition are presented in Table D2 in Ap-
pendix D.

APT programs are focused on the structural perform-
ance of the pavements, as well as functional perform-
ance in a ratio of about two to one (Figure C15).
Most of the APT work thus far has been focused on
the asphaltic component in the pavement structure.
This is not surprising as this material lends itself to
APT. However, of equal importance, is that APT has
been conducted on granular layers and concrete
pavements (Figure C16).
Figure C17 indicates that tests have focused on all
forms of distress that occur in surface seals.
Evaluation of performance of pavements with clayey,
sandy, and granular materials has focused on perma-
nent deformation (Figures C18 and C19).
The primary and not unexpected focus in APT pro-
grams on stabilized pavements has been on cracking
(Figure C20).
In contrast, Figure C21 shows that the two major
forms of distress of interest in asphalt pavements are
rutting and fatigue. A few programs have also been
focusing on two other important issues, namely mois-
ture damage and stripping and aging; however, it is
apparent that not much work has been done in these
fields.
Cracking is the primary form of distress examined in
jointed concrete pavements in APT. Joint failure and
load transfer have only been investigated to a limited
extent (Figure C22).
Four forms of distress of composite pavements have
been investigated; rutting, fatigue, cracking, and
debonding (Figure C23).
For functional performance, safety and roughness
were the two aspects studied most (Figure C24).
Rutting, skid resistance, and roughness were featured
most prominently in the studies on safety (Figure
C25).
12
Very few respondents reported studies on environ-
mental aspects; two had studied noise and one dust
pollution (Figure C26).


APPLICATIONS OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO ASPHALT PAVEMENT DESIGNS

Odon et al. (1997) reported on LCPC APT tests in which
different asphalt base pavements were evaluated in terms
of fatigue performance. The pavements were constructed
on a fairly weak subgrade [California bearing ration (CBR)
between 5% and 10%] and a subbase consisting of 400 mm of
well-graded, untreated granular material. Conventional and
modified (BB), improved (GB), and high modulus (EME) AC
were used for the base materials. (It should be noted that in
this report stiffness has been used as a generic term. It
should be read as a synonym for modulus and stiffness
modulus.) These high-modulus ACs are typically constructed
on very stiff subbases, and the researchers found that the
high-modulus asphalt mix, in particular, was very sensitive
to thickness, especially when placed on a deformable sub-
base. Increasing the thickness of the EME from 90 to 110
mm increases the fatigue life 2.5 times; however, rapid
degradation of the EME base was apparent with the onset
of cracking. Under carousel (circular) loading, modified
base pavements outperformed conventional pavements.

Harvey et al. (2000) tested pavements conforming to
California DOT (Caltrans) specifications. Pavements tested
included those with Asphalt-Treated Permeable Base
(ATPB), termed drained pavements, and those with stan-
dard aggregate bases, termed undrained. HVS tests have
confirmed that the total pavement thickness developed us-
ing the Caltrans pavement design procedure is generally ade-
quate to prevent rutting through permanent deformation of the
subgrade and unbound granular layers. Fatigue cracking of
pavements for higher traffic levels with weaker subgrades is a
concern. They point out that innovative pavement designs
such as the rich bottom (high binder content) concept or the
use of modified binders significantly improve fatigue per-
formance of pavements compared with conventional de-
signs. The use of higher binder contents in the lower struc-
ture of the pavement is deemed feasible given that
deformations and stress levels under loading are greatly
reduced with depth. Rut resistant mixes must be used in the
critical zone for rutting, found to be within 100 to 150
mm of the pavement surface (Harvey et al. 1999).

The use of drainage layers (ATPB) in pavements has led
to stripping incidents where water may remain trapped
within the pavement system because of faulty edge and
transverse drains. As an alternative to ATPB, Harvey et al.
(2000) recommended that standard asphalt base layers be
used. In addition, they emphasized the need for adequate
compaction (less than 8% voids in the mix after construc-
tion) to reduce permeability. They also proposed that the
thickness of these layers be increased to delay the initiation
and propagation of cracking. This approach may be further
improved by the use of a rich bottom layer. They noted,
however, that drainage layers may still be required to re-
move water seeping into the pavement from the subgrade.
If ATPB layers are required, then the California researchers
suggest the use of higher binder content, modified binders
such as asphalt rubber, and additives such as lime or anti-
stripping agents. Geotextile filters should be used to pre-
vent clogging of the ATPB layer and maintenance practices
for cleaning edge and transverse drains should be in place.
They further recommended raising the gravel factor for
ATPB from the current 1.4 to 2.

Kekwick et al. (1999) outlined the influence of the SA
HVS program on pavement design philosophy. In South
Africa, HVS testing has been used to validate the perform-
ance of well-balanced, deep pavement structures. These
pavements are constructed with materials such that there is
a gradual decrease in stiffness with depth in relation to the
bearing capacity of the respective layers. HVS testing has
demonstrated that poorly balanced, shallow pavements,
where most of the stiffness of the structure is concentrated
at the top of the pavement, are normally load sensitive.
These types of pavements may appear to have adequate
bearing capacity but deteriorate rapidly under overloaded
conditions. However, they warn against increasing the test
wheel load to levels far above those of the standard design
load. This may induce failure mechanisms that will never
manifest under normal traffic loading conditions, espe-
cially in the case of bound layers.

The SAHVS testing program has been instrumental in
the development of the South African Mechanistic Design
Method for Pavements (Theyse et al. 1996). It is an exam-
ple of how APT can benefit pavement engineering overall.
They discuss how HVS test results were used to develop
transfer functions for the mechanisticempirical modeling
of the permanent deformation of unbound pavement layers
in pavements with asphalt and granular base layers as well
as granular and stabilized subbase layers. This method was
applied to establish standard pavement structures for use in
different climatic regions of South Africa and different lev-
els of design traffic. These standard pavement structures
are cataloged in manuals for implementation by the road
industry and have, over the years, been validated and re-
fined in the field using HVS testing. The significant
amount of data collected during HVS testing of numerous
types of pavement structures has allowed confidence limits
to be established to assess the reliability of design method-
ologies (Structural Design of Interurban and Rural Road
Pavements 1980, 1985, 1996).

Sharp et al. (1999a) reported Accelerated Loading Facil-
ity (ALF) tests on a test section with a high bitumen content
13
(0.5% above optimum) mix in the lower base that did not
show excessive deformation in that material. This indicated
that these layers could be used in thinner asphalt structures
than previously thought necessary and/or that the addition
of more bitumen was possible to further improve fatigue
life. ALF testing was used to validate fatigue transfer func-
tions for asphalt and cement-treated crushed rock (CTCR)
in the Austroads Pavement Design Guide (Austroads, for-
merly NAASRAthe National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities). These are primarily based on em-
pirical relationships derived from overseas data (e.g.,
Shell) and field-performance data.

Hugo et al. (1999c) reported on Texas Mobile Load
Simulator (TxMLS) tests completed in Victoria, Texas, to
evaluate the widely used district pavement design using lo-
cal siliceous river gravel flexbase with thin asphalt surfac-
ing. They reported that high construction variability and
high asphalt void content led to early fatigue failure of the
AC in the test sections. Stabilizing subgrade layers en-
hanced the structural capacity of the pavement. Deep-
seated variability in the pavement foundation, however, in-
fluenced its performance, and lenses of poor materials af-
fected the pavement surface profile.

Bhairo et al. (1998a,b) reported on LINTRACK (a full-
scale HVS for APT) experiments that evaluated the fatigue
performance of two full-depth asphalt pavements with
varying asphalt thickness on a sand subgrade. One of the
structures had a total asphalt thickness of 150 mm consist-
ing of two layers, an 80-mm bottom layer and a 70-mm top
layer. The second structure had a single 75 mm layer. For
the thinner structure, LINTRACK loading led to structural
fatigue cracking in the asphalt (bottom-to-top) and surface
cracking (top-to-bottom). The researchers concluded that
the Shell subgrade strain criterion appeared to be very ap-
plicable for subgrade sands as used in The Netherlands.

Addis (1989) reported on trials undertaken in the Pave-
ment Test Facility at the TRL to evaluate the relative
performance of dense bitumen macadam (DBM) and heavy
duty macadam (HDM). In general in Great Britain, mac-
adam consists of a high-quality aggregate with large, sin-
gle-sized particles (3753 mm), which is stabilized by fill-
ing the voids with a suitable material. Typically, the
macadam is defined more specifically in relation to the ma-
terial used for filling the voids; for example, waterbound
macadam has a filler of natural material with a low plastic-
ity, whereas slurry-bound macadam has a filling of slurry.
The research team reported that the results of the acceler-
ated tests showed little difference in the overall perform-
ance of the two materials. The initial rate of rutting of the
materials was different, that of the HDM being lower than
the conventional DBM. The team found, however, that the
HDM generally weakened more under the influence of
very heavy wheel loads. They concluded that both the ob-
served and measured variability in the compacted quality
of the bituminous materials, in particular that associated
with the HDM, could have been a major contributor to
some of the later life performance differences.


APPLICATIONS OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Caltrans testing of concrete pavements (Harvey et al. 2000)
has indicated the importance of the use of dowels and non-
erodable bases for heavily trafficked, jointed concrete
pavements. The Caltrans researchers point out that dowels
are effective in restricting the curling of concrete slabs
along transverse joints. In the same way, tie bars were
found to be useful in restricting curling along longitudinal
joints. They suggest seeking higher than currently required
flexural strengths together with material having low coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion to reduce the thickness of con-
crete slabs.

Harvey et al. (2000) further stated that shorter slab
lengths are required for high-shrinkage hydraulic cement to
prevent premature top-to-bottom cracking in the slabs. Fur-
thermore, they suggest that joint spacing requirements be
made a function of climate. According to Roesler (1998),
joint spacing should be less than 4 m for a slab thickness of
200 mm. From the same test program, Roesler et al. (1999)
reported that the performance of fast-setting hydraulic ce-
ment concrete (FSHCC) pavements was very similar to
that observed for PCC pavements.

Vuong et al. (2001) reported on plain concrete pave-
ments tested using the ALF at Goulburn, New South Wales
in Australia. Four pavements were tested to assess fatigue
performance, and five pavement sections were tested to as-
sess erosion performance. The site chosen had a high diur-
nal temperature change, on the order of 20C, which pro-
duced significant interaction of loading and slab curl. The
influence of dowels, shoulder ties, and slab thickness (150
mm, 175 mm, and 200 mm), as well as erosion of unbound
and bound subbases, was investigated. Erosion was inves-
tigated by wetting of the pavement before and during traf-
ficking. Because of the effect of the shading of the pave-
ment under the ALF on curling of the concrete slabs,
conventional (rigid) trucks were also used to evaluate load-
ing response. The following findings are relevant to struc-
tural design:

No fatigue failure had been induced in the concrete
slab after 170,000 load applications of an 80-kN ALF
axle load.
When a slab 150 mm thick with undoweled trans-
verse joints was tested with ALF 40-kN, 60-kN, and
80-kN dual-wheel loads, the movement at the center
of the slab was the same for all three wheel loads.
14
However, when an 80-kN standard axle was intro-
duced using a rigid truck, movement at the slab cen-
ter was six times greater than that produced by ALF.
This reflects the importance of slab curl, and the ef-
fects of pavement shading and loading configuration.
Deflection data showed that slabs lost support at the
corners and edges during the night and at the center
of the slab in daytime because of curling.
The presence of tied shoulders significantly reduced
the curling behavior of the slab during the night (up
to 80%).
The presence of dowels in transverse joints signifi-
cantly reduced curling behavior, which raised slab
centers during the daytime and hence loading deflec-
tions (up to 47%); however, the dowels allowed
higher movement at corners without a shoulder dur-
ing the night.
Increasing slab thickness reduced curling of the slab
during the daytime and hence reduced bending
stresses.
Deflections under load increase rapidly for a slab in a
curled state until contact is made between the base and
subbase, whereupon there is little further increase.
For slabs with and without dowels, erosion occurred
in the subbase of unbound granular material. This
material is unsuitable for subbases under plain con-
crete pavements subjected to heavy loading.
A very small amount of erosion occurred in a heavily
bound subbase of a concrete pavement without PCC
pavement dowels.
Erosion did not occur with a lean mix concrete sub-
base, and there was no clear evidence of erosion in a
heavily bound subbase with dowels. Lean mix con-
crete subbase and heavily bound subbase with dowels
may be suitable for plain concrete pavements sub-
jected to heavy loading.

Vuong et al. (2001) emphasized that for APT testing of
concrete pavements consideration must be given to long-
term environmental effects and the possibility of fines
moving between the base and subbase, which may change
loading stresses arising with slab curl. Draining of this in-
terface is considered essential. They concluded and rec-
ommended that

Tied shoulders need to be retained in pavement de-
sign,
A minimum slab thickness to reduce curling and the
effects of curling on pavement performance needs to
be specified for pavements subject to heavy loading,
and
Unbound subbases are unsuitable under plain con-
crete pavements subject to heavy loading.

Balay et al. (1992) reported on LCPC APT tests on con-
crete pavements aimed at validating the thickness designs
in the French design catalogue of new pavement structures.
The goal was to determine whether three concrete pave-
ment structures proposed in the French design catalogue
were equivalent with regard to their performance under
traffic. The following three structures from the catalog
were tested:

Short slabs with dowels built on a treated subbase,
Short slabs without dowels built on a treated subbase,
and
Short slabs built on an untreated subbase.

For the third structure, slabs with normal and lean con-
crete (300 kg/m
3
cement vs. 140 kg/m
3
) were tested. A
comprehensive paper on the numerical analysis of the test
track was presented by Balay and Goux (1994). They con-
cluded that the APT results accurately reproduced modes
of functioning and distress of actual concrete pavements.
They found that the functioning of the pavements was re-
produced sufficiently realistically through their Finite Ele-
ment (FE) analysis to be useful.

Failure of the pavements was characterized by cracking,
joint failures, and pumping of fines. As expected, the slabs
with dowels built on the treated subbase performed the
best. The lean concrete slabs on the untreated subbase
failed completely halfway through completion of the tests,
necessitating repair. Strengthening of the subbase signifi-
cantly improved the performance of the concrete pave-
ments. The researchers found that the thickness of some
standard designs could be reduced slightly when the sub-
surface conditions were favorable. This required good effi-
cient drainage with a nonerodible soil surface under the
concrete slab. Paved shoulders were also considered neces-
sary.

A number of tests have been completed at the NAPTF
facility in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Guo and Marsey
(2002) presented some important details relating to the ef-
fect of curling of the slabs that need to be taken in to ac-
count during APT.

Measured deflections at the center of the slab re-
mained effectively constant, whereas the deflections
at the joints and corners varied significantly during
testing.
Deflections at joints and corners are significantly lar-
ger in winter compared with summer. Joint load
transfer capability was also lower in winter.
Analysis indicated that slabs were always curled up
in winter and this was more significant on a stronger
subgrade.
The sum of deflections on both sides of joints, re-
main almost unchanged when traffic direction is re-
versed. However, sides of joints vary significantly
from summer to winter.
15
APPLICATIONS OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

HVS testing has been instrumental in validating the effec-
tiveness of inverted pavement structures, which are now
used extensively throughout South Africa. These structures
incorporate stabilized or lightly cemented (<4%) subbase
layers that provide support to granular or asphaltic base
layers. The stiffness of these stabilized subbase layers,
while intact, are higher than that of the base layers. This al-
lows adequate compaction of the base layer, and in the case
of asphaltic base layers, reduces the development of hori-
zontal tensile strains beneath the layer, hence extending the
fatigue performance of the pavement structure. In the case
of high-quality granular bases, the stiff subbase layer confines
the base, and this sandwich effect has been shown to sig-
nificantly increase the shear strength of high-quality granular
bases. The influence of climate as well as traffic level is ac-
counted for in the structural design of pavements.

Further validation of this phenomenon was reported by
Gramsammer et al. (1999) in France and Harvey et al.
(2000). The APT tests at LCPC in France were done to de-
termine the optimum thickness of the unbound granular
material on top of a cemented subbase and below the as-
phalt surfacing layers. A specific optimum thickness was
not reported.

The Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) (Sharp et
al. 1999a) reported on ALF tests aimed at the evaluation
and improvement of structural designs. Testing included
trials to investigate the influence of thickness on the per-
formance of CTCR pavements constructed to similar stan-
dards. Pavements with CTCR layers of 200 mm and 300
mm were tested. These experiments were complemented
by the testing of similar pavements with and without a bi-
tumen heavy-cure coat interlayer and a section constructed
in one lift instead of the usual two or three lifts. ALF test-
ing confirmed that the typical failure mode was the result
of the debonding of the CTCR base layers, followed by the
ingress of water at the interfaces and the subsequent ero-
sion of the bottom of the upper layer, leading to a failure of
the top layer. As a result of these tests, construction prac-
tice was changed to allow the construction of cement-
treated bases in single layers rather than in multiple lifts.

ALF testing programs were undertaken to evaluate the
in situ stabilization of marginal sandstone material. The
importance of curing stabilized materials was emphasized.
A lack of curing, especially of the slag/lime material, re-
sulted in some drying out of the top of the bound material,
and a considerable number of shrinkage cracks were ob-
served before the application of the prime and asphalt sur-
facing. Crushing of the bound material was apparent under
ALF loading, which led to erosion of the base and subse-
quent pumping of fines. In view of the results, the re-
searchers recommended that stabilized pavements required
7 days moist curing or that they be sealed immediately with
an approved curing compound. Alternatively, the next layer of
the pavement should be constructed to prevent excessive dry-
ing of the stabilized surface that may lead to cracking.

De Beer (1990) and De Beer et al. (1991) also reported
on the performance of cemented base and subbase layers
under APT. The program covered a period of 6 years. Spe-
cific failure mechanisms were identified and guidelines
were developed for the use of cementitious layers in pave-
ment structures.

Sharp et al. (1999a) reported on ARRBALF tests con-
ducted to evaluate geotextile-reinforced seal pavements.
Geotextiles were used to strengthen pavements with clay
subgrades in regions where gravels are scarce and of low
quality. They indicated that the geotextile-reinforced pave-
ments performed satisfactorily, with little distress observed af-
ter the design traffic loading had been applied, even when
testing was conducted near the edge of the pavement adja-
cent to a filled dam. Guidelines for the design, construction,
maintenance, and management of geotextile-reinforced seal
pavements were prepared and issued.

Sharp et al. (1999b) discussed ALF trials undertaken to
validate the ERDC (formerly USACE Waterways Experi-
ment Station) tentative classification scheme for lateritic
gravels for road and airfield pavement construction. For
these trials the APT test objectives included

Establishing the performance of gap-graded ridge
gravels and a relative measure of the performance of
good and poor lateritic gravels,
Comparing the performance of the lateritic gravels
when they are constructed to two compaction levels,
and
Comparing the performance of lateritic gravels when
they were constructed full depth (300 mm in two
layers on a clay subgrade) and 150 mm in one layer
on a cement-treated subbase (CTSB).

ALF testing indicated that in a dry state there was not a
significant difference between the performance of the good
and poor lateritic gravels. In addition, the APT testing indi-
cated that the level of compaction was not a major factor
affecting the performance of the lateritic gravels. The per-
formance of the two full-depth lateritic layers compared
with the thinner layer on a CTSB was similar. Higher de-
flections were apparent in the full-depth lateritic layers;
however, it was suggested that this was acceptable given
the cost savings inherent in constructing an unbound sub-
base layer rather than a CTSB.

Kadar et al. (1989) reported extensively on the perform-
ance of slag road bases under APT. Their findings indi-
16
cated that the blast furnace slag could be used in the place
of high-quality, crushed-rock road bases. The slag and sta-
bilized slag materials proved suitable for use as base mate-
rial provided they are protected from excessive tensile
stresses. The findings of the APT tests provided a sound
basis for developing guidelines for the design of pavement
structures with this type of material. In particular, they
gave insight into the manner in which the structural behav-
ior changes as the material characteristics change. The im-
portance of the uniformity of the mixing of stabilized ma-
terials was again demonstrated. The researchers suggested
increasing the content of the binder (blends of granulated
slag and lime) used for stabilizing to improve the uniform-
ity of the mix. The increase was not needed for strength
purposes. Another problem that was identified was the
negative effect that thin leveling layers had on the per-
formance of the pavement. It was emphasized that these
should be avoided under any circumstances, because they
lead to delamination.

Vuong et al. (1996) reported on the Beerburrum II ALF
trials, which contributed to the state of the art for the de-
sign and construction of stabilized and unstabilized granu-
lar pavements. These trials consisted of 34 experiments
completed in Australia, where 3 million light-load cycles
were applied to each of 10 pavement types. They found
that pavements with high-quality crushed-rock base layers
benefit significantly from increased compaction because of
the reduced influence of moisture. It was found that the
degree of saturation is of paramount importance. For
granular materials with low plasticity, the degree of satura-
tion is considered to be a better indicator than optimum
moisture content of the aggregate. In situ stabilization us-
ing 2% bitumen and 2% cement was found to be more ef-
fective than other treatments that had been explored as re-
placements for the sandstone and high-quality crushed
rock. This included stabilization with bitumen only and
different proportions of bitumen and cement.

Saarelainen et al. (1999) report HVSNordic tests done
to evaluate a thawing and frost-susceptible subgrade. Three
pavement structures were tested, each consisting of a thin
asphalt surfacing (50 mm), a base layer of crushed rock
(200 mm), and a subbase layer of sand (250 mm). In one of
the structures, a reinforcing steel mesh was installed in the
base layer. The subgrade was constructed using natural
lean clay, referred to locally as dry crust clay. The pave-
ment was cooled by exposure to atmospheric frost tem-
peratures until there was a frost penetration of approxi-
mately 1.2 m. The pore pressure development was
monitored. The resulting frost heave was typically about
50 to 70 mm. Before HVS testing, the pavement was
thawed to a depth of 0.9 m. The decrease in pavement
stiffness with thawing was confirmed using FWD testing.
It was found that, with the development of rutting in the re-
inforced pavement, the steel mesh significantly increased
the strength of the base layer and ultimately the perform-
ance of this pavement. The moving test wheel caused fast
stress pulses to the soil and this resulted in increased pore
pressure.

Ruiz and Romero (1999) outlined the Spanish CEDEX
APT program, the main objective of which is to improve
pavement structures detailed in a pavement design cata-
logue. The catalogue lists pavement options depending on
subgrade quality and traffic level, including flexible,
semirigid (flexible with some stabilized or bound layers in
the composite structure), and rigid pavements. These struc-
tures were determined based on experience and analytical
design approaches. The APT facility is being using as a
tool for validating the pavements in the catalogue, but also
to evaluate the performance of the pavements in the Span-
ish road network.

The first CEDEX test evaluated two pavement options
for traffic levels of 50 to 200 trucks per day and subgrades
with a CBR of between 10% and 20%. One of the sections
consisted of a 150-mm asphalt surfacing and base over 500
mm of granular material. The other section consisted of
180 mm of asphalt over 250 mm of granular material. The
influence of thickness variations of the asphalt and granu-
lar materials were investigated. CEDEX APT testing, to-
gether with an analysis of the performance of in-service
pavements, led to the elimination of the second section
(180 mm) asphalt from the design catalogue. These pave-
ments did not perform as expected. An equivalency be-
tween granular materials and asphalt mixtures was estab-
lished (10 mm of asphalt mixture being equivalent to 30
mm of granular material). Subsequent testing was done to
evaluate additional catalog pavement structures with dif-
ferent types of base materials; that is, granular, soil
cement, and gravelcement. The influence of subgrade
strength was also investigated. CEDEX testing validated
the performance of the catalogue designs; all the pave-
ments performed adequately under the conditions consid-
ered in the design. The flexible pavements exhibited crack-
ing after trafficking was continued beyond the level to
which in-service pavements would have been subjected.
Pavements with cement-treated layers did not crack during
the tests and performed better than flexible pavements.
Pavements with soilcement bases performed similarly to
the pavements with gravelcement layers. This was unex-
pected and contrary to results of the analytical design of
these pavements.

Metcalf et al. (1999) discussed ALF testing done in
Louisiana to evaluate nine different soilcement base
courses under accelerated loading to failure. In-place ce-
ment-stabilized select soils are the primary base material
for the vast majority of noninterstate pavements con-
structed in Louisiana. Such pavements are usually surfaced
with 90 mm of AC. Metcalf points out that factors influ-
17
encing the performance of these base types are nonuniform
cement distribution, inadequate mixing of the cement and
soil, and the high probability of shrinkage cracking. This
leads to nonuniform support of the pavement, which results
in isolated pavement failures and marked variability of the
pavement performance. Cracking of the cement-stabilized
bases generally results in block cracks at the pavement sur-
face, which allows moisture to infiltrate the pavement
structure and negates the rideability and performance. The
following findings were found to be relevant:

The crushed-stone base structure outperformed the
soilcement structure.
All stabilized base structures failed because of sof-
tening and erosion of the materials and loss of sup-
port under the asphalt layer. Shrinkage cracks in the
stabilized base generated reflection cracks in the as-
phalt surface layer.
The higher cement content (10%) in the in-plant-
mixed soilcement only slightly increased the life of
the structure when compared with the low cement
content (4%) of the in-plant-mixed stabilized base.
In-place-mixed soilcement performs similar to the
in-plant-mixed soilcement.
Plastic fibers do not significantly improve the per-
formance of the soilcement base.
At the same cement content, increasing the thickness
of the soilcement improves the performance of the
road structure.
Under high moisture conditions, an inverted pave-
ment outperforms the soilcement base pavement, as
well as the conventional flexible pavement.

Based on the findings, Metcalf et al. (1999) concluded
that consideration should be given to

The use of an AASHTO layer coefficient of 0.10 for
stone-stabilized base,
The use of the inverted pavement configuration,
The use of thicker cement-stabilized bases with lower
cement contents, and
Ending the use of fiber reinforcement in cement-
stabilized layers and of geogrids in unbound bases.

Meng et al. (1999) reported on ALF testing in China to
evaluate stabilized base pavement options for heavy design
traffic. The options included cement-stabilized soil, lime-
stabilized soil, cement-stabilized crushed-stone, fly ash,
and lime-stabilized crushed-stone bases. The stabilized
base pavements tested were found to fail because of the
disintegration of the surfacebase interface and not from
fatigue cracking of the bases. The performance of the fly
ash gravel base pavement was considerably better than the
pavements with cement-stabilized crushed-stone and ce-
ment-stabilized soil bases. The researchers reported that a
relative thick asphalt surface over a stabilized base can
significantly improve the pavement rutting resistance.
Based on these findings, they recommended that the qual-
ity of the materials and the selection of the layers be con-
sidered in the pavement design stage to alleviate the ero-
sion of the stabilized base at the interface of the asphalt
and base layers. They suggested using a waterproofing
layer between the asphalt surface and the stabilized base to
alleviate the effect of water on pavement failure. Further-
more, special consideration should be given to enhancing
the bond between surfacing and base layers.

Nez et al. (1999) report on APT research in Brazil on
weathered basalts to reduce the costs of low-volume roads.
Tests were done on pavements with weathered basalts as
base and/or subbase layers. In some of the tests only
weathered basalts were used as aggregate, whereas in oth-
ers densely graded, sound crushed stone was included as
the base layer over the basalt subbase. Two distress
mechanisms that affect weathered basalts were identified;
crushing in weaker aggregates and lateral displacement in
stronger ones. They concluded that weathered basalts may
be used as base layers for pavements of low-volume roads.

Lynch et al. (1999) discussed APT research by the
USACE in Vicksburg, Mississippi. The original California
Highway Department design curves for light and medium-
heavy highway traffic were used as a basis for airfield de-
sign curves. The first of these curves were for 31-kN and
53.4-kN single-wheel aircraft loads. Subsequently, design
curves were established for 890-kN single-wheel loads
with tire pressures up to 1378 kPa. The concept of an
equivalent single-wheel load also stems from this research.
Accelerated tests conducted to investigate environmental
effects led to refinement of the CBR design procedure to
include thaw weakening.

Gramsammer et al. (1999) reported on LCPC APT tests
in France to evaluate a foam-bound aggregate-graded
course (cold mix) inserted between two high-modulus as-
phalt courses. After the application of 4.3 million 13-t axle
loads, no deterioration was visible on the surface, although
core boring revealed a horizontal crack within the foam-
bound course a few centimeters above the bottom of this
layer. Gramsammer reported that the horizontal crack
was the result of shear fatigue rather than flexural fa-
tigue.

Corte et al. (1997) reported on LCPC APT experiments
designed to evaluate the fatigue performance of pavement
structures incorporating hot and cold mixes. The purpose
of the program was to study the behavior of cold mixes on
a deformable (flexible) base. The experiments were initial-
ized to evaluate a newly developed emulsion-bound granu-
lar material using a modified binder and a double-coated
cold mix. Tests were also done on conventional hot-mix
asphalt and an emulsion-bound material, both serving as
18
reference or benchmarks to compare the relative perform-
ance of the experimental materials. The bituminous materi-
als were compacted to a thickness of 100 mm on top of a
300-mm, untreated, well-graded crushed-aggregate sub-
base, purposely designed to allow deformation in the base.

No rutting was observed in the cold mixes after comple-
tion of the testing. Each of the bituminous materials tested
cracked, although the cracking of the cold mixes was de-
scribed as being finer than that found in the hot mix. Major
debonding was observed on the conventional emulsion-
bound granular material and, to a lesser extent, on the
emulsion-bound granular material with the modified
binder. The double-coated cold mix did not debond. Gram-
sammer et al. (1999) concluded that for cold mixes the
nonlinearity of these materials must be taken into account
during mechanistic analysis and that the cold mixes mani-
fested less cracking.


SUMMARY

This chapter has covered a number of issues related to the
structural design of pavements. Structural designs are typi-
cally tested at fixed-site test facilities, whereas rehabilita-
tion designs are usually evaluated in the field, although in a
few cases rehabilitation designs are evaluated on fixed-site
lanes that had previously been tested to failure.

For asphalt pavements, APT has demonstrated the bene-
fits of using very stiff, high-modulus asphalt for bases, rut-
resistant mixes in the upper structure of the pavement, and
rich bottom layers to increase fatigue resistance, and has
shown the importance of well-balanced, deep-structure
pavements. For concrete pavements, the influence of
thickness, dowels, and tie bars has been investigated, as
well as the influence of subgrade support and curling and
warping. For composite structures, the effectiveness of in-
verted structures has been illustrated. APT has contributed
to advances in the field of stabilization of marginal materi-
als to strengthen pavements and the use of geofabrics for
reinforcement.

APT has also been instrumental in validating and refin-
ing agency structural design guidelines. In addition, im-
provements in structural design have been brought about
by the insight gained on the effect of a number of factors
on pavement performance, including

The influence of concrete slab configuration,
The influence of support under concrete slabs,
The influence of water on performance and related
failure mechanisms,
The importance of bond between layers and the
quantification of the effect, and
The interaction between structural composition and
material characteristics.

19


CHAPTER THREE

VEHICLEPAVEMENTENVIRONMENT INTERACTION


INTRODUCTION

The topic of vehiclepavementenvironment interaction is
complex and probably one of the most controversial as-
pects of APT. Croney and Croney (1991) noted that age
strengthening appears to be a major factor in the perform-
ance of well-designed pavements. Nunn (1997) also re-
ported on this phenomenon. These effects were found to be
the result of changes in the asphalt over time, which lent
support to the statement by Croney and Croney (1991) that
the environmental limitations placed APT in jeopardy. Dif-
ferences between loading used during APT studies and
conventional traffic have also led to questioning of the ap-
plicability of APT findings to the performance of conven-
tional in-service highways.

However, during the last decade, advances have been
made toward a better understanding of these phenomena.
The results from research by a number of APT programs
will provide evidence of this. Naturally, there are differ-
ences in the extent to which the various programs include
these issues in their test plans. In subsequent chapters some
case studies will be presented to illustrate how this affects
design and construction, which should help APT users at-
large and DOTs to gain confidence in using and applying
the various findings from APT programs.

Before discussing the wide variety of applications and
relevant issues that were found in the literature, the results
from a synthesis of the questionnaire survey is presented
here.


QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The responses to Questions 3.1 to 3.4 on loading and envi-
ronment are shown in Figures C27 to C30 in Appendix C.
These responses were synthesized, and the results are con-
tained in the following list:

The primary load characteristic to which perform-
ance is related is the wheel load and whether it is ap-
plied with or without lateral wander (Figure C27).
Of almost equal importance to load is tire pressure.
Temperature (both pavement and air) is the primary
environmental element that has been related to per-
formance (Figure C28).
The environmental condition that is controlled most
is pavement and air temperature (Figure C29).
Of almost equal frequency of control is the subgrade
moisture with related factors such as the water table
and drainage.
Most tests were conducted at moderate temperatures
(>10C and <40C) (Figure C30).

Views of respondents to the survey on loading and envi-
ronment are presented in Table D3 in Appendix D.


ELEMENTS OF THE VEHICLEPAVEMENTENVIRONMENT
SYSTEM

The structural configuration of the pavement system is
normally fixed by design or policy, including the materials
that are to be used. The structural system is then subjected
to the impact of traffic loading under the prevailing envi-
ronmental conditions that affect its performance.

The response and performance of the pavement system
is therefore subject to an array of influential factors that
have variable levels of control and are time dependent to a
greater or lesser degree. The following need to be consid-
ered:

Pavement materials;
Trafficking comprising
wheel loads that can be single axle or multiple
axle,
wheel load(s) that can be static or dynamic,
wheel loads that wander laterally,
suspension systems,
tire pressure/contact stress,
tire type, and
speed;
Environmental impact of
wind and radiation,
temperature, and
water in a variety of forms.

Clearly, the performance of the pavement is dependent
on the interaction of these factors. APT programs have
proven to be invaluable because of the ability to partially
or fully control these factors. The synthesis of the findings
from the various APT programs provides valuable insight
and some useful applications, which will be considered in
terms of the respective factors. The effect of materials will
be considered in conjunction with the respective factors per-
taining to traffic and the environment, where appropriate.
20
Chapter four discusses the relationship between APT and
materials and tests comprehensively.


TRAFFICKING

APT programs have used both conventional trucks and a
variety of vehicles for simulating conventional trafficking
of pavements. The wheel loads are applied at selected
static levels that may be varied according to the needs of
the experiment, with or without some type of suspension.
In some cases the suspension or even the undercarriage is
the same as that used in conventional trucks. In addition,
the devices have used wheel loads that vary from the con-
ventional truck wheel loading to aircraft loading. The tire
pressures have also been varied to accommodate both con-
ventional and extraordinary tire pressures to explore the
impact of this variable. Because of the range of variables,
the findings from the different programs need to be care-
fully scrutinized to determine to what extent the results are
comparable. Some protocols have been established and
these have provided a means of limited comparison of the
respective test programs.

Details of the respective APT trafficking devices in use
through the mid-1990s can be found in NCHRP Synthesis
of Highway Practice 235 (Metcalf 1996). It provides an
excellent overview of the trafficking devices that had been
used up to that time. Some details of the latest additions to
the APT scene, such as trafficking systems, mechanical
functioning, loading characteristics, and test plans, are
given in chapters one and eight and in Appendix E of this
synthesis. In this section, the focus will be on aspects of
APT trafficking that affected the performance of the pave-
ments in experimental and related analytical studies.


Wheel Load Intensity and Load Equivalency

Wheel load intensity has by far the most profound effect on
pavement performance and yet it is, to a large extent, an un-
controlled variable in real traffic. This explains the interest in
the well-known fourth power law that dates back to the
AASHO road test (AASHO 1961). Understandably, APT pro-
grams are increasingly focusing on this aspect as test capabili-
ties improve in their sophistication. It had been reported that
the relationship of load with performance was neither con-
stant nor linear. The so-called fourth power law was found
to be exponential and highly dependent on the thickness
and configuration of the layer(s). In addition, it depends on
whether the axle has a suspension, on the type of suspen-
sion, and on the degree of smoothness of the pavement sur-
face. Some relevant studies are discussed here.

In 1989, the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) undertook a full-scale pave-
ment test in France at the circular fatigue test track of the
LCPC in Nantes. The primary purpose of the test was to
assess the relative damage of the maximum legal axle
loads of 15 European countries, in comparison with the
11.5-t axle load that was to be the future standard axle load
in the European Union (Gramsammer et al. 1999). Because
of the many factors that affect performance, Gramsammer
et al. (1999) are of the opinion that APT was the only
means of coming to a quantitative solution that would be
acceptable to all parties concerned.

A report on the joint test program that became known
internationally as the FORCE project was published in 1991
(OECD 1991a,b). The findings were also discussed at a 1991
conference in La Baule, France (OECD 1992). For the analy-
sis of the comparison of the 10- and 11.5-t axle loads, relative
damaging effects were calculated in terms of cracking and rut-
ting performance, and on the basis of response measure-
ments. The damage exponent was determined separately
for rutting and cracking. The report concluded that the
fourth power law constitutes only a general description and
approximation of relative damage owing to axle loads.

For the rutting, the thin asphalt (67 mm) flexible pave-
ment had an exponent of 5.74. The value for the thick as-
phalt (140 mm) pavement was 2.88 and the semi-rigid
pavement (170-mm cement-treated gravel base with a 63-
mm surface layer of asphalt) had a value of 1.47. The ex-
ponent decreased with increasing stiffness and the thick-
ness of the bituminous layer.

The cracking evaluation was limited to the flexible
pavements because of the lack of deterioration in the ce-
ment-treated pavement structure. The exponent varied be-
tween 1.8 and 9 depending on the degree of deterioration,
the criterion used for comparison, and the condition of the
pavement at the time of comparison based on cracking of
the thin asphalt section. The exponent increased linearly
with the degree of cracking up to a level of 400,000 load
applications. Thereafter, the rate of increase gradually re-
duced. Crack distress was defined as crack length per 100
m (linear) of pavement. The report points out that 25% to
30% of cracking at the FORCE experiment yields an expo-
nent varying between 2.7 and 4.3 on the basis of 60100
m/100 linear meters of an in-service pavement. The neces-
sity of qualifying the degree of cracking in the pavement is
apparent. It should be noted that there was little deteriora-
tion in the cement-treated pavement structure for the num-
ber of axle load applications that had been applied at the
time. Nor was there any significant cracking in the thick
asphalt. The exponent applicable to the semi-rigid pave-
ment structure was expected to change as the layer deterio-
rates if and when further trafficking is applied.

A number of participating countries with APT facilities
such as the United States, Spain, Switzerland, and Finland,
21
undertook studies that would serve as cross-tests for the
tests that were conducted at the LCPC track in France. The
purpose of the cross-tests was to promote international co-
operation toward more effective use of large and expensive
facilities. The intent was, among others, to conduct the
tests on the basis of the specifications and procedures used
for the tests in France. Axle loads of 10 t and 11.5 t were
used with single and dual tires. The results of the various
cross-tests did not correspond directly with the findings
from the LCPC test track. This was ascribed to differences
in pavement configuration, material characteristics, sub-
grade strength, climatic conditions, and the type of test.
Some examples are discussed here.

Kenis and Lord (1992) reported on FHWA participation
in a cross-test. The performance of the FHWA ALF test dif-
fered significantly from that in France in terms of both rut-
ting and cracking. Furthermore, the findings were not con-
sistent. In the case of the thin asphalt, the OECD pavement
performed poorly when compared with the FHWA test,
whereas the reverse was found in the case of the thick as-
phalt. In a cross-test conducted in Finland (Pihlajamki
1992), the thick asphalt and semi-rigid pavements were
tested to 7 million applications of a 25-kN single-wheel
load without serious distress. Thereafter, subgrade condi-
tions were artificially changed to accelerate distress by ad-
justing the water table. The first cracks manifested after 11
million applications. Distress was primarily in the form of
rutting. The performance was better than the test at the
LCPC track, which was terminated after 13.5 million load
applications. In Switzerland (Scazziga et al. 1992), the thin
asphalt pavement performed as well as the thick asphalt
pavement at the LCPC track. One reason for this was
thought to be the difference in subgrade bearing capacity.
Romero et al. (1992) reported on a cross-test in Spain. The
cracking and rutting damage exponents from this cross-test
once again differed from the LCPC test results for the thick
asphalt pavement test. For example, in the case of the 11.5-
t versus the 13-t axle loads, the exponents were greater
than 12. In the light of these findings it is understandable
why it was concluded in the report that cross-tests were
misnomers and that they were more correctly comparative
tests on a qualitative basis (OECD 1991).

Nez et al. (1999) reported on APT studies of sound,
weathered-basalt gravel base pavements with thin surfac-
ings in Brazil. The Load Damage Equivalency exponent
was found to be four. Soil moisture was monitored with
jet-fill tensiometers. This provided valuable information on
the variance of subgrade modulus. This topic is discussed
at greater length later in this report.

Hugo et al. (1997) reported on tests with the TxMLS in
which the damage exponent in terms of rutting of a pave-
ment comprising 75 mm of asphalt on a 150-mm cement-
treated siliceous gravel base course was found to be as
high as 7. Freeme (1984) reported damage exponents that
had been determined for rutting in the SAHVS program
for different pavement structures. For pavements with
granular layers, the values varied between 2 and 4. For
thick asphalt layers, the exponent was 4. Overall, the load-
ing exponent varied between 2 and 6, depending on the
relative stiffnesses of the pavement layers and the respec-
tive pavement layer thicknesses. The findings lead to the
identification and subsequent validation by HVS testing of
the concept of strength-balance of a pavement structure in
terms of depth (Kleyn et al. 1985, 1989). This enhanced
the understanding of pavement behavior relative to struc-
tural composition and provided a basis for selecting layer
composition and configuration when designing pavements.

Vuong et al. (1994) reported on Australian studies per-
taining to performance of subgrade and base course layers
using fine-grained marginal material under accelerated
loading. They concluded that excessive deformation of
poor sandstone base course caused the loading exponent
with respect to differing wheel loads to increase to a value
of 7 to 8. As a result, they noted that there was a need to
revise the Austroads subgrade critical strain criterion to
improve the prediction of pavement life.


Suspension/Dynamic Load

The fourth power law of load equivalence was derived
from experiments in which the applied wheel forces were
dynamic (AASHO 1961). However, performance models
for asphalt pavement generally included the effects of traf-
fic loading on the basis of static wheel loads and numbers
of applications; vehicle dynamic effects are not explicitly
taken into account. Pidwerbesky et al. (1997b) pointed out
that Sweatman (1983) had deduced that there was a degree
of spatial repeatability in the dynamic loads that occur un-
der wheel loads. As a result, the damage at peak load loca-
tions would be the critical factor in pavement performance.
This was validated through a study of the influence of dy-
namic axle loads on pavement response and deterioration
at the Canterbury Accelerated Pavement Testing Indoor
Facility (CAPTIF) (Pidwerbesky et al. 1997b). In this
study, the effect of three types of suspension, steel multi-
leaf, twin parabolic spring, and air suspension, on pave-
ment deterioration was investigated in two tests. The wheel
loads were identical statically, but quite different dynami-
cally. Analysis ranked the suspensions from worst to best
as steel, parabolic, and air.

In the first test it was found that there was a good corre-
lation between the dynamic wheel forces and pavement
distress. The results also showed that using a suspension
system that is not designed for the load it is carrying could
have significant impact on the distress in the pavement.
The second test was part of the OECD DIVINE (Dynamic
22
Interaction between Vehicles and Infrastructure Experi-
ment) project (OECD 1998). Two suspensions, a steel
multi-leaf and a dual air suspension, were compared. The
modes and level of pavement distress proved to be depend-
ent on the particular suspension characteristics. The air
suspension generated dynamic loads less than half those
generated by the steel suspension. Surface rutting and lon-
gitudinal profiles, as well as surface distress, were moni-
tored and analyzed. The difference in pavement condition
led the researchers to conclude that the steel spring suspen-
sion caused an increase in deterioration rate compared with
the airbag suspension.

The mean vehicle speed was 45 km/h with the inner and
outer Simulated Loading and Vehicle Emulator (SLAVE)
units traveling at 43.0 km/h and 47.0 km/h, respectively, on
the inner and outer circles. This slight difference between
the speeds was not considered to be of concern.

Single wide-base tires were used, and the amount of lat-
eral vehicle wander was limited to 100 mm to maximize
the separation between the vehicles. Pavement failure was de-
fined as maximum rut depth exceeding 25 mm or surface
cracking exceeding 5 m/m
2
over 50% of the trafficked area.

Steven et al. (1999) reported that the two different types
of vehicle suspensions (dual air suspension and multi-leaf
steel spring) in the CAPTIF tests produced no significant
difference in the mean level of pavement wear in terms of
surface roughness. However, the variability in the wear is
quite different, with higher dynamic wheel loads producing
greater variability. Similarly, the average wheel load was
the same, but the response of the suspensions differed con-
siderably. The authors noted that the findings have impor-
tant implications for pavement maintenance requirements.
In the same vein, the benefit of a smooth, uniform pave-
ment structure is apparent.

As stated by Steven and Pidwerbesky (1997)

This research provided the first real insights into the effect of
suspensions and dynamic loading on pavement life and per-
formance; only an accelerated loading facility could provide
an affordable means of obtaining the results in controlled ex-
perimental conditions within a reasonable time frame. The
pavement condition and response changed with increased
numbers of applied loads, and varied between the different
suspensions. The effect of dynamic loading was clearly dem-
onstrated by severe depressions in the pavement at intervals
relating to the dynamic characteristics of the different suspen-
sion types.

Kenis and Wang (1999) focused on one important as-
pect of the OECDs DIVINE program in New Zealand.
The goal was to investigate whether it was possible to dis-
tinguish between the development of pavement distresses
resulting from initial variations in material properties and
layer thicknesses, and those resulting from variations in the
dynamic wheel forces imposed on pavements due to
tire-suspension dynamics. Research was conducted to
determine if such differences in the level of these two
phenomena, that is, the effects of pavement structural
variability and dynamic wheel force on pavement per-
formance, were detectable. They concluded that it was.
They found that the change in mean Vertical Surface
Deformation in both wheel paths with trafficking was
similar, thus confirming theoretical assumptions that
dynamic loading had no effect on the accumulation of
mean surface deformation. However, they did find that
there was about a 27% greater standard deviation of the
Vertical Surface Deformation in the outer wheel path
than the inner wheel path. This was probably because of
the increase in the dynamic load in the outer wheel path.
Cross-correlation analysis showed that the initial profile
had little influence on the final profile of the pavement
regardless of the type of suspension.

The reliability analysis by Kenis and Wang (1999) re-
vealed that reducing structural variability of the pavement
because of variability of pavement materials or nonuni-
formity of pavement construction increased the reliability
of pavement service life. It is apparent that this improved
understanding of the vehicle pavement has important
pavement economic consequences, because it affects such
factors as construction quality control and the long-term
performance of the pavement structure.

In contrast to the CAPTIF facility, the LCPC carousel
maintains a constant load to minimize the dynamic effect.
This is the case for most facilities. Recently the HVS IV
was put into operation in Florida, with some limited capa-
bility to simulate dynamic loads; however, test results have
not yet been reported (Steyn et al. 1999). Gautrans Prov-
ince in South Africa also acquired an HVS IV+ with en-
hanced capacity for dynamic loading. It can apply a sinu-
soidal load pattern along the length of the test section with
a varying wavelength. The load amplitude can vary 20%.
The TxMLS (Hugo et al. 1991) was also designed to have
some dynamic load effect, but thus far this aspect has not
been used except for trial purposes. Test facilities using
regular truck trafficking also apply dynamic loads and the
performance of the pavements reflects this. For example,
in the case of WesTrack (Sime and Ashmore 2000), it was
possible to gain insight into the effect on user cost of
measurable changes in surface smoothness. This is dis-
cussed in more detail in chapter eight.


Unidirectional/Bidirectional Loading

Contradictory findings have been reported on the effects of
unidirectional versus bidirectional trafficking. Tests in the
United Kingdom (Brown and Brodrick 1999) reported that
the bidirectional trafficking system is more severe in terms
23
of relative performance. In one case (50 mm of asphalt on
a 160-mm granular base), the rutting more than doubled
for two-way traffic. In contrast, Huhtala and Pihlajamaki
(2000) reported that Finnish researchers found no differ-
ence in performance. Theoretical analyses have clearly in-
dicated that a difference in performance should be ex-
pected because of residual stresses (Yandell and Behzadi
1999). Galal and White (1999) have also commented on
this aspect. In general, trafficking with the Indiana
DOT/PurdueAPT was done unidirectionally. In a single
comparative test, White (T.D. White, personal communica-
tion, 2002) found that unidirectional trafficking exhibited
less deformation than bidirectional trafficking. No follow-
up tests have yet been conducted. The reason(s) for this
apparent anomaly in the findings is not clear, and further
research is needed to address this issue.


Lateral Wander During Traffic Loading

This topic has a bearing on the number of load applications
that cause the damage affecting performance. Most devices
have the capability to apply lateral wander, but in the inter-
est of increased rates of load application on the center of
the wheel path, it is often not applied. The effect of such an
approach needs to be considered because it affects the rela-
tionship between distress and load applications at trans-
verse positions in the wheel path.

Epps et al. (2001) reported on the effect of lateral wan-
der on a number of the test sections at WesTrack. The re-
searchers found that the HMA had moved laterally during
trafficking and there was evidence that the material could
be shoved upwards when the mix was shear susceptible at
high temperature. This phenomenon was also observed by
Hand (1999). As a result, the rut depth could be reduced at
a specific lateral position with an increase in the number of
load applications. Accordingly, Epps et al. (2001) con-
cluded that the effect of this phenomenon had to be taken
into account when quantifying the rutting performance un-
der APT trafficking.

Chen et al. (1999) and Chen and Lin (1999) compared the
typical wheel path rut profiles on a number of highways in
Texas to the wheel path profiles generated by the TxMLS dur-
ing testing to relate the performance under APT to actual traf-
fic on the highways. They determined an adjustment factor
based on the respective wheel path widths.

White et al. (1999) also reported on the effect of lateral
wander. Their extensive tests showed significant reduction
in rut depth and upward heave when the load applications
were applied with lateral wander. For example, in a spe-
cific case, the rut depth and upward heave were respec-
tively 10 mm and 5 mm with wander, compared with 15
mm and 14 mm without wander. In general, they reported
reductions of between 30% and 40% in rut depth when lat-
eral wander normally distributed over a width of 250 mm
was introduced. They also showed that FE analysis and
modeling could be used to quantitatively predict the APT
rutting with wander from single wheel path rutting. This
has an advantage over fitting regression curves to data and
extrapolating. The latter is purely empirical and relates
only to the data collected. Extrapolation may be inappro-
priate

On the basis of these reports, it is apparent that lateral
wander has an important influence on the rutting perform-
ance of pavements.


Tire Characteristics and Related Contact Stresses

Recent developments in the field of vehiclepavement in-
teraction have provided users of APT programs with im-
portant insights into the performance of pavements. It has
become clear that the tirepavement interface has a major
impact on the performance of the upper layer(s), especially
for flexible pavements.

De Beer et al. (1997) described the quantification of
three-dimensional (3-D) tire/pavement contact stresses for
vehicle tires using the VehicleRoad Surface Pressure
Transducer Array (VRSPTA) system (Figure 2). The sys-
tem was developed to measure actual contact stresses un-
der a moving tire; that is, Stress-In-Motion as an ancillary
device for use in conjunction with the South African APT
facilities. The contact stresses were found to be nonuni-
form and were considered to be a primary cause of surface
cracking. Researchers have shown conclusively that the
contact pressure is not uniform over the contact surface.
Contract pressure varies between the center of the contact
area and the outer edge, depending on the tire pressure and
the nature of the tire; that is, whether it is a radial ply tire
or not. Measured peak contact stresses were up to 100%
higher than the inflation pressure (De Beer et al. 1997).
Blab (1999) also found that tire inflation pressure, load,














FIGURE 2 The VRSPTA on the pavement under the
HVS with a 315/80 R22.5 tire (De Beer et al. 1997).
24
and tire type are the dominant factors affecting the 3-D ve-
hiclepavement contact stresses. He concluded that high
tire edge vertical contact stresses are the principal factors
responsible for surface rutting and cracking.

Bonaquist (1992a,b) also reported on work that had
been done to assess the impact of wide-based single tires.
The comparison between dual and wide-based single tires
was done in terms of response and performance relative to
fatigue and rutting damage potential. Two thicknesses of
AC, 89 and 178 mm, over a 305-mm crushed aggregate
base, were trafficked. There was a near linear increase in
gross contact area for increasing loads for both tire types.
For compression within the AC, tire pressure was found
more important than load. However, the tensile strain at the
bottom of the asphalt layer and the compressive strain at
the base and subgrade level were affected more by the
load. This was a good example of Saint Venants principle,
which states that the stress in the depth of the pavement is
solely dependent on the size of the load and not the contact
stress. Overall it was found that the wide-based single tire
generated 1.0 to 2.4 times more rutting than the dual tires
with the majority of the rutting occurring in the crushed
aggregate base layer. The observed damage in terms of fa-
tigue cracking was approximately four times greater with
the single tire compared with the dual tire in terms of
measured crack lengths.

These values compared well with theoretical predictions
based on the following damage models:

Fatigue Damage
b
t
f
a
N
1
) ( = (1)
Layer Rutting
d
r p
cN = (2)

where

N
f
= fatigue life,

t
= tensile strain at the bottom of the AC
layer,

p
= layer permanent deformation,

r
= resilient layer compression, and
a,b,c,d = material coefficients.

The expected relative damage according to the models
was between 3.5 and 4.3 times greater for fatigue damage,
and between 1.1 and 1.5 times greater for rutting damage.

Cort et al. (1997) reported on results from experiments
on the LCPC test track in France to determine the aggres-
siveness of wide-based single tires. It was found that the
aggressiveness of the axles with wide-based single wheels
is greater than that of the dual wheels. For the sensitive
mixes, the magnitude of the ruts formed by the wide-based
single tires was 50% more than those of the standard dual
tires. In subsequent tests with rut resisting mixes, this
difference in rutting performance was reduced to 20%.
It was therefore concluded that this effect depended on
the nature of the asphalt. The more sensitive the asphalt
mix was to rutting, the more pronounced was the effect.
The relative effect of a tandem axle with wide-based single
tires does not appear significantly different to two isolated
wide-based single wheels. However, this observation was
made for rather low test temperatures and was therefore
not favorable for determining differences in rutting per-
formance.

Gramsammer et al. (1999) reported that LCPC had also
tested new 5.3-t extra-wide single tires currently being de-
veloped. As always, the tests were related back to reference
materials with known performance to serve as a bench-
mark. The tests involved sponsors from the industry, which
resulted in fast-tracking the findings into field application
by the industrial partners, thus expediting economic bene-
fits.

Increase in tire pressure affects rutting in APT. Both
Gramsammer et al. (1999) and Hugo (2000) found the in-
crease in rutting of the asphalt layers to be proportional to
the increase in tire pressure.

De Beer et al. (1997) reported that tire inflation pressure
predominantly controls the vertical contact stresses on the
pavement at the tire center, whereas the tire load controls
those at the tire edges. Their analysis indicated that during
instantaneous overloading/underinflated conditions, the
maximum strain energy of distortion (SED) in the asphalt
surfacing occurs close to tire edges. Under instantaneous
uniform vertical stress conditions, the SED is within the
asphalt surfacing at the tire center.

In a recent Australian study by Foley and Sharp (2001),
pavement deformation beneath wide-based radial and con-
ventional radial tires was compared under ALF trafficking.
A nominal 75-mm-thick asphalt mix of 25-mm maximum
aggregate size, exhibited five times more rutting under the
wide-based radial tire than under the dual radial tire at an
equal vertical loading. It was concluded that the transverse
tensile contact stress developed across individual tread ribs
causes a reduction in shear strength because of a reduction
in confinement of the material. As a result, the deformation
was adversely affected. It was concluded that the contact
stresses beneath wide-based radial tires needed to be inves-
tigated further. Similarly, the ability of models to simulate
these conditions should also be explored further. FE
methods were considered to be the most useful for these
investigations.

Sideways shear or shear forces (stresses) that may de-
velop under a condition of cornering were investigated. In
South African experiments, the HVS test tire was sheared
25
over the surface of the VRSPTA by moving the tire during
testing toward one side of the VRSPTA at an angle of 7.5
to 8 degrees. The test results indicated that the transverse
stress increases by approximately 30 kPa/degree for con-
ventional Type IV tires and approximately 50 kPa/degree
for the wide-based tires. In terms of the ratio of maximum
stresses, the transverse ratio increases to a range of be-
tween 2.6 and 3.61 (De Beer et al. 1997 and Figure 2).

Woodside et al. (1999) also reported on a study of tire
pavement interaction in Northern Ireland. They used a
multifunctional wheel tracking device known as
TRACKER. Test specimens were tracked by a truck (lorry)
tire, at a speed of 2.7 km/h. The stress induced by the tire
was varied by altering the tire inflation pressure and the
loading. A test platform was used to measure dynamic con-
tact stress by means of 12 specially designed, inverted T-
shaped transducers positioned across the width of the con-
tact patch. Surface texture was simulated by varying the
extent to which the T-shaped transducers protrude above
the cover plate. The researchers reported that contact
stresses increased with tire load, inflation pressure, and
surface roughness (texture depth); contact stress distribu-
tion is not uniform, but rather increases toward the tire
edge. In dynamic stress models, vertical stresses are of
higher magnitude than lateral or horizontal stresses. They
also showed that mathematical models were ideal for
analysis of dynamic contact stress.

A quantitative model was developed by Groenendijk et
al. (1997) to describe the contact stress distribution meas-
ured under tires of LINTRACK in tests in South Africa.
This model distinguishes between the edge (2 times 20%)
and center (60%) zones of the tire width. The vertical
stress level in the center zone is mainly determined by the
tire pressure and the edge zone level is mainly determined
by the wheel load. In follow-up work, Groenendijk (1998)
concluded that the measurement of tire/pavement contact
stresses with the VRSPTA had improved the estimation of
the vertical, transverse, and longitudinal forces; that is,
stresses under slow-moving pneumatic tires. He also
pointed out that the surface stresses primarily affect the
upper 100 mm of the pavement contributing to surface dis-
tress.

De Beer et al. (1997) reported on an investigation into
some effects of the actual tire pressures on thin asphalt sur-
facings. They concluded that the design and analysis of
flexible pavements with thin surfacing (<50 mm) were af-
fected by surface stresses. The results are significantly dif-
ferent compared with those used in conventional design
and analysis methods.

The ability to evaluate the tire pavement interface in
such detail under accelerated pavement test devices could
be an important reason why APT programs have become
more popular for determining how pavements respond and
ultimately perform under traffic. In this regard, the com-
puter analysis of Stress-in-Motion using the VRSPTA sys-
tem is a powerful tool for enhancing pavement load model-
ing for both design and analysis.


Trafficking Speed (Speed of Load Application)

The effect of trafficking speed has not received as much at-
tention as other pavement interaction factors. This is
probably because most of the APT systems are either not able
to test over a wide range of speeds or are not designed to
measure dynamic deflections during trafficking. Nevertheless,
some findings have been reported. Cort et al. (1997) noted
that, as a first approximation, the trend is that in the range
of speeds of 40 to 50 km/h, an increase in speed of 15%
reduces rutting by 20% to 35%. They mention that there
may have been a veering effect of the wheels during circu-
lar trafficking. This value becomes more variable with stiff
asphalt (small deformation). Also, when the ruts are small
(24 mm), it is difficult to quantify the influence of speed.
Steven et al. (1999) reported that the dynamic load coeffi-
cient, as measured with the CAPTIF device, doubled when
a parabolic spring suspension was used and the speed was
increased from 20 km/h to 45 km/h. The effect was mini-
mal with a multi-leaf spring suspension.

Lourens (1995) measured both static and dynamic de-
flections under wheel loads on in-service highways to re-
late these to deflections measured under the HVS. Figure 3
shows the results on a pavement consisting of 60-mm as-
phalt surfacing, 210 mm high-quality crushed-stone aggre-
gate base, and 150 mm of cement-treated subbase. He ob-
tained similar results with a pavement that had 100-mm
asphalt surfacing, but a slightly weaker support structure.
The results show how the deflection reduces dramatically
within the speed range of 0 to 20 km/h. Because of the re-
lationship between elastic and plastic strain this would
lead to a similar reduction in deformation of the asphalt.
The experiments were done with different axle loads and
on a range of pavement structures. The range of strain
measurements taken in five different pavement structures
under 11.5-t axle loads during the FORCE project (OECD
1991) were very similar to those shown in Figure 3. White
et al. (1999) demonstrated the effect of speed on rutting
with the FE analysis that had been developed in their APT
program. They found that the rutting would be halved
when the speed is increased to 100 km/h from creep speed.
These findings demonstrate why frequency of load applica-
tion is important when comparing deformation under dif-
ferent trafficking patterns as was done by Epps et al.
(2001).

It is clear that speed of loading has to be carefully con-
sidered in judging results from APT trafficking, especially
26




















FIGURE 3 Effect of speed on pavement deflection (Lourens 1995).


when a substantial layer of asphalt is present in the structure.
On the other hand, it is apparent that the wide range of vari-
ants that have to be considered in pavement performance can
most probably only be investigated with any degree of success
by using APT. In this regard, Gramsammer et al. (1999) re-
ported the following in their presentation on research at the
LCPC test facility during the 1999 Reno conference:

The Carousel made it possible to optimize the inverted pave-
ment structure quickly. . . Could the hierarchical organization
of anti-rutting qualities of the materials have been worked out
as easily (without the use of APT)? How could the traffic, the
speed, and the temperature conditions have been as rigorously
guaranteed with another testing facility?


LOAD COMPOSITION AND CONFIGURATION (SINGLE OR
MULTIPLE AXLES)

According to LCPC reports, the effect of multiple axles has
not been excessively detrimental (Gramsammer et al.
1999). The phenomenon is however receiving specific at-
tention at the Mn/ROAD project (Newcomb et al. 1999).
At this facility, a range of vehicle loads, axle configura-
tions, and vehicle speeds are being applied to instrumented
pavement sections. The results were successfully used to
develop a mechanisticempirical design process that takes
actual load repetitions into account (see the summary at the
end of this chapter).

By reviewing HVS test data from actual constructed
pavements, Wolff (1992) was able to determine the effect
of molding (post-construction consolidation) of a pave-
ment structure due to wheel load applications. This had
previously been postulated and verified by Kleyn et al.
(1985). Wolff found that the application of different load
sequences on the pavement structure affected the perform-
ance. It appeared, from the limited data that were available,
that the stress path influenced the final performance.

The extensive nature of the impact of tirepavement in-
teraction explains why more APT programs are incorporat-
ing this factor in their test plans. The same applies to the
attempts at simulating dynamic effects of truck trafficking
through APT devices.


ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

As mentioned earlier, environmental impact is essentially
caused by physical and chemical action related to tempera-
ture, water, wind, and radiation. It was found that the im-
pact of temperature and water on pavement structures had
been investigated by a number of APT programs, and a
wide variety of pavement structures and materials had been
tested. As far as could be ascertained, wind and radiation
have not been featured to any extent in APT studies.

In considering the effects of temperature and water it
was apparent from the literature and the responses to the
questionnaire that it was necessary to differentiate between
short-term and long-term conditions. In addition, non-
traffic effects had to be considered, especially in the case
of temperature. This portion of the synthesis, on applica-
tions and significant findings relative to environmental im-
pacts, was therefore compiled with due regard to these in-
fluence factors.

During the course of events, test protocols have been
developed, and these have provided a means of comparison
between the findings of the various test programs.
27
Environmental Impact Factors

Both non-traffic and traffic-related findings will be dis-
cussed in this section.

Aging of asphaltic materials, caused by time-related ex-
posure to heat, oxygen, radiation, and wind, is one of the
primary non-traffic-related effects that have to be consid-
ered. Surrogate tests have provided useful laboratory in-
sight into the effect of such aging on pavement perform-
ance. However, to capture all aspects of this phenomenon,
the actual effect of aging on pavement performance, a
long-term study at a dedicated site(s) is needed. Thus far,
no formal study has been undertaken specifically for this
purpose by any APT program. Epps et al. (2001) did con-
sider the effect of aging in their analysis of the findings
from the MMLS3 (one-third scale mobile load simulator)
study at WesTrack. It has also been recognized by Hand
(1999) as a factor that needs to be considered in the analy-
sis of APT performance. As expected, rutting was reduced
because of the hardening of the aged binder. In addition,
artificial accelerated aging has been used to simulate natu-
ral aging of asphalt in APT studies (Hugo et al. 1987; Van
der Merwe et al. 1992).

Van der Merwe et al. (1992) aged two HMA test sec-
tions through heating, at 100C for 7 days and 28 days, re-
spectively. They found a dramatic increase in the rut resis-
tance after the artificial aging. However, at the same time,
the resistance to cracking had decreased, because surface
cracking was experienced much earlier. Shift factors relat-
ing the respective performance parameters (rutting and
cracking) before and after aging were 1:1.5 (rutting) and
5:1 (cracking). It was clear that aging had affected per-
formance both positively and negatively. Unfortunately, the
study was not taken any further, but it was apparent that
the entire issue of aging needed additional research. In the
second study, Hugo et al. (1987) reported on testing of
similarly aged material at low temperature (10C). Aging
again resulted in more extensive cracking distress. It was
found that cracking depends on the interrelationship be-
tween the increase in modulus and tensile strength. A pro-
posal for investigating the effect of the environment was
put forward by Hugo (1999). It entails a method for quanti-
fying the effect of the environment over a period of several
years with the aid of a structured APT study. The primary
goal would be to develop procedures for determining the
possible changes in the intrinsic life of a pavement due to
environmental impact.

The remainder of the discussion in this section fo-
cuses on the various findings that have come about from
APT programs that have addressed the influence of
temperature and water in their testing of pavement struc-
tures without specific attention being paid to the effect
of aging.
Impact of Temperature on Performance

Performance of pavements is affected by the full tempera-
ture range that occurs during its life cycle. During earlier
APT studies tests were simply conducted at ambient tem-
perature, while monitoring and recording the actual condi-
tions during testing. However, recently, many facilities
have provided some means to control the temperature of
the pavement. These programs are identified in Appendix
F.

Test temperature capabilities vary, with the upper limit
reported as high as 76C (Harvey et al. 2000). The LCPC
system was adapted to heat one of the sections artificially
(Cort et al. 1997). A total of 36 tungstenhalogen projec-
tors, of 1,000 W unit output, were installed on the inside of
the track, 0.5 m from the wheel path at a height of 1.5 m
above the ground over a length of 25 m. This enabled the
pavement temperature to be increased by 10C to 14C
above the ambient air temperature. The power needed for
this was a little over 2 kW/m
2
for testing speeds limited to
40 km/h. It is of interest to note that the power required to
maintain a test temperature of 50C under the MMLS3 on
in-service pavements was the same, but was dependent on
the ambient conditions (Epps et al. 2001). The difference
with the MMLS3 was possible because the device is well
insulated, thus minimizing loss of heat. For the initial heat-
ing prior to starting an experiment, 6 kW/m
2
or more was
needed to bring the pavement to a test temperature of 60C
when the ambient temperature was near freezing. The
heaters used with the ARRBALF system have a maxi-
mum capacity of 2.8 kW/m
2
(Johnson-Clarke and Fossey
1996). A number of facilities have also acquired the capa-
bility to cool the pavement system and test at a controlled
low temperature level. In some cases this can be below
0C. However, this requires specially equipped facilities
such as HVSCRREL and a limited number of others iden-
tified in Appendix F.

Because the reports on the application of APT under dif-
ferent temperature ranges focus on dissimilar phenomena,
the related discussions are considered in separate subsec-
tions by means of case studies.


APT Tests at Ambient and Elevated Temperatures

Cort et al. (1997) discussed in detail the effect of tempera-
ture on rutting. They reported that there is a threshold tem-
perature above which asphalts show susceptibility to rut-
ting. For the reference asphalt mix in the LCPC facility,
this threshold temperature was 40C to 45C. When the
temperature was below this, there was a marked reduction
in the rate of rutting, as well as the extent of rutting, with
deformation very low or even indeed nonexistent. This
threshold value appears to be close to the Ring and Ball
28

FIGURE 4 Effects of wheel load and temperature on permanent deformation.

softening point temperature of the binder. [The Ring and
Ball test is used to determine the temperature at which bi-
tumen (asphalt) reaches a certain degree of softness. This is
arbitrarily defined in terms of a test to determine when bi-
tumen changes from solid to liquid. The test is carried out
as follows: The bitumen is melted and poured into a stan-
dard brass ring placed on a plate; when cool, a standard-
sized steel ball is placed on the bitumen and the ring sus-
pended in a water bath, the temperature of which is raised
at the rate of 5C per minute. The temperature at which the
bitumen softens sufficiently to allow the ball to pass
through the ring and touch the lower platea distance of
25 mmis called the softening point.] For this reason, the
thermal history of a pavement plays an important role in
the development of rutting and the related performance.
Lister reported this in 1972 (Lister 1972 and Metcalf 1996)
in one of the very early APT studies in the United King-
dom (see Figure 4). From this figure, the dramatic effect of
a 10C or 20C change in temperature on deformation can
be seen. The results reported by Lister show a similar trend
toward a threshold temperature at 40C, as that reported by
Cort et al. (1997).

This explains why temperature is a major factor in the per-
formance of asphalt pavements. The same is true of concrete
pavements, albeit for different reasons, such as curling of
slabs. The temperature effect is both short and long term.

Maccarrone et al. (1997) found that the sensitivity of the
deformation rate with increase in temperature is markedly
reduced with each of the two ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)-
modified binders that were evaluated. They compared their
performance to that of a conventional AC-30 binder (Class
320 Australian binder classification). In all cases, the com-
parative mixes were continuously graded asphalt with 10
mm nominal aggregate and 5.1% binder. The rate of de-
formation approximately doubled for every 4C increase
in temperature for the Class 320 mix, compared with
every 7C for the two modified binders. Modified bind-
ers were found to significantly reduce permanent de-
formation in asphalt pavements at elevated tempera-
tures. At pavement temperatures of 60C, it was found that
the two tested, modified binders could reduce the rate of
deformation by factors of approximately five and eight
times, respectively, when compared with conventional AC-
30 binder.

Galal and White (1999) investigated the effects of dif-
ferent constituents of asphalt mixtures on permanent pave-
ment deformation using APT. The investigation was also
used to study the effect of lateral wander on rutting, which
is discussed elsewhere in detail in this chapter. The re-
searchers considered aggregate type, percentage of crushed
gravel, and percentage of natural versus crushed sand and
binder. Thirty-two mixtures were evaluated at a tempera-
ture of 38C (1C) and a trafficking speed of 8 km/h. The
elevated temperature and the slow speed enabled definitive
conclusions to be drawn. The researchers found that the
aggregate type has a significant effect on rutting; slag and
limestone mixtures rutted 50% less than gravel mixtures.
They also found that an increase of 0.25% in the binder
content resulted in as much as a 40% increase in rutting of
the gravel mixtures.

Harvey et al. (1999) reported on two pavements that
were constructed in 1995. One pavement was a Caltrans
undrained structure consisting of prepared subgrade, an
aggregate subbase and base layers, and an AC surface. The
second pavement was a Caltrans drained structure, in
which a 75-mm-thick layer of ATPB was placed beneath
the AC, replacing a portion of aggregate base. They re-
ported partial verification that rutting of HMA primarily
29
occurs in the upper 100 mm of pavements. The speed of
loading during the rutting tests averaged 7.6 km/h, while
the nominal surface temperature was 55C. Once again the
slow speed and the elevated temperature yielded definitive
results. It was found that 48% to 68% of the observed surface
rutting was the result of the deformation of the asphalt layers
and that the plastic deformation in the subgrade was minimal.
The aggregate base and subbase layers contributed 22% to
50% of the total permanent vertical deformation.

Gramsammer et al. (1999) pointed out that rutting experi-
ments require fewer load cycles. Testing with the carousel at
LCPC requires applying 100,000 to 200,000 load applica-
tions on four radii of gyration at speeds of 38 to 48 km/h
depending on the radius. Because rut tests require high
temperatures, such tests are systematically conducted in
midsummer (July and August) when the temperature
reaches 30C within the wearing courses (between 9 h and
18 h solar time). The rutting tests are conducted on a spe-
cific site equipped with a subbase course resisting defor-
mation, so that rutting measured on the surface is really the
result of the plastic deformation of the wearing courses and
not of the subsurface layers.

Sharp et al. (1999b) also reported that deformation at
high temperature was confined primarily to the upper as-
phalt layer, indicating that only the upper layer needed to
be replaced with a more rut-resistant product to effectively
repair temperature-related deformed pavement surfaces.
They concluded that the current Austroads design method
needed to be revised to reflect the plastic-related deforma-
tion in the asphalt layers together with limiting subgrade
strain. In that study, a test section incorporating a high bi-
tumen content mix in the layer base course showed only
limited rutting. This was similar to findings reported by
Harvey et al. (1999) in support of the rich-bottom design.
Sharp et al. (1999b) concluded that testing at an elevated
temperature at 40C was too low for typical Australian in-
service pavements, and suggested 50C instead.


APT Tests at Low Temperatures

Low temperature cracking is a phenomenon that has been
addressed primarily through improved binder specifica-
tions. APT studies in regions with low winter temperatures
and no environmental control presented the opportunity to
evaluate the success of this approach. In the case of WesTrack,
no distress of this nature occurred, thus validating the design
strategy (Epps et al. 1999). At Mn/ROAD, the occurrence of
low temperature cracking owing to the natural environment
is also being monitored (Newcomb et al. 1999).

When the pavement is subjected to temperatures below
0C water becomes an important factor, because it freezes
and the freezethaw phenomenon has to be considered. It
becomes an interactive process between temperature and
water. Few of the facilities take this into consideration. The
Mn/ROAD is one site that was especially designed to in-
vestigate the problem. The proposed design methodology
that was implemented to address this is reportedly success-
ful (Newcomb et al. 1999). The HVSCRREL facility is also
equipped to investigate this, and Janoo et al. (1999) have re-
ported on a study that was conducted with their HVS.

Zhang and Macdonald (1999) reported on full-scale
APT testing of a pavement structure at low temperature
with the Road Testing Machine in Denmark. The purpose
was to investigate the effect of freezethaw cycles on the
response and performance of a pavement that had already
been subjected to 150,000 load applications at 25C with
only very limited deterioration. Trafficking included
50,000 load repetitions at dual-wheel loads of 40 kN, 50
kN, and 60 kN each. The International Roughness Index
(IRI) had increased to 1.50 m/km from zero with a rut
depth of 10 mm.

In the freezethaw tests, the pavement was frozen to a
depth of 1.2 m, which included the top three of nine clayey
silty sand subgrade layers. The freezing was achieved by
maintaining 10C in the climate chamber surrounding the
pavement section. Once this condition had stabilized,
freezing was stopped and profiles measured. During freez-
ing, the surface heaved upwards from 6 to 26 mm, in dif-
ferent locations, because of ice formation. The temperature
was slowly raised to 25C and the pavement was allowed
to thaw. Pore pressures (soil suction) were measured with
tensiometers during thawing using a blend of water and
anti-freeze. Temperatures were also monitored. A dual 60-
kN wheel load was applied at a rate of 150 load cycles per
day. The pavement response and pavement profiles were
measured at regular intervals.

After 1,800 load repetitions, freezing was resumed and
a second cycle started. The frost heave was again recorded.
During the second thawing period, 3,000 dual-load repeti-
tions were applied. The IRI increased to 4.4 m/km,
whereas the rut increased to 22 mm. A stressstrain model
was developed that closely predicted the permanent strain
in the subgrade for a subsequent test.

The comparison between measured and calculated
pavement responses proved satisfactory. Models for esti-
mating plastic strains at the top of the subgrade and the
permanent deformation of the subgrade were also devel-
oped and found to be satisfactory. It was observed that

Some 60% to 70% of the total increase in plastic strain
occurred during the early stages of thaw loading.
Dynamic transient (elastic) stresses and strains in-
creased by up to 40% during thaw loading over those
measured before the freezethaw.
30
A model for the IRI was also developed to reflect the
permanent deformation at the surface.

A number of conclusions were drawn from the study.

It is important to measure pore pressures in the sub-
grade before and during thawing.
The subgrade permanent strain model closely pre-
dicted the permanent deformation (rutting), but un-
derpredicted the permanent strain in the subgrade.
Freezethaw experiments are time consuming. It took
2 months of continuously applied freezing tempera-
tures at 10C for a single cycle. The experiment
took 11 months to complete.


Impact of Water on Performance

The impact of water on pavement performance has been
explored in a number of APT programs. In general, the ef-
fect of water ingress into the structure is dramatic. The im-
portance of this is endorsed in the questionnaire response
from CAPTIF, which states that the exclusion of environ-
mental factors such as moisture greatly increases pavement
life when compared to the expected design life (see Ap-
pendix D, Table D3).

As much as feasible, the discussion will differentiate be-
tween the effect of surface infiltration of water and subsur-
face ingress of water. However, as was shown in the case of
temperature, water also has an effect that is non-traffic-related,
at least until it causes distress that affects interaction with traf-
fic. A major factor in this regard is chemical distress, which
is primarily the result of chemical disintegration of material(s)
or deterioration of layers. It is another form of non-traffic-
related impact. The study by Roesler on alkalisilica reac-
tion (ASR) attack on PCC in conjunction with the CAL/
APT program in Palmdale, California, is an example of
this (Roesler 1998; Roesler et al. 1999).

South Africas testing of cement-stabilized gravel that is
deteriorating because of carbonation and/or crushing
(Steyn et al. 1997) is another example of how APT has
provided insight into the application of distress mecha-
nisms and remedial measures. Similarly, the diagnostic
study of the distress that the N2 National Road section in
the Western Cape province of South Africa has suffered
because of alkaline reaction is a good example of how ex-
tensive the impact of this form of distress can be and how
APT was used to provide parameters for evaluating opti-
mum solutions for the rehabilitation. This is discussed in
chapter six of this report (Strauss et al. 1988; Strauss and
Van der Walt 1990).


Infiltration of Surface Water

In his study of the deformation of unbound bases, Maree et
al. (1982) found that the ingress of water into the pavement
structure had a major impact on the deformation. This is
vividly demonstrated in Figure 5, which shows how rain
and the subsequent artificial spraying of water onto a 30
mm surface under HVS testing in South Africa led to a
dramatic increase in the deformation. The researchers re-
port that this does not occur when the pavement is properly
maintained, for example, by crack sealing. They also report

























FIGURE 5 Rutting performance of a pavement with a granular base layer during HVS testing
(Maree et al. 1982).
31






























FIGURE 6 Comparison of the pavement deformation induced in various crushed-stone base pavements by HVS
trafficking (using n = 3) (Walker 1985).


that the rate of rutting is reduced significantly when the
pavement is allowed to dry out after the wetting phase.

Water affects pavement performance when it gains ac-
cess to the pavement structure. During trafficking pore wa-
ter pressures develop, causing a loss of shear strength and
even disintegration, depending on the nature and quality of
the asphalt or other pavement materials. Sharp et al.
(1999b) reported on APT that had been done on gravel
base courses in Australia. Time Domain Reflectometry
(TDR) gauges developed by the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) were used suc-
cessfully to monitor moisture in the subgrade. The lateritic
soil was found to be very susceptible to moisture, and field
road performance correlated well with the moisture varia-
tion in the wheel path.

Walker (1985) discussed the impact of moisture on
pavement performance and used data that had been ob-
tained from various HVS tests on South African field
pavements to show how the effect differs depending on the
type of pavement and the degree of saturation. Figure 6
(Walker 1985) shows the deformation relative to equiva-
lent 80-kN standard axles using n = 3 in the load equiva-
lency formula. Highway P 157/1 (see Figure 6) was subse-
quently investigated in 1996 (Jooste et al. 1997) to
evaluate how it had performed since the initial HVS testing
(see chapter seven).
Walubita et al. (2000) reported on studies that were
conducted on Texas US-281 with the MMLS3 in con-
junction with the TxMLS. The goal was to investigate
whether moisture damage of the asphalt mixtures would
occur as a result of the wet trafficking. The MMLS3
tests were conducted on the pavement adjacent to the
TxMLS with a sheet of water flowing over the surface
during trafficking. The most important finding was a
significant drop in modulus of elasticity measured by
spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) owing to wet
trafficking. This was in contrast to an increase in SASW
modulus of elasticity because of trafficking under warm
conditions (38C). There was also a significant reduc-
tion in the indirect tensile fatigue life of the wet traf-
ficked asphalt. This reduction was attributed to mi-
crofracturing, which would indicate that the test under
the TxMLS that had been trafficked dry was less severe
than the test with the scaled device.

This meant that a much lighter wheel load was caus-
ing more damage to the pavement through wet traffick-
ing than the full-scale trafficking could achieve under
dry conditions; the apparent remaining life appeared to
have been reduced to 20% to 40% of that in the dry traf-
ficked areas. Related findings by (Pidwerbersky et al.
1997a) and others indicated that the impact of water
during trafficking on remaining life and performance
can be significant.
32
Surface and Subsurface Water

In an APT study on the performance of subgrade and base
course layers of marginal quality, Vuong et al. (1994) re-
ported on the importance of moisture content, making the
following noteworthy points:

Back calculation of layer moduli from FWD deflec-
tion data provides information on the effect of mois-
ture content. The variation in back-calculated moduli
with time was a useful tool for determining the rela-
tive effects of seasonal environmental conditions.
Under dry conditions the sandstone had adequate
stiffness (at say 50% of optimum moisture content).
The material behaved nonlinearly, with the stiffness
increasing as the load increased. However, the nega-
tive effect of wetting the sandstone was also clearly
demonstrated (see Figures 7 and 8). As a result of this
finding it was apparent that the modulus had to be
adjusted to account for seasonal moisture variations,
because it could significantly impact the performance
of low-cost pavements.
The Regression Rut Depth Model was used to analyze
the performance data from ALF tests when load and en-
vironmental conditions vary. It was also used to derive
the power law in the load damage relationship. The
model is illustrated in Figure 9. The 40-kN load applica-
tions are progressively adjusted to be equivalent to 80
kN by varying the exponent value. The best-fit regres-
sion indicates the applicable damage exponent.

Vuong et al. (1996) reported on 34 experiment applying
3 million light-load cycles to 10 pavement types that were
completed in Australia between February 1992 and June
1993. The trails contributed to the state of the art for the
design and construction of stabilized and unstabilized
granular pavements. Some of the important findings were
as follows:

The effect of heavy rain in a concentrated short pe-
riod of time needs to be considered in the adjudica-
tion of performance, because it can override the
good results over a long period of time. Granular
materials that are sensitive to moisture do not dry
back quickly and the prevention of ingress of water
and the possible increase in moisture content within
the material is critical. When the subgrade has ade-
quate strength to support traffic, the main function of
unbound marginal material is to carry the surface
seal rather than support the load.
The relative effect of the environment can be ex-
pressed in terms of an environmental equivalency
factor or an environmental damage exponent (EDE).
The EDE is defined by the ratio between rut depth
and the number of load repetitions on a log-log ba-
sis. EDE values of 6 to 10 were obtained from the
trials indicating that the environmental effects could
be more significant than the loading effects.

The Australian roads subgrade strain model overpre-
dicted the lives of granular pavements because it did not




























FIGURE 7 Variation in sandstone layer modulus with different loads and moisture conditions (Vuong et al.
1994).
33

FIGURE 8 Comparison of average layer moduli in site C and cumulative rainfall over time
(Vuong et al. 1994).

































FIGURE 9 Comparison of net rut depth with 80-kN load repetitions (site C) (Vuong et al. 1994).

take into account the deformation of granular pavement
layers that are sensitive to moisture and compaction levels.
Freeme (1984) had previously reported a damage expo-
nent that varied between 2 and 6 in studies with the HVS.
34

























FIGURE 10 Impact of water ingress on pavement performance (Rust et al. 1997).


Vuong and Sharp (1999) reported that the typical con-
struction of 95% of sealed roads in Australia is unbound
crushed-stone/gravel bases with sprayed seals or thin
HMA. As a result, the ALF program in Australia has fo-
cused heavily on this type of pavement structure. This is
evidence of the appropriateness of APT as a tool for inves-
tigating a wide range of pavement structures and configu-
rations. The same is true of several other programs such as
SAHVS (Rust et al. 1997) and CEDEX in Spain (Ruiz
and Romero 1999).

Meng et al. (1999) reported from their tests on a high-
way in China that rainfall is one of the major environmental
factors that can accelerate pavement deterioration. They also
commented that the damage is primarily the result of pump-
ing and erosion at the underside of the asphalt layer.

Rust et al. (1997) pointed out that extensive studies
have been undertaken to explore the impact of water on the
performance of the pavement. Figure 10 shows the defor-
mation performance schematically.

Odermatt et al. (1999) completed accelerated testing on
two subgrade soils at two moisture contents. The structures
included 76 mm HMA, 229 mm gravel base, and 3 m sub-
grade. They investigated the effect of increasing the mois-
ture content in the subgrade and mathematically modeled
this in terms of a power function relating accumulated per-
manent strain in the subgrade and rut depth (see chapter
five). From the study it was found that stresses and strains
increased rapidly during the early loading cycles and the
rate then tended to slow down. Either the dynamic or per-
manent strain could be used to relate to surface rutting. The
use of the -mu coil system proved to be very successful.
This method of measuring strain uses a signal conditioner
system for collecting and decoding signals generated be-
tween two coils placed in the pavement layer system. It re-
quires a good low-pass filter system to remove excessive
noise from the dynamic output signal. Further validation
was planned to include other soils and moisture contents.

Under freezethaw conditions, the effect of water is
greatly increased because of the development of pore pres-
sures. The result was a dramatic reduction in subgrade
strength. The topic was discussed earlier in this chapter in
the section on the influence of low temperature on the
pavement structure.


Artificial Wetting of the Pavement Structure

Several innovative ways have been used to simulate the in-
gress of water into the pavement structure to study the ef-
fect of water and/or moisture. These include trafficking
35
with water on the surface (Walubita et al. 2000). In the
SAHVS program the researchers spray water onto the
surface to apply wet trafficking. In addition, they inject
water through drilled pipes into one or more of the pave-
ment layers under 1 to 2 m positive static pressure (Maree
et al. 1982; Rust et al. 1997).

Kadar and Walter (1989) give details of a procedure that
was used to weaken the subgrade to achieve acceleration of
distress. In essence, this entailed among other procedures

Using a longitudinal gradient for the test pad at 1%
fall,
Constructing the drainage layer above ground (for
positive drainage),
Allowing positive drainage flow into the structure,
and
Constructing impermeable barriers between layers
and between test layers.


Moisture in the Pavement Structure During FreezeThaw Cycles

The effect of moisture in the pavement structure is well
known. A number of APT programs have studied this phe-
nomenon and some valuable findings have been reported.

Newcomb et al. (1999) extensively discussed the impact
of moisture in the pavement structure, particularly as it af-
fects the pavement during the freezethaw period of the
year. They noted that at the moment when the soil becomes
unfrozen and there is excess water in the base course, the
soil weakens to its lowest point. This affects the stiffness of
the layers and hence the pavement design and operational
requirements.

Saarelainen et al. (1999) reported on full-scale APT of a
pavement on thawing, frost-susceptible subgrade using the
HVSNordic with environmentally controlled conditions.
The objective was to simulate natural thaw weakening in
pavement subgrades. The pavement consisted of an HMA
(50 mm), on a crushed-rock base layer (200 mm), and a
subbase layer of sand (250 mm). The structure was con-
structed on six subgrade layers of lean clay. The tests were
conducted by freezing the pavement to a depth of 1.2 m
and testing with the HVSNordic once the thaw depth had
reached 0.9 m, with the temperature kept constant at 10C.
Pressure cells and strain gauges were installed and pore
pressures were measured. It was found that the APT cyclic
loading increased the state of static pore pressure. The time
between two load pulses was approximately 7 s. The main
purpose of the test was to determine a reference limit for
the deflection of the pavement during thawing to ensure a
predetermined rut depth limit (see chapter four for a further
discussion). The dramatic impact of thawing on the sub-
grade support was evident. Tests to evaluate this have been
reported by Zhang and MacDonald (1999). These were dis-
cussed in the section on APT at low temperature earlier in
this chapter.


MINNESOTA ROAD RESEARCH PROJECTA
COMPREHENSIVE CASE STUDY OF VEHICLE
PAVEMENTENVIRONMENT INTERACTION

Mn/ROAD was intended to provide a full-scale test facility
where the complex interaction between climate, materials,
and traffic could be studied relative to the design and per-
formance of the pavements. Forty pavement sections were
constructed consisting of concrete-, asphalt-, and aggre-
gate-surfaced structures. Both low- and high-volume traffic
were considered. Climatic conditions are such that the
frost-susceptible silty clay subgrade would provide insight
into the environmental impact on the pavement structure.
Provision was made to allow for nonfrost-susceptible ma-
terial to allow for comparison. The results have been very
good and have provided the basis for developing the
mechanisticempirical design system. In addition, it was
possible to determine the effect of the spring thaw on the
pavement structure, and this provided the basis for struc-
turing guidelines for restricting truck loads in the state dur-
ing the critical period of the year. The analytical model and
the transfer functions, as well as seasonal changes in mate-
rial properties, provided the basis for the systematic devel-
opment of the procedure.

The system comprises a computerized design proce-
dure called ROADENT, which is an interactive, user-
friendly, flexible pavement-thickness design program.
WESLEA (Waterways Experiment Station Layered Elas-
tic Analysis) is the analytical model used in ROADENT
for calculating strains in critical locations. Strains at the
bottom of the asphalt layer in a variety of pavement struc-
tures in six instrumented flexible pavement sections in the
Interstate portion of Mn/ROAD were used to confirm the
reasonableness of WESLEA calculations (Chadbourn et al.
1997).

It is important to note the close collaboration with other
entities that provided input into the system, such as the
USACE and the state of Washington. Another aspect that re-
ceived attention was the determination of vehicle load
damage. As could be expected, material characterization
and instrumentation formed a major part of the program. A
variety of other concerns are being addressed, such as ul-
tra-thin white topping, drainage characteristics, and low-
volume roads. An integral part of the design system is the
use of Monte Carlo simulation. This enables the design to
take care of input variability in terms of moduli and thick-
nesses of the layers. The computer program Evercalc was
employed to accomplish back-calculation. In the analysis a
stiff layer is used to accommodate the relatively high water
36
table. Changes in the moduli during the year were moni-
tored and used for the design system. Miners hypothesis
was used to define the state of damage. Also investigated
was the use of air temperature as an indicator of thawing
following the research done in Washington. Revised refer-
ence temperatures were determined for calculating a cumu-
lative degree days thawing index. The onset of thawing
could be predicted from measurements of actual in situ air
temperature. This information was subsequently used to
revise Minnesota DOT policy on the application of spring
load restrictions.


SUMMARY

The studies cited show the importance of vehicle
pavementenvironment interaction. A wide range of factors
that affect this interaction were discussed. Through the ap-
plication of APT, it was possible to gain insight that has
benefited pavement engineering in general. As an example,
it has been found that the damage exponent in terms of rut-
ting and cracking varies depending on the degree of dete-
rioration, the criterion used for comparison, the pavement
structure, material characteristics, and the condition of the
pavement at the time of comparison. The range extends
from as low as 1.7 to as high as 10 and even more. Simi-
larly, the impact of suspension type on the extent of dam-
age owing to wheel load is now well understood.

However, it was also apparent that there was a need to
address several knowledge gaps, particularly in terms of
the impact of the environment on pavement performance.
A failure to properly incorporate environmental effects was
the one factor that could jeopardize the broader application
of APT in the field of pavement engineering. Nevertheless,
there were several important case studies available to serve
as guidelines for the best way to approach this problem.
The extent of APT work that is needed became clear
through the synthesis of all of the experimental studies.
Some of the topics that need further attention are

Lateral wander,
Unidirectional versus bidirectional trafficking,
The effect of surface shear,
The effect of speed,
The impact of wet trafficking, and
The effect of soil moisture.

It was apparent that there is a need to formulate and
conduct a comprehensive collaborative APT program to
develop guidelines to account for environmental effects on
vehiclepavement interaction.



37


CHAPTER FOUR

EVALUATION OF MATERIALS AND TESTS


INTRODUCTION

Full-scale APT programs worldwide have produced sig-
nificant findings comparing and evaluating pavement ma-
terial response and performance. The primary goal of most
programs is to evaluate new, innovative, recycled, materi-
als, with validation of traditional materials as a secondary
goal. Another primary goal of many programs is to validate
laboratory material characterization through comparison
with response under full-scale loading, recognizing that a
strategic approach that incorporates APT, laboratory test-
ing, long-term field evaluation, and modeling or analysis,
produces meaningful results that allow for the considera-
tion of material, loading, and environmental variability.
This chapter presents the current knowledge base in
these two areas in general, recognizing that the results
are not specifically comparable because of differences
between programs in terms of loading and environ-
mental conditions, measurement and analysis tech-
niques, and failure definitions. These differences are ex-
pected, given the high cost of operating full-scale APT
devices and the corresponding necessity to produce
goal-specific results that advance the understanding of
pavement materials and behavior for the conditions most
relevant to the funding agency for a particular program.
Because of the substantial resources required and a focus
on multiple goals, experiments that use APT technology in
conjunction with laboratory testing and analysis have not
provided as many results specific to materials evaluation
when compared with experiments that use only laboratory
testing. This highlights the importance of sharing signifi-
cant findings and underscores the potential for substantial
gain through cooperation and coordination of multiple APT
programs.

Significant findings from applying full-scale APT tech-
nology to evaluating materials and tests are organized in
this chapter by pavement layer, with the discussion pre-
sented by material type. Following an overview of field
and laboratory material characterization used in different
APT programs, general response and performance results
are presented without describing specific instrumentation,
the comparison of different measurement techniques, or
specific parameters that were monitored and analyzed. All
of these results must be qualified in recognition that differ-
ences between full-scale APT loading and environmental
conditions and those under full-scale traffic in service do
exist. Separation of the materials evaluation results from
the discussions of design considerations in chapter two and
maintenance and rehabilitation techniques in chapter six is
incomplete because of the synergy between material selec-
tion and structural design. Unconventional pavement mate-
rials, including block pavers and ultra-thin whitetopping,
and performance not related to primary forms of distress,
including drainage effects and curling and warping of con-
crete pavements, are discussed subsequently in chapters six
and seven.

Before discussing the wide variety of applications that
were found in the literature, the results from a synthesis of
the questionnaire survey is presented.


QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The responses to Questions 4.1 to 4.9 on materials and tests
are reflected in Figures C31 to C38 in Appendix C. These re-
sponses were synthesized and the results are contained here.

Asphalt Pavements
HMA was tested the most frequently, followed by
granular materials and stabilized materials. There
is far less focus on other materials.
In terms of mix type, continuously graded or
dense-graded mixes have been tested the most
frequently, both for surfacing and base courses.
Asphalt parameters most frequently measured in-
clude density, gradation, binder content, and stiff-
ness.
Special materials such as geogrids have also been
tested.
In the laboratory, the indirect tensile test is the test
most frequently used to evaluate the strength of
asphalt materials.
Sample preparation was either by gyratory com-
paction or by Marshall compaction.
There were essentially two binder tests that were
being used, the Dynamic Shear Rheometer and
Penetration and Softening Point. The bending
beam rheometer and rotational viscometer were
also used frequently.
Concrete Pavements
Jointed concrete pavements were the most com-
mon rigid structures tested.
PCC was the primary material tested in jointed
concrete pavements.
In the laboratory, cylinder compressive tests were
the most frequently used.
38
Flexural strength and stiffness, together with
compressive strength, were the primary items that
were evaluated for the purposes of controlling the
concrete materials.
In the field, the FWD was the primary tool used to
gain insight into the characteristics of the pave-
ment structure. Density and moisture measure-
ments also featured prominently. Other supple-
mentary tests were ground penetrating radar and
the dynamic cone penetrometer. Deflection meas-
urements were also done with the Benkelman
beam.

Views of the respondents to the survey on materials and
tests are presented in Table D4 in Appendix D.


MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Most APT programs use both field and laboratory material
characterization to assess pavement response and perform-
ance under full-scale APT loading. Performance monitor-
ing at the APT test section generally involves measurement
of transverse and longitudinal profiles, deflection and de-
formation at the surface or with depth in response to a
moving load or falling weight, in situ density, environ-
mental conditions including moisture and temperature with
depth, visual surface distress, and in situ stresses and
strains. For concrete pavements, relative joint movement is
also usually monitored. Other field characterization used in
some APT programs included SASW to determine stiff-
nesses (elastic moduli) and detect damage prior to visual
distress identification (Lee et al. 1997), in situ permeability
testing, trenching after failure, and measurement of the
relative shear resistance of unbound materials. Surface
friction or skid resistance is also monitored in some pro-
grams. In other programs a scaled APT device was used on
a section adjacent to the section tested by the full-scale de-
vice to aid in evaluating the effects of different environ-
mental conditions including moisture and elevated tem-
peratures.

Laboratory characterization varies widely from program
to program depending on the goals, experience, and avail-
able equipment. Stiffness measured by resilient modulus
and density of field cores and each layered material are de-
termined as part of most APT tests. Shear stiffness meas-
urements in frequency sweeps and indirect tensile testing
of asphalt materials are also common. Triaxial testing of
unbound materials through the use of standard or modified
equipment is common. Permeability tests on these materi-
als in the laboratory have also been completed. Technology
and analysis systems for asphalt materials developed dur-
ing SHRP were used in a number of APT tests. Many stud-
ies included AC mixture tests to determine resistance to fa-
tigue cracking in third point flexural fatigue tests and
resistance to rutting in either repeated or simple shear tests.
One APT program also included AC mixture testing to en-
sure adequate resistance to thermal cracking (Epps et al.
1999). Resistance of these materials to rutting is also
commonly assessed through the use of wheel-tracking de-
vices or creep tests. In addition, traditional and SHRP per-
formance grade binder tests are used to characterize as-
phalt binders and their contribution to both fatigue and
rutting performance. Indirect tensile fatigue tests and semi-
circular bending tests are also occasionally employed to
characterize AC. Moisture susceptibility testing of AC
through the use of retained indirect tensile strength ratios
before and after wet conditioning also contributed to the
assessment of APT results. Direct tension testing of both
asphalt and concrete materials has also been used, although
less frequently. Common characterization for concrete ma-
terials includes determination of compressive and flexural
strength and stiffness. Other performance indicators for
these materials, for example, sulfate resistance and ASR
potential, are also measured in some APT tests, for exam-
ple, CAL/APT (California Accelerated Pavement Testing)
(Harvey et al. 2000).

Metcalf (1996) and others provided detailed descrip-
tions of instrumentation used to obtain these field and labo-
ratory measurements. These measurements are then ana-
lyzed using a number of different procedures to determine
pavement performance in terms of primary forms of load-
related distress. The possible effects of environmental con-
ditions were then assessed through the use of laboratory
characterization and modeling or analysis. A summary of
these general performance results related to the evaluation
of materials and tests follows.


Surface

To date the majority of APT tests have been conducted us-
ing AC or a bituminous chip seal as the surface pavement
layer. For many of the AC surfaces, modified binders were
included and exhibited enhanced performance in terms of
resistance to rutting and/or fatigue cracking. The ALF pro-
gram in Australia reported this enhanced performance for AC
mixtures with a range of modified binders used in rehabilita-
tion treatments (Kadar 1991; Sharp et al. 1999a). The im-
proved fatigue performance and adequate rutting perform-
ance of a rich bottom AC layer; that is, a layer with a high
binder content, was also demonstrated. Laboratory fatigue
and dynamic creep testing of mixtures to examine per-
formance highlighted a need for standardized test methods.

The ALF program in Australia also explored the use of
modified binders to increase AC mixture resistance to
permanent deformation (Oliver 1994; Sharp et al. 1999a).
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) mixtures that incorporated
full-scale loading under the ALF and extensive laboratory
39
testing were also included in this study. Conventional mix-
tures with two different filler contents and five different
binders, including one modified with styrene butadiene
styrene (SBS) polymer and one modified with EVA poly-
mer, were evaluated, along with a recently developed rut
resistant mixture with a conventional binder and an SMA
mixture. Laboratory testing included dynamic creep test-
ing, resilient modulus determination, laboratory wheel-
track testing, and measurement of the Superpave binder
rutting parameter G*/sin. Mixture creep and resilient
modulus testing revealed a significant effect of filler con-
tent. Creep test results of field core specimens measured at
a representative ALF trafficking temperature were also
able to identify a significant effect of binder type; however,
these results could not distinguish between mixtures with
different aggregate gradations (filler content). Mixture
creep properties of field-core specimens measured at ele-
vated temperatures did not correctly rank rutting perform-
ance under full-scale loading. Laboratory wheel-track re-
sults at 60C (using the Australian wheel-tracking device)
correlated with field performance under the ALF at 50C
and served as an indicator of mixture resistance to rutting.
The binder parameter G*/sin was also invalid as an indi-
cator of rutting performance for the modified mixtures.
Mixtures incorporating the SBS-modified binder and a
multigrade binder exhibited reduced temperature suscepti-
bility and an increased resistance to rutting when compared
with the other mixtures.

The CAPTIF program in New Zealand also investigated
the effects on performance of modified binders in AC sur-
face layers constructed on nominally identical pavement
structures (Pidwerbesky 1995b). The performance of a
thicker AC layer with a conventional binder was equivalent
to that of thinner layers containing either a high-stiffness
unmodified binder or binders modified with a plastomer or
one of three different elastomers. At the conclusion of the
APT tests, all of the structures exhibited minimal surface
distress and negligible structural deterioration.

The CAL/APT program found that a gap-graded,
crumb-rubber-modified AC overlay outperformed a dense-
graded mixture with a conventional binder in terms of
permanent deformation when the structure is adequate to
preclude permanent deformation of the underlying layers
(Harvey et al. 2000). Both overlays, discussed as rehabili-
tation measures in chapter six, also exhibited substantial
resistance to reflective cracking from the underlying failed
AC layer. This program also demonstrated the use of the
flexural fatigue test for AC mixture design and analysis
developed during SHRP. Use of the repeated simple shear
test at constant height, also developed during SHRP, was
recommended for modified AC mixtures.

The SAHVS program also investigated the use of bi-
tumenrubber asphalt in a relatively thin, open-graded AC
overlay of a cracked concrete pavement (Viljoen et al.
1987). This overlay exhibited good performance in terms
of reflection cracking when compared with many other re-
habilitation overlays, including those with different types
of interlayers, as discussed in chapter six.

The LA ALF program also examined crumb-rubber-
modified AC in a surface layer and found no significant
improvement in mixture rutting performance as compared
with conventional AC (Mohammad et al. 2000). This finding
was consistent with laboratory mixture characterization, in-
cluding indirect tensile strength and resilient modulus, in-
direct and axial creep results, and Superpave shear tests.

Modified asphalt binders were also used at the LCPC
facility in France in two experiments aimed at determining
the binder effect on both rutting and fatigue of AC (Cort
et al. 1994, 1997; De la Roche and Rivire 1997). For the
rutting tests, surface layers with seven different binders
were placed on nominally identical pavement structures.
The binders evaluated included one conventional unmodi-
fied material, two with low-temperature susceptibilities,
one modified with SBS elastomer, one modified with EVA
plastomer, one hard binder (20/30 Pen), and one modified
with low-density polyethylene waste. The hard binder was
used in a high-modulus mixture that had an additional very
thin AC layer at the surface. When compared with the con-
ventional mixture, mixtures with modified binders exhib-
ited increased resistance to rutting in laboratory wheel-
tracking tests with the French device. In addition, all mix-
tures incorporating new and innovative materials exhibited
better rutting performance under full-scale loading. The
high-modulus mixture with its very thin AC surface layer
also retained surface texture under trafficking. Other labo-
ratory mixture test results, including those from repeated
triaxial and static and dynamic creep tests, provided per-
formance rankings equivalent to those based on perform-
ance under full-scale loading or in laboratory wheel-
tracking tests.

For the LCPC fatigue tests, surface layers with five
different binders and three thicknesses were constructed on
nominally identical pavement structures (De la Roche et al.
1994). These binders included two conventional unmodi-
fied materials of the same grade, but obtained from differ-
ent sources; two hard binders (20/30 Pen) of the same
grade from different sources used in a high-modulus mix-
ture and one binder modified with SBS polymer. For one
of three experiments included in this study, very thin AC
surface layers were used; these thin surface layers were
omitted from the other experiments. The two mixtures with
conventional binders from different sources exhibited simi-
lar fatigue performance under full-scale loading, but very
different fatigue behavior was measured in the laboratory.
When compared with a conventional mixture, the high-
modulus mixture is expected to increase fatigue life, but
40
this material must be used on relatively stiff supporting
layers. On a deformable supporting layer, this type of mix-
ture in a thin layer offered no improvement in perform-
ance, but performance benefits increased rapidly with
thickness. When properly used, a high-modulus mixture
can offer performance benefits in terms of resistance to
both fatigue cracking and rutting. The polymer-modified
mixture also increased fatigue life, but only slightly. As
part of this study, extensive laboratory fatigue testing was
also completed. Laboratory test results indicated that rela-
tive fatigue performance depends on the specific test, the
presence or absence of rest periods, and the testing mode.
Relative behavior of the mixtures evaluated in this study
was successfully predicted using controlled-stress fatigue
testing in the laboratory.

Modified asphalt binders were also evaluated as part of
the FHWA ALF program to validate Superpave binder pa-
rameters controlling rutting and fatigue cracking of AC
(Stuart et al. 1995, 2000; Stuart and Mogawer 1997; Romero
et al. 1998, 2000; Sherwood et al. 1998, 1999). For the rutting
tests, surface layers with two aggregate gradations and
maximum sizes and five different binders, including one
modified with low-density polyethylene and one modified
with styrenebutadiene polymer, were placed on nominally
identical pavement structures. When compared with con-
ventional binder mixtures, modified binder mixtures exhib-
ited more resistance to rutting as measured under full-scale
loading and indicated by high binder G*/sin values. Mix-
tures with larger nominal maximum size aggregate also
exhibited decreased susceptibility to permanent deforma-
tion. The Superpave binder specification test results corre-
lated well with rutting performance in the APT tests for
conventional mixtures, as did test results with three labora-
tory wheel-tracking devices. Modified mixture perform-
ance was less sensitive to the binder parameter G*/sin,
and this parameter did not successfully predict the per-
formance of these mixtures under the ALF or in laboratory
wheel-tracking tests. This study highlights the need for ad-
ditional characterization of modified binders and mixture
testing of modified mixtures to capture their improved per-
formance. As part of this same study, laboratory shear test-
ing and wheel-tracking tests of two unmodified mixtures
were not able to capture the effect of aggregate gradation
on rutting performance, although they were able to capture
the effect of the binder on rutting performance.

For the FHWA ALF fatigue tests, surface layers with
two thicknesses and five different binders, including one
modified with low-density polyethylene and one modified
with styrenebutadiene polymer, were placed on nominally
identical pavement structures. The Superpave binder speci-
fication test results correlated with fatigue performance in
the APT tests only for the thin AC layers when binder test-
ing was conducted at a higher frequency (Sherwood et al.
1999). This behavior is expected because flexibility in thin
layers increases fatigue life, and the Superpave specifica-
tion sets a maximum G*/sin value at intermediate tem-
peratures. This parameter was derived for strain-controlled
conditions in thin AC layers, and thus the specification
only applies to thin layers where these conditions are ap-
propriate (Stuart et al. 2000). The binder effect on fatigue
performance also reflected this dependence on AC layer
thickness. Mixtures whose binders have high G*/sin val-
ues exhibited increased resistance to fatigue cracking in
thin layers and decreased resistance in thick layers. These
effects are also expected for mixtures with polymer-
modified binders with anticipated high G*/sin values. As
part of this same study, flexural fatigue testing of AC mix-
tures was conducted. When comparing mixtures with dif-
ferent binders, results from the laboratory were in agree-
ment with the full-scale APT results. The flexural fatigue
test was recommended to determine relative fatigue per-
formance; however, its limitations when used as a stand-
alone test to account for pavement structure and represen-
tative temperature fluctuations were recognized (Romero
et al. 2000). As developed in the SHRP program, this test
must be used as part of a design and analysis system.

The Texas DOT program evaluated a thin AC surface
layer and found early fatigue failure resulting from high air
void contents and construction variability (Hugo et al.
1997). Early and unexpected rutting failure occurred in
coarse-graded AC mixtures at WesTrack (Epps 1998; Epps
et al. 1999). In this APT program, coarse- and fine-graded
AC mixtures at three air void contents and three binder
contents were placed on nominally identical pavement
structures, and performance was monitored toward devel-
opment of performance-related specifications for AC and
field verification of Superpave volumetric mix design. Ma-
terials evaluation involved both field performance in terms
of fatigue cracking, rutting, moisture damage, and thermal
cracking, and corresponding mixture characterization tests
in the laboratory. Coarse- and fine-graded mixtures per-
formed differently in both field and laboratory conditions.
Moisture sensitivity was indicated for one-half of the mix-
tures according to laboratory determination of the ratio of
indirect tensile strength before and after moisture condi-
tioning; however, moisture damage was not detected under
full-scale loading as designed. This result highlights the
need to reevaluate this laboratory testing process and the
correspondence of laboratory results with field perform-
ance.

All mixtures were also designed to preclude thermal
cracking. Laboratory test results and field performance
both indicated adequate resistance to this form of distress.
Similar results in both the laboratory and field performance
were also demonstrated with the flexural fatigue test and
corresponding fatigue cracking. As expected, mixtures
with lower air void contents and higher binder contents ex-
hibited increased resistance to fatigue. These effects were
41
amplified for coarse-graded mixtures. For rutting perform-
ance, field and laboratory mixture assessment again agreed
in terms of the effects of air void content, binder content,
temperature, and gradation. Laboratory assessment in-
cluded the use of repeated shear tests, shear frequency
sweeps, laboratory wheel-tracking devices, and a scaled
APT device (Ruiz and Romero 1999; Williams and Prowell
1999; Epps et al. 2002). The unexpected rutting perform-
ance displayed during this APT test highlighted the need
for including a mixture performance test at a critical high
temperature in the Superpave mix design process. Other
recommendations for improving the design of these mix-
tures are discussed in chapter five.

Coarse-graded Superpave AC mixtures also exhibited
less resistance to permanent deformation when compared
with fine-graded mixtures during APT tests conducted as
part of the Indiana DOT/Purdue program (Galal and White
1999; White et al. 1999). Laboratory characterization using
a scaled wheel-tracking device and shear frequency sweeps
validated these results under full-scale loading. In a sepa-
rate warranty study, a Superpave AC mixture demonstrated
improved rutting performance compared with a conven-
tional mixture. A third study in the Indiana DOT/Purdue
program emphasized the need for a minimum percentage
of crushed aggregate to ensure adequate rutting perform-
ance of AC mixtures. This study also examined the effect
of coarse aggregate type on rutting performance and found
that slag and limestone aggregates that are traditionally
crushed produced mixtures with rutting performance sub-
stantially better than mixtures with more rounded, un-
crushed gravel aggregate.

To validate Superpave mixtures for implementation
in Kansas, the Kansas Accelerated Testing Laboratory
(KATL) program used the agencys APT facility to traffic
two fine-graded Superpave mixtures with two different
percentages of natural sand (Wu et al. 2000). These mix-
tures were constructed on nominally identical pavement
structures. Both mixtures exhibited severe rutting after
relatively few load applications, from shear flow of the
mixture with a high natural sand content and from consoli-
dation of the other mixture. At this point, no visible fatigue
cracking was present in either mixture. Flexural fatigue
testing in the laboratory indicated that the mixture with a
lower natural sand content is expected to exhibit better re-
sistance to fatigue cracking; however, this result was not
validated under full-scale loading as a result of the rutting
failure. This program also found that a Superpave mixture
provides better rutting performance as an overlay of con-
crete pavement, when compared with a commonly used
mixture designed by the more traditional Marshall method.

Based on relatively few full-scale load applications, the
HVSNORDIC program in Finland estimated the relative
performance of a traditional AC structure with an SMA
surface layer and a conventional AC base and an innova-
tive structure with a stiff AC surface layer and a flexible,
fatigue-resistant AC base layer (Huhtala et al. 1999). The
innovative structure was estimated to substantially increase
fatigue life based on pavement response data measured in
terms of strain at the bottom of the AC layers and labora-
tory stiffness and fatigue testing.

The Texas DOT program reported on the comparison of
two rehabilitation processes under APT (Hugo et al.
1999a,b; Smit et al. 1999; Walubita et al. 2000, 2002). The
tests are also discussed in chapter six. It was found that the
recycling of a thicker layer of lightweight aggregate as-
phalt concrete (LWAC) resulted in improved rutting per-
formance and decreased layer deflections as compared
with the recycling of a thinner layer of the same material in
situ and overlaying with a new AC mixture. Details of the
pavement and rehab structure are shown in Figure 11

Both surface layers exhibited substantial resistance to
permanent deformation, but the remaining underlying
LWAC was less resistant to rutting and susceptible to mois-
ture damage. The process that involved recycling of the
thinner layer in situ and placement of an overlay was also
more susceptible to moisture damage; however, these ma-
terials exhibited improved fatigue performance under hot
and dry conditions. Both sections showed reduced fatigue
lives after wet trafficking based on indirect tensile fatigue
testing. These results highlighted the importance of consid-
ering degradation and deterioration that are the result of the
combined effects of trafficking and moisture. Use of seis-
mic analysis of surface waves to detect decreasing stiffness
during wet trafficking was also demonstrated (Walubita et
al. 2002). Material evaluation results for this type of APT
test are difficult to assess without the extensive use of labo-
ratory characterization because the original pavement
structures play a large role in performance, as discussed in
chapter six. In this case, the underlying LWAC lay on a
stiff structure, and therefore pavement performance was
controlled by the rehabilitated layers and the underlying
LWAC.

AC overlays of nominally identical pavement structures
were also evaluated in the SAHVS program (Kong Kam
Wa et al. 1997). This APT program has traditionally tested
in-service pavements, and therefore the evaluation of reha-
bilitation techniques, as discussed subsequently in chapter
six is common. The performance of a dense-graded AC
mixture with a conventional unmodified binder was com-
pared with that of a more open-graded mixture containing
styrenebutadienerubber binder. Two different overlay
thicknesses were examined for each mixture, with smaller
values used for the polymer-modified mixture with the ex-
pectation of equivalent or improved performance. Im-
proved fatigue performance of the modified mixtures was
demonstrated in flexural fatigue tests in the laboratory.
42


































FIGURE 11 Texas US-281 pavement structures tested with the TxMLS and the MMLS3 (Walubita et al. 2002).


Traditional stiffness prediction methods were not applica-
ble to the modified mixtures; these methods could not pre-
dict stiffness values measured in indirect tensile testing and
determined from deflection values measured by layer.

APT has also been used to evaluate bituminous materi-
als other than AC as surface layers, but less frequently. The
ALF program in Australia demonstrated adequate perform-
ance of geotextile-reinforced chip seals over clay sub-
grades for low-volume roads (Sharp et al. 1999a). This re-
sult validated the use of local materials that produced cost
savings by removing the need to import higher quality ma-
terials. The ALF was also used to evaluate deep-lift, in situ
recycling (Sharp et al. 1999a). Slag/lime binder was used
at three different recycling depths and performance was
compared with an unbound granular material. Adequate fa-
tigue performance was obtained for all stabilized sections.
Modulus and unconfined compressive strength values of
laboratory-compacted specimens and field cores did not
match because of differences in preparation techniques.

Recently, interest has revived for using APT to evaluate
concrete materials. The CAL/APT program examined
FSHCC in a jointed concrete pavement (Roesler et al. 1999;
Harvey et al. 2000). The fatigue of this material was simi-
lar to ordinary type II PCC tested in the laboratory. Rec-
ommendations included enhanced laboratory characterization
of the sulfate resistance and ASR potential of these concrete
materials to improve performance prediction. These were
based on laboratory tests to study those aspects that were
run to complement the accelerated load testing. The use of
a nonerodable, flexible support material to ensure adequate
performance was also suggested. According to the ques-
tionnaire survey, the KATL program found no improve-
ment in performance from fiber reinforcement of a plain
concrete overlay without dowels. As discussed earlier in
chapter two, the ALF program in Australia recently com-
pleted APT tests of plain concrete pavements to quantify
the effects of different design elements (Vuong et al. 2001).


Base/Subbase

Numerous APT tests have been conducted to examine the
performance of unbound and stabilized granular materials
used as base or subbase pavement layers. These studies are
particularly prevalent in international APT programs be-
cause of the role and importance of these layers in many
43
low-volume road networks. On these networks, thin AC
layers or chip seals are usually only providing a surface
that waterproofs the underlying base and/or subbases.

The first APT test in the CAPTIF program in New Zea-
land validated the use of well-compacted, dense-graded,
crushed, and unbound materials as base layers beneath chip
seal surface layers (Pidwerbesky 1995b). The first APT test
in the Australian ALF program investigated the perform-
ance of unbound and stabilized base materials beneath a
thin surface seal (Kadar and Walter 1989). The use of base
materials stabilized with slag in place of high-quality
crushed rock was validated under full-scale loading when
adequate support from the subgrade and protection from a
surface layer are provided. The second ALF test verified
adequate performance of crushed rock pavements surfaced
with chip seals, provided that the seal is kept intact (Sharp
et al. 1999a). The third ALF test demonstrated that deterio-
ration of a CTCR base could be duplicated under ALF
loading (Kadar et al. 1989; Sharp et al. 1999a). This mate-
rial failed by debonding at the interfaces of the multiple
lifts placed during construction and by erosion of the bot-
tom of the top layer. These results primarily influenced
construction practices as discussed in chapter seven.

The CAPTIF program also investigated the effect of ag-
gregate size and shape in unbound base layers beneath
open-graded AC surface layers (Pidwerbesky 1995a). Ag-
gregate shape had the most pronounced effect on perform-
ance in terms of deflection and deformation measured at
the surface under full-scale loading, validating the aggre-
gate angularity specification for unbound base materials.
The more coarse-graded base material did exhibit im-
proved performance when compared with the more fine-
graded material. There were also differences in the per-
formance of base materials with the same gradation. Possi-
ble reasons for this could be differences in compacted den-
sity and the percentage of angular particles in the mix. The
higher density appeared to outweigh the effect of the per-
centage of angular particles, because the former materials
had less deformation.

The ALF program in Australia also investigated the use
of marginal sandstone by stabilizing in situ with slag/lime
or bitumen/cement binders (Sharp et al. 1999a; Yeo et al.
1999). Performance of stabilized sections was compared
with that of a section with the same material in an unbound
state. All sections had a thin AC surface layer. Both stabi-
lized sections exhibited good performance in terms of fa-
tigue cracking and subgrade deformation. Failures of the
thin surface layer were addressed by the placement of a
prime coat before constructing this layer and recommenda-
tions to seal the stabilized layers to prevent cracking. As
for the deep-lift, in situ recycling study, modulus and un-
confined compressive strength values of laboratory-
compacted specimens and field cores did not agree.
Marginal sandstone was also evaluated in a second
study conducted by the ALF program in Australia (Vuong
et al. 1996; Sharp et al. 1999a). In this study, performance
of a base layer consisting of a high-quality marginal sand-
stone was compared with that of a more abundant, lower-
quality marginal sandstone. In addition, performance of an
unbound sandstone base was compared with that of one
composed of sandstone stabilized with a bitumen/cement
binder. With a stiff underlying subgrade, any of the mar-
ginal materials tested exhibited adequate performance in
support of a waterproof surface seal. These materials did
not add to the pavement structural capacity; permanent de-
formation manifested in these layers and the surface seal.
Reconstructed sandstone bases on these types of subgrades
only improved performance up to a specific thickness, re-
sulting in recommendations for thinner structures, as dis-
cussed in chapter five. The stabilized base exhibited good
performance in terms of increased stiffness, decreased
permanent deformation, and resistance to water infiltration.
Stabilization with a bitumen/cement binder was also effec-
tive in improving the performance of a high-quality recon-
structed crushed-rock base.

The Australian ALF program also conducted additional
APT tests to establish a simple test to characterize unbound
granular materials in terms of resilient modulus and per-
manent deformation (Sharp et al. 1999a). High-quality
crushed-rock bases beneath thin AC surface layers were
used in this study and a standardized laboratory repeated
load triaxial test method was proposed.

Both good and poor quality lateritic gravels or ferricrete
beneath sealed surfaces also performed adequately under
dry conditions in another Australian ALF study (Sharp et
al. 1999b). After moisture infiltration, both of these materi-
als failed.

As part of the CAPTIF program in New Zealand the
performance of lime-stabilized subbase materials was
compared with that of unbound crushed aggregate materi-
als in nominally identical pavement structures (Pidwer-
besky 1995a). Laboratory testing was used to determine
optimum stabilizer content, and the stabilized materials
outperformed the unbound materials in terms of deflection
and deformation measured at the surface under full-scale
loading. Increasing the thickness of the stabilized subbase
layer also substantially improved performance. Stiffness
values measured in the laboratory and those determined
based on deflections measured in the field did not agree
because of compaction problems on a weak subgrade.

The SAHVS program has traditionally tested in-
service pavements; therefore, evaluation of rehabilitation
techniques as discussed in chapter six is common. In terms
of materials evaluation, this program examined the per-
formance of labor-intensively constructed bases under full-
44
scale loading and in static and dynamic triaxial tests
(Theyse 1999). Emulsion-treated natural gravel, water-
bound and composite macadams, and an untreated and
emulsion-treated ash waste material were compared to a
machine-constructed, crushed-stone base. Each base mate-
rial was supported by a cement-treated sandstone base and
either imported sandstone or ferricrete. The crushed-stone
base exhibited the best performance under full-scale load-
ing in terms of rate of permanent deformation and bearing
capacity (defined as the number of load repetitions to a
specific level of permanent deformation). Static triaxial test
results produced the opposite results for the ash waste ma-
terial; however, a valuable link between dynamic triaxial
test results and performance under full-scale loading was
realized in this study. The best labor-intensively con-
structed base material was the emulsion-treated natural
gravel. Waterbound macadams were also recommended for
heavier traffic loads on light pavements, although the ash
waste material with adequate compaction is appropriate for
lower traffic loads.

The SAHVS program has also used APT tests in the
development of guidelines for the use of new base mate-
rials, specifically large aggregate mixes for bases
(LAMBs) and granular emulsion mixes (GEMs) (De Beer
and Grobler 1993). LAMBs were tested under full-scale
loading to validate an extensive laboratory testing program
that demonstrated adequate performance of these materials
in heavy-duty pavements. Dynamic creep modulus was
also correlated with deformation under full-scale loading.
The performance of GEMs that upgrade marginal in situ
materials was comparable to an imported crushed aggre-
gate base under full-scale loading. Because of reduced
transportation and material costs, this finding again di-
rectly results in cost savings as discussed in chapter nine.

Other base materials evaluated in the CSIR program in
South Africa included roller-compacted concrete, slag, re-
cycled AC, and emulsion-treated recycled granular mate-
rial (Horak et al. 1992; Rust et al. 1997). Design and usage
guidelines for all of these materials were developed based
on their performance under full-scale loading. For exam-
ple, in rehabilitating untreated or cement-treated bases, the
addition of cement and lime to emulsion-treatment im-
proves strength and durability. This type of base material
exhibited decreased fatigue performance when compared
with AC, but resistance to fatigue was greater than for ce-
ment-treated bases (Horak and Rust 1992). Guidelines for
the stabilization of marginal natural aggregate materials
were also developed based on APT test results. High-
quality granular materials were also tested under full-scale
loading to verify their use in heavy-duty pavements.

The HVSNORDIC program in Finland tested two
crushed-rock base materials of different quality underneath
AC surface layers (Huhtala et al. 1999). Definitive results
were not provided in this first study because of abbreviated
tests and incomplete analysis; however, performance was
better than expected.

The CAL/APT program compared the performance of a
high-quality unbound aggregate base to a commonly re-
quired ATPB (Harvey et al. 2000). Both pavement struc-
tures tested contained a dense-graded AC surface layer, and
performance was evaluated in terms of response under full-
scale loading and in standard and repeated triaxial testing
in the laboratory under dry and saturated conditions. Per-
meability testing in the field and the laboratory was also
conducted. The ATPB layer was determined to be unneces-
sary if the permeability of the AC surface layer is de-
creased and the fatigue resistance is increased through
adequate compaction, increased binder content, and in-
creased layer thickness. Improved performance in terms of
resistance to fatigue and increased structural capacity was
demonstrated for the ATPB in comparison to the unbound
aggregate base. However, if ATPB layers are used, strip-
ping and intrusion of fines was shown to be likely in the
wet condition. To preclude the failure of this layer, recom-
mendations were made for periodic maintenance of the
drainage system, increased binder contents and the use of
modified binders, geotextile filters, and additives to guard
against moisture damage. Moisture sensitivity evaluation
of ATPB in the laboratory was also suggested.

The LA ALF program also investigated base and sub-
base materials with AC surface layers (Metcalf et al. 1999).
Crushed-stone and stabilized soilcement materials were
combined in nine different base/subbase structures and
evaluated in terms of performance under full-scale loading.
When the stabilized soil cement was used as a base layer,
the AC surface layer cracked as a result of reflection
shrinkage cracks and top-down cracks. All stabilized base
structures failed because of softening and erosion of these
materials and subsequent loss of support. The researchers
noted that the source material for the soilcement was silty
and prone to erosion. The modes of distress were probably
related to the nature of the material. Structures with
crushed-stone bases failed owing to permanent deforma-
tion of this material. The combination of the two materials
with the crushed stone as the base layer in an inverted
structure provided improved performance over standard
structures containing only one of these materials. In-plant
cement mixing and plastic fibers did not improve perform-
ance, but improved performance was demonstrated for ma-
terials with increased cement content and increased thick-
ness of the stabilized soilcement layer.

The CEDEX program conducted a third set of APT tests
in Spain to examine the performance of base and subbase
materials beneath AC surface layers in terms of load-
related distress (Romero et al. 1992; Ruiz and Romero
1999). Each structure was designed for the same level of
45
traffic; therefore, layer thicknesses of the different materi-
als varied. Granular and soilcement base materials were
compared with a third combination of a gravelcement
base with a soilcement subbase. Two different subgrade
materials were also used. Results under full-scale loading
indicated that the cement-treated materials provided im-
proved resistance to rutting and exhibited no cracking as
compared with the unbound granular material.

An older APT facility at Washington State University
examined the fatigue performance of sulfur-modified AC
used as a base layer (Mahoney and Terrel 1982). Material
performance under full-scale loading and in laboratory
wheel-tracking tests indicated that the modified mixture
was more sensitive to strain level than a conventional AC
mixture. As a result, longer fatigue lives were demon-
strated for these modified materials at larger strain levels.

The ALF program in Australia recently completed APT
tests to assess erosion of three subbase layers constructed
beneath a lean concrete base and a concrete surface layer
(Vuong et al. 2001). The performances of unbound and
bound crushed granular materials were compared with that
of a lean concrete subbase. Results under full-scale loading
indicated that unbound subbases provide adequate resis-
tance to erosion.

The SAHVS program also examined the performance
of three rehabilitation options for lightly cemented pavements
(LCP) (Steyn et al. 1997). The performance of a double seal, a
thin AC overlay, and a crushed-stone base with a double seal
surface were compared under full-scale loading to relatively
deep and shallow new LCP pavements. The material evalua-
tion results associated with this study included equivalent
performance of the rehabilitated and new pavements in
terms of permanent deformation at the surface. The reha-
bilitated pavements failed only in terms of bleeding of the
double seal and surface deformation and pumping of fines
in the wet condition for the other options. Further results
from this study are discussed in related chapters.

The SAHVS program examined other rehabilitation
options through full-scale loading and laboratory charac-
terization of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) used as a
base layer (Servas et al. 1987). Based on the laboratory re-
sults, RAP contents from 30% to 70% did not affect perform-
ance in terms of indirect tensile strength, resistance to rutting,
or resistance to indirect tensile fatigue. Full-scale loading tests
confirmed these results and established RAP as a viable ma-
terial with performance comparable to conventional AC.


Subgrade

Relatively few APT tests have been conducted specifically to
evaluate subgrade materials. In chapter two, LINTRACK ex-
periments in The Netherlands on a sand subgrade were dis-
cussed (Bhairo et al. 1998a,b). The researchers concluded that
the Shell subgrade strain criterion appeared to be applicable
for subgrade sands that are prevalent in that country.

One study conducted as part of the HVSCRREL pro-
gram used full-scale loading of different pavement struc-
tures in developing an understanding of response in terms
of subgrade strain as a function of subgrade soil type and
moisture content (Lynch et al. 1999; Odermatt et al. 1999).
FWD testing during a thawing cycle was conducted to de-
termine stiffness reduction factors for use in design and
analysis. The results are discussed in chapter five and
elsewhere.

The HVSNORDIC program also conducted APT tests
at a Finnish site during a thawing cycle, with the goal of
setting deformation limits for subgrade materials for this
critical environmental condition (Saarelainen et al. 1999).
Three pavement structures with thin AC surface layers,
crushed-rock base layers, and sand subbase layers of
equivalent thicknesses were constructed on a frost-
susceptible lean clay subgrade. One of the structures con-
tained a reinforcing steel mesh at mid-depth of the base
layer. A sand filter layer lay beneath the subgrade layer to
control the groundwater level during the thawing cycle. All
three structures failed as the result of cracking in the sur-
face layer and permanent deformation from the underlying
subgrade layer. The reinforcing steel mesh reduced defor-
mation by 50% in the unbound layer. However, as has been
found generally with reinforcement, the pavement first had
to deform before the reinforcement became effective.


CURRENT RESEARCH

Ongoing testing at the NCAT test track in Alabama will
produce further performance results for AC surface layers
(Brown and Powell 2001). Rutting is the expected mode of
distress for the 46 mixtures constructed on nominally iden-
tical pavement structures. These mixtures include coarse-
and fine-graded Superpave mixtures and SMA mixtures.
The effects of aggregate type and binder on performance
will be evaluated through the use of full-scale loading and
performance monitoring and laboratory testing. At the con-
clusion of the trafficking of phase 1, these mixtures exhib-
ited no visible fatigue cracking and limited, but measur-
able, permanent deformation. An extensive laboratory
mixture testing program to determine the best performance
test for assessing rutting performance is also ongoing.

The full-scale trafficking facility at Mn/ROAD has also
collected performance monitoring data for AC, concrete,
and aggregate surface layers in 40 pavement sections con-
structed on two different subgrades (Newcomb et al. 1999).
This facility uses actual truck trafficking on a mainline fa-
46
cility and full-scale trucks on a low-volume road. This
study focuses on the development of a mechanistic
empirical pavement design procedure and guidelines for
truck load restrictions during spring thaws. The impact of
material properties on performance is being explored using
the same performance data used in achieving the primary
goals.

An aircraft load simulator at ERDCGSL in Atlantic
City is also currently being used to verify and validate a 3-
D pavement design and evaluation program (Lynch et al.
1999). Data required for reaching this goal can also be
used to assess the impact of material properties on per-
formance.

The LA ALF program is currently using full-scale load-
ing to determine the effectiveness of using RAP as a base
material in an inverted pavement structure (Metcalf et al.
1999). The performance of the RAP base layer is being
compared with that of a crushed-stone base layer in nomi-
nally identical pavement structures.

An international cooperative program involving 11
European countries is also ongoing (Hildebrand et al.
2001). This program builds on previous efforts organized
under the OECD (Road Transport Research). The new pro-
gram, organized under the European Cooperation in the
Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST), con-
sists of several tasks aimed at improving pavement re-
search with accelerated load testing. One of these tasks
mirrors the efforts of this synthesis to summarize previous
and current research in APT. Identification of new and in-
novative future research is also planned. Evaluation of ma-
terials and tests from previous efforts will be documented,
and coordination of research in this area among the differ-
ent APT facilities should produce significant findings.


SUMMARY

The primary objective of many full-scale APT programs is
to evaluate pavement material response and performance.
APT programs have produced significant findings that al-
low for validation of existing materials and implementation
of new and innovative materials. APT testing programs al-
low for performance-based evaluation of these materials,
which is often related to material characterization pro-
grams and testing in the laboratory. This chapter has em-
phasized the importance of considering differences be-
tween APT and laboratory characterization in terms of
loading and environmental conditions, measurement and
analysis techniques, and failure definitions.

The following are a selection of lessons learned through
APT in the field of materials and tests that provide evi-
dence of the wide scope of applications that were discussed
in this chapter.

Guidelines for the use of marginal base course mate-
rials were established. This is a direct result of the
application of APT for understanding the mecha-
nisms that affect pavement performance.
The effect of soil type and moisture on the perform-
ance of subgrade under freezethaw conditions is be-
ing quantified.
The ability to monitor the change in stiffness of
pavement layers by means of SASW during traffick-
ing is being used to evaluate the performance of
bound materials in pavements, particularly under wet
trafficking conditions. With respect to the latter, the
use of scaled APT in conjunction with full-scale APT
has been reported to be of value.
A wide range of materials have been evaluated for
use in the various layers of the pavement structure. In
the process, information has been collected that will
enable the evaluation of newly defined laboratory test
guidelines such as Superpave specifications for char-
acterizing materials in terms of performance. The mate-
rials include stiff modified binders (SBS and EVA), ce-
ment-modified base course, emulsion-treated natural
gravel, ATPB, and RAP, to name only a few.
Conditions conducive to the improved fatigue perform-
ance of HMA were identified in several programs, lead-
ing to changes in structural configuration.
There was clear evidence that modified binders out-
performed conventional binders in terms of resis-
tance to fatigue and permanent deformation.

The new APT programs that have been initiated are ex-
pected to increase the already wide range of applications in
materials and tests. These programs should also benefit
from the COST 347 study that is underway in Europe.


47


CHAPTER FIVE

ENHANCEMENT OF MODELING IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING


INTRODUCTION

Pavement performance is a measure of the extent to which
a pavement fulfills its principal objective. Performance
models are tools to predict performance; they may ulti-
mately be used in pavement management systems, in the
structural design of pavements, and in the development of
performance-related specifications. Jooste et al. (1997) re-
ported that APT provides a window on pavement perform-
ance, which can possibly be used to predict how the pave-
ment will perform under real traffic. This chapter presents
models developed and/or validated through APT for use in
the aforementioned applications. APT programs have pro-
duced a wide range of models, both theoretically based and
empirical, and focus on physical phenomena covering APT
processes or related applications of test data. The useful-
ness and application of the models that have been validated
will be explored with due regard to their limitations. Some
models that nominally fall outside the scope of the study
are also discussed because they provide a basis for further
application of APT.

This chapter explores the phenomenological modeling
of pavement damage and the generalization of models by
making them dimensionless and thus increasing their ap-
plicability. Models developed as part of APT research are
discussed, including asphalt pavement failure criteria, for
example, for subgrade and base layer permanent deforma-
tion, asphalt layer permanent deformation, and asphalt fa-
tigue and cracking. Aspects of modeling concrete pave-
ment performance are also addressed. Before discussing
the wide variety of applications that were found in the lit-
erature, the results from the questionnaire survey will be
presented.


QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The responses to Questions 5.1 to 5.5 on modeling are re-
flected in Figures C39 to C41 in Appendix C. These were
synthesized and the results are contained in the following
list.

Models that are most frequently being used with APT
are based on elastic layer analysis, as could be ex-
pected, but FE analysis is used almost as frequently.
Stressstrain modeling and deformation modeling are
used most frequently; however, as could be expected,
deflection modeling and back-calculation of moduli
are used almost as often. Fatigue modeling has also
received considerable attention. Load equivalency
does not rank as high, probably because the latest
computer hardware and software enables designers to
cater to very specific selected loads, which allows the
designer to select a specific traffic mix for the pur-
pose of designing any load configuration.
Instrumentation used to gather modeling data most
frequently uses strain gauges, although some facili-
ties opted not to use them because of the high rate of
loss of such gauges. Displacement gauges, such as
the Multi-Depth Deflectometer (MDD), proved to be
equally popular. Pressure cells are also used, albeit
not as frequently. Subgrade moisture is also fre-
quently being monitored by sensors.

Views of the respondents to the survey on modeling are
presented in Table D5 in Appendix D.


MODELING PAVEMENT DAMAGE

Pavement damage occurs as a result of traffic and envi-
ronmental loading. Molenaar et al. (1999) showed that the
phenomenological progression of damage lends itself to
modeling using S-shaped curves. Damage, such as asphalt
cracking, normally develops slowly during some period of
initiation; the rate of damage then accelerates with further
loading. Finally, after a certain amount of damage has de-
veloped, the rate of progression decreases. This S-shape
failure trend may be described using the Weibull distribu-
tion, which can be written as

( )
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

exp 1
N
n
t F
w


(3)

where

F
w
(t) = probability that failure has occurred be-
fore time t,
n = number of load repetitions at time t,
N = number of load repetitions at which a de-
fined failure occurs, and
= curvature parameter.

Figure 12 shows examples of Weibull distributions for
various values of (as shown in the legend), using a non-
dimensional number of load repetitions scale n/N, to repre-
48
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
n/N
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
0.5
1
2
3
5

FIGURE 12 Weibull probability of failure distribution for different -values.

TABLE 1
SOME MATHEMATICAL MODELS USED TO DESCRIBE DAMAGE
WITH LOADING
Models Equation
N b a y + = Linear
2
N c N b a y + + = Quadratic
L + + + + =
3 2
N d N c N b a y Polynomial
) exp( N b a y = Exponential
N b a y ln + = Logarithmic
b
N a y = Power
( ) N b
N a y

= Geometric
( ) N
a y
/ 1
= Root
)) exp( 1 /( N c b a y + = Logistic
) exp(
d
N c b a y = Weibull
N b a y / + = Hyperbolic
) 1 /( ) (
2
N d N c N b a y + + + = Rational
)) 2 /( ) ( exp(
2 2
c b N a y = Gaussian


sent the relative damage that occurs with loading over
time. When the ratio n/N is equal to 1, the probability of
failure is 50%. This may represent a 50% loss in stiffness
or a 50% cracked area. With additional loading the rate of
deterioration diminishes progressively. Note that similar
curves may be established for other failure scenarios.

Molenaar et al. (1999) noted that the complete S curve
seldom develops fully in practice, because road authorities
will not allow pavements to deteriorate to such a great ex-
tent. This is in contrast to APT tests that may be continued
until total failure occurs.

While the Weibull distribution is used to model the
probability of pavement failure over time, a variety of
mathematical models are used to describe the progression
of damage (y) with loading (N) as shown in Table 1.
Regression constants are shown as a, b, c, and d.
49
Multiple (linear or nonlinear) regression analysis may
be used to determine regression constants. Regression
analysis is a statistical method that uses the relationships
between two or more quantitative variables to generate a
model that may predict one variable from the other(s).
Hand et al. (1999) stated that the term multiple linear re-
gression is employed when a model is a function of more
than one predictor variable. The objective behind multiple
linear regression is to obtain adequate models, at a selected
confidence level, using the available data, while at the
same time satisfying the basic assumptions of regression
analysis, which include that

Severe multicollinearity does not exist among predic-
tor variables,
Influential outliers do not exist in the data, and
Equal variance exists among residuals (normality).

The objective is accomplished by selecting the model
that provides the greatest adjusted coefficient of determina-
tion (R
2
) and lowest mean-square error for given data.

Turtschy and Sweere (1999) evaluated different models
of pavement damage as part of the PARIS (Performance
Analysis of Road Infrastructure) project in Europe. Dete-
rioration data were collected from 900 in-service test sections
under real traffic and 44 APT-trafficked sections. It was found
that power models work well with rutting data, whereas loga-
rithmic models are suited to cracking models. The authors
compared failure criteria measured using APT with that
measured on the in-service roads under real traffic. They did
not model the initial stage of cracking and rutting in APT
studies. They reported that one of the main factors affecting
this initiation; that is, aging of the AC, does not occur in the
short time scale of APT tests. Furthermore, because in-service
pavements are repaired before maintenance, damage data col-
lected from these pavements are in an intermediate stage.
They concluded that because APT results indicated that the
linear functional forms are appropriate for the intermediate
stage, the linear form is suitable for modeling the propaga-
tion of cracking and rutting under real traffic.

One of the major shortcomings of modeling pavement
performance using the mathematical models described
above is that the models may have limited applicability and
may only be valid for the conditions and sites for which
they were established. For this reason, Molenaar et al.
(1999) suggested that generalized models be obtained by
making them dimensionless. This is done by relating the
damage as a relative ratio to the cause of damage, also rep-
resented as a relative ratio, in the following form:

=
T
t
D
d


(4)

where
d = amount of damage at the time of inspection t,
D = amount of damage at which the pavement
is assumed to have reached end of life at
time T, and
= constant depending on the type of damage
and structure.

Molenaar et al. (1999) pointed out that the use of such
power models is problematic in cases of damage types for
which the exponent is larger than 1. They reported that
such power models do not allow pavement condition pre-
dictions to be made in cases where maintenance is already
overdue; that is, in cases where the condition is beyond the
terminal, condition D.

Numerous computer models have been developed to es-
timate the displacements, stresses, and strains within simu-
lated pavement systems. Models vary from those using
elastic multilayer theory (De Jong et al. 1973; Wardle
1977; Kopperman et al. 1986) to others that account for
nonlinearity. The latter include visco-elastic VESYS
(Kenis 1978), VEROAD (Hopman 1996), and elasto-
plastic models (mechano-lattice). Yandell and Behzadi
(1999) have also used the mechano-lattice model to illus-
trate the influence of loading direction on elasto-plastic
pavement response. Residual stresses and strains that ac-
cumulate in pavements trafficked in one direction only dif-
fer from those when the direction of travel is allowed to
reverse. Yandell has also compared the mechano-lattice
model to pavement response determined using CIRCLY
(Wardle 1977) and VESYS based on ALF-accelerated test-
ing of different pavements. Input parameters define pave-
ment structures, load configurations, and material charac-
teristics. In some cases, the models have been further
developed to estimate pavement performance in terms of
rutting and fatigue by incorporating appropriate transfer
functions (Huang 1993; Chatti et al. 1999a). These models
include iterative algorithms to account for seasonal and
load variations. The large number of iterations required to
characterize the performance of asphalt pavements has led
to the use of simplified approaches based on Odemarks
layer transformation theory. APT has assisted in the devel-
opment of these models in that displacement, stress, and
strain estimations may be validated using instrumented
APT test sites. Furthermore, transfer functions used in the
models may be refined based on the results of APT tests.


MODELING OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
SUBGRADE RUTTING PERFORMANCE

Modeling of permanent deformation of subgrade materials
is usually expressed in terms of (elastic) stresses or strains
on top or within the subgrade layer and in its simplest ap-
plication generally takes the form of the following loglog
(power) relationships.

50
Rut depth may be related to trafficking in the same way
that it may be related to subgrade strain. Odermatt et al.
(1999) indicated that HVS tests were done at different
wheel loads, and they were able to develop a relationship
between rut depth and wheel load with trafficking as
shown in Equation (9).

N
pz
=
(5)

N
pz
=
(6)

where

( )
27 . 0
4816 . 0 0117 . 0 N P RD =
(9)

pz
= permissible vertical strain on top of subgrade,

pz
= permissible vertical stress on top of subgrade,
N = number of standard axle loads, and
, = regression constants.

where


RD = average surface rut depth, mm;
P = wheel load, kN; and
N = number of passes.
These equations may be implemented in mechanistic
pavement design and evaluation systems based on linear
elastic material properties. The equations indicate that the
stresses and strains within subgrades increase quite rapidly
during the early loading cycles and then tend to increase at
a much slower rate because of shear distortion and densifi-
cation of the materials.

This equation is similar to Equation (5), indicating that
the constant in that equation is a function of wheel load.

The AASHO Road Test rut depth data were used by
Finn et al. (1986) to develop a permanent deformation model
for subgrade rutting. They found that the rate of rutting was
strongly related not only to traffic and stress on top of the
base, but also to surface deflection. Two rutting models were
developed for pavements with thin asphalt surfacing layers
[less than 150 mm (6 in.) thick] and those with full-depth
asphalt. These models are shown in Equations (10) and
(11) for thin and thick asphalt layers, respectively.

Odermatt et al. (1999) developed models for predicting
surface rut depths resulting from subgrade deformations
under HVS trafficking. Strains within the subgrade were
measured using the -mu coil system. Dynatest soil pres-
sure cells were used to measure the stresses on the surface
under the HVS loads. Equation (7) shows the subgrade rut-
ting model developed, expressed in terms of elastic vertical
subgrade dynamic strain.


c

N d 43 RR
log 118 . 1
) 18 ( log 167 . 0 log 3 . 4 617 . 5 log

+ =


(10)
55 . 3
12 1
v
E RD =
(7)

c
N d RR
log 666 . 0
) 18 log( 658 . 0 log 717 . 0 173 . 1 log
+
+ =


(11)
where

RD = rut depth, mm;

v
= subgrade vertical elastic strain;
E = elastic modulus;
with R
2
= 0.89.

where

RR = rate of rutting in micro-inches per axle
repetition,
d = surface deflection in mils under a load of
40 kN (9,000 lb),

c
= vertical compressive stress at the asphalt-
base interface (psi), and
N18 = number of 18-kip single-axle repetitions/
100,000.

Odermatt et al. (1999) noted that rutting models based
on elastic strains are inaccurate for predicting rutting in
wet, soft soils, a condition commonly found during thaw
weakening periods. During these periods, there may be no,
or only weak, relationships between elastic strains and rut
depth. In these cases it is more practical to estimate rutting
based on plastic strains. The following equation shows such a
relationship developed by Odermatt et al. that also takes the
form of the loglog equations indicated previously:


Chen and Lin (1999) adopted a similar approach to
model the permanent deformation of two TxMLS test sites
in Texas. They related the rutting to surface deflection
measurements determined from FWD tests. The main
drawback of this approach is that the models are specific to
test sites on which data are collected. Furthermore, one is
unable to pinpoint the source of failure and differentiate
between the relative rutting in the respective pavement
layers.

49 . 0
0545 . 0
vp
RD =
(8)

where

RD = rut depth, mm; and

vp
= subgrade accumulated permanent strain.

51

12


10
R
u
t

D
e
p
t
h
,

m
m



8


6

y = 0.004x
0.5926
4








FIGURE 13 Subgrade rutting model of TxMLS tests on Pad F5 in Victoria.


The model shown in Figure 13 was derived relating the
rut depth on the surface to applied TxMLS loads for one of
the test sections using data provided in the paper by Chen
and Lin (1999). The model described by Equation (5) fits
the data well.

Theyse (1997) mentioned that two types of data gener-
ated during an HVS test are used to develop the permanent
deformation models on which the design transfer functions
for subgrade deformation are based. These are the in-depth
deflection and permanent deformation data obtained from
the MDD measurements taken at regular intervals during an
HVS test. Test data from a number of HVS tests, selected
from the moderate and wet regions in South Africa, were
used for the development of the permanent deformation
models. A multidimensional conceptual model for perma-
nent deformation was also developed and calibrated with
HVS test data for pavement foundation and structural layers
of different material qualities. These models provide per-
manent deformation design transfer functions at different
expected performance reliabilities for unbound pavement
layers in South Africa.

Elastic moduli were back-calculated from the peak de-
flection values at the layer interfaces for the HVS test sec-
tions under investigation as opposed to the back-
calculation of layer moduli from the deflection bowl. The
plots of permanent deformation against vertical strain show
no clear correlation between these two parameters. The
plots of permanent deformation against vertical stress indi-
cate a better correlation between the applied stress and the
resulting permanent deformation. This contradicts current
design practice, where the permanent deformation of the
pavement foundation is usually linked to the vertical strain
calculated at the top of the foundation layers. It was there-
fore decided to develop permanent deformation transfer
functions for the pavement foundation with vertical stress
as the critical parameter. The rutting model is given in
Equation (12).

= 1
c
B s c
e N e PD



(12)

where

PD = permanent deformation, mm;
N = number of repetitions (E80 standard
axles);

c
= vertical compressive stress on top of the
subgrade, kPa; and
c,s,B = regression constants.

Theyse (1997) stated that the regression constants c and
s in Equation (12) do not change for different material
types. Because the HVS tests were done on pavements
consisting of different materials, he was able to determine
the regression constant B for the different materials. This
approach extended the applicability of the performance
model.

The SMDM has been used in South Africa for a number
of years (Theyse et al. 1996). This is a mechanistic
empirical design method that includes fatigue transfer
functions for asphalt surfacing, asphalt base, and lightly
cemented layers, as well as permanent deformation transfer
functions for unbound structural layers and the roadbed.
All of these were developed through the SAHVS pro-
gram. The method is based on a critical layer approach
whereby the shortest layer life of the individual pavement
layers determines the pavement life. This approach may be
suited to the fatigue failure of bound layers, but does not
allow for each of the pavement layers to contribute to the
R
2
= 0.9944
2
0
0 100000 600000 700000 200000 300000 400000 500000
TxMLS Axles

52
total surface rut. Current research is therefore aimed at de-
veloping permanent deformation models for individual
pavement layers, to enable the designer to predict each
layers contribution to the total permanent deformation of
the pavement system.

Ullidtz et al. (1999b) proposed the following three
equations (strain, stress, and energy density models, re-
spectively) to model permanent deformation of subgrade
materials:

B
z pz
N A

=
(13)

B
z
pz
p
N A

(14)

B
z
z
pz
2p
N A

(15)

where

pz
= vertical plastic strain in microstrain at
depth z,
vertical
z
= resilient strain in micro- strain at

ess (atmospheric pressure),

A,,
N = number of load repetitions.
char-
cterize the behavior of real pavement materials.
esign and analysis system. The equation is as fol-
ws:

depth z,
z
= vertical compressive stress at depth z,
p = a reference str
= constants, and

The models were implemented to predict the perform-
ance of pavements trafficked using the Danish Road Testing
Machine. Strains within the subgrade layer were monitored
using Linear Variable Displacement Transformer-based soil
strain cells. Strain response monitored using the strain cells
was related to mathematical models based on various multi-
layer methods, including a simplified approach to elastic layer
theory using the Boussinesq equation with Odemarks layer
transformation. Ullidtz et al. (1999b) concluded that the
models as developed allowed a reasonable estimation of
subgrade permanent deformation, although they empha-
sized that the models simplify the material response and
that more sophisticated models are required to better
a

Newcomb et al. (1999) reported on a subgrade rutting
model developed exclusively as part of the Mn/ROAD pro-
gram that has subsequently been implemented in a pave-
ment d
3.949
15

1
10 5.5

= N
v
(16)
here

N = of ESALs to obtain a 12.5 mm rut,

v
= vertical strain on top of the subgrade.
halt Institute (AI) sub-
rade rutting criterion shown here.

v
(17)
here

v
= rain on top of the subgrade, but
modify it to account for rutting accumulation
Rut depth (RD) contributed by the unbound layers was
assumed to accum
sug-
est that the value for d in Equation (18) may be determined
by substitut follows:

criterion as used earlier may be

verly conservative for pavement sections with asphalt lay-

the development of a new subgrade strain model that
substantially red esses of overl

0.145
0.012

= N
cvs

(20)
wher

ive strain on top
of the subgrade, and
relatively thin asphalt layers (25 to 85 mm) over base and
subgrade structures (135 to 350 mm thick) with the

w
number
and

Epps et al. (1999) used the Asp
g
484 . 4 9
10 05 . 1

= N

w
N = number of ESALs to obtain a 12.5 mm rut,
and
vertical st
in the pavement structure.


ulate as follows:

e
N d RD =
(18)

where d and e are experimentally determined coefficients.
Least-squares analyses based on WesTrack APT data
g
ing for N shown in Equation (17) as

e
v
f d ) 10 1.05 (
4.484 9
=
(19)

Based on HVS testing of sections with relatively thick
asphalt layers (>150 mm), Harvey et al. (1999) reported
that the AI subgrade strain
o
ers thicker than 150 mm.

Pidwerbesky et al. (1997a), using CAPTIF APT testing
of five different asphalt pavements, investigated subgrade
rutting criterion for asphalt pavements. Investigations led
to
uced the required thickn ays.

e

cvs
= maximum vertical compress
N = number of load repetitions.

This criterion was established for pavements having
lo
53
subgrade CBR ranging from 4% to 28%. They pointed out
that no single subgrade criterion is appropriate for all con-
ditions. Furthermore, the strain criterion as only a function
of the number of axle load repetitions cannot be used
alone. The environmental conditions, material properties
(especially with respect to the granular base and subbase
layers), and construction quality must be considered in the
design of new pavements and overlays. The New Zealand
researchers argued that because vertical compressive
strains in unbound granular layers under thin asphalt sur-
face layers can be equal in magnitude to vertical compres-
sive strains in the subgrade under such pavements and can
thus be a significant contributor to fatigue of the surfacing
layer and permanent deformation, the unbound granular
strains should also be considered in the modeling of thin
asphalt pavements. Under a thicker HMA surface layer, the
vertical compressive strains in the unbound granular
pavement layers are substantially smaller than the vertical
compressive strain in the subgrade and may therefore not
be significant.
where

S = rut d h (mm
ST rut d h at t
n = applied number o s,
N num of lo
mm, and
b cons t = 0.4

The r epth 18 m he depth at
which maintenance is require less
an 1). It was pointed out that the constant b is specific to
d from the subgrade model
own in Equation (5). This indicates that the constant in
q
of the subgrade or other response variables such as
ubgrade performance. This includes material
roperty parameters that may be determined from triaxial
ept ) at time t,
= ept he end of pavement life = 18 mm,
f load repetition
= ber ad repetitions to a rut depth of 18
= tan 1 (from LINTRACK APT trials).
ut d of m is considered to be t
d (this ensures that b is
th
the sand subgrade used in the LINTRACK tests that con-
trolled the subgrade deformation. A comparison of the APT
subgrade deformation data with the subgrade strain criteria
developed by Shell indicated that design criteria estab-
lished for subgrades based on the Shell method should
consider a reliability of 85%.

The formulation of the subgrade rutting model shown in
Equation (21) may be derive
In their investigation, Pidwerbesky et al. (1997a) found
that the magnitudes of actual vertical compressive strain
measured in the unbound granular layers and subgrade are
substantially greater than the levels predicted by the mod-
els on which some designs are based. Their conclusion was
based on the Shell, Austroads, and old New Zealand Road
Board flexible pavement design procedures for the same
number of loading repetitions to failure.
sh
E uation (5) is also a function of the subgrade material.
For the APT tests done by Odermatt et al. (1999), the
constant in Equation (9) is 0.27, specific to the silty-sand
subgrade used in the HVS tests. The constant in the
model described in Figure 13 is 0.59 for a clayey subgrade.

The subgrade permanent deformation models described
thus far have either been related to stresses and strains on
The relationship between vertical compressive strains in
the materials and the cumulative loading becomes stable
after the pavement is compacted under initial trafficking
(in the absence of adverse environmental effects). The New
Zealand Road Board subgrade criterion placed emphasis
on loading history. Using APT the New Zealand research-
ers found that the effect of cumulative axle loading has
substantially less influence on the response and perform-
ance of unbound granular pavements than is implied in the
pavement models that are the basis of the flexible pave-
ment thickness design procedures. The pavement models
have been calibrated to in-service pavements using empiri-
cal data from field studies. Hence, environmental factors
and construction quality must have a significant influence
on the pavement performance, but current flexible pave-
ment design procedures emphasize the effect of load repe-
titions and only implicitly consider the other two major
factors.
top
those determined from FWDs. None of the models account
for the material properties of the subgrade materials.
Molenaar et al. (1999) noted that this is a shortcoming of
performance models determined using APT and that mate-
rial characterization is useful to improve the applicability
of these models. In the case of subgrade materials, there is
an understandable reluctance to include material properties
in performance models given the location of the materials
in the pavement structure. It would be necessary to remove
these materials for laboratory testing, which would disturb
the in situ state of the materials. Nevertheless, material
characterization may be included in the modeling of sub-
grade deformation. This factor can have an influence on
APT, because modeling is sometimes done simplistically.
Tseng and Lytton (1989) illustrate this and show that de-
formation models should be a function of not only stress
and strain, but also material properties, as Equation (22)
indicates. This lends support to the close interrelationship
between APT and material testing. The following reference
does not relate directly to APT applications but illustrates
the point.

In their model, Tseng and Lytton (1989) propose as fol-
lows for s

Molenaar et al. (1999) identified the following trend in
subgrade rutting that may be used in remaining life esti-
mates. Note that this model is dimensionless.

b
N
n
ST
S

=

(21)
p
54
tests on subgrade materials. The model considers the mois-
ture content of the subgrade material. Note that the model
also accounts for the stress-dependent nature of subgrade
materials.
In the next section, the modeling of APT asphalt rutting
performance is discussed.


MODELING OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
ASPHALT RUTTING PERFORMANCE

h
N
p
N
v
r
p

=

exp ) (
0


(22)

Generalized APT models of asphalt rutting performance
are often similar to those for subgrade performance, ex-
pressing permanent deformation in terms of strains within
the asphalt layer instead of strains on top of the subgrade.
The visco-elastic nature of asphaltic materials requires that
the influence of temperature and frequency (rate of load-
ing) be considered.

where

p
(N) = plastic strain accumulated during N load
repetitions for the layer;

r
= resilient strain imposed in lab test to obtain
material properties
0
, , and ;

v
= average vertical resilient strain in the layer
as obtained from the primary response
model; and
h = thickness of the layer.

Williams et al. (1999) used the following relationship
[similar to Equation (5)] to establish a correlation of rutting
observed from APT trials at WesTrack to results of re-
peated shear at constant height tests:

p
= a N
b
(25)
The ratio
0
/
r
is estimated according to the type of ma-
terial, granular or subgrade soil.

where

For granular soils

003077 . 0 06626 . 0 80978 . 0 log

0
c
r
W



+0.000003E
r

+ + = 001806 . 0 03105 . 0 9190 . 0 log

c
W
0.0000015E
r
(23)

+ + = 0003784 . 0 45062 . 1 78667 . 1 log

c
W

r c
E 0000105 . 0 W 002074 . 0
2

p
= percent permanent strain,
N = number of load applications, and
a,b = modeling constants.

They report that there are two very important criteria
that need to be emphasized. The first criterion is the selec-
tion of an appropriate test temperature that reflects the in-
service temperature at which the pavement will be ex-
pected to perform. The second issue is the assumption of
laboratory compaction simulating field compaction. Stud-
ies are currently being conducted at the FHWA that indi-
cate significant discrepancies between field compaction
and several laboratory compaction devices. This compac-
tion issue should be resolved before implementing a per-
formance test in a mixture design process.

For subgrade materials

d c
r
W =

11921 . 0 09121 . 0 69867 . 1 log

0




+ 0.91219logE
r

d d
c W + + = 017165 . 0 0000278 . 0 9730 . 0 log
2

+
c
W
2
0000338 . 0
(24)
d d
c
2
W + + = 40260 . 0 000681 . 0 009 . 11 log

+ c W
2
0000545 . 0


Meng et al. (1999) reported on ALF tests of five differ-
ent stabilized base pavements. They modeled surface rut-
ting of the base in the form of Equation (5) and reported
and regression constants for the different pavements
tested. They found that rutting was confined to the asphalt
surfacing layer, but also attributed part of the rutting to the
deterioration of the asphaltbase interface. This deteriora-
tion was related to the ingress of water through cracks in
the asphalt layer.

A difference in temperature and rainfall patterns during
testing of the different pavement sections discussed by
Meng et al. (1999) complicates the interpretation of the
performance data. An example is the case of two test sec-
tions constructed having the same asphalt and base thick-
ness but using different base materials that were tested us-
ing the same wheel load. The performance of the sections
where

W
c
= water content (percent),

d
= deviator stress (psi),

= bulk stress = sum of principal stresses (psi),
and
E
r
= resilient modulus of the layer (psi).
55
differed significantly; however, the performance cannot be
attributed to differences in base material because of the dif-
ferent temperatures and rainfalls monitored during the tests
on these sections.

Epps et al. (1999) assumed that rutting in asphalt was
controlled by shear deformation. In simple loading, perma-
nent shear in the asphalt is assumed to accumulate accord-
ing to the following expression:

( )
c e i
N b a exp =
(26)

where

i
= permanent (inelastic) shear strain at a 50
mm depth,
ic analysis,
train,
N = number of axle load repetitions, and
a,b

The equation indicates the relationship between plastic
phalt accounted for by evaluat-
g
i
j
K RD =
(27)

The VESYS m cting permanent deforma-
= shear stress determined at this depth us-
ing elast

e
= corresponding elastic shear s
,c = regression coefficients.

and elastic deformation. Rutting estimates are computed
based on elastic shear stress and strain (,
e
) at a depth of
50 mm beneath the edge of the tire. Epps et al. (1999)
stated that densification of the asphalt is excluded in the
rutting estimates because it has a comparatively small in-
fluence on surface rutting.

Time hardening of the as
in the stiffening of the binder and rutting in the asphalt
layer as a result of shear deformation is determined from
the following equation:

odel for predi
tion also relates plastic and elastic response as shown in
the following model, although the modeling constants
shown further account for the visco-elastic nature of as-
phaltic materials:

=

(28

here
p
= percent permanent strain,
= percent resilient strain,
ions, and
, determined from re-
peated load laboratory testing.
Lijzeng (1 PT tests done us-
ing the Laboratory Test Track in The Netherlands to evalu-
ate ru n
binders. He n h relations were previously de-
tween the stiffness
f the asphaltic mix and its bituminous binder under long
r p


)
w

r
N = number of load applicat
= modeling constants
a 999) of Shell reported on A
the tti g characteristics of asphalt using modified
oted that suc
termined using static creep experiments, which turned out
not to be suitable for modified binders.

In the Shell Pavement Design Manual (1978), the effect
of the bituminous binder on permanent deformation is in-
corporated by means of a relationship be
o
loading time (viscous) conditions.

v bit v mix
S q b S
, ,
log log log + = (29)

where

S
mix,v
dition
S
bit,v
= viscous component of the stiffness of its bi-
tuminous binder, and
b,q = parameters specific to a certain asphalt mix.

The parameter S is obtained from the following equa-
tio

= stiffness of mix under rutting con s,
bit,v
n:
0
3
w eq
v bit
t W
S

=
,


(30)
t
w
= as a measure of traffic
spee
W
eq
= num heel passes obtained
from traffic spectrum, and
0
= bitumen viscosity at average paving tem-
perature during service life of the road.

a .
Having deter iffness of the mix, the rut depth in
the asphalt layer, h, is then calculated using


where

wheel loading time
d,
ber of standard w

This equ tion accounts for climate and traffic loading
mined the st

v mix,

where
S
h k h
0
=

(31)
h = th lt layer,

0
= standard wheel, and
k = a
ess is an important material property in asphalt
avement engineering and is required to model pavement
struc e theory. As part of the
comprehensive LINTRACK APT program, Sabha et al.
(199 d a le to predict

ickness of aspha
contact stress of the
coefficient.

Stiffn
p
tur s when using multilayer
5) id comparison of methods availab
56
the s Material characterization parameters are also included
in asphalt permanent deformation modeling of APT data.
Epps et al. (1999) reported a regression equation based on
WesTrack data that accounts for the binder content and air
voids in the asphalt mix as shown here.
Material characterization parameters are also included
in asphalt permanent deformation modeling of APT data.
Epps et al. (1999) reported a regression equation based on
WesTrack data that accounts for the binder content and air
voids in the asphalt mix as shown here.
tiffness m the bitumen stiffness. They rec-
mmended that the formula of Francken (1977) [Equation
of a mix fro
o
(32)], which allows a prediction of the maximum value for
the mix stiffness based on the volumetric properties of the
mix, be used.

( )
( )
a
V
b
a b
a b
e
V
V V
V V E
1 . 0 4
10 56 . 3 ) , (

+
=

(32)

where

, (
a b
V V E


) = maximum mix modulus at maxi-
mum bitumen stiffness (MPa),
volum
V
b
= percent bitumen in mix by volume.
The dynamic modulus of bituminous materials is a
com las-
tic stif the i inter-
nal damping f t m -
scribing the stress relationship of visco-elastic
materials. T ab lu s
ommonly referred to as the dynamic modulus.
E 10
mm,
asp
V

= percent air void content, and
i
ts.
s
ommonly referred to as the dynamic modulus.
E 10
mm,
asp
V

= percent air void content, and
i
ts.
coarse A
finesplus A fines A
V P A
V A P A
V A P A A ESALs
air asp
air asp
air asp
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ + =
8
7 6
5
2
4
2
3
2
1 0 10
ln
coarse A
finesplus A fines A
V P A
V A P A
V A P A A ESALs
air asp
air asp
air asp
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ + =
8
7 6
5
2
4
2
3
2
1 0 10
ln





(34) (34)

V
a
= percent air voids in mix by
and
e,

where where


SALs
10
SALs = = number of ESALs to a rut depth of number of ESALs to a rut depth of
PP = = percent binder content by weight of percent binder content by weight of
the mix, the mix,
air
A
air
A = = regression constan regression constan
10


plex modulus
fness and
in which the real part represents the e
maginary part characterizes the
o he aterials. It is therefore used for de
strain
he so te value of the complex modulus i lex modulus i

c c
The terms fines, finesplus, and coarse assume
values of 1 when sections containing specific mixes are
analyzed and 0 otherwise. Thus, for a fine gradation, for
example, the equation reduces to
The terms fines, finesplus, and coarse assume
values of 1 when sections containing specific mixes are
analyzed and 0 otherwise. Thus, for a fine gradation, for
example, the equation reduces to

Fonseca and Witczak (1996) developed the following
empirical model for estimating the dynamic modulus of
asphalt mixes as a function of material properties:



Fonseca and Witczak (1996) developed the following
empirical model for estimating the dynamic modulus of
asphalt mixes as a function of material properties:


00000101 . 0 008225 . 0 261 . 0 + = p E
) log 7425 . 0 log 716 . 0 (
4 / 3
8 / 3
2
8
2
200 200
0164 . 0 0001786 . 0

+
+
+
f
p p
p




(33)
V
ff
= effective bitumen content by volume,
4
= percent retained on the 3/4 in. sieve by to-
tal aggregate weight,
p
3
e by to-
tal aggregate weight,
p . 4 sieve by total
and
p
200
= percent retained on the No. 200 sieve by
total aggregate weight.
2
639 . 0
9
asp air
asp
P V
P
+

log
/ 3 4
4
0000404 . 0 002808 . 0 87 . 1
415 . 0 03157 . 0 00196 . 0
+ +
+
+
a beff
beff
a
p p
V V
V
V p
1 e



where

E = asphalt mix dynamic modulus in 10
5
psi,
= bitumen viscosity in 10
6
poise,
f = load frequency in Hz,
10
169 . 0
19 . 48 ln ESALs

43 . =

(35)
ibed a methodology developed
to predict cumulative rutting over time using incremental
rut depth modeling and including material characterization.
The b f that it takes
into acc unt the combined effects of environmental condi-
tions and time hardening, with particular emphasis on tem-
perat e it e
intent was to c e effects, using a direct relation-
ship t the Superpave binder specification, on the mixture
behavior at WesTrack in regression models. The resulting
model could then be applied to environments outside of

Hand et al. (1999) descr
V
a
= percent air voids in the mix by volume,
be
p
3/
/8
= percent retained on the 3/8 in. siev
4
= percent retained on the No
aggregate weight,
ene it of the methodology developed is
o
ure s ns ivity in the early life of the pavement. Th
apture thes
o
57
TA
VARIAB TO PREDICT ASPHALT RUTTING (Hand

Description
BLE 2
LES USED

Traffic
Initial oids
fic
mum gyrations
Dust proportion
SA ft
2
/lb
FT Microns
#4GRAD50 n/a
p200 Percent
Sbit kPa
hange in rut depth in pr ent
ESALs, Delta SALs, or cumulative ESALs
in-place air v
et al. 1999)
Nomenclature Units

ESAL, DESAL, or CESAL ESALs
Avi Percent
Avt Percent
AC Percent (twm)
Gmmi, Gmmd, Gmmm Percent
VMA Percent
VFA Percent
DP n/a
Blended aggregate surface area
Asphalt film thickness
rcent passing the 4.75 mm and 0.3 mm sieves
In-place air voids as a function of time or traf
Asphalt content relative to the design optimum
Percent of Gmm at initial, design, and ma
Percent voids in mineral aggregate
Percent voids filled with asphalt
xi
Ratio of pe
Percent passing the 0.075 mm sieve
Binder stiffness
C evious increm DR P D mm
Cumulative rut depth to previous increment
pth in previous increment to
CRDP
D
mm
Ratio of change in rut de
cumulative rut depth to previous increment
CP n/a
SAL = equivalent single-axle load; DESAL = delta equ cum e-axle load; Avi =
r voids in-place; Avt = air void time; AC = asphalt concrete; twm =
ent of Gmm at design gyration
ht of mix; Gmm = maximum
mm = perc mm at ma
sity; Gmm
f Gmm at initial gyrations; Gmmd = perc
with
ent of G
r = n ineral aggregate; VFA = voids filled
hange in rut depth in previous increment; DC
ea; n/a thickness
k, from which data
rs and verifying the methodology. The rut mode
d is compreh
r variables shown in Table 2.
f the critical elements of this procedure was in
,
= the a
= h c alt
E ivalent single-axle load; CESAL = ulative equivalent singl
ai total weig theoretical den i = percent
o s; Gm ximum gyrations; VMA = voids-in-
m asphalt; DP = dust proportion; SA = surface a ot applicable; FT = film ; DRDP =
c P = ratio of DRDP to CRDP.

WesTrac were used in identifying input
paramete l
develope ensive and includes the potential
predicto

One o de-
termini
ture, S
ple lin
develo
ermanent deformation predictions were made based on
apable of predicting
o
8 9 10
(36)

where

A
i
= regression constants
AV percent air voids in sphalt mix,
AC thickness of the asp oncrete
AKV = kinematic viscosity of the asphalt binder,
les at
ed,
base
layer,
SD = peak surface deflection,
CSRB = compressive strain at the top of the
e aggre-
ranular subbase.

SD may either be calculated
u easured using a FWD. The
validity of the rut model was evaluated using APT on two
ented pavement sections on I-96 in Lansing, Michi-
an. Chatti et al. (1999a) reported that the MICHPAVE com-
puter pro c the rutting performance
of the t ec n

Hug a 1 onsidered spe-
cific f s fl the four
wheel paths of TxMLS test sections. Ruts in the different
whe e
pavement lane. T he least rutting was
usually selected as the benchmark rut.
ng the stiffness as a function of pavement tempera-
ESAL = number of equivalent single ax
uperpave binder properties, and aging. Using multi-
which the rut depth is being calculat
ear regression techniques, the model was then
ped as a function of stiffness and 10 other variables.
P
this model for WesTrack Superpave mixtures and predicted
rut depths successfully compared with observed perform-
ance. The remaining step will be to calibrate and verify the
model using data generated in multiple climatic zones. One
f the keys to the model is that it is c o
n nlinear behavior. Even though the model predicts
nonlinear behavior, it may not be sensitive enough to the
effect of asphalt contents above the optimum level where
rutting behavior may be very nonlinear.

Chatti et al. (1999a) reported on a rut model developed
and incorporated into the MICHPAVE computer program
that is a function of a number of variables associated with
the respective layers of the pavement structure and pave-
ment response. The rut model is shown here and considers
deformation of the pavement structure as a whole.

AKV A AC A AV A A Rut
A
+ + + =
5 4 3 2 1
log

+ A
6
ESAL + log (A
7
= CS) + SD
+ A (T A ) + A log MRB
+ A
11
log B + A
12
log MRRB
+ A
13
log CSRB + A
14
TBTSB
T = average annual air temperature,
MRB = resilient modulus of the base layer,
MRRB = resilient modulus of the roadbed soil,
B = thickness of the base layer,
CS = compressive strain at the top of the
roadbed soil, and
TBTSB = total equivalent thickness of th
gate base and g
The peak surface deflection
sing a mechanistic model or m
instrum
g
gram su cessfully predicted
est s tio s over a range of conditions.
o et l. ( 999b,c) and Hugo (2000) c
actor in uencing the relative rutting of
el paths w re compared in terms of a benchmark
he wheel path with t
58
A model was be-
tween the other ruts known as Affected Rut(s) and the
Bench t, uence factors:

Temperature (F),
u re
s
ia o
Wheel load (F), and
Tir e ur
tp

The quantitativ alysis of the rutting performance was
based on the assumption that the rut depth is determined by
the ti e ur-
rently and
formulated to define the relationship
mark Ru in terms of five infl
t
sponse (F ), Struct ral
Mater l c mpliance after processing (F
m
),
l
e (F ). e pr ss
e an
cumula ve ffects of five factors that occur conc

R B F F F F F
tp
tp
l
l
m
m
s
s
o

For simplicity, the and factors were initially set to
ent MLS tests, the
o
pro-
ortional to the pressure. Modeling the rutting in this manner
al influence on rutting performance to
be fluence factors.


A T TESTING MODELING OF
SPHALT FATIGUE AND CRACKING PERFORMANCE
tive tests such as FWD allow the performance
f the pavement structure to be expressed in terms of sur-
w
the stiffness of the upper layers of a pavement to be m
red. If cracking is apparent, this may be mapped and re-
Fatigue of asphalt layers is often related to horizontal
g stress- or strain-controlled, repeated load-
g tests, with or without rest periods. These models lend
jected the
avement test section to a unidirectional moving load, with
ingle and dual tires, at a speed of 16.9 km/h. The axle load
eam
rom
e asphalt test sections for laboratory fatigue testing. All
)
846 . 1
0


(38)
t
t
) ( ) s ( Rut . Affected . T tal

=
(37)

where BR is defined as the benchmark rut, and and
are regression factors.

in
themselves to incorporation into mechanistic pavement
structural design and analysis systems.

As part of the SHRP study, Tayebali et al. (1994) evalu-
ated the fatigue performance of a thin asphalt pavement
section (90 mm of AC over 320 mm of base) at FHWAs
ALF. The full-scale accelerated fatigue test sub
p
s
was 106.8 kN, and the tire pressure was 965 kPa. B
specimens (63 mm 51 mm 381 mm) were sawed f
th
tests were performed under the controlled-strain mode of
loading at a frequency of 10 Hz (sinusoidal loading with
no rest periods) and at a temperature of 20C. Fatigue tests
were summarized in the form of relationships between fa-
tigue life and initial strain and initial dissipated energy per
cycle. The following equations were developed using
linear regression analysis:

( 81 . 425 = w N
f


( )
574 . 3
0
8
10 8.959

=
f
N
(39)

where

N = fatigue life;

0
= initial dissipated energy per cycle, psi.
w
0
= initial peak to peak tensile strain, microstrain;
and
equal 1. With the results from the increased tire pressure
tests it was found that the structural response was overem-
phasized, and was changed to 0.5. This value satisfied
the equation.

From the data of the three independ
m del appears to be sound. It gave reasonable results on
the origin of the rutting and, with the increased tire pres-
sure test, it showed the effect on rutting to be directly
p

lowed the proportion of
Chatti et al. (1999b) used these relationships and the
SAPSI-M program to estimate the fatigue lives of the ALF
test sections. The SAPSI-M program uses multilayer the-
ory to calculate the stress and strain response of a pave-
ment system under loading. Chatti et al. reported good
comparisons of estimated and measured fatigue lives de-
pending on estimates for subgrade stiffness.

Based on a similar approach, Newcomb et al. (1999) re-
ported the following transfer function also developed as
part of Mn/ROAD tests for flexible pavements [see also
Equation (16)]:

206 . 3
6
1
10 83 . 2

=
f
N

(40)
determined for each of the in
CCELERTED PAVEMEN
A

Fatigue of APT test sections may be quantified by monitor-
ing the deterioration of pavement stiffness with trafficking.
Nondestruc
o
face deflection. As the structure weakens, the deflection
the surface increases. Seismic tests such as SASW allo
on
oni-
to


t
where

N = number of cycles to the onset of fatigue

t
of the asphalt
layer, microstrain.
lated to fatigue performance.


tensile strains that may occur at the bottom of layers under
loading, leading to the classic bottom-to-top cracking. Fa-
tigue models developed in this way are usually based on
fatigue characterization of the asphaltic materials in the
laboratory usin
cracking, and
= transverse strain at the bottom
59
This equation represents the onset of cracking in a rela-
vely thin asphalt surface over a dense-graded base on a
silty low-volume road section failed
after ions of
a 35
months of tr
ayer, mode of
ading, rest periods, healing, etc. Furthermore, these mod-
997) and De la Roche and Rivire (1997)
ported on LCPC fatigue tests of different pavement sec-
tions with vary Fatigue was related
to surface de onitored d
traffickin f different trapezoi-
al and beam fatigue tests (stress and strain-controlled,
d without rest periods) were done on specimens
moved from untrafficked areas of the test sections to
characte e d.
The g n
of a shift fact own in the following equation that re-
lates the laboratory-determined and field APT fatigue re-
ti
clay subgrade. This
the application of approximately 22,000 repetit
6-kN, 5-axle truck. This represented 2 years and 7
affic.

The approaches described have drawbacks in that the
models developed, based on laboratory testing, can only
estimate the number of cycles until the initiation of crack-
ing. The propagation of the crack through the asphalt must
then be taken into account. This is usually done by multi-
plying the number of cycles to crack initiation by a factor
that depends on the thickness of the asphalt l
lo
els assume that cracking occurs beneath the asphalt layer
and cannot account for top-to-bottom cracking.

Odon et al. (1
re
ing asphalt thicknesses.
flection, and cracking was m
g of the sections. A number o

uring
d
with an
re
riz the fatigue behavior of the materials teste
fati ue life of the materials is expressed as a functio
or (k) sh
sults:

( )
b
cal
k
N
1
6
6
10

=

(41)

where

N = theoretical fatigue life of the pavement
structure,

cal
= calculated strain beneath the asphalt at the
onset of trafficking (determined using lin-
ear elastic multilayer theory),

6
() = strain causing the failure of the laboratory
sample after 1 million load applications at
a temperature of C,
b = slope of laboratory fatigue curve, and
tests better represent fatigue monitored in the APT
sts. Ranking of laboratory fatigue and APT fatigue of
structures, however always the same.

Molenaar et al hat the trend line that
escribes the modulus with respect
number of load repetitions can be described very
ell in a nondimensional form using

k = shift factor relating laboratory and field
APT fatigue performance.

Shift factors ranging between 0.8 and 4.1 were calcu-
lated. In determining strains within the asphalt using elastic
theory, Odon et al. (1997) reported that the use of rectan-
gular imprints instead of circular imprints to represent tire
pressure distributions in the elastic theory analysis reduced
the difference between measured and calculated strains,
particularly for the structures having thinner asphalt layers.
The introduction of rest periods in laboratory fatigue tests
reduced shift factors. They found that the controlled stress
fatigue
te
, were not
. (1999) reported t
decrease of the asphalt d
to the
w
N E
0
n
5 . 0
(42)

where

n = ap
N = nu s at which E = 0.5
0
E
0
d
E
n
= m fter n load repe-
titions.
y tempera-
re. Common laboratory mix stiffnesstemperature rela-
e usual temperature
orrection procedures become less adequate. At the end,
there is almo pendency remainin

Sherwo on an analysis of APT
ata from FHWA ALF tests, did not find a significant rela-
between percentage area cracking and crack
ngth. They related fatigue cracking to the binder stiffness
property s crease in G*sin
(after T r as-
phalt pavements (100 mm) based on a 50% cracked area.
They were u sin for
thicker a a

Molenaar et al. (1999) modeled cracking of LIN-
E
n
= 1
plied number of load repetitions,
mber of load repetition
E ,
= modulus of the undamaged asphalt layer, an
odulus of the asphalt layer a

Molenaar et al. (1999) questioned whether a pavement
has really failed if the asphalt modulus has decreased to
50% of its original value. Equation (42) does not account
for hardening or densification of the layer with initial traf-
ficking as reported by some researchers (Hugo et al.
1999b). Localized strain measurements in the AC layer
quickly lose their general meaning for the entire structure
as soon as distress develops (not necessarily visible at the
pavement surface), because local strains are strongly influ-
enced by this distress. At the start of the performance test,
the asphalt stiffness was strongly influenced b
tu
tionships can then be used to correct measurements to a
reference temperature. When distress develops, however,
the (declining) back-calculated AC layer stiffness becomes
less temperature-dependent, and th
c
st no temperature de
od et al. (1999), based
g.
d
tionship
le
G* in. They indicated that an in
R FOT) relates to lower fatigue life for thinne
nable to relate fatigue life and G*
sph lt pavements.

TRACK test sections in The Netherlands using the Weibull
distribution discussed previously and shown in Equation
60
Equation (3). They found that the constant in the equa-
tion was related to the thickness of the asphalt layer being
tested.


ELASTO-PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF UNBOUND MATERIALS

A unique application of HVS data is the work done
by Wolff (1992). He used the South African HVS data
to develop a mechanistic model for use in a design model
for granular pavement materials. His aim was to simu-
late the actual behavior of granular materials under APT.
In this analysis, he assumed the material to be in a
stress state well below the yield stress condition, which
is the situation in a functional pavement.

His method is akin to methods employed by Kenis
modeled by a funciton that
lates an invariant of backcalculated stress induced by

deformation of the layer. The lat-
r is a value selected in accordance with design guidelines.
nt layers must not exceed
e appropriate design standard. Naturally, deformation in
) based on the AASHO
oad Test. This preliminary field fatigue curve for FSHCC
avements was found to be similar to the fatigue resistance
atory.
(1978) and Yandell and Behzadi (1999) in which the
permanent strain that takes place during each load cycle
is taken into account. The nonlinear elasto-plastic
behavior of the unbound granular material is modeled in
two phases. In the first phase, he uses the nonlinear
elastic finite-element program MICHPAVE (Chatti et al
1999) for backcalculating material parameters from
measured deflections. In the second phase, the elasto-
plasticity of the material is
re
the HVS wheel loads to the plastic strain measured relative
to repetitiions of wheel loads.




Using this method in an iterative manner, he was able to
accumulate the permanent strain in predefined pavement lay-
ers and relate this to the total
te

The basis of his model is SN curves (with N being the
number of load reversals that will cause structural failure at
peak stress S) that were used as transfer functions for rut-
ting. The SN curves were developed by Whler, and they
are used in the mechanical engineering field (Wolff 1992).
For the development of the transfer function, failure had to
be defined as a specific terminal permanent strain value.
Wolff developed a series of SN curves that could be used
to determine cumulative permanent strain. This required
the determination of the stress induced in a layer by a
wheel load in accordance with the material parameters that
he determined from HVS testing. This yielded a point on
the SN curve where the vertical axis represents invariant
stresses and the horizontal axis shows the load repetitions.
Wolff opted to use theta, the octahedral normal stress for
his model. By using HVS data for a variety of materials, he
was able to develop a series of SN curves that could be
used to determine cumulative permanent strain. He then
used Miners hypothesis to determine the cumulative strain
as a result of different wheel loads trafficking the pave-
ment. A value smaller than unity is then taken to be accept-
able, whereas failure is considered to occur as soon as it
exceeds unity. In the design process, the sum of the perma-
nent strains in each of the paveme
th
the bound layers has to be added to the value developed in
the unbound materials. The method was very successfully
applied to low-volume road pavements, where the unbound
material dominates the structure.


CONCRETE MODELING

Because of the limited extent of APT testing done on con-
crete pavements (see Figure C16), it is understandable that
related modeling of APT performance is also limited.
Roesler et al. (1999) reported that not all techniques and
instrumentation used in HVS testing of asphalt pavements
can be used successfully in concrete pavement testing.
They do warn against increasing the load incrementally
during concrete tests, pointing out that this can lead to er-
rors, because Miners Law or cumulative damage theory
does not work well for sequenced loading conditions in
concrete. Therefore, changing the load in the middle of an
APT test can make quantifying the fatigue results difficult.

With concrete testing, emphasis is placed on the perform-
ance of the joints, dowel bars, load-related cracking, and the
bearing capacity of the subgrade beneath the concrete slabs.
Roesler et al. (1999) defined failure as when there is a visual
crack on the surface of the concrete slab. Test locations have
failed with longitudinal, transverse, or corner cracks.

Figure 14 (Roesler 1998) shows the results of the HVS
fatigue tests on FSHCC pavements relative to the Portland
Cement Association fatigue curve, beam fatigue curve
based on 50% probability of fatigue failure, PCC slab fa-
tigue curve taken from laboratory tests, and field fatigue
curve by Vesic and Saxena (1970
R
p
of PCC slabs in the labor

To evaluate the fatigue resistance of the FSHCC pave-
ment versus conventional fatigue curves for PCC, bending
61
-0.05
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08
Number of Repetitions to Fatigue Failure

FIGURE 14 Comparison of FSHCC and PCC fatigue performance.
stresses in the slab were back-calculated from measured
flections. These back-calculated stresses were then
by the 90-day flexural strength of the concrete to
ine what the applied stress ratio was in the slab dur-
HVS testing. The stress ratios greater than one were
d to the results obtained for fatigue life curves de-
from beam tests. The calculation of stresses in the
re also complicated by the curling of the slabs and
ntial shrinkage (Roesler 1998). Similar findings
ported by Balay and Goux (1994).
acher and Snyder (1999) evaluated the load trans-
g efficiency of joints in concrete pavements as a sub-
SUMMARY

From the review it was apparent that an imme
of APT is that pavement performance may be m
rectly. This is possible because many of the factors i
encing performance can be controlled, including

Wheel loads (magnitude, wandering, rest period
Tire pressures,
Pavement structures (compaction, layer th
drainage, etc.),
Pavement materials (gradations, binder
etc.),
0.15
0.35
0.55
S
urve FSHCC AASHO Rd. Test
0.75
t
r
e
0.95
1.15
1.35
1.55
1.75
s
s

R
a
t
i
o
Beam PCA Curve Slab C



edge de
divided
determ
ing
ascribe
veloped
slabs we
differe
were re

Emb
ferrin
LF for trafficking in the laboratory. They used the fol-
wing equation:
With this expression, perfect load transfer (where both
s than 70% to be unsatisfactory and may
onsider retrofitting load transfer devices in such cases.
diate benefit
odeled di-
nflu-
s, etc.),
ickness,
contents,
ent temperatures (only when tests are per-
formed within environmental chambers), and
Subgrade moisture conditions (only when pavement
structure test pits or w
tests are done within time windows between seasonal
riations).
A wide range of models have been developed as part of
APT ar ,

Pavement damage,
S g e
Asphalt rutting performance,
on
sidiary study to the Mn/ROAD program, using the Minne- Pavem
A
lo

LTE (percent) = (d
UL
/d
L
) 100 (43)

where

LTE = percent load transfer efficiency,
d
UL
= deflection of unloaded side of crack/joint,
and
d
L
= deflection of loaded side of crack/joint.


sides of the crack/joint deflect equally under an applied
load) exists when the ratio is 100%. Conversely, no load
transfer exists when the ratio is 0% and both sides of the
joint or crack move independently. Many agencies consider
LTE values of les
c
s are constructed within hen
va


rese ch including
ub rad rutting performance,
Asphalt fatigue and cracking performance,
Elasto-plastic behavior of unbound materials, and
Concrete performance.

APT performance modeling usually does not include
ride quality because the restricted lengths of test areas
make the collection of representative and reliable data
62
longitudinal unevenness difficult. This is not serious, be-
ause riding quality is not necessarily related to the struc-
deforma-
on through observation of in-service highways.

ns to APT modeling of pavement per-
fo
tors t ress. These are primarily limited to en-
vi
must taken into account. Furthermore, it is not always
po
servic e traf-
fic
failur
mode
based to other sites. This has motivated the de-
elopment of models based on probabilistic approaches,
ariability. It has also necessitated
e normalization of data to reference parameters.

tests are often ex-
press , stresses, and strains
w nce mod-
el us-
in pavement structures. These
odels may be defined using linear elastic theory, FE
e

Modeling of APT data also requires a definition of fail-
ure. This failure is related to performance parameters such
as pavement response (displacement, stress, and strain) and
material characteristics. The shift to modeling pavement
performance in terms of structural performance, instead of
functional performance, indicates the trend to express per-
formance in more fundamental terms. This allows a better
definition of failure. The cause of failure may be related to
specific structural components; for example, fatigue of an
asphalt layer or permanent deformation of the subgrade.

Modeling the performance of specific structures alone
restricts the applicability of performance models if material
characterization of the structural components is neglected.
This is particularly important with the development of
pavement design systems and performance-related specifi-
cations. For this reason, attention has been given to the re-
lationships between observed performance under traffick-
ing and the performance as predicted from pavement
analyses using material characteristics determined in labo-
ratory testing. This topic is discussed further in chapter
seven.




c
tural condition of the pavement as Croney and Croney
(1998) pointed out in their discussion of the AASHO road
test. They argue that it would be more cost-effective to
evaluate riding quality in terms of cracking and
ti
There are limitatio
rmance. APT cannot directly account for time-related fac-
hat influence dist
ronmental influences, although traffic-related influences
also be
ssible to relate APT performance to the performance of in-
e pavements under conventional traffic. Real-tim
ked pavements are subject to maintenance before pavement
e. Perhaps the most significant shortcoming of APT
ling, however, is the lack of applicability of models
on one site
v
including the use of artificial neural networks (Abdallah et
al. 1999), to account for v
th
Models developed based on APT
ed in terms of displacements
ithin pavements layers. Application of performa
s requires that these response parameters be estimated
g mathematical models of
m
m thods, equivalent thickness, or other multilayer approaches.
Pavement response is verified using strain gauges or coils or
pressure cells placed in APT test sections. Researchers should
recognize that instrumentation of test sections may disturb the
materials in which these devices are placed.
63


CHAPTER SIX

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF REHABILITATION,
CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES


INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses significant APT findings pertaining
to the enhancement of rehabilitation designs of pavements,
as well as improvements to practice in the construction and
maintenance of pavements.

In rehabilitation design, the stiffness and other
characteristics of the existing support structure influence the
type and thickness of the rehabilitation overlay(s). A review of
the literature on the use of APT for evaluation of structural
and rehabilitation designs indicated that the two applications
do not differ significantly. However, in rehabilitation design
testing, emphasis is placed on evaluating the overlay directly
and ensuring that the existing support structure does not
contribute significantly to the failure of the overlay.

Construction specifications are normally the way in
which lessons learned through APT are implemented.
Some construction-related findings on material issues were
addressed in chapter four and these should be read together
with those presented in this chapter.

The evaluation of different maintenance options is fre-
quently difficult without field applications. In this regard APT
applications have been found to be quick and effective.

A number of typical APT studies were selected to pre-
sent a generic overview of applications pertaining to these
topics. Before discussing the applications that were found
in the literature, the results from a synthesis of the ques-
tionnaire survey will be presented.


QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The responses to Questions 6.1 to 6.4 on construction and
rehabilitation are reflected in Figures C42 and C43 in Ap-
pendix C. The responses were synthesized and the results
are summarized here.

The study of unconventional materials and the influ-
ence of compaction were two aspects that received
the most attention (Figure C42).
The impact of APT on specifications was felt the most
in the field of performance-related specifications.
The development of warranty projects and guidelines
towards pay factors (Figure C43) was also considered
important.
Views of respondents to the survey on construction and
rehabilitation are presented in Tables D6(a) and D6(b) in
Appendix D.


REHABILITATION DESIGNS

One of the primary goals of APT is to serve as a tool for
gaining insight into the performance of complex, composite
rehabilitation structures. The mathematical modeling of such
pavement systems and their analysis is not only complex but
sometimes impossible. In such cases, the use of APT has
been important. Rehabilitation strategies are best illustrated
by phenomenological studies and a heuristic approach.

There are many well-documented records of successful
applications of APT as integral parts of rehabilitation de-
signs. A detailed discussion on each of these case studies is
beyond the scope of this report. However, it was concluded
that some of this information should be included in the ap-
pendixes for reference purposes (see Appendixes F through
H). A selection of case studies is discussed here.


Asphalt over Asphalt (Including Recycling)

CAL/APT (Harvey et al. 2000) reports on APT studies of
rehabilitation strategies on pavement structures tested to
failure with the HVS. Sections of these pavements were
overlaid with dense-graded asphalt concrete (DGAC) or
gap-graded asphalt rubber hot mix (ARHMGG) to evalu-
ate the current Caltrans method of overlay design for these
materials. The thickness of overlay required on fatigue
cracked pavements when using ARHMGG was one-half
of that required by DGAC and this was confirmed by HVS
testing (37 mm vs. 75 mm). CAL/APT emphasizes that it is
important in APT testing of rehabilitation strategies that
rutting from deformations in the untreated pavement com-
ponents deep in the structure do not control the perform-
ance of the overlay.

TxMLS tests evaluated the effectiveness of two reha-
bilitation processes used for overlays (Hugo 1999; Hugo et
al. 1999a). It was important to identify where pavement
failures occurred in the underlying 40-year-old pavement
that was tested, because failure of an overlay is sometimes
caused by a subsurface layer and not by the overlay itself.
For this reason, forensic testing included FWD testing of
64
the pavement structure as a whole and an investigation into
the drainage of the structure. Apparently there was a differ-
ence in the structural capacity of the underlying structure
of one rehabilitation strategy that affected its rutting per-
formance. However, after discounting this effect, it was
still possible to distinguish which of the two strategies was
better. Even then, wet trafficking showed that both strate-
gies were susceptible to stripping owing to the nature of
the composite structure that had LWAC as an interlayer at a
depth of 75 mm. Here APT was able to evaluate perform-
ance better than relying on analytical procedures alone.

APT testing at WesTrack (Epps et al. 1999) required
maintenance and rehabilitation of test sections that failed
prematurely. They recommended two rehabilitation proce-
dures that proved successful and may be useful for in-
service highways. For pavement rutting, milling to a depth
of 50 to 75 mm and replacing with new HMA was an ef-
fective technique for extending pavement structural capac-
ity. To repair extensive fatigue cracking, the deep T-patch
shown in Figure 15 was very effective.








FIGURE 15 Schematic representation of a deep T-patch for
remediation of fatigue cracking.

ARRBALF testing in Australia has been used to evalu-
ate rehabilitation options included in the Austroads Pave-
ment Design Guide, which is primarily based on empirical
relationships derived from overseas data (e.g., Shell), and
to validate design inputs for asphalt materials being used in
Australia (Sharp et al. 1999a). APT testing was instrumen-
tal in evaluating under field conditions the performance
and benefits of different material types, including materials
with modified binders. APT trials focused on evaluating
the relative fatigue characteristics of various types of as-
phalt rehabilitation applied to a distressed pavement. A de-
ficiency in the Austroads design method was identified
where only a single rut criterion, based on limiting sub-
grade strain, is used. The method has subsequently been
revised to account for the temperature-related plastic de-
formation of the asphalt layers. APT trials of pavements
with materials having modified binders demonstrated a
significant performance improvement with use of modified
binders in the overlay, with more than double the life
achieved compared with conventional binders. This far
outweighed the additional cost of the material. APT re-
search also indicated that Austroads Benkelman Beam de-
flection-temperature adjustment curves used for the design
of overlays were not applicable to FWD deflections. The
results showed that correction factors were required for
polymer-modified asphalts.

ARRBALF APT testing has been used to evaluate re-
habilitation strategies involving deep-lift in situ recycling,
which incorporates a cementitious binding agent to
strengthen pavements (Sharp et al. 1999a). Research has
been done to establish the performance of deep-lift recy-
cled pavements using a slag/lime binder over subgrades of
relatively low and relatively high strengths and to gain a
better understanding of the distress mechanisms of these
pavements. Studies have been done to determine if per-
formance depends on stabilization depth (depths of 250,
300, and 360 mm) and to compare the performance with
that of a 400-mm thick unbound granular pavement. The
findings suggested that this type of pavement recycling
was suitable for moderate, rural, arterial traffic. Further-
more, if field compaction techniques could be further im-
proved to increase the level of compaction of material be-
low 300 mm, then substantial gains in performance would
be anticipated.

Blackman et al. (1996) reported on full-scale acceler-
ated load testing of recycled Heavy Duty Macadam
(HDM) road-base materials using the Pavement Test Facil-
ity (PTF) at the TRL in the United Kingdom. Tests were
also done on a conventionally produced HDM to compare
its performance with the performance of the recycled mate-
rial. The recycled HDM road base incorporated 50% re-
claimed material in the mix. The HDM materials were con-
structed in two layers, each 75 mm thick, on top of a 150-mm-
thick crushed-limestone subbase. A 40-mm surfacing layer
was used. Blackman et al. (1996) stated that no measurable
difference was observed in the performance of the recycled
and conventional HDM in the accelerated tests.

Van der Merwe et al. (1992) report HVS testing to
evaluate rehabilitation design of a bitumen-treated base
(BTB) pavement in South Africa. The original pavement
consisted of a 160-mm BTB that was constructed in two
layers on top of a natural gravel subbase and a selected
layer, each 200-mm thick. An 80-mm thick, semi-gap-
graded asphalt overlay was placed over this structure. The
influence of aging on the performance of the overlay was
investigated. Artificial aging was applied by heating the
road surface to 100C and then maintaining this tempera-
ture for 7 and 28 days for different test sections. Aging
stiffened the asphalt mix on the surface. A comparison of
the HVS performance of the pavements with unaged and
aged asphalt indicated improved rutting but poorer fatigue
performance for the aged asphalt test sections. Van der
Merwe et al. (1992) concluded that the shift factor used to
calculate the fatigue life of the asphalt overlay (propaga-
tion of cracking) decreased from 5 to 1 with aging of the
asphalt.
HMA
Base Course
65
Asphalt over Concrete

Strauss et al. (1988) reported on HVS testing of various re-
habilitation strategies for a jointed unreinforced concrete
pavement without dowels. The concrete pavement had
failed because of microscopic cracking from alkali
aggregate reactors. This cracking not only reduced the
stiffness of the slab but also reduced the strength of the
subbase (ingress of water and higher load-associated
stresses). The result was structural failure of the pavement.
The following experimental overlay sections were con-
structed for HVS testing:

Gap-graded asphalt (60 mm) with rolled-in precoated
chips on four different interlayers;
Jointed unreinforced concrete pavement (JCP), 125-
and 150-mm thick, with joints spaced at 4 m;
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP),
100- and 125-mm thick, with 0.67% longitudinal re-
inforcement;
Continuously graded crushed-stone overlay, 150- and
200-mm thick, with a 40-mm-thick, semi-gap-graded
asphalt wearing course, with 19 mm of rolled-in pre-
coated aggregate chips;
Semi-gap-graded HMA, 70-mm thick, with rolled-in
chips over interlayers of a single seal coat with soft
conventional binder (150/200 pen), bitumen rubber
binder, and a woven and nonwoven geofabric; and
Gap-graded asphalt overlay ranging in thickness
from 30 to 90 mm, with a 30-mm open-graded bitu-
men rubber surfacing.

An effort was made to eliminate the bond between the
failed concrete pavement and the overlay options. Bonded
sections were considered; however, these resulted in crack-
ing and punch-outs. To ensure an unbonded PCC overlay, a
25-mm-thick flexible AC layer was placed on top of the
old pavement. This layer served as a bond breaker and
reduced the risk of voids beneath the PCC overlays in
the event of warping. From the HVS trafficking, it was
concluded that the rehabilitation options could sustain
trafficking of 2.7 to 4.5 million ESALs for the bitumen
rubber asphalt and up to 40 million ESALs for the thin
CRCP.

This APT experiment served as proving ground for the
use of the crack activity meter (CAM) (Viljoen et al.
1987). The CAM was of particular value in monitoring
load transfer at the joints, as well as the effect of such joint
movement on the performance of the experimental over-
lays. The CAM successfully measured total crack move-
ment (CM), which was a 2-D composite of vertical and
horizontal joint movement as described by Viljoen et al.
(1987). By monitoring the CM as trafficking progressed it
was possible to evaluate the condition of the pavement
relative to the number of load applications. The findings
from the rehabilitation study led to understanding of the
mechanisms that were affecting the performance of the re-
habilitation options. The following observations were
made during trafficking:

Opening and closing of joints as a wheel passes over
the crack was detected by the CM.
Change in the pavement support structure during
APT affects CM. As an example, voids below joints
in the pavement structure affected the response in
terms of CM as trafficking progressed.
Joint repairs caused CMs to be reduced from 600 m
to 50 m.
During trafficking, the CM response initially in-
creased to reach a peak; later it reduced progressively
as the underlying structure disintegrated into smaller
blocks.

It was concluded that

CM was dependent on pavement structure, surface
deflection, and block size between joints.
Tolerance limits relating CM to allowable traffic
were found to be dependent on asphalt mixture type,
environmental conditions, and structural changes
during trafficking.
Conventional asphalt can accommodate a traffic-
load-associated CM of up to 200 m.
Bitumen rubber HMA was able to accommodate a
traffic-load-associated CM of up to 400 m.
With the 90 mm CRCP the CM at shrinkage cracks
was negligible, and HVS trafficking was equivalent
to 40 million ESALs.

All of the rehabilitation options tested under SAHVS
trafficking performed well under APT. The researchers
found that the position of joints in concrete overlays, rela-
tive to joints and cracks in the overlaid pavement, is an
important consideration influencing the deflection of the
pavement and the vertical stress on the subgrade. They
recommended that it is better to provide joints in the con-
crete overlay as far away as possible from the joints in the
distressed pavement. The expected overlay life to first re-
flection cracking, as found with the HVS tests and some
preconstruction analysis, is summarized in Table 3 (NDOT
SA 1997).

The researchers concluded that JCP overlays (sections 1
and 2) were viable options for rehabilitation of distressed
concrete pavements. The thin layer of AC with bitumen
rubber (section 5) performed exceptionally well. The
thicker overlays performed better, as expected, although
the semi-gap-graded asphalt overlay (section 4) cracked at
the old joints. On the basis of the APT study, the South Af-
rican National Roads Authority decided to use the thin
layer of AC with bitumen rubber and an interlayer. The
66
TABLE 3
EXPECTED OVERLAY LIFE TO FIRST REFLECTION CRACKING, FROM HVS TESTING AND
PRECONSTRUCTION ANALYSIS (NDOTSA 1997)

Option

Overlay
Expected Life in
ESALs (millions)
150 mm JCP new joint 300 mm away 3.5
150 mm JCP new joint far away 4.7
125 CRCP crack at old joint 3.4
1a
b
2a
b 125 CRCP crack 300 mm away 6.5
200 mm crushed stone 2.3
80 mm semi-gap asphalt (without interlayer) 0.1
80 mm gap-graded asphalt (with geofabric interlayer) 0.4
40 mm bitumen rubber asphalt (without interlayer) 1.2
3
4a
b
5
6 80 mm semi-gap asphalt (with interlayer) 2.5
Notes: ESALs = equivalent single-axle loads; JCP = jointed unreinforced concrete pavement; CRCP = continuously
reinforced concrete pavement.


interlayer was added because it had enhanced performance,
although this option was probably a short-term solution.
More is said about the subsequent performance of the
pavement in the next chapter.

The study also demonstrated the effectiveness of geo-
fabrics in retarding reflection cracking. The successful use
of geofabrics was further validation of an application of
APT in 1973. At the time, a geofabric was used to over-
come reflection cracking from a cement-treated base
course. APT was used in the very early stage of the SA
HVS program to explore the long-term performance of the
methodology. A diagnostic study of the performance of that
pavement under in-service trafficking 10 years later re-
ported the application as very successful (Hugo et al.
1982).

By 2001, a total of 4.5 million ESALs had trafficked the
highway, including the trial test sections, without serious
distress (J.C. Van der Walt, personal communication, De-
cember 3, 2001). The traffic volume on the 40-mm-thick
open-graded bitumen rubber asphalt overlay had already
reached a level well beyond the original level that was
achieved with the HVS trafficking. It was concluded that
this was because of the harsh conditions during HVS traf-
ficking that led to an unduly conservative estimate of per-
formance. Furthermore, an interlayer had been added to
protect the HMA, and the deteriorated joints in the under-
lying pavement had been properly repaired.


Whitetopping

Kuo et al. (1999) reported on APT tests done to evaluate
the performance of an ultra-thin fiber-reinforced concrete
(UTFRC) overlay on asphalt and concrete pavements to
determine the optimum thickness and content of polyolefin
and polypropylene fibers. APT testing has also been done
to investigate the performance of concrete pavements con-
taining recycled concrete aggregate and to evaluate patch-
ing materials for rigid pavements.
The researchers found that adequate bond between the
UTFRC and the asphalt base was essential for the long-
term performance of the UTFRC overlay. UTFRC pave-
ments showed less cracking than plain concrete pavements.
Based on that study, they recommended that joint spacings
for 75- and 100-mm-thick UTFRC should be 1.22 to 1.83
m. For a 50-mm-thick UTFRC, the joint spacing should
not be greater than 1.22 m. The most advantageous proper-
ties of fiber-reinforced concrete overlays are the ability to
retard the initial formation of cracks and the ability to re-
strict the propagation of already formed cracks.

Debonding of patching materials from the concrete was
another problem identified. Results indicated that elas-
tomeric patching materials have a greater tendency to
debond from the concrete than do the cementitious patch-
ing materials. It was shown that a conventional square-cut
procedure before patching may not be necessary with high-
strength and fast-set patching materials.

Vandenbossche and Rettner (1999) reported on
Mn/ROAD research to evaluate ultra-thin whitetopping
(UTW) with fiber-reinforced concrete. This involves plac-
ing a thin concrete overlay directly on top of an existing
distressed asphalt pavement. Typical applications include
low-volume pavements where rutting, washboarding, or
shoving is present.

The researchers found that achieving satisfactory long-
term performance required a bond between the overlay and
the underlying asphalt. The Mn/ROAD researchers pointed
out that, as the overlay begins to debond, tensile stresses will
develop at the bottom of the overlay. These stresses will in-
crease as the strength of the bond decreases, and the life of the
overlay will then decrease. They recommend a short joint
spacing to help reduce curling and warping stresses. Research
into the performance of the UTW is ongoing.

Results of an FHWAPTF UTW study have been pub-
lished (Rasmussen et al. 2001; Qi et al. 2002, 2004). In
1998, the FHWA and the American Concrete Pavement As-
67
sociation jointly constructed eight full-scale lanes of UTW
over existing HMA pavements, which included a range of
asphalt binders. ALF loading of the lanes showed that the
stiffness of the underlying HMA had significantly more ef-
fect on the development of cracking distresses in the UTW
than did the variables designed into the overlays them-
selves (UTW thickness, joint spacing, and fiber reinforce-
ment). Results from the ALF tests are being used to im-
prove mechanistic models and design procedures for UTW
overlays.


CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES

Epps et al. (1999) reported that the primary objective of the
WesTrack research in Nevada was the development of per-
formance-related specifications. An integral part of these
specifications is the establishment of penalties and bonuses
(pay factors) that are related to the quality of construction.
They outline an approach that assumes substandard con-
struction will result in early rehabilitation, which costs the
agency. Better quality construction, on the other hand, will
defer rehabilitation. They propose that the difference in
present worth of rehabilitation costs, that is, for as-
constructed versus as-specified, provides a rational basis
for setting the level of pay factors relating to construction
quality. The effect of the following construction variables
was addressed:

Asphalt content,
Air-void content,
AC thickness, and
Aggregate gradation.

Monte Carlo simulation was used to evaluate the influ-
ence of the construction variables on both fatigue and rut-
ting performance models based on results from APT. From
these simulations it was then possible to estimate the ef-
fects of off-target construction and calculate pay factors.
The full report of the WesTrack project has just been
completed (Epps et al. 2002). It reflects the extensive range
of findings from this comprehensive APT experiment.

Theyse (1999) reported on extensive HVS testing in
South Africa to evaluate different base materials placed us-
ing labor-intensive road construction. The purpose of the
HVS testing was to assess the quality and performance of
pavement base layers constructed in this way, but also to
gain a better understanding of material performance when
it is primarily processed by hand. Emulsion-treated gravel,
waterbound macadam, composite macadam, and a selected
clinker ash material known as Premamix, were used in the
base layers of test sections. A machine-constructed
crushed-stone base layer was also included for comparison
with the labor-intensive constructed base layers. It was
concluded that the emulsion-treated gravel performed well.
The 100-mm emulsion-treated clinker ash also performed
well, but did not have the same bearing capacity in terms
of rut rate (millimeters/million road repetitions) as the
other emulsion-treated material. The respective rut rates
were 2.6 for the clinker ash versus 0.6 for the gravel. The
waterbound macadam had a slightly lower bearing capacity
than the emulsion-treated gravel (0.7 versus 0.6). This was
related to the compaction effort applied using light pedes-
trian pavement rollers. As a result, the field density of the
waterbound macadam was very low and this would have
affected the performance of this material. None of the ma-
terials tested performed as well as the crushed stone.

Theyse (1999) also reported benefit-cost ratios for the
tests. These were determined by comparing the number of
axle load applications to reach a permanent deformation of
10% of the initial thickness relative to the initial cost of the
layer per square meter. The 100-mm crushed-stone base
yielded a benefit-cost ratio approximately twice that of the
emulsion-treated gravel base. Compared to the untreated
clinker ash, the benefit-cost ratio of the crushed-stone base
was 2.7 times higher, although it was approximately 8
times higher than the emulsion-treated clinker ash and the
waterbound macadam.

Harvey et al. (2000) provided examples of how APT
testing in California has demonstrated the benefits of lower
air-void contents in asphalt mixes for extending the fatigue
life of flexible pavements. Pavements with thick AC layers
designed for heavy traffic were found to obtain greater
relative improvements from increases in compaction than
pavements with thinner AC layers. Based on these results,
changes were recommended to Caltrans to reduce the al-
lowable air-void content as much as possible, while still
maintaining an achievable specification. Because of this
change, Caltrans construction specifications for AC have
typically resulted in constructed air-void contents of 9% on
average with end-result specifications, compared with 12%
on average with the method specifications previously used.

Construction of APT test sections that are instrumented
with strain gauges, pressure plates, and cells, requires
special consideration. Numerous studies in the literature
report problems, owing to misalignment and damage to
instrumentation resulting from the construction process or
to premature failure of test sections because of inadequate
compaction of instrumented test sections. Burnham (1999)
reported on problems experienced in Minnesota with the
Mn/ROAD with the installation of strain sensors in
concrete slabs during construction; these ultimately
required removal and retrofitting of the sensors. Hugo et al.
(1997) reported on pavement failure in Texas related to
inadequate compaction of a base layer beneath and over a
pressure plate placed for the Mobile Load Simulator
response monitoring. This led to premature failure of the
asphalt layer.
68
Hugo et al. (1997) also discussed three construction-
related problems that affected the performance of pave-
ments tested with the TxMLS. They found that deep-seated
variability in the pavement foundation resulted in differen-
tial pavement performance at the surface. Lenses of poor
materials within constructed layers had the same effect.
Poor compaction of the asphalt layer resulted in high-void
content and early fatigue failure of the HMA.

The influence of variability of pavement materials in the
DIVINE project in New Zealand was also investigated by
Kenis and Wang (1999). They concluded, on the basis of reli-
ability analysis, that reduced pavement structural variability
will increase the reliability of pavement service life. Such
variability may be caused by the variability of pavement
materials or the nonuniformity of pavement construction.

HVS trials at Hornsnek, South Africa, also indicated
that inadequate control and construction of cemented mate-
rials resulted in layers of unstabilized materials and layers
with poor interfacial contact (Opperman 1984). These case
studies lend further support to Nunn (1997), who reported
considerations for long-life pavements. He emphasized that
it is necessary for the road to be well-constructed and
maintained, with good quality asphalt and a good founda-
tion, so that deterioration does not result from construction
or material deficiencies.

The performance of marginal sandstone material stabi-
lized in situ has also been evaluated (Yeo et al. 1999). Test-
ing was conducted in Dandenong, about 30 km southeast
of Melbourne, Australia, on a marginal sandstone when it
was unbound and when it was stabilized in situ with bitu-
men/cement and slag/lime blends. The researchers pointed
out the importance of compacting stabilized material, both
in the field and in the laboratory, as soon as possible after
mixing. They also found that overcompaction of these ma-
terials during construction could result in a breakdown of
marginal sandstones. They recommended that a maximum
compaction standard of 95% of modified maximum dry
density be adopted for in situ stabilization works of this
type when the parent material to be stabilized is a marginal
sandstone material liable to break down under a load. They
concluded that stabilized pavements require 7 days of
moist curing or immediate sealing with an approved curing
compound. Alternatively, the next layer of the pavement
should be constructed to prevent excessive drying of the
stabilized surface that may lead to cracking.

Vuong et al. (1996) stated that ARRBALF research has
resulted in major changes to construction practice in Aus-
tralia, where multilayer cement stabilized bases are con-
structed. They reported that the ALF trials conducted at
Beerburum in Queensland contributed to the state of the art
of the design and construction of both stabilized and unsta-
bilized granular pavements. The importance of adequate
compaction is emphasized. They noted that for high-
quality, crushed-rock pavements, compaction is critical,
because these materials appear to be more sensitive to
moisture damage at lower levels of compaction. The opti-
mum compaction and saturation of these materials must
therefore be addressed. For granular pavements, design and
maintenance strategies must consider the possible effects
of severe short-term environmental and loading conditions
on pavement performance.

In an earlier study, Vuong et al. (1994) found that the
life of a crushed-rock base was very dependent on the
compaction level and the percentage of moisture in the base in
terms of degree of saturation. Comparison of pavement life
indicated that at an optimum moisture content (OMC) of 70%,
the base at optimum relative compaction of 104% maximum
dry density had the longest life. A 1% increase or 2% decrease
from this level could cause up to an 800% reduction in pave-
ment life. The effects of moisture content or degree of satura-
tion were also significant. A 5% change in relative moisture
content from the moisture content limit of 70% OMC could
cause up to a 400% change in pavement life. They found
that the optimum situation was to specify a maximum limit
for moisture at sealing in terms of degree of saturation
(85% saturation). They also recommended that specifica-
tions be changed to reduce risk that could arise owing to
high compaction levels and high degrees of saturation. It
should be noted that TDR gauges were used to monitor the
moisture changes in the pavement structure and that this
was very successful.


Stage Construction

Stage construction is an economical method of pavement
design, although there is a risk associated with this ap-
proach with regard to the availability of long-term funds.
Freeme (1984) reported on the use of the SAHVS to pro-
vide information for a decision on the timing of the second
phase of planned stage construction at a site in Swinburne,
South Africa. The first phase of the planned stage construc-
tion consisted of two stabilized 150-mm subbase layers
and a thin asphalt surfacing. The APT results showed the
necessity of implementing the second phase of the stage
construction before serious degradation of the upper sub-
base had occurred.

Autret and Gramsammer (1990, 1995) indicated that the
LCPC in France has shown that applying a maintenance
overlay of 80 mm to a damaged pavement is equivalent to
following a deferred maintenance strategy consisting of
applying a 40-mm layer and then a second layer with the
same thickness when the first becomes damaged. Kleyn et
al. (1985) reported on a related issue from a HVS study on
an in-service highway in Transvaal in South Africa. They
found that considerable savings would accrue if timely
69
maintenance interventions were implemented rather than
rehabilitating the highway when it reached the terminal
level of serviceability.


Constructability

Constructability is an issue that has also been addressed in
APT programs. This is probably because factors that affect
performance also affect constructability. Examples of such
factors for HMA are composition in terms of particle shape
and size, binder content, and compaction. This issue is dis-
cussed in this section.

One of the objectives of the Caltrans APT research is
the application of CAL/APT results to long-life flexible
and concrete pavement reconstruction. Harvey et al. (1999)
reported that CAL/APT is geared towards reconstructing
flexible pavements by incorporating design features that
minimize the thickness of the pavement and improve con-
structability. Elements of this strategy were addressed pre-
viously and include

Compaction of the AC layer to 5% air voids,
A rich bottom layer, 50 to 75 mm thick at the bottom
of the AC,
Exclusion of the rich bottom layer or any rut-
susceptible mixes from the critical zone for rutting
within 100 to 150 mm of the surface,
Design for rutting of the unbound pavement layers,
and
Use of thicker AC layers instead of an ATPB just be-
neath the AC.

Harvey et al. (2000) determined that constructability is
controlled by the tolerances imposed by the existing
infrastructure (issues such as bridge heights, underground
drainage and utilities, guard rails, and signage) and the ex-
tent to which traffic delays are caused by closing lanes to
permit the reconstruction or rehabilitation work. They em-
phasize that high construction productivity is vital to
minimizing traffic delay.

In the case of reconstruction of rigid pavements, the
California researchers suggested that construction produc-
tivity may be improved by

Using pavement thicknesses that are less than the thick-
ness of existing rigid pavement to eliminate opening
and subsequent recompaction of the subgrade and to
avoid interference with subsurface drainage systems,
conduits, and other subsurface infrastructure; and
Keeping the reconstructed road surface elevation at
or only slightly above that of the existing rigid pave-
ment to eliminate the need to raise bridges, drainage
features, guard rails, ramps, etc.
Galal and White (1999) also discussed constructability.
They found that composition of the HMA affects the den-
sity of the HMA that can be achieved, which in turn affects
the rutting performance. Because compaction affects the
constructability, they deduced that performance is affected
by constructability. As a corollary, enhancement of con-
structability enhances performance. This explains the em-
phasis that is being placed on constructability as a factor
that has to be taken into account in the design and con-
struction of pavements.

In the last decade a number of innovative materials have
been introduced in South Africa, and HVS testing has been in-
strumental in the further development, design, and evaluation
of these materials. Findings and results from accelerated test-
ing have been implemented toward improving the construc-
tability of these materials and establishing design criteria and
standards. These materials include granular emulsion mixes
(GEMs) and large aggregate mixes for bases (LAMBs).

De Beer and Grobler (1993) reported on HVS testing
toward improved structural design criteria for GEMs. The
HVS testing focused on the determination of the structural
capacity of GEMs in terms of fatigue cracking and fractur-
ing. A marginal weathered dolerite, a fine-grained gabbro
rock, was used as the parent material and was mixed with
2.5% lime to reduce the plasticity index before emulsion
treatment. For the HVS tests, five sections were con-
structed using GEMs with emulsion contents ranging from
1% to 5%. For each of the sections, a 150-mm GEMs layer
was constructed on a cemented subbase. De Beer and
Grobler stated that lime-treated GEMs increase in strength
and stiffness with curing. The highest rate of strength in-
crease was observed between 3 and 4 months after con-
struction. Indirect tensile strengths increased from ap-
proximately 300 kPa to 900 kPa. The resilient modulus of
sections having 3% emulsion increased from initial values
of approximately 800 MPa after construction to 3,000 MPa
after 10 months curing before HVS testing was applied to
the sections. HVS testing of the GEMs sections indicated
that an emulsion content of 2% was required to ensure de-
sign traffic levels of at least 10 million ESALs. An opti-
mum emulsion content was finally recommended based on
ancillary laboratory tests. Design charts were provided for
GEMs constructed on poor and strong subgrades and these
were used to provide a catalogue of GEMs pavements for
different traffic classes and road categories.

Emery (1995) reported that to evaluate the performance
of pavements containing LAMBs, three trial sections were
constructed in the Province of KwaZulaNatal, South Af-
rica, and evaluated by means of accelerated testing by the
HVS. Based on the results obtained from HVS testing on
continuously graded LAMBs, indications are that these
mixes should be able to carry traffic well in excess of 50
million standard 80-kN axles without failure in terms of
70
deformation within the base. Lessons learned in the design
and construction of these large stone mixes led to extensive
use of these materials in KwazuluNatal. Experiences with
LAMBs were collected and published in a Sabita manual
(SABITA 1993).

Rust and MacCarron (1989) reported on a material,
which is a cold-mixed asphalt that had been designed for
pothole filling and trench reinstatement. It is easy to apply
or use and needs minimum compaction. The report gives
details of the APT conducted by the former Division of
Road Transport Technology in South Africa on four varia-
tions of the formula for the production of the material.


SUMMARY

This chapter covered a number of issues related to the re-
habilitation design of pavements, as well as construction
and maintenance issues.

Structural designs are typically tested at fixed sites,
whereas rehabilitation designs are usually evaluated in the
field. In a few cases, structural designs have been tested to
failure at fixed sites and subsequently been overlaid and re-
tested. A review of the literature of APT research applied to
evaluate both structural and rehabilitation designs indi-
cated that the methods applied do not differ significantly.
In rehabilitation design testing, however, emphasis is
placed on evaluating the overlay directly and ensuring that
the support structure does not contribute significantly to
the failure thereof.

Overlay options investigated by means of APT include
asphalt over asphalt, asphalt over concrete, concrete over
concrete (PCC and whitetopping), concrete over asphalt, in
situ recycling, and stabilization of base structures.

APT has been instrumental in validating and refining
agency structural and rehabilitation design guidelines.

The literature review indicated that APT has contributed
to the establishment of construction specifications relating
to field compaction (density and uniformity), layer thick-
ness, material uniformity, patch repair, binder and moisture
contents, and drainage requirements. However, topics such
as construction tolerances and proof testing have not re-
ceived much attention worldwide. Likewise, the effect of
quality control and assurance has also not been explored
specifically. These applications of APT could enhance the
development of performance-related specifications for
construction and maintenance. The short turnover possible
through the use of APT makes this an attractive applica-
tion. It should provide a basis for the determination and
quantification of pay factors for construction and the con-
fident application of warranty contracts.


71


CHAPTER SEVEN

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES


INTRODUCTION

Thus far, the relationship between APT and constituent
elements of the pavement engineering system has been re-
viewed. In this chapter, a number of APT-related issues are
covered. However, before considering the various issues, it
is appropriate to discuss the wide range of APT applica-
tions that have been recorded.

In NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 235 (Metcalf
1996), the applications of APT to practice were discussed
in some detail. The fields of application in this report were
expanded in the current study to cover some additional as-
pects of pavement engineering. The applications cited by
Metcalf (1996) were then categorized according to the de-
fined fields. The list was expanded to include applications
that had been reported at the recent International APT Con-
ference in Reno, Nevada, together with related publications
issued since then. The results of this analysis are contained
in Appendix G indicating the respective fields and the re-
lated objectives of the tests. This summary is indicative of
the potential of APT as a core element of pavement engi-
neering. The same applies to the annotated bibliography
that was assembled from the responses to the question-
naires. The aforementioned information should be of value
when exploring documented case studies that have been
reported by APT users.

In the remainder of the chapter, the discussion is fo-
cused on several important and related pavement engineer-
ing issues and two special APT applications.

The relationship between APT and in-service pave-
ments,
Failure criteria
Rutting and
Fatigue and cracking,
The relationship between APT and LTPP studies,
APT applications to block pavers, and
APT applications to airport pavements.


RELATIONSHIP OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO IN-SERVICE PAVEMENTS WITH CONVENTIONAL
TRAFFICKING

The first question that needs to be asked is: Why is there a
difference between APT and conventional trafficking? Ac-
cording to Metcalf (1996) there are essentially two rea-
sons.

Environmental effects, especially long-term aging,
are difficult to capture in APT. (The combined effect
of environment and time difference is not simulated.)
A full spectrum of in-service wheel loads are not ap-
plied in APT.

In reality, all APT tests have to consider these two fac-
tors when developing methodologies for using APT results
optimally. Therefore, conventional in-service highways and/or
formal LTPP studies feature both in such development.
This is an important aspect of APT that warrants detailed
discussion. Very little has been reported on this issue.
However, the approach of some well-advanced APT pro-
grams provided valuable input. In this section, the relation-
ship between APT and in-service highways in general is
discussed. Later in the chapter, the focus will be on formal
LTPP studies.


LCPC Approach

The LCPC has an effective method of addressing the problem
(Gramsammer et al. 1999). The procedure is as follows:

Laboratory fatigue tests are conducted on materials
that are to be used in a pavement structure. Strains
within the pavement structure are then determined
theoretically by analytical or numerical modeling ac-
cording to their rational pavement design method.
The calculated strains are then used to evaluate per-
formance life in terms of the laboratory findings.
These findings are then compared to the performance
life of the pavement under trafficking by the carousel
(LCPCAPT device). The two results are used to es-
tablish a coefficient of correspondence.
By relating the theoretical laboratory performance
life to conventional field traffic performance, a coef-
ficient of adjustment is determined.
The interrelationship between laboratory, APT, and
field traffic is then established by comparing the co-
efficient of correspondence to the coefficient of ad-
justment. The extensive knowledge that they have on
long-term performance of in-service pavements
serves as benchmarks for establishing the relation-
ships.
72
On the basis of the established relationships, the LCPC
researchers are able to evaluate the performance of new
materials using APT. This methodology has been used ex-
tensively by LCPC and their industrial partners to establish
the performance of new materials (many of which are pro-
prietary) and/or structural design systems.

The coefficient of correspondence, K
c
, for the Circular
Test Track is given by

s
ub
b
cal c
f ,

6
6
0 1 10

=

where

NE = number of axle load passages leading to
the rupture of the structure,

cal
= strain calculated in the modelized
equivalent structure,

6
(, f) = strain leading the rupture during the
laboratory fatigue test for 1 million cy-
cles at the temperature and the fre-
quency f,
b = slope of the material fatigue curve,
= standard deviation depending on actual
thicknesses and fatigue test results,
u = random variable related to the risk con-
sidered of the normal law, and
K
s
= correction coefficient of soil homogene-
ity.

Cort et al. (1997) stressed that to compare performance
of different materials to a reference mix it is necessary that

The rut depths are sufficiently large after 100,000
loadings to generate significant differences in per-
formance, and
Speeds of load application are the same.

In this way, LCPC is able to interrelate the carousel and
an in-service pavement that has a proven record of per-
formance. This also allows them to use their LTPP results
in conjunction with APT results.


ARRB Approach

In 2001, K.G. Sharp provided a summary on the procedures
that are followed by the ARRB in their transformation of
ALF trafficking into conventional traffic on in-service
highways. Because of the generic nature of the outline, it is
quoted below with minor editorial amendments:
The method of handling loading obviously depends on the
type of experiment/test. In many experiments we are only
concerned with the relative performance of one type of ex-
perimental pavement with another type of control pave-
ment. The idea is that we have a good knowledge of how the
control performs in service (because it is a standard pave-
ment widely used in practice), so, if we can demonstrate that
the performance of the experimental pavement is similar to the
control pavement, then there is increased confidence in its
likely performance in service. These experimental pave-
ments might incorporate non-standard materials, recycling
techniques, etc. In those cases, the Equivalent Single Axle
[load] (ESAL) concept is as good as any, i.e., cycles of load of
X kN converted to the Standard Axle load assuming the 4th
power law.
Similarly, we might be comparing a range of maintenance
options. In those cases, we will traffic the trial pavements with
the same number of cycles of the same load and compare per-
formance. This, of course, is also the classic way of conduct-
ing an axle load equivalency trialeither test all pavements
as above or, alternatively, compare the number of cycles of
differing loads required to generate the same performance (say
a 20-mm rut).
Such an approach was also appropriate during the series of
asphalt deformation trials we conducted. The aim was to com-
pare the performance of the various mixes/binders, so we
placed the test mixes onto a very strong cemented base to en-
sure that all deformation would be induced in the mixes. We
also used the pavement heating system to ensure that all test-
ing was conducted at the same temperature (50

C). We then
tested all mixes with the heaviest load (80 kN) and compared
the deformationleading to a ranking of the mixes in terms
of deformation resistance. Meanwhile, we conducted labora-
tory testing on the same mixes (both cores taken from the
pavement and laboratory manufactured samples) and also
ranked them according to the results. We then compared the
field and laboratory results. We have also done this type of
testing of unbound materials using ALF and Repeated Load
Testing (RLT) testing.
It is when we are looking at specifically structural design
issues, that it gets a bit more complicated. I am referring here
mainly to fatigue tests of bound materials where you are trying
to either develop, or confirm, fatigue life prediction models.
At the moment in Australia the damage exponent for cemented
materials is 12 (based on experience and limited testing),
while for asphalt it is 5 (Shell). Using these relationships we can
predict the allowable life for a given test pavement by modeling
the pavement using CIRCLY (Wardle 1977), calculating the hori-
zontal strain at the base of the bound layer, and hence fatigue life
using these performance relationships. These are in the Aus-
troads Pavement Design Guide (Austroads 1992), which is
currently being updated for release in 2002.
We then turn ALF on and monitor the number of loading
cycles to failure (whatever that is) and compare it with the
predicted life. We also do some laboratory testing and com-
pare the three predictions. Defining failure is tricky enough:
we know that surface cracking may not be the failure point.
The layer may have cracked at the bottom and the crack worked
its way up and we also know that the layer, even though cracked,
still has a strength (cemented layers can survive for years after
crackingyou simply apply a surface seal every 5 years or so
when the cracks reflect through to the surface!).
Another way of defining failure of bound materials is in
terms of back-calculated modulus. We conduct FWD tests at
the start of trafficking and use EFROMD2 (Vuong 1991) to
predict the modulus of the bound layer. We continue to con-
duct FWD testing during trafficking and note the decrease, if
any, of the modulus of the bound material (the theory being
that the moduli of the other layers (e.g., subgrade) will stay the
same because test conditions are controlled). We have found
that the modulus of asphalt can decrease to about half its ini-
tial value before surface cracking is observed whilst, for ce-
mented materials, the value can reduce to as much as 1/10 of
the initial value before cracking is observed.

Fatigue testing of bound (particularly cemented) materials
is tricky at the best of times because of the variations in parent
73
material, binder type, binder content, etc. We never have had a
good agreement with laboratory beam testing. This is not a
problem unique to us! (K.G. Sharp, ARRB, personal commu-
nication, December 3, 2001).


LINTRACK Approach

Bhairo et al. (1998a,b) debated this issue in some detail.
Their LINTRACK program is strongly focused on model-
ing. Coupled with that is the question of whether or not a
pavement has failed. The problem lies in that stiffness loss
invariably occurs well before cracking manifests. The
Dutch researchers assumed that a section has failed when
the stiffness has dropped to a level of 50% of the virgin as-
phalt. The procedure takes account of factors such as lat-
eral wander and healing because of rest periods of nonop-
erational time. Allowance is also made for crack
propagation, which depends on the layer thickness.
However, when all of these factors are accounted for, there
is still a 2- to 4-fold difference between LINTRACK life
and the laboratory-determined value. The authors do not
discuss the issue of extending the performance relationship
to include a regular highway.


South African Approach

The South African approach does not have conversion fac-
tors between APT structural pavement behavior and real-
life structural pavement performance. However, this is not
believed to be crucial to the success of the process (De
Beer et al., personal communication, November 26, 2001).
They consider the number of variables that affect the real-
life performance and life expectancy of a road to be so
high that they state:

It is extremely difficult to directly relate real-life to APT
unless you have a huge APT database where you have varied
(and tested) all these impacting factors. The approach on the
implementation side is therefore rather an adaptive manage-
ment process than a predictive control process. Real-life
dictates and we have to manage our activities (maintenance
and rehab) to ensure we get the performance that we want
from the road.

The South African process is shown in Figure 16. In es-
sence, there is no attempt to convert HVS-initiated pave-
ment structural behavior to real field pavement perform-
ance. The approach is to study pavement response and
performance in great detail by means of APT and then de-
velop practical pavement designs by applying the knowl-
edge gained. The South African mechanisticempirical
pavement designs are calibrated from time to time in col-
laboration with pavement engineering consultants and the
road authorities.

This approach is underpinned by the work that was
done during the early phases of the SAHVS program. In
1984, Freeme summed up the approach as follows:

Primary indicators of performance such as rutting
and cracking were monitored. In the same vein, sec-
ondary indicators, which are responses in terms of


Actual pavement
performance
and life
Life-cycle
strategy
Maintenance
Traffic
Construction
REAL LIFE IMPLIMENTATION
APT, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
ADAPTIVE,
MANAGED PROCESS
Analysis and Design:
Accurate modelling and
unbiased design
APT:
Equal testing ground
A
n
a
l
y
s
e
C
a
l
i
b
r
a
t
e
Improved
understanding of
pavement
behavior
TRANSFER
CONTROLLED PROCESS
Design
Environment


FIGURE 16 Schematic outline depicting the interaction between SAHVS APT results and real-life implementation
and pavement performance (De Beer et al. 2001, personal communication).
74
deflection with depth, and in situ strength and strain,
were monitored. With this process, changes in secon-
dary indicators were linked to primary indicators and
used to calibrate mechanistic models of pavement struc-
tures. Confidence was built when measured deflection
profiles matched calculated deflections.
There has been reasonable correlation between HVS
performance and actual in-service pavement per-
formance. This has enabled general performance of
pavement structures to be clearly illustrated and un-
derstood. In turn, this has improved understanding of
factors that influence performance of pavement struc-
tures. This knowledge has enabled performance of
rehabilitation strategies to be predicted.

From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that APT
findings are transformed in various ways to enable the re-
sults to be used by the different APT users for their specific
purposes. This process is not without constraints. Some of
the problems that have arisen will be illustrated by means
of selected case studies indicating how the ultimate per-
formance of APT sections compare with the original APT
findings and the related performance prediction.


CONSIDERING SOME CONSTRAINTS IN THE PROCESS
OF TRANSFORMATION OF TEST FINDINGS BETWEEN
TRAFFICKING SYSTEMS

It is necessary to review some of the constraints that need
to be considered in transforming test findings between traf-
ficking systems. Typically, the constraints relate to issues
that have been discussed elsewhere in the report, such as
vehiclepavementenvironment interaction over time (see
chapter three) and construction and maintenance (see chap-
ter six). The matter is further exacerbated by differences in
distress criteria that apply to APT and in-service highways.
These constraints are particularly relevant in the case of
performance prediction of conventionally trafficked in-
service highways, as will be seen from the following case
studies. Three cases, each extending over almost two dec-
ades, were selected to illustrate the complexity of the prob-
lem.

Case Study One: A composite pavement with thin HMA
and a crushed-stone base on cement-treated subbase
Route P157-1 South Africa. Jooste et al. (1997) presented a
comparison of HVS-predicted performance with the actual
performance of a road in South Africa. The road (Route
P157-1) had been tested 16 years earlier with the HVS.
Characteristics such as deflection, Dynamic Cone Pene-
trometer shear strength, moisture, and density were found
to correlate reasonably well with the initial measurements.
Environmental effects did not appear to significantly influ-
ence the performance of the pavement. However, the re-
searchers point out that a 13-mm surface seal coat had
been placed some time earlier and this had probably pre-
vented the ingress of surface water. The average rutting
was similar to that measured during APT at the equivalent
number of standard axles. However, in both cases, the ruts
were very small while the variance differed. This was the
first comparison of its kind that they had undertaken and,
although good agreement was found in the study, they
identified a number of important issues that needed to be
considered in such comparisons. In particular, accurate
traffic statistics in terms of axle loads are necessary. They
also suggest that statistics on ride quality would be useful.
A greater number of similar tests would also be necessary
to improve the level of confidence.

Case Study Two: HMA surfacing and baseNatal,
South Africa. Wolff et al. (1997) investigated the perform-
ance of a pavement with a HMA surfacing and base struc-
ture that had been tested with the HVS in 1984. Their goal
was to compare the actual performance of the pavement
with that predicted after the HVS testing. The original test
was to evaluate the performance of a structure consisting
of bituminous surfacing and base on a stabilized granite
subbase in a wet environment.

In the original study, the pavement was subjected to the
equivalent of 20.3 million ESALs with the HVS in a dry
condition. At that time, the pavement showed a 10-mm rut
that was primarily the result of deformation in the HMA.
When the section was then artificially wetted, it failed after
application of a further 300,000 ESALs with a rut of 20
mm (10 mm in the asphalt and 10 mm in the stabilized
subbase). The failure mechanism was reported as being

A longitudinal crack in the wheel path owing to fa-
tigue in the asphalt layer initiated by a stabilization
crack in the subbase layer or a crack resulting from
the settlement of the fill,
Pumping the result of trafficking following ingress of
water into the pavement system,
Erosion of the stabilized subbase layers and subse-
quent pumping into layers above because of traffick-
ing, and
Permanent deformation of the carbonated stabilized
subbase.

The artificial wetting was accomplished through surface
wetting during trafficking and filtering water into the layer
system from the side under a head of 1 to 2 m of water.
The moisture content in the subbase layer, after artificial
wetting, was still slightly less than the actual pavement at
the time of failure; that is, after 25 years of service life.

The actual pavement that was investigated in close
proximity to the original test section exhibited distress in
the form of pumping after 1.4 million ESALs of conven-
tional trafficking under the natural environment.
75
From an examination of the long-term performance of
the highway pavement, the researchers concluded that the
failure mechanism was similar to that which had been
found with HVS testing. However, failure had occurred af-
ter a significantly different number of ESALs. In the case
of the HVS tests, the failure had occurred after approxi-
mately 300,000 E 80s of wet trafficking, whereas it took a
total of 1.4 million ESALs under the natural, but wet cli-
matic conditions to reach similar failure on the highway
before rehabilitation was undertaken. This difference was
attributed to differences in the ingress of water into the sys-
tem. Apparently there had been intermittent phases of wet-
ting and drying of the layers in the long-term pavement
test. The researchers suggested that it would be better to
wet the pavement intermittently throughout the HVS test
rather than only at the end of the dry test phase or, alterna-
tively, better to wet at an early stage rather than only at the
end of the dry test phase. A further interesting point from
the study is that a second rehabilitation was initiated in
1996 when the PMS signaled the development of the same
type of distress as before. At that time approximately 1.5
million ESALs had been added after the rehabilitation.
This was almost the same as the traffic carried during
the first phase (1.4 million). It is also worth noting the
high HVS traffic volume that the section had carried in
the dry state (20.3 million). This case study demon-
strates the importance of integration of APT and studies
of the performance of in-service pavements and the need
to take into account the environmental impact in a manner
that simulates the actual field conditions during trafficking.

Case Study Three: Overlay on an alkaliaggregate re-
action distressed concrete pavement. In chapter six, the re-
habilitation of a jointed concrete pavement in South Africa
was discussed (Strauss et al. 1988). The pavement had suf-
fered severe distress because of the reaction between the
high alkali cement and the concrete aggregate. The reha-
bilitation was undertaken after completion of HVS testing
of alternative options that were constructed on the in-
service pavement (Viljoen et al. 1987; Strauss and Van der
Walt 1990). The HVS trials showed little rutting with the
alternative options. Cracking was the predominant mode of
failure. The following options were investigated:

150 mm crushed stone with 50 mm asphalt wearing
coarse,
30 mm open-graded asphalt with a bitumenrubber
binder wearing coarse,
80 mm asphalt with bitumen binder,
80 mm asphalt with low-modulus nonwoven geofab-
ric interlayer,
80 mm asphalt with bitumenrubber stress-relieving
interlayer, and
80 mm asphalt with high-modulus woven geofabric
interlayer.

Testing took place primarily during the wet winter sea-
son. Water was also sprayed onto the surface when there
was no rain. Conditions were therefore particularly harsh
during APT. Cracks initiated where the underlying old
concrete pavement exhibited movement. Several rehabili-
tation options were considered feasible, but the most eco-
nomical one for a short term (7-year life cycle) was found
to be bitumenrubber asphalt. The HVS study predicted 3
years of life for the bitumenrubber asphalt.

The rehabilitated pavement has been in service for al-
most 19 years with only limited maintenance. The mainte-
nance was in the form of a seal coat and joint repair
through removal of failed material and reinstatement of
concrete where the material had deteriorated owing to
the ingress of water and air (J.C. Van der Walt, personal
communication, December 3, 2001). The performance of
the road has been intermittently monitored since the origi-
nal construction. A report was compiled in 1997 (NDOT
SA 1997).

It was apparent that the performance was far better than
found with HVS testing. The theoretical analysis by
Strauss et al. (1988) concluded that the actual performance
could be as much as four times longer than the HVS per-
formance, if the mean condition of the underlying concrete
pavement is considered instead of the most severely dis-
tressed sections. In addition, the harsh conditions during
APT trafficking would have led to a conservative estimate
of performance life. The information gathered from the di-
agnostic performance monitoring has provided noteworthy
insight on the relationship between APT and in-service per-
formance. Some lessons learned were

The actual long-term performance of the original test
sections was as found with the HVS testing in 1984.
The concrete overlays (jointed and CRCP) have per-
formed well, with little or no visible distress.
The bitumenrubber asphalt section that had been
constructed with extender oil added has performed
well.
The stress-absorbing interlayers have played an im-
portant role in the long-term performance. This re-
lates to the reduction of the ingress of water into the
pavement structure and reduction of shear and tensile
stresses in the asphalt.

The three case studies demonstrate how vehicle
pavementenvironment interactions affect LTPP. Clearly,
the transfer of APT results to in-service pavements has to
be done with caution and specific consideration of all fac-
tors that can affect the results, particularly the environ-
mental factors. Also to be considered are the frequency of
maintenance and possible alternative failure mechanisms,
especially when the pavement structure is altered.

76
FAILURE CRITERIA

This issue relates to the previous topic. It is the basis for
defining benchmarks to ensure comparable APT perform-
ance relative to real pavement performance under conven-
tional traffic. Several factors have to be taken into account,
such as the limited size of test sections, the difference in
the nature of trafficking, the difference in time scale in-
cluding the effect of aging, the limited number of experi-
ments, and the limited ability to determine the integrity of
the pavement nondestructively. Two forms of load-related dis-
tress are generally considered, rutting and fatigue cracking.


Rutting

This form of distress is the easier one to monitor and
evaluate. The rut profile measurement is taken to be repre-
sentative of the performance of a section of in-service
pavement that it simulates. In general, the average maxi-
mum rut at a specific cross section is reported. A number
of impact factors are then taken into account to enable per-
formance of a pavement under different trafficking systems
or conditions to be compared. In the case of APT testing of
an in-service highway, it is taken to be on a one-to-one ba-
sis; that is, the rutting performance should be the same af-
ter accounting for climatic effects, load amplitude, and fre-
quency of load applications. Epps et al. (2001) followed a
systematic procedure for doing this in relating the per-
formance of the MMLS3 to the full-scale truck trafficking
at WesTrack. This allowed for differences in aging, load
frequency, temperature, and lateral wander. Epps et al.
(2001) also took into account the difference in the extent of
the stress profiles owing to the difference in load ampli-
tude. Once these factors had been accounted for, they
found that the rutting performance was comparable on a
one-to-one basis with a small margin of error.

It is of interest to note that the method of recording rut-
ting used in the Spanish APT program (Romero et al.
1992) is able to capture changes in the transverse rut pro-
file that are the result of shoving of the asphalt owing to
lateral wander. In their transverse profile measurements
they differentiate between the maximum rut depth and the
rut depth on the center line of the wheel path.

Maccarrone et al. (1997) reported that permanent de-
formation results obtained with ALF testing in the field (in
Australia) and wheel tracking in the laboratory gave a good
correlation. A similar magnitude of deformation level and de-
formation rate was obtained with ALF field testing and labo-
ratory wheel tracking when the latter was done at 60

C.

The problem becomes more difficult where the defor-
mation occurs throughout the pavement structure including
the nonbound, stress-dependent materials. Theyse (1997)
presented a conceptual model for the permanent deforma-
tion of pavement layers. In the process, he developed per-
manent deformation design transfer functions for a number
of unbound material quality groups, following the princi-
ples of a basic model. The main source of data for develop-
ing the design models was HVS test data collected over a
long period of time in South Africa. This covered dense-
graded crushed stone and natural gravel with due regard to
variations in quality, as well as a range of pavement foun-
dation material quality groups. These were subsequently
incorporated into the design recommendations for high-
ways (Structural Design of Interurban . . . 1996). The
ARRB followed a similar procedure (Sharp et al. 1999a).


Fatigue and Cracking

Fatigue is a more complicated form of distress because it
relates to cracking and stiffness loss. In general, it is ac-
cepted that failure has occurred once the in situ stiffness
has dropped to a level of 50% of the original untrafficked
pavement (Bhairo 1998a). Various methods of monitoring
the stiffness loss have been reported (Lee et al. 1997;
Bhairo 1998a; Harvey et al. 2000). With full-scale APT it
is necessary to monitor the cracking as it develops and
several procedures have been developed to do this. Scheffy
et al. (1999) explored a number of digital and manual crack
detection and mapping methods and developed a reliable
and consistent method of crack detection and measurement
for fatigue cracks. The method employs off-the-shelf soft-
ware and hardware, making it inexpensive and easy to im-
plement. Hugo et al. (1997) used transparent mylar sheets
to log cracking of a 12-m test section as trafficking pro-
gressed. Prints were then made of the sheets and their size
reduced to enable photocopies to be made. The electronic
images were vectorized with the aid of a commercial soft-
ware package. The cracks could then be analyzed to cate-
gorize them according to orientation. Groenendijk et al.
(1997) also present details for capturing and recording
cracks in the pavement using Mylar sheets. The methodol-
ogy they used for categorizing the crack orientation is the
one that was followed by Hugo et al. (1997). Other APT
programs each have their own methodology for monitoring
and recording cracks.


RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCELERATED PAVEMENT
TESTING AND LONG-TERM PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
STUDIES

There have been, and still are, a wide range of formal experi-
ments that are designed to monitor the performance of desig-
nated or specially constructed in-service pavement sections,
over time. Such formally structured experiments are gener-
ally known as LTPP studies. The relationship between APT
and formal LTPP studies is discussed in this section.
77
As discussed earlier, a number of APT programs have
monitored and kept detailed records on the performance of
pavements tested in an accelerated mode, either directly or
indirectly. Other programs, such as several in South Africa,
have only recently included such procedures in their test
plan (Jooste et al. 1997). This ongoing process provides an
important comparative base for relating actual performance
of formal LTPP sections under conventional trafficking to
performance under accelerated trafficking. The benefits of
such an approach are highlighted in an overview on the
topic submitted by Sharp and Clayton (personal communi-
cation, November 30, 2001) in which they give details of
the relationship between APT and long-term performance
trials of the ARRB. This is of a generic nature and consid-
ered to be of value to the APT community at-large. There-
fore, it has been included as Appendix H. Aspects of their
approach are briefly discussed later. It appears as if this in-
teraction between APT and LTPP was also contemplated in
the original formulation of the SHRPLTPP experiment
according to the following extract from the TRB SHRP
Research Plan report (1986):

The LTPP program embraces the total range of pavement in-
formation needs. It draws on technical knowledge of pave-
ments presently available and seeks to develop models that
will better explain how pavements perform. It also seeks to
gain knowledge of the specific effects on pavement perform-
ance of various design features, traffic and environment, use
of various materials, construction quality, and maintenance
practices.
In the years to come, as sufficient data become available,
analysis is expected to be conducted by numerous interested
agencies. The formal LTPP products are expected to include
better predictive models for use in design and pavement man-
agement, better understanding of the effect of many variables
on pavement performance, and new techniques for design and
construction. These improved tools are then expected to re-
sult in improved pavement management.
The LTPP study program has three potential types of stud-
ies. These include General Pavement Studies (GPS), Specific
Pavement Studies (SPS), and APT. The GPS involves a very
large experiment that embraces an array of site selection fac-
tors expected to produce a broad range of products and results.
The SPS will have their own set of more limited goals, con-
struction needs, and experimental approaches; and are gener-
ally aimed at more intensive studies of a few independent
variables for each of a number of study topics. The other cate-
gory of studies, which is to be considered for future adoption,
is the Accelerated Pavement Testing Program.

It is apparent that APT and formal LTPP programs share
many goals. This is significant given the growth in the
APT programs in the United States. Furthermore, both sys-
tems are attempting to build pavement knowledge in areas
such as

Validation of laboratory performance-related materi-
als tests;
The linkage between laboratory, APT, LTPP, and
normal in-service highways in terms of distress and
performance;
Construction-related pavement defects;
Quantification of risks in warranty projects;
The efficacy of maintenance procedures;
Vehiclepavementenvironment interaction; and
Development of durable, low-maintenance pave-
ments with improved performance prediction.

Because of the commonality, APT records contain in-
formation compatible with, and in many respects similar
to, that already being collected as part of formal LTPP
studies or programs, such as the SHRPLTPP experiment.
This provides a basis for efficiently and effectively com-
paring APT performance with that of related or comparable
LTPP sections. It is therefore understandable why research
entities are in general keen and willing to interface their
APT programs with formal LTPP programs. The Australian
ARRB approach to this matter is presented in Appendix H
as outlined by Sharp and Clayton (2001). The following
are salient features of their approach.

An Austroads-funded project was established to address
APT and LTPP issues and to take advantage of the oppor-
tunity to be directly involved in the SHRP program. This
had as its primary aim the monitoring of the performance
of a range of Australian test sections as a complimentary
project to the U.S. SHRPLTPP experiment. The goal was
to improve performance prediction models for the benefit
of LTPP.

The overall objectives of the Austroads LTPP study are to

Enhance asset management strategies through the use
of improved pavement performance models based on
an improved understanding of the behavior of pave-
ment structures (the SHRPLTPP program), and
Compare the results of accelerated pavement test
studies with actual road pavement performance (the
ALFLTPP program).

Nineteen Australian test sections have been monitored
continuously for 5 years. Some of these were specifically
established in tandem with ALF trials. The preliminary
analyses conducted to date have already produced signifi-
cant findings, many of which are discussed elsewhere in
this report.

With the expansion of the APT programs in the United
States, the benefits to be gained from closer linkage be-
tween the performance of in-service highways, formal
LTPP programs, and APT studies are apparent. As was evi-
dent from earlier discussions in this report, there is already
an extensive array of significant findings that can serve as
a basis for such a collaborative effort.

The foregoing discussions demonstrated that the in-
teractive use of results from the performance of in-service
pavements, together with formal LTPP monitoring and
78
APT programs, has improved understanding of the per-
formance of pavements and its prediction. In turn, this has
led to cost savings and it has enhanced construction and
rehabilitation practices. As a result it has reduced risk in
performance prediction. These findings are being used in
warranty projects and are proving of value in the im-
provement of pavement management.

In the next sections the discussion will focus on APT
studies conducted on nonconventional pavements such as
concrete block pavers and airport pavements.


APPLICATION OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO BLOCK PAVERS

Concrete block pavements have been tested using APT in a
number of facilities worldwide. Shackel (1990) provided
an overview of developments going back as far as 1967 in
Rotterdam. At the time, the test facility comprised a 20-m-
diameter circular test track. Subsequently, tests were car-
ried out in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ja-
pan. Studies have focused on

Strengths,
Shape of pavements,
Thickness of pavements, and
Layout pattern.

In studies using the HVS, Shackel (1980, 1982) ex-
plored the failure mechanisms and the factors that affect
performance.

Performance has been found to be somewhat similar to
flexible pavements, with some specific differences such as

Ability to tolerate higher resilient deflection, and
Stiffening of the pavement structure after the initial
500 load cycles were needed to develop full interlock.

It was also found that the pavements have a prominent
structural capacity as reflected by a sharp reduction in ver-
tical stress at the level below the bedding sand layer.

This brief overview shows how the state of knowledge
on pavers has been enhanced through APT and it serves as
an excellent example of how applications followed initial
research studies to enhance the use of the product.

In 2001, Sharp provided an interesting case study, per-
taining to the Sydney Opera House, on concrete pavers that
dates back 18 years. In 1998 and 1999, the Sydney Opera
House Trust commissioned an ALF study to investigate
failure of granite sets (pavers) on a heavily trafficked ac-
cess road to the Opera House. The sets were paved on a
mortar bed and the waterproof membrane on top of a rein-
forced concrete slab. The sets had failed through displace-
ment by passing traffic, after being loosened during traf-
ficking. The ingress of water followed with subsequent
secondary effects on the underlying structure. The study
focused on determining the optimum laying pattern as well
as bedding and jointing methods. Five panels were tested,
with alternative set patterns and bedding methods applied
to the respective layouts (K.G. Sharp, personal communica-
tion, December 3, 2001).

In this instance, the goal was to rank the relative per-
formance in terms of the extent of cracking and deforma-
tion. Another goal for the test was to determine the effec-
tiveness of the waterproof membrane. Dual-wheel load
tests (40 kN) were conducted, and it was apparent that dif-
ferential failure had occurred among the alternative test
plans (Figure 17). A second experiment was conducted
with 40-, 60-, and 80-kN ALF loads and trafficking was
taken to almost 1 million equivalent standard axles. In an
attempt to promote premature failure, areas of mortar joint-
ing were saw cut to duplicate cracking and allow ingress of
water into the pavement. Both wet trafficking and heated
trafficking were undertaken. The latter was to investigate
the effects of heat on the rubber membrane. Some minor
cracking was observed in both panels that were tested after
36,000 cycles. No further distress developed. The saw cuts
did not appear to affect the structural performance. Only
minor cracking was observed in both panels after 36,000
cycles; no other distress was observed at that time. There
appeared to be no evidence of the application of heat af-
fecting the performance of the water membrane underlay,
and the underlay did not appear to affect the performance
of the granite set pavement.


FIGURE 17 Failure of block pavers after 9,000 cycles of 40-kN
loading. Note the amount of sand that has been pumped from
under the granite blocks (Sharp 2001).

APPLICATION OF ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING
TO AIRPORT PAVEMENTS

APT already has an impressive record of applications to
airports, so much so that special equipment has been de-
veloped for this purpose (Hayhoe et al. 2001). Some of the
cases will be used to demonstrate the applications.
79
The HVSSA program successfully completed APT
studies on airport pavements in South Africa in the early
1980s (Clifford et al. 1982; Clifford and Opperman 1983).
The first was at the Cape Town International Airport and
the second at the Johannesburg International Airport.
Guo and Marsey (2001) investigated the effect of
temperature variation on the performance of concrete slabs
in the FAAs NAPTF. Load transfer between adjacent slabs
was found to be poor during winter (low temperature).
They also investigated joint behavior and concluded that
load transfer may be sensitive to traffic direction. An inter-
esting finding was that the sum of the deflection in two op-
posite directions across a joint varied very little. This may
serve as a guide to the sensitivity of slabs to curvature.

In the Cape Town International Airport case study, HVS
testing was conducted to evaluate the status of the taxi-
ways. Three sites were selected and trafficking done with
40- and 80-kN wheel loads (using regular truck wheels).
This was followed by trafficking with a 200-kN wheel
load, using a single wheel of a Boeing 747 at full load. In
the latter case, bleeding occurred and cracks developed.
Trafficking was terminated when the rut depth reached 40
mm. From the analysis of the results, it was concluded that
deep-seated distress was occurring because of insufficient
coverage over the submerged sandy subgrade. It was pro-
posed that full-depth asphalt rehabilitation be done. This
was undertaken 2 years later and as of 2001 the pavements
were being rehabilitated again with milling and the re-
placement of the asphalt layers. The historical traffic over
the taxiway amounted to 78,000 aircraft wheel-load appli-
cations before the recent rehabilitation (F.J. Pretorius,
personal communication, December 2001). In the HVS
testing in 1982, trafficking was terminated at 31,000
load applications, implying that the HVS tests were con-
servative in application. A somewhat similar result was
found with a second test run close by, which was termi-
nated after 14,000 load applications with the rut depth at
only 14 mm.

Hayhoe et al. (2001) investigated the impact of multi-
ple-wheel and multiple-truck landing gear configurations
and their spacings on six flexible pavements. A total of 522
tests were performed. Various items were also involved in
108 tests on three rigid pavements. The test vehicle com-
pleted these slow-rolling tests at 0.15 m/s. The purpose
was to study wheel loadpavement interaction in terms
of response under the moving wheel loads. Multi-Depth
Deflectometers were used in conjunction with the static
load tests on the flexible pavements under varying wheel
loads.

Garg and Hayhoe (2001) reported on tests that were
done with various slow-moving wheel loads. The loads
were varied and so was the temperature. As expected, the
strains varied strongly with temperature and speed; at the
upper range, the values were as much as three times higher
than those predicted by layered elastic computer programs.
They also found significant permanent deformation at high
temperature.

It should be remembered that trafficking done was bi-
directional, which is believed to be more severe than
unidirectional (Brown and Brodrick 1999). This could have
affected the performance.
The primary objective of the HVSA research program
is to validate the 3-D pavement design and evaluation pro-
gram being developed by the ERDC. The airfield pave-
ment design system was a direct result of a long history of
APT/full-scale testing.
At the Johannesburg International Airport, HVSSA
tests were conducted on fresh asphalt on a new taxiway ad-
jacent to the newly constructed parallel runway. The total
asphalt thickness was to be 100 mm, semi-gap graded with
19 mm aggregate. The pavement was very stiff with high-
quality crushed-stone base course on cement-treated sub-
base layers. With the HVS testing it was found that the de-
formation increased sharply when the test temperature was
raised from 30C to 40C. The laboratory Marshall designs
had indicated rutting susceptibility. This was confirmed
with the HVS testing when 40 mm rutting was reached af-
ter 27,500 repetitions of a 200 kN Boeing 747 wheel. As a
result it was recommended that the asphalt layer thickness
be reduced because the substructure was sufficiently stiff.
As of December 2002 the pavements are still in service.

The test plan provides for trafficking with the HVSA
to determine response and performance using multiple-
wheel loadings. The first two flexible pavement systems
were designed, constructed, and instrumented using the
USACE Layered Elastic Design program. The structure in-
cluded a clay subgrade with a CBR of 6, a crushed lime-
stone base with a CBR of 100, and an asphalt surface. Traf-
ficking simulated a 727 aircraft with a modified overall
load of 223 kN per tire on the main gear. The pavement
configuration allowed for different base course thick-
nesses.

Local materials were used. The quality of HMA as con-
structed did not meet specifications, but the test was com-
pleted to explore the effect of noncompliance. Tests were
continued until trafficking was no longer possible. The test
sections were fully instrumented and included three five
level, multiple-depth deflectometers. The test program is
continuing.


SUMMARY

In essence, APT results have been applied toward
80
Validation and modification of design procedures,
Pavement configuration comparison in terms of per-
formance,
Evaluation of material performance,
Performance prediction of pavements,
Evaluation and improvement of construction prac-
tices, and
Evaluation of maintenance and rehabilitation prac-
tices.

In this chapter, the applications and issues emanating
from APT applications were considered. It was evident that
the applications that have been reported worldwide offer a
vast reservoir of knowledge that should be tapped by all
APT programs prior to embarking on new endeavors. The
fields that were covered represent not only a wide range of
applications but also some very valuable information that
provides strong economic incentives for conducting APT.
It is apparent that the pavement engineering knowledge
base has been enhanced through APT and much of the
knowledge is being applied. However, it remains a chal-
lenge to integrate the information into the entire pavement
engineering design and construction system.

A comprehensive statement on key findings is provided
in chapter nine. It was clear that all APT programs had al-
ready contributed valuable information toward the building
of a sound understanding of pavement performance under
APT. However, gaps were identified with respect to vehi-
clepavementenvironment interaction and substantial ef-
fort will be needed in this regard to create a sound basis for
future development.

Another matter that was evident was the advantage in
establishing a close relationship between LTPP studies and
APT. The benefit of progressive review of pavement per-
formance under conventional traffic and the possibility of
emulating this through intermittent APT trials offers scope
for further study, and this should be pursued. Thus far the
economic aspects of applications have not been specifically
considered and these form the topic of the next chapter.

It is clear that work remains in various fields of pave-
ment engineering and in this regard the following should
be noted:

The need to formalize the approach for extrapolating
APT to full-scale trafficking on regular, conventional
pavements;
The need to attempt improvement on the quantifica-
tion of the impact of the environment on APT results.
This is not only necessary to improve the understand-
ing of pavement performance, but also to validate the
credibility of APT; and
The need to establish repeatability of test findings
and related confidence limits. Collaborative APT pro-
grams have already demonstrated the benefits in this
regard.

81


CHAPTER EIGHT

IMPROVEMENT OF PAVEMENT ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
THROUGH ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING APPLICATIONS


INTRODUCTION

This chapter in effect represents the core of what APT pro-
grams are about. Unfortunately it is also an area where suf-
ficient information is often not available. Nevertheless, re-
ports have been published with enough information to
provide insight into the economics of APTs. Success sto-
ries have been accumulating and these should serve as a
base for management of APT systems, as well as provide
information for improving management decisions, thereby
reducing the effect of risk. It should help APT users to
capitalize on the funds that they are spending or programs
that they may be contemplating. With respect to the latter,
some unique features of recently launched programs will
be featured.

Before discussing some of the wide variety of applica-
tions that were found in the literature, the results from a
synthesis of the questionnaire survey will be presented.


QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The response to Questions 1.6 to 1.14 on management is
reflected in Figures C6 to C14 in Appendix C. The re-
sponse was synthesized and the results are contained in the
following list.

The typical duration of APT tests is related to the
types of devices as well as the programs of the vari-
ous entities. Some of the test programs run over ex-
tended periods of time. It is noteworthy that most of
the programs appear to be running between 4 and 6
months per test; however, there are tests that run for
more than 24 months (Figure C6).
The capital expenditure involved in APT programs is
high, as was expected. The extent of this is shown in
some detail in Figure C7, where it can be seen that a
number of programs have capital expenditures ex-
ceeding $5 million.
The operational budgets vary widely, which is clearly
dependent on the nature of the test programs as well
as the related devices (Figure C8).
The breakdown of disbursement through the annual
budget indicates that operational expenditure is gen-
erally above 30% of the budget and maintenance ap-
pears to vary from less than 10% to 20%. Not sur-
prisingly staff expenditure consumes more than 30%
of the annual budget of most of the programs (Figure
C9).
Average operational cost is reportedly less than
$500,000 per test for the majority of test programs
(Figure C10).
Staffing needs generally appear to be less than five
individuals in each of the professional, technical, and
administrative categories (Figure C11).
Overall estimated savings or benefits for individual
APT programs appear to be high, greater than $2 mil-
lion, and therefore it is not surprising to see benefit-
cost ratios reported to be 20 to 1 or greater (Figures
C12 and C13).
Figure C14 relates to the benefits of APT in terms of
pavement engineering as a whole. This provided
valuable insight into the ways in which the informa-
tion is being applied or knowledge is being gained.
Improved structural design and performance model-
ing appear to be cited most often; however, not sur-
prisingly, the information gained in terms of im-
proved material design and the use of new and
innovative materials follows closely behind. Topics
related to this are, as would be expected, the devel-
opment of performance-related specifications and a
better understanding of variability.

Views of respondents to the survey on management are
presented in Table D1 in Appendix D.

The synthesis of the APT programs clearly indicated a
number of categories in which the application of APT had
contributed significantly toward more economic pave-
ments, with improved performance. In the previous chap-
ters technical aspects of the programs were considered. In
this chapter the improvement of pavement economics and
management through APT applications is considered.

With the growth in APT facilities it has become easier
and more feasible to demonstrate and quantify the benefits
of APT for pavement engineering and management. This
was particularly evident from the viewpoints expressed by
the respondents to the questionnaire survey.

The comments varied from very specific method state-
ments for quantifying the benefits to statements of nontan-
gible, less-measurable items. A listing is given in Table 4.
A wide range of specific views or applications was also
found in the literature and many are included in Table 4.

82
TABLE 4
APT BENEFITS RELATIVE TO FIELDS OF ACTIVITY IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
APT Program Description
(a) Benefits of APT: Improved structural design procedures
APLF Structural responses measured with strain gauges and LVDTs are used to improve design
procedures and modeling techniques.
ARRBAu Input into revisions of Austroads Pavement Design Guidedamage relationships, particularly
for cemented materials; confirmation of Shell relationships for asphaltic fatigue; subgrade
deformation, etc.
Use of unbound and cemented subbase under plain unreinforced concrete bases. Procedures for
the design of pavements incorporating bitumen/cement and slag/lime blends.
CAPTIFNZ Allows for the verification of new structures and/or philosophies against existing processes in a
controlled environment.
FAANAPTF New design data for six-wheel aircraft landing gears.
HVSSA Reduction of pavement costs by reducing unnecessary pavement thickness or by improving the
structural balance of the design.
Avoidance of failure caused by the use of unproven designs or by abnormally heavy traffic.
Rapid evaluation and comparison of rehabilitation measures for flexible, semi-flexible
(stabilized), and rigid pavements.
NCAT Auburn Recommend different layer coefficients for SMA mixes that use the sane materials as
comparable Superpave sections.
PFRLa Correlate pavement design estimates versus actual life, verifying pavement layer coefficients.
UKUUlst Allowed comparison of traditional designs with thinner, stiffer layers.
ERCDGSL APT helped with strain criteria for subgrade and asphalt. APT helped with stress ratio criteria
for concrete.
(b) Benefits of APT: Improved performance modeling
APLF Structural responses measured with strain gauges and LVDTs are used to improve design
procedures and modeling techniques.
ARRBAu Development of performance relationships for the fatigue life of materials stabilized with
bitumen/cement and slag/lime blends, etc. Improved maintenance intervention strategies for
unbound pavements with thin bituminous surfacings.
CAPTIFNZ Allows the verification of new structures and/or philosophies against existing processes in a
controlled environment.
NCAT Auburn Validating laboratory performance testing by comparing to actual field performance.
PRFLa Matching actual performance vs predicted. Trafficking loads are exactly known.
(c) Benefits of APT: Improved material design procedures
APLF Lateral profiles measured with a laser profilometer are used to monitor the stability of AC mixes.
ARRBAu Extensive input into the laboratory characterization of the deformation and fatigue properties of
asphalt associated with the Materials Testing Apparatus (dynamic creep test, etc.).
Development of testing protocols for the characterization of unbound materials using repeated
load triaxial testing.
HVSSA Greater knowledge and understanding of pavement and materials behavior.
NCAT Auburn Compare two or more sections and advise sponsors on best way to use local materials (e.g.,
better performance by blending on the coarse side of the maximum density line).
PRFLa Conventional soilcement base courses were examined against thicker, but weaker cement-
treated layers. Inverted pavements were also proven.
UKUUlst Enabled assessment of minimizing layer thicknesses.
ERDCGSL Base course physical property requirements; ERDCGSL AC mixture design.
(d) Benefits of APT: Use of new innovative materials
ARRBAu Evaluation of marginal materials, lateritic gravel, fine-grained materials, stabilized flyash;
ground granulated blast furnace slag; stabilization using slag/lime and bitumen/cement blends;
modified binders in asphalt.
HVSSA Rapid evaluation of materials that are not standard road-building materials.
PRFLa Fibers (polypropylene) and geogrid materials were tested.
UKUUlst Allowed comparison of traditional and new materials before large scale trials.
ERDCGSL Resin-modified pavement, sand grid, hex-mat, fiber stabilization of sand, geosynthetics, foam
blocks, fiberglass-reinforced panels.
(e) Benefits of APT: Development of performance-related specifications
ARRBAu Revision of USACE specifications for lateritic gravels.
Development of testing protocols for the deformation properties of asphalt.
Use of geotextile-reinforced seals on expansive clay subgrades. Revision of Queensland Main
Roads specification for fine-grained marginal material.
CALAPT Fully described elsewhere in the report.
FAANAPTF Enabled impact of six-wheel gears to be assessed.
WesTrack A comprehensive report with wide-ranging results on the findings of the trafficking experiment
with proposals for implementation is available.
NCAT Auburn Suggest pay factor adjustments for variations in asphalt content that occur during construction.
83
TABLE 4 (Continued)
APT Program Description
(f) Benefits of APT: Material databases
ARRBAu Extensive database available for researchers and practitioners.
FAANAPTF Enabled impact of six-wheel gears on materials to be assessed.
FHWAPTF The program has been operational since 1986 and an extensive database of findings is available
for researchers and practitioners.
TxDOT Provided opportunities to link nondestructive testing (NDT) data to performance results.
Improvements in NDT data collection, in situ instrumentation techniques, analysis techniques,
and performance modeling. Understanding advantages and limitations of APT. Rutting and
cracking data from all TxMLS test pads provided invaluable opportunities to establish and/or
calibrate performance models.
WesTrack A comprehensive report with wide-ranging results on the findings of the trafficking experiment
is available for researchers and practitioners.
(g) Benefits of APT: Improved pavement management
HVSSA Improved pavement design methods allow better (optimal) use of funds and natural resources.
NCAT Auburn
Asphalt contents intentionally elevated on comparison sections to quantify effect of construction
variability on actual performance.
PRFLa

Extra measures were implemented to ensure reliability even for 60 m lane to accommodate
parallel test sections.
(h) Benefits of APT: Better understanding of variability
CAPTIFNZ

Detailed measurements related to fixed reference points allows measurements to be repeated at a
later date; also, the initial variability can be related to actual behavior.
(i) Benefits of APT: Warranty contracts
NCAT Auburn

Validate laboratory performance predictions so designers and builders can have confidence in
future performance of roadway.
INDOT

Validate laboratory performance predictions so designers and builders can have confidence in
future performance of roadway.
(j) Benefits of APT: Weather databases
ARRBAu

Weather databases: air temperature and rainfall for all trials; pavement temperature and moisture
movement as appropriate.
NCAT Auburn

Automated weather station monitors environment while data acquisition systems record
multidepth temperatures within each of 46 test sections.
(k) Benefits of APT: Evaluation/validation of Superpave
PRFLa Planned for 2002.
Notes: LVDT = linear variable differential transformer; SMA = stone matrix asphalt; AC = asphalt concrete.
(Source: Significant findings from full-scale APT testing Question 1.14.)

Anecdotal statements on specific measures with savings
owing to innovative use and/or application of APT also
provide a means to gauge benefits. A selection of such an-
ecdotes is presented.

Apart from the anecdotal presentations, the chapter also
contains discussions on topics that are directly related to the
main theme of economy and management. An overview of
some current and planned future APT applications is also pre-
sented with a brief comment on some international trends.


EXAMPLES OF PAVEMENT ECONOMIC GAINS THROUGH
ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING

NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 235 (Metcalf 1996)
presented a summary of a number of reports on the
effectiveness and cost-benefit ratios pertaining to published
APT programs. This section contains a further selection of
recently reported findings as a supplement (in anecdotal
format).
Steyn et al. (1997) reported on a multiyear APT study of
the performance of rehabilitated LCP structures. The aim
was to quantify the structural benefits and to optimize the
life-cycle cost for the South African National Road
Agency. They found that the rehabilitated LCPs only failed
in two ways; by permanent deformation the result of
pumping of fines in the wet condition and by bleeding of
the double seal where it was used. The pavements con-
sisted of high-quality crushed-stone base course (G1) and
thin (<50 mm) asphalt surfacing. The economic analysis of
these rehabilitated LCP structures indicated that the
double-seal rehabilitation option was the most economi-
cal option for traffic classes with equivalent traffic de-
mands less than or equal to 10 million equivalent standard
axles. The G1 crushed-stone rehabilitation option was the
most economical option for 10 to 30 million equivalent
standard axles.

The WesTrack facility in Nevada has provided valuable
information on functional performance of pavements. This
was achieved through careful analysis of data pertaining to
84
vehiclepavement interaction. During the course of traf-
ficking, pavement sections had to be rehabilitated as a re-
medial measure to remove roughness and reinstate failed
sections. The necessity arose because of surface roughness
and structural distress. The vehicle operational records
provided the data to determine the impact of the deteriora-
tion on the truck operational unit. The average fuel usage
before and after rehabilitation showed a 4.5% improve-
ment in fuel economy as a direct result of the smooth sur-
face. It was also concluded that the savings would have
been slightly more if the environmental conditions had
been similar; significantly, they were harsher. The potential
economical effect of this can be substantial. Not surpris-
ingly the roughness also affected truck maintenance cost,
including frame fracture, spring failures, and loosening of
components. This was vividly demonstrated by a dramatic
reduction in spring failures after implementation of the re-
habilitation (Sime and Ashmore 2000).

Brown and Powell (2001) reported similar findings
from the NCAT experiment. From preliminary data it
was found that the rate of fuel consumption appears to
be directly related to changes in the average roughness
of the pavement surfaces. During the first five million
ESALs, the average IRI increased from a value of ap-
proximately 1.08 to approximately 1.18. It was of inter-
est to note that the IRI actually decreased to 1.02 during
the first 5 months before increasing to 1.18. In the same
time frame, fuel consumption increased by slightly more
than 2%. After completion of the test, it is anticipated that
it will be possible to evaluate seasonal effect on engine ef-
ficiency.

Harvey et al. (2000) reported comprehensively on the
assessment of economic benefits that would accrue from
the implementation of the following three changes in flexi-
ble pavement technology resulting from findings from the
CAL/APT program:

1. Increase compaction requirements for HMA,
2. Require the use of tack coats to improve bonding be-
tween HMA lifts in all construction projects, and
3. Include a rich bottom layer in thick AC structures.

A full-cost model was developed and used to calculate
the direct cost savings to Caltrans with the use of the new
pavement technologies. The basis for the analysis was the
increase in the life of the pavement and the time between
necessary maintenance and rehabilitation actions. An in-
crease of 15% in the period between overlays results in a
savings of $6,933 per two-lane-km equivalent. Applying
this savings to the roadway system yields a potential state-
wide savings of more than $56 million. If the period be-
tween overlays is extended by 5 years, statewide savings is
more than $244 million, a net value of more than $163 mil-
lion.
In addition to direct construction savings, user cost sav-
ings and safety cost savings will be realized. Because
maintenance and rehabilitation actions will be required less
frequently, fewer shutdowns, closures, and roadway capac-
ity reductions will be required. Hence, user costs and
safety costs will be reduced.

These savings were calculated for a representative pro-
ject on I-5 near Sacramento. For example, their study
showed that the time cost savings would be $1,335,600, or
54% of the total benefits. Safety improvements would
yield $658,627, or 20% of the total benefits. Direct cost
savings to Caltrans on the project amounted to $468,480,
or 19% of the total cost. The increase in pavement life and
reduction in frequency of required rehabilitation yielded a
benefit of approximately $2.5 million for the representative
project.

The researchers argue that this benefit is realized at rela-
tively little cost. The new pavement technology is primarily
focused on method or technique and not the application of
new, additional, or more costly materials. The new pavement
technologies are expected to have little or no impact on per-
son-hours of labor required on a given contract.

Overall, the potential for cost savings using these new
pavement technologies appears to be quite large. If such a
saving is applied statewide, using the factor of proportion-
ality of 19%, the researchers estimated that the total sav-
ings potential could be in the neighborhood of $587 mil-
lion (1998 dollars). They concluded that more research was
needed to explore aspects such as pavement age and pro-
ject location.

Harvey et al. (2000) also reported on an issue that has a
bearing on the quality and the economy of the constructed
product; namely, quality control/quality assurance
(QC/QA). They showed that CAL/APT data can provide
the basis for a rational procedure for the development of
pay factors. For this they used the calibrated mix analysis
and design system. Pay factors based on fatigue analysis
have already been developed. The factors include the ef-
fects of degree of mix compaction (represented by relative
compaction), binder content, and asphalt thickness. The
proposed factors have been combined with those devel-
oped from rutting analyses for the WesTrack test road. This
is yet another example of the synergism that collaborative
APT efforts yield. The system stresses the importance of
proper compaction to ensure improved fatigue and rutting
performance. In the same vein, the importance of thickness
control for asphalt layers is stressed in the reported study.
The authors (Harvey et al. 2000) concluded that a signifi-
cantly improved HMA performance bonus/penalty system
as a part of a QC/QA program has the potential to signifi-
cantly improve asphalt pavement performance if imple-
mented.
85
The DIVINE project (OECD 1998), discussed in
chapter three, provided conclusive evidence of the effect
of interaction between suspension, quality of initial con-
struction, and pavement materials on surface deteriora-
tion. This has an important bearing on strategies for ve-
hicle-related options and pavement design, construction,
and maintenance. The final report commented on this as
follows:

Vehicle-related options could be supported by new strategies
for pavement design, reconstruction, and maintenance; these
might be required to produce pavements that induce less dy-
namic loading and are less sensitive to its effects, and could
result in stronger, more even pavements on designated freight
routes. Pavement design and construction techniques should
emphasize uniformity in materials, construction, and surface
smoothness to ensure that heavy vehicle dynamic loads do not
substantially reduce pavement life and increase maintenance
costs. Structural and surface (evenness) uniformity should be
emphasized in pavement design and construction cost/per-
formance trade-offs. The DIVINE project provides further
support for the characterization and measurement of highway
conditions, to enhance the pavement management systems on
which all OECD member countries are increasingly reliant.

The unique ability of APT to capture this information in
a quantitative manner is featured as a significant finding;
whereas the economic impact of the finding is self-evident
even though it has not been quantified.

Autret and Gramsammer (1990) cited a variety of cases
where there were distinct pavement economic gains
through the application of APT. They reported that the under-
standing of pavement mechanics has been substantially im-
proved. This has led to a refinement of their (French) cata-
logue of new pavement structures. It has also enabled them
to revise the classification of untreated granular materials.
Of particular importance was the new information that had
been obtained about the laws of equivalence for damage by
different axles, especially since these contradict the rules
derived from the AASHO tests (AASHO 1961). They also
indicated that these updated values are comparable to those
of certain performance models such as the HDM3 model.
The same authors reported on tests with the inverted struc-
ture. This was discussed earlier in this report, but it was
important to note that the findings were immediately im-
plemented on a motorway in France and this had resulted
in substantial savings. In a study by the LCPC, they found
that it was possible to rate the performance of different as-
phalt mixes under traffic. The use of bitumen-coated mate-
rials as drainage layers was evaluated under traffic. This
was important, particularly since a number of commer-
cially available load-bearing materials were being placed
on the market. At the end of 2 million loading cycles in se-
quential summer months, the performance of two thin-
rolled asphalt materials was found to be satisfactory.

Cort et al. (1997) discussed the importance of mix
composition and noted that APT has enabled the stability
of asphalt mixes to be evaluated by trafficking at tempera-
tures above 45C. At this temperature, they have demon-
strated that, both in the laboratory and in the field, the na-
ture of the binder has an important effect toward counter-
acting rutting. Significant economic benefits have accrued
through the prudent selection of asphalt mixes.

The Beerburrum II ALF trials, consisting of 34 experi-
ments in Australia, led to guidelines for the design and
construction of stabilized and unstabilized granular pave-
ments. This resulted in reduced pavement depths being
adopted for Winton sandstone. As a consequence, the
Queensland Department of Main Roads saved approxi-
mately 15% on the total cost, with no reduced performance
characteristics (Vuong et al. 1996).



SOME LESSONS FROM IN-SERVICE HIGHWAY FIELD
ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING TRIALS

In South Africa and Australia, field trials on in-service
highways are the norm. However, very little experience
with such trials exists in the United States. It is there-
fore appropriate to consider the few examples that have
been executed in the United States. In 1992, the first
field tests were conducted with the FHWA ALF in Mon-
tana and Wyoming. Apart from serving to confirm the
capability of on-site testing, the trials were productive
and successful on both in-service highways (WASHTO
1990; Bonaquist 1992a). Insight was gained on mobility
and reliability of the device. Its all-weather capability
was also proven. Tests seemed to validate recommenda-
tions that had been made by the respective DOTs toward
the proposals for addressing their problems with rutting.
However, there was no temperature control during the
experiments, which limited the ability for interpretation,
because the results were subject to the environmental
conditions prevalent during testing.

Bonaquist (1992a) pointed out that, although the antirut-
ting mixture that had been developed by which the state
had delayed the development of rutting, there was evidence
of plastic flow. This indicated that the rutting resistance
needed to be further investigated through APT. The intent
was to determine the relationship between asphalt binder
with modifier and required layer thickness. The cost of the
two trials amounted to $297,000, or $148,500 per test. This
compares favorably to the values reported in the APT sur-
vey (see Figure C10 in Appendix C).

The testing of US-281 in Texas from 1997 to 1999, with
the TxMLS, was the second application of APT on an in-
service highway after the ALF trials in Montana and
Wyoming (Hugo et al. 1999a,b). Despite the extended du-
ration of the testing owing to unforeseen circumstances,
interfacing with traffic was without serious incidents. The

86
nature of the pavement structure was such that it would not
have been possible to conduct an experiment of this kind in
any other way. An extensive source of knowledge was built
up. The tests also provided further validation of the appli-
cation of seismic testing to monitor changes in the stiffness
of the asphalt mixes, creating the basis for comparing the
effect of wet and dry trafficking on performance (Walubita
et al. 2000).

In May 1998, shortly after the start of the TxDOT test
program in Jacksboro, field testing started on SR-14 in
Palmdale, California, with the HVS2 (Harvey et al. 2000).
These field trials have already resulted in some significant
findings, which have been discussed in chapter four.


ENHANCEMENT OF PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
PROCEDURES

Pavement performance is a primary element of PMS. It is
therefore logical that improved understanding of factors
that affect pavement performance would lead to improve-
ments in PMS. Unfortunately, this is not necessarily a
straightforward course of events, as will be seen from the
following case studies.

Rust et al. (1997) presented a typical example of an en-
hancement to the South African PMS derived from the
HVS program. It relates to the adoption of visual cracking
as a trigger for resealing. The HVS showed that cracking in
thin surfacing used in South Africa would lead to rapid
pavement deterioration with ingress of water before any
significant change in deflection. This contrasts with prac-
tice elsewhere in which changes in deflection are used for
triggering such action for the widely used thicker asphalt
bases. On this issue, Autret and Gramsammer (1990) found
that the date of rehabilitation of surfacing does not have as
much effect on the life of surfacing. The application of a
maintenance asphalt layer of 80 mm was reported to have
the same pavement life as two layers of 40 mm applied se-
quentially with a time delay in between. This demonstrates
the importance of considering all aspects of the situation
when formulating strategies towards the maintenance and
rehabilitation of pavements.

It was pointed out in chapter three that water had a pro-
found effect on pavement performance. The strong empha-
sis by the Australians on improved understanding of the
impact of factors such as compaction and moisture on the
performance of pavement has proven to be a sound ap-
proach with tangible economic benefits. Vuong et al.
(1996) found that high-quality crushed rock pavements
benefit significantly from increased compaction because of
the reduced influence of moisture. It was found that the
degree of saturation is of paramount importance. In the
case of granular materials with low plasticity, the degree of
saturation is considered to be a better indicator than opti-
mum moisture content. Under short-term ALF loading
conditions, in situ stabilization using 2% bitumen and 2%
cement was found to be more effective than other treat-
ments that had been explored as replacement for the sand-
stone and high-quality crushed rock. It was found that the
reduced pavement depths that could be used with the Win-
ton sandstone translated into total project cost savings of
15%.


DEVELOPMENT IN ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING-
RELATED TECHNOLOGIES

The SAHVS program has spawned a number of ancillary
artifacts that are being widely used to enhance the APT
programs (De Beer et al. 1997; Rust et al. 1997). Examples
are Stress-in-Motion, the VRSPTA, and CAM. The multi-
depth deflectometer used for measuring dynamic deflec-
tion and permanent deformation is another example of an
ancillary APT device. Multidepth deflectometers or equiva-
lent are now being manufactured in Texas, France, and
Australia. The application of the Dynamic Cone Penetro-
meter in conjunction with APT programs has led to its
widespread acceptance as a diagnostic tool for measuring
pavement strength. Other APT programs have had much
the same experience (Gramsammer et al. 1999; Sharp et al.
1999a). In the case of WesTrack, the effective and success-
ful use of driverless vehicles is noteworthy (Epps et al.
1999). Earlier, Japan also used the same approach in an
APT program (Metcalf 1996).

The digital and manual crack detection and mapping
methods developed by Scheffy et al. (1999) were reported
as being reliable and consistent for detection and mapping
of fatigue cracks. Their method, which employs off-the-
shelf software, was reported as being inexpensive and easy
to implement.


DEVELOPMENT IN ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING-
RELATED DATABASES AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

APT programs are generating data worldwide. Specific ac-
tivities have been set in motion to ensure that the APT
community-at-large captures this information in various
ways for use. In particular, the format of data collection
has been formalized under the auspices of APT committee
A2B09 of the TRB. The information is available in a TRB
circular at http://www.nas.edu/trb/publications (report on
APT data survey recorded by APT programs, Number E-
C004) (Hugo et al. 1999d). To provide for maximum shar-
ing and use of APT data, NCHRP is preparing NCHRP Re-
port 512: Accelerated Pavement Testing: Data Guidelines
(Saeed and Hall 2004). This project will develop defini-
tions of the data elements associated with APT and rec-
87
ommend guidelines for their collection, storage, and re-
trieval.

As mentioned earlier in the synthesis, a close link has
been established with the COST 347 program, which
provides access to the European APT activities (website:
http:// www.cordis.lu/cost-transport/src/cost-347.htm). It
should be noted that the European community has opted
to use ALT as the acronym for their accelerated load
testing programs. The objectives of the program can be
found on the website. Deliverables include a database
containing an inventory of existing and planned new
APT (ALT) facilities and a report on previous and cur-
rent research.

In line with the trend toward electronic communica-
tions, all active APT programs in the United States have
websites. Some already contain extensive information
pertaining to the APT specific program as well as a da-
tabase with information on completed tests. The FAAs
NAPTF program is a good example of such an opera-
tional website with access to the data that are being gen-
erated

The CAL/APT program has already built up a wealth of
findings since its inception in 1994. The immediate results
of the research after reaching a research goal are captured
through the production of reports and other research prod-
ucts. Data produced from later research goals are fre-
quently combined with earlier results to produce new in-
sights or improve earlier interpretations. This provides a
basis for synthesis and further development beyond the
original goal(s) of the research. As part of the CAL/APT
program, a database was established and it is being popu-
lated. The intent is for partners in the CAL/APT research to
be supported in their use of the database. In general, it was
found that the databases of APT programs that were estab-
lished in the last decade are in various stages of develop-
ment.

In view of the close relationship between the SAHVS
program and a number of APT programs in the United
States, data from international HVS applications are also
being included in a continuous process in the SAHVS da-
tabase. The latter program has been operational for almost
30 years and therefore has an extensive volume of informa-
tion. The same is true of other mature APT programs such
as ARRBALF and the LCPC.

A list of the websites of all APT programs that are
featured in this synthesis can be found in Appendix B. The
extent of this development in communication and the
volume of data that are already available is a tangible
measure of the economic benefits being generated by the
APT programs.
SOME CURRENT AND PLANNED FUTURE ACCELERATED
PAVEMENT TESTING APPLICATIONS

Most of the APT programs in the United States are in the
early stages of development. Nevertheless, a wide range of
significant findings has already been reported as is appar-
ent from the synthesis. Almost all of these programs are
ongoing, and this section is intended to provide a link be-
tween completed studies, reported findings, and relevant
follow-on studies. The respective respondents to the ques-
tionnaire survey provided the information.


CAL/APT

On the basis of the submission by the respondents, this
program is probably the most comprehensive APT program
in the United States. It is an excellent example of partner-
ing using two HVS machines. The one unit is operating in
a controlled laboratory environment and the other on an in-
service pavement near Palmdale. The latter is an extensive
program on concrete pavements using HCC and PCC. The
program is interfaced with the Caltrans PMS database. Cur-
rently (2003) a deep in situ recycling study is underway and
there is a strong focus on rehabilitation pavement design.


CEDEX

The CEDEX facility now has two trafficking bogies and
these have doubled the trafficking output in terms of the
number of applied axles (A. Mateos, Centro de Estudias de
Carretera, personal communication, December 2001). Cur-
rently, tests are focused on the performance of subgrades
and mechanical stabilization. The first phase has been
completed and the second phase was scheduled to start in
December 2001. The same asphalt pavement is being used
throughout. Sections have been instrumented to measure
structural response and subgrade quality in terms of plastic
deformation and cracking. Field conditions (temperatures
and water table elevation) are also monitored. The curves
of the test track are also used for testing the performance of
surface courses under high horizontal surface forces.


ERDCGSL

The main purpose of the test device is to provide the re-
quired field data to verify and validate the 3-D pavement
design and evaluation program by the ERDC in Missis-
sippi. A multifaceted 4-year test plan has been established
involving construction, instrumentation, and trafficking of
two or more test sections within a 1-year time frame. Pro-
vision was made to monitor moisture in the subgrade to de-
termine when changes take place. Trafficking was initiated
on the first section in March 1999. In the future, issues
such as freezethaw and weathering or aging are to be in-
cluded in the investigations. Thus far, one airfield study
88
has been completed and one roadway study is under way.
Aircraft load carts and military trucks are being used in con-
junction with the HVSA (Bigfoot) in the APT program.


FAA

During 2001, nine pavements were tested with the NAPTF
in New Jersey. Three subgrade classifications were used
low, medium, and high. The initial results are very promis-
ing, and tests are continuing on the three rigid and six
flexible test sections. Data were acquired, processed,
stored, and disseminated from more than 1,000 sensors, us-
ing 3 data collection systems. The information on response
and pavement performance under simulated B-747 and B-
777 loading is being used for development of mechanistic
design procedures for airport pavements. Four- and six-
wheel aircraft gear loads were applied at speeds of 4 and 8
khp, with lateral wander over a distance of 2 m.


FHWAPTF

Although the current Superpave system is very effective
for selecting the right unmodified asphalt binder for given
environmental and traffic conditions, it is far less effective for
characterizing modified binders. The FHWA recently (sum-
mer 2002) placed 12 lanes of HMA containing modified and
unmodified binders in its PTF. Results of ALF loading of
these pavements over a 3-year period will be combined with
data from an extensive laboratory testing program to support
development of an asphalt binder specification that correctly
predicts the relative performance of modified binders. The 12
lanes include one unmodified, 6 polymer-modified, and 2
crumb-rubber-modified asphalt binders in an experiment
designed to improve the Superpave binder specification. It
is also designed to evaluate how well performance models
being proposed for the 2002 Pavement Design Guide work
for polymerase-modified asphalt mixtures. Primary fund-
ing for the project comes from national pooled-fund pro-
ject TPF-5(119). The project is expected to continue at
least through March 2005. The data from the study will
also be used to evaluate models in the pavement design
guide being developed in NCHRP Project 1-37A and to
evaluate Superpave Simple Performance Test predictions
for fatigue cracking and rutting.


Florida DOT

The primary objective of Floridas APT and research pro-
gram is the improvement of the states pavements. The
goal is to acquire and implement the knowledge and tech-
nology to extend the useful service life of pavements and
prevent premature distresses in a cost-effective manner
(FDOT test plan 2001). The intent is to conduct research
through partnering with industry, the FHWA, academic in-
stitutions, and other interested constituencies. Implementa-
tion is designed to take place as soon as practical with
technology transfer to all stakeholders. The first experi-
ment is in partnership with the University of Florida and
the asphalt industry. The experiment is focused on evaluat-
ing the effect of polymer modifiers on the performance of
Superpave mixtures. The intent is to evaluate two binders:
one a PG67-22, the other a PG67-22 modified with a SBS
polymer, resulting in a binder equivalent to a PG76-22.


HVSCRREL

This facility is focused on testing the impact of subgrade
type, moisture content, and temperature on the perform-
ance of pavements. In particular, stressstrain response in
thawing soils is being investigated, as well as subgrade
failure criteria. The study is funded by the FHWA, and
tests are being conducted at optimum and wetted optimum
conditions. Other studies include reinstatement of utility
cuts, rapid repair work during the winter, geosynthetic re-
inforcement of base course layers, and sensor evaluation.


HVSNORDIC

The HVSNordic was moved to Sweden in 2000, where
eight typical Swedish road structures were tested. Two test
sections have thin surfacings (50 mm) and two other test
sections have rehabilitated structures. These four structures
have well-known performance records and their character-
istics are well documented. Tests 5 and 6 were constructed
from imported Icelandic materials and tested under Icelandic
supervision. The test program also allowed for trafficking of
steel-reinforced pavements in collaboration with industry. The
test plan was to return the device to Finland after the comple-
tion of the tests; there, further tests would be done on rein-
forced and unreinforced pavement structures. The intent was
also to include a light-weight pavement using expanded poly-
styrene. The latter pavements are for low-volume roads. The
last tests in the current series were intended to study the
importance of the road cross section. In Sweden, two re-
search programs are attempting to develop relationships
between strains in various design structures that are the re-
sult of loading, rutting, and cracking. As in other programs,
the intent is to coordinate the testing with the monitoring
of LTPP sections in Finland and Sweden.


Kansas DOT

The performance of foamed asphalt stabilized base in a
full-depth reclaimed asphalt pavement is being investi-
gated. The purpose of the current testing is to evaluate the
structural performance of RAP material that has been con-
89
taminated in the reclamation process after treatment with
foam asphalt. The contamination relates to the presence of
granular base material and possibly subgrade soil inadver-
tently mixed in during the reclamation process. Rutting is
expected to be the mode of failure. Four pavement sections
will be tested. Each will have the same 75-mm-thick sur-
face AC layer, while the base will be 150, 225, and 300
mm of foamed asphalt stabilized RAP. All will be con-
structed on 225 mm of conventional crushed-stone base
course. The sections will be loaded in pairs and a load of
104.5 kN at room temperature will be used.


Louisiana ALF Facility

This facility has been in existence for 6 years. ALF tests on
Superpave mixes will follow the completion of current
tests (third experiment), which entail the evaluation of base
course layers built with RAP. Concurrently, the implemen-
tation of results from the second experiment on the evalua-
tion of rubberized asphalt pavements produced according
to the Wet-Rouse process is being considered. Findings
from the first experiments on structural systems are also
being implemented by the Louisiana Department of Trans-
portation and Development. This entails two design con-
cepts, namely the use of thicker, but weaker cement-treated
base courses, and the use of the inverted pavement struc-
ture that has proven so successful in other APT programs,
after being reported for the first time by the SAHVS pro-
gram.


National Center for Asphalt Technology

For the 2003 research cycle, the NCAT track was prepared
for the following:

A new experiment consisting of milling and inlaying
14 sections with new rutting study mixes,
Deep removal of 8 sections to facilitate a small (instru-
mented) AASHO-like structural experiment, and
Continuing traffic on the remaining sections. The lat-
ter will extend the original 2000 experiment over a
second application of design traffic of a further 10
million ESALs.

The reconstruction project is again being funded
through a multistate research cooperative, with pooled
fund management and construction contract administration
provided by the Alabama DOT. All construction activities
were completed by the end of September 2003, and truck-
ing was started in late October.

A comprehensive report on field performance of the 2000
Track is currently being prepared. It will contain comparisons
on field performance and correlations between laboratory and
field performance based on data collected during phase I of
the program.


Texas

The Texas program is expected to undergo changes with
the establishment of the Texas Accelerated Pavement Test
Center in Austin. This will enable both fixed-site and field
applications to be pursued. A 5-year plan is being drafted.
The original and primary objectives (Hugo 1996) have not
changed, but a planning session identified the following
three important issues that will be investigated:

Load-zoned roadways,
Selected calibration of the 2002 design guide under devel-
opment by the NCHRP, and
New truck tire load enforcement legislation.

The TxMLS is currently being refurbished and it is
anticipated that it will be placed back into service during
2003.


University of Illinois

The initial test program for the loading system (ATLaS)
under the auspices of the University of Illinois is focused
on CRCPs.

The objective with this 150 m section is to determine

Optimum thickness of CRCP sections,
Optimum steel percentage, and
Crack spacing for Illinois.

Future projects include a study of AC overlays on
CRCP and validation of a new unbonded overlay design
procedure. The construction of two 150-m extended-life
CRCP sections was scheduled for completion in 2001. Full
operation of ATLaS was expected to begin early in 2002.


SOME INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

A recent, very enlightening report on emerging issues in
the Australian Transport Industry provides some notewor-
thy views on the likely future commercial vehicle types
and masses and, more importantly, expected trends in
terms of tire types and pressures, suspension types, and
axle configuration (Pearson and Foley 2000). The impact
of this on pavement engineering was recognized and a call
was made for follow-up work on

Air suspensions,
Wide single tires,
90
Quad-axle groups with an allowable loaded mass 3
tons greater than the allowable mass of a tri-axle, and
An increase in tire pressure to 850 kPa.

Clearly, these developments are most likely to be ex-
plored through APT in Australia, but also elsewhere in the
world as trends cross international borders.


CLOSING REMARKS

From a review of the benefits cited in Table 4 and else-
where in the report by the various APT programs, it was
concluded that the following tools are being used to
identify and implement findings from the various pro-
grams:

Econometrics of pavements in terms of
Enhancement of knowledge,
Design and construction of layers,
Extended service life, and
Increased benefit-cost ratio;
Specifications in terms of
Selection of materials for layers,
Quantification and setting of realistic tolerances, and
Configuration and construction of layers;
QC/QA systems;
Pay factors reflecting measures of
Nonconformance,
Limits/risks, and
Variability;
Forensic studies for reviewing mechanisms that af-
fect response and performance; and
Improved methods of performance prediction.

The information that has been assembled through this
study should enable DOTs to make greater use of APT in
their quest to serve the transportation community.

91


CHAPTER NINE

CONCLUSIONS


Based on the survey and the extensive literature resources
that were available it is clear that a high level of knowl-
edge and information has been built up in the field of ac-
celerated pavement testing (APT). The scope of APT stud-
ies is indeed very large, which was evident from the
analysis of the questionnaire responses (Appendixes BD)
and case studies that were derived from the subject bibliog-
raphy. These were included as integral parts of the various
chapters and related Appendixes G and H.

The nature of this synthesis is such that the details of
the various aspects of APT that were reviewed are pre-
sented in a number of locations for subsequent retrieval by
researchers and practitioners who are active in APT or in
using the results of APT. An index is provided that should
prove useful in this regard.

Overall, it was concluded that APT had served as a
means of improving performance and economics of pave-
ments. It has improved the understanding of the factors
that affect pavement performance through the ability to

Explore a wide variety of structural compositions and
configurations;
Simulate mechanisms, conditions, and processes
through loading and environment;
Test and characterize materials; and
Analyze and understand response and performance.

The acquired knowledge is being widely applied and it
has enhanced innovation in pavement engineering.

The following general conclusions were drawn relative
to the generic core of significant findings in terms of
applications.

On the topic of design, construction, maintenance, and
rehabilitation the survey and literature showed that

Unique, unconventional pavement structures could
be tested and evaluated through APT.
Failure mechanisms could be meticulously evaluated
so that it became possible to cost-effectively counter-
act distress mechanisms.
A wide range of structural design packages have been
evaluated or developed and this has greatly enhanced
their implementation.
Systematic investigation of the vehiclepavement
environment interaction has been made possible and
feasible through APT, although much still remains to
be done on this subject.
A large number of APT tests were related to pave-
ment materials. This is indicative of the potential of
APT to provide sound answers about pavement mate-
rials. More particularly, it has been shown to be use-
ful for answering questions relating to the use of new
materials, composite materials, and materials with
complex physical characteristics.
APT is a tool for confirmation and validation of
laboratory test procedures.
APT has become a useful tool for systematically de-
veloping and evaluating performance models.
APT is a means of answering questions related to re-
habilitation, construction, and maintenance in the
field. Answering those questions would be more dif-
ficult and take far longer without APT experiments.

This synthesis provides evidence of the economic and
management benefits that have been generated by APT.
More particularly

The economic gains as a result of APT are measur-
able. Details were given as to what has been achieved
in terms of benefit-cost ratios, savings on capitol ex-
penditure, and the use of recycled and new materials
and new pavement structures. Benefit-cost ratios ap-
pear to vary from 1:1 to more than 20:1.
APT has provided a quantitative basis for communi-
cating with decision makers about pavement per-
formance. However, it will be necessary to upgrade
APT systems to be able to account for environmental
effects on a quantifiable basis.
APT has attributes that supplement many aspects of
pavement management systems (PMS) and in-service
pavement evaluation. If the identified gaps in the sys-
tem are addressed, it may lead to rapid advances in
pavement engineering and ultimately to long-life
pavements with reduced maintenance costs.
Many ancillary artifacts have been developed in APT-
related technologies in support of programs throughout
the world. These have had considerable impact on the
ability to understand pavement response and perform-
ance. A variety of examples were discussed. A good
example is the improved understanding of tire
pavement interaction and its effect on performance.

The growth of APT in the United States may stimulate
advances in the field. This might gain even further momen-
tum as OECD COST 347 achieves its goals in Europe.
92
It was apparent that APT programs in general, and in the
United States in particular, have a number of common ob-
jectives. This became clear from the synthesis of the results
of the survey questionnaire. By prudent use of the avail-
able information and collaborative research efforts, APT
programs could advance pavement knowledge more rap-
idly. This could include some planned replication to im-
prove on the reliability of findings and to establish confi-
dence limits.

A number of issues that require collective input or
collaborative efforts were evident from the synthesis.

There was an apparent lack of feedback on the extent
to which APT performance predictions had been
validated. This applies to components of the system
as well as complete and comprehensive design sys-
tems. Consideration should therefore be given to
tracking the performance of in-service pavements
that have been tested in APT programs, as a matter of
course, where and when possible. This will enable
comparative performance studies to be conducted.
In line with international trends, APT programs
should, where possible, have closer association with
in-service pavement evaluation and formal long-term
pavement performance and related PMS programs.
There is an urgent need to improve on the quantifica-
tion of environmental impact on APT performance.
Progress in this regard could improve the credibility of
APT among other professional decision makers in the
field of pavement infrastructure. This would require a
well-structured, strategic plan to address all aspects of
the vehiclepavementenvironment interaction.
The advancement in the understanding of vehicle
pavement interaction during the last decade provides
a basis for further studies that could enhance pave-
ment performance prediction.

The stimulus that is being provided by the strong
growth of APT in the United States is likely to lead to ma-
jor advances in the field. This may gain even further mo-
mentum as OECD COST 347 achieves its goals in Europe.

The wide range of pavement types and configurations
that have been tested through APT provide a heritage of
knowledge on pavement engineering. This synthesis is the
link to this knowledge. It has served to create an awareness
of the benefits that are to be gained from prudent use of the
information through collaborative efforts. One of the rea-
sons for the collaborative approach lies in the vast number
of possible test parameters that can be tested for different
structural configurations. This trend is growing; for exam-
ple, the COST 347 project and the pooled fund studies in
the United States. It is recognized that a new generation of
researchers have entered the APT field. This synthesis, to-
gether with NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 235,
should assist these researchers in their quest to become ac-
quainted with all aspects of APT.

Internationally, the situation is somewhat different
where facilities have reached maturity and services are be-
ing rendered in an environment of privatization. Clients are
now often road agencies, and industry and projects are be-
ing completed on the basis of Design, Build, and Operate.
This is leading to partnering and the use of APT in support
of warranty contracts and improved management of pave-
ment infrastructure.

With globalization it would seem prudent to anticipate
similar wide-ranging changes in the United States. It is
therefore particularly fortunate that the APT programs in
the United States have entered a phase of development that
should provide the tools, technology, and APT practices
that will enable them to be well prepared for the challenge.

This development also has a negative aspect that needs
to be considered. With the trend toward privatization and
partnering, the results of APT studies are no longer natu-
rally in the public domain. This does not necessarily re-
strict access to the information; however, it often slows
down the technology transfer through conferences and
publications, although the Internet may change all of that
dramatically. APT activities throughout the world have be-
come linked and this is greatly enhancing exchange of data
and information.

93
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Shackel, B., An Experimental Investigation of the Roles of
the Bedding and Jointing Sands in the Performance of
Interlocking of Concrete Block Pavements, Con-
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Shackel, B., An Experimental Investigation of Factors In-
fluencing the Design of Interlocking Concrete Block
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Shackel, B., Design and Construction of Interlocking Con-
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Sharp, K.G. and B.M. Clayton, Benefits of LTPP Studies to
DateMilestone Report, APRG Document, Austroads
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Sharp, K.G., J.R. Johnson-Clarke, and D.W. Fossey, A
Review of the Australian ALF Program (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820,
1999a.
Sharp, K.G., B.T. Vuong, R.S. Rollings, E.J. Baran, and
J.B. Metcalf, The Performance of Lateritic Gravel
Pavements (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Inter-
national Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999b.
Shell Pavement Design Manual, Shell International Petro-
leum Co. Ltd., London, 1978.
Sherwood, J.A., X.-C. Qi, P. Romero, K.D. Stuart, S. Naga,
N.L. Thomas, and W. Mogawer, Full-Scale Pavement
Fatigue Testing from FHWA Superpave Validation
Study (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Sherwood, J.A., N.L. Thomas, and X.-C. Qi, Correlation
of Superpave G*/sin with Rutting Test Results from
Accelerated Loading Facility, Transportation Research
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Sime, M. and S.C. Ashmore, WesTrack Track Roughness,
Fuel Consumption, and Maintenance Costs, TechBrief,
FHWA-RD-00-052, Jan. 2000.
Smit, A. de F., F. Hugo, and A. Epps, Report on the First
Jacksboro MMLS Tests, Report Number 1814-2, Center
for Transportation Research at the University of Texas
at Austin, 1999.
Steven, B., J. de Pont, B. Pidwerbesky, and G. Arnold,
Accelerated Dynamic Loading of Flexible Pavements
at CAPTIF (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First In-
ternational Conference on Accelerated Pavement Test-
ing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Steven, B. and B. Pidwerbesky, Investigation of Vehicle
Pavement Interaction Using an Accelerated Full-Scale
Pavement Testing Facility, Presented at the 76th An-
nual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., Jan. 1216, 1997.
Steyn, W.J. vdM., M. De Beer, and A.T. Visser, Thin As-
phalt and Double Seal Rehabilitated Lightly Cemented
Pavements: Evaluation of Structural Behavior and Life
Cycle Costs, Proceedings of the 8th International Con-
ference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 10
14, 1997.
100
Steyn, W.J. vdM., M. De Beer, and W. Du Preez, Simu-
lation of Dynamic Traffic Loading for Use in Accel-
erated Pavement Testing (APT) (CD-ROM), Pro-
ceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 10
14, 1999.
Strategic Highway Research Program Research Plans,
Final Report, Transportation Research Board, Washing-
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Strauss, P.J. and N. Van der Walt, Practical Rehabilitation
Options for an AAR Affected Jointed Concrete Pave-
ment, Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium
on Concrete Roads, Madrid, Spain, Oct. 810, 1990.
Strauss, P.J., J. Du Plessis, V. Francis, and A.W. Viljoen,
The Application and Validation of an Analytical
Method in the Structural Rehabilitation of a Cracked
Rigid Pavement, Proceedings of Annual Transporta-
tion Convention, Pretoria, South Africa, 1998.
Structural Design of InterUrban and Rural Road Pave-
ments, TRH4, Committee of State Road Authorities,
Department of Transport, Pretoria, South Africa, 1980.
Structural Design of InterUrban and Rural Road Pave-
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Department of Transport, Pretoria, South Africa, 1986.
Structural Design of InterUrban and Rural Road Pave-
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Department of Transport, Pretoria, South Africa, 1996.
Stuart, K.D., R.P. Izzo, and J.L. McRae, Correlation of
Superpave G*/sin with Rutting Susceptibility from
Laboratory Mixture Tests (with discussion and clo-
sure), Transportation Research Record 1492, Transpor-
tation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1995, pp. 176183.
Stuart, K.D. and W.S. Mogawer, Validation of Asphalt
Binder and Mixture Tests That Predict Rutting Suscep-
tibility Using the Federal Highway Administrations
Accelerated Loading Facility, Journal of the Associa-
tion of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 66, March
1997, pp. 109152
Stuart, K.D., W.S. Mogawer, and P. Romero, Evaluation
of the Superpave Asphalt Binder Specification for High-
Temperature Pavement Performance, Journal of the
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 69,
April 2000, pp. 148176.
Sweatman, P.F., A Study of Dynamic Wheel Forces in Axle
Group Suspensions of Heavy Vehicles, ARRB Special
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Tayebali, A.A., J.A. Deacon, J.S. Coplantz, J.T. Harvey,
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Aggregate Mixtures, Part ITest Method Selection, Re-
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Program, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
June 1994, 309 pp.
Theyse, H.L., Mechanistic Empirical Modeling of the
Permanent Deformation of Unbound Pavement Layers,
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on As-
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Theyse, H.L., Accelerated Pavement and Laboratory Test-
ing of Materials Suited to Labour-Intensive Road Con-
struction (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Theyse, H.L., M. De Beer, and F.C. Rust, Overview of
South African Mechanistic Pavement Design Method,
Transportation Research Record 1539, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1996, pp. 617.
Tseng, K.H. and R.L. Lytton, Prediction of Permanent De-
formation in Flexible Pavement Materials, Implication
of Aggregates in the Design, Construction, and Per-
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Marek, eds.), ASTM STP 1016, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1989.
Turtschy, J.-C. and G. Sweere, Long-Term Pavement Per-
formance Modeling Based on Accelerated Pavement
Testing (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Ullidtz, P., J. Harvey, M. Riemer, and J. Prozzi, Layer
Moduli During HVS Testing: Comparing Laboratory
Results with Backcalculations from FWD and MDD
Deflections (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First In-
ternational Conference on Accelerated Pavement Test-
ing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999a.
Ullidtz, P., W. Zhang, and S. Baltzer, Validation of Pave-
ment Response and Performance Models (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820,
1999b.
Van der Merwe, C.J., H.L. Theyse, E. Horak, F. Hugo, and
H.A. Du Plessis, Evaluation of the Rehabilitation De-
sign of a BTB and the Effects of Artificial Aging Using
Accelerated Wheel Load Testing, Proceedings of the
Seventh International Conference on Asphalt Pave-
ments, Vol. 3, Nottingham, United Kingdom, 1992.
Vandenbossche, J.M. and D.L. Rettner, One-Year Per-
formance Summary of Whitetopping Test Sections at
the Mn/ROAD Test Facility (CD-ROM), Proceedings
of the First International Conference on Accelerated
Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Vesic, A.S. and S.K. Saxena, NCHRP Report 97: Analysis
of Structural Behavior of AASHO Road Test Rigid
Pavements, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1970.
Viljoen, A.W., C.R. Freeme, V.P. Servas, and F.C. Rust,
Heavy Vehicle Simulator Aided Evaluation of Over-
lays on Pavements with Active Cracks, 6th Interna-
tional Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor,
Mich., Vol. 1, 1987, pp. 701709.
Vuong, B.T., Program EFROMD2Back-Calculation of
Elastic Properties of Materials Layers from Pavement
101
Deflection BowlsDescription and Users Manual,
Australian Road Research Board, Victoria, Australia,
1991.
Vuong, B., K.G. Sharp, E. Baran, and N.J. Vertessy, The
Performance of a Fine-Grained Marginal Material Un-
der Accelerated Loading, Proceedings of the 17th Aus-
tralian Road Research Conference, Part 2, Australian
Road Research Board, Victoria, Australia, 1994, pp.
145164.
Vuong, B.T., K.G. Sharp, E.J. Baran, J.R. Johnson-Clarke,
and I.N. Reeves, Performance of Unbound and Stabi-
lized Pavement Materials Under Accelerated Loading:
Summary of Report of Beerburrum II ALF Trial, Report
ARR 286, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont
South, Victoria, Australia, 1996.
Vuong, B.T. and K.G. Sharp, Characterization and Axle
Load Equivalency of Unbound Granular Pavements
(CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First International Con-
ference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev.,
Oct. 1820, 1999.
Vuong, B.T., D.M. Dash, and E.J. Jameson, Performance
of Plain Concrete Pavements Under Accelerated Load-
ing, 20th ARRB Transportation Research Conference,
Melbourne, Australia, 2001.
Walker, R.N., The South African Heavy Vehicle Simula-
tor, Accelerated Testing of Pavements Session, Pro-
ceedings of the Annual Transportation Convention, Pre-
toria, South Africa, July 29Aug. 2, 1985.
Walubita, L.F., F. Hugo, and A. Epps, Performance of Re-
habilitated Lightweight Aggregate Asphalt Concrete
Pavements Under Wet and Heated Model Mobile Load
Simulator Trafficking: A Comparative Study with the
TxMLS, Report Number 1814-3, Center for Transporta-
tion Research at the University of Texas at Austin,
March 2000.
Walubita, L.F., F. Hugo, and A. Epps, Indirect Tensile Fa-
tigue Performance of Asphalt After MMLS3 Trafficking
Under Different Environmental Conditions, Journal of
the South African Institution of Civil Engineering, Vol.
44, No. 3, 2002, pp. 211.
Wardle, L.J., Program CIRCLY Users Manual, Division of
Applied Geomechanics Council for Scientific and In-
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Australia, 1977.
Western Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (WASHTO) Subcommittee on Materials,
WASHTO Pilot Test Program for Accelerated Load Test-
ing of Inservice Pavements: Executive Summary and
Field Test Reports, WASHTO, Olympia, Wash., 1990.
White, T.D., J. Hua, and K. Galal, Analysis of Accelerated
Pavement Tests (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Accelerated Pavement
Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Williams, R.C. and B.D. Prowell, Comparison of Labora-
tory Wheel-Tracking Test Results with WesTrack Per-
formance, Transportation Research Record 1681,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1999, pp. 121128.
Williams, R.C., P. Romero, and K.D. Stuart, Comparison
of Superpave Shear Test Results to WesTrack Perform-
ance (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Wolff, H., The Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Granular
Pavement Layers in South Africa, Ph.D. dissertation,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Preto-
ria, South Africa, 1992.
Wolff, H., J.C. Van der Walt, and M. Singh, Evaluation of
Pavement Behaviour and Failure Mechanisms on Na-
tional Route 2 Section 24 in KwazuluNatal Relative to
Those Identified with HVS Testing in 1984, South Af-
rican Transport Conference, Vol. 3A, Transport Infra-
structure II, Johannesburg, Sept. 1997.
Woodside, A.R., W.D.H. Woodward, and D. Siegfried, The
Determination of Dynamic Contact Stress (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ac-
celerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Wu, Z., M. Hossain, and A.J. Gisi, Performance of Super-
pave Mixtures Under Accelerated Load Testing, Pro-
ceedings of the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transporta-
tion Research Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. 913,
2000, pp. 126134.
Yandell, W.O. and G. Behzadi, Rutting Prediction of
Twelve Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) Trials
(CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First International Con-
ference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev.,
Oct. 1820, 1999.
Yeo, R.E.Y., K.G. Sharp, M.A. Moffatt, N.J. Vertessy, and J.R.
Johnson-Clarke, The Performance of In Situ Stabilized
Marginal Sandstone Pavements (CD-ROM), Proceedings
of the First International Conference on Accelerated
Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Zhang, W. and R. MacDonald, Modeling Pavement Re-
sponse and Estimating Pavement Performance: Pave-
ment Subgrade Performance Study in the Danish Road
Testing (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Zhou, F. and L. Sun, Lab Asphalt Testing Evaluation of
Reflective Cracking (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the
First International Conference on Accelerated Pave-
ment Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.


102
TOPICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY


This topical bibliography is an integral part of NCHRP
Synthesis of Highway Practice 325: Significant Findings
From Full-Scale/Accelerated Pavement Testing. It was
compiled from responses received to a questionnaire that
was used to solicit information from organizations and en-
tities involved in accelerated pavement testing (APT) pro-
grams in the compilation of this synthesis. The respondents
were requested to submit bibliographies containing publi-
cations and reports related to APT. In addition, they were
asked to categorize their publications according to the fol-
lowing seven topics, which were selected to relate to the
structure of the synthesis:

Structural Composition
Loading Environment
Materials and Tests
Modeling
Construction and Rehabilitation
Accelerated Pavement Testing in General
Management

The response was extensive. The results reflect the way
in which the respective respondents categorize their APT
applications and related findings. In this bibliography, each
topic is associated with the specific chapter to which it re-
lates in the synthesis. Each of the topics should therefore
be considered in the same context as this synthesis. Some
of the references can relate to more than one topic, but no
attempt was made to rearrange the submissions.


STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION

Publications in this category are related to chapter two,
Evaluation, Validation, and Improvement of Structural De-
signs.

De Beer, M., Developments in the Failure Criteria of the
South African Mechanistic Design Procedure for As-
phalt Pavements, Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 3: Design and
Performance, Nottingham, United Kingdom, Aug.
1992, pp. 5476.
Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and De-
sign, Draft TRH12, Committee of State Road Authori-
ties, Department of Transport, Pretoria, South Africa,
1997.
Melhem, H.G., Accelerated Testing for Studying Pavement
Design and Performance, Report FHWA-KS-99-2,
Kansas Department of Transportation, Topeka, May
1999, 110 pp.
Melhem, H.G. and R. McReynolds, Development of an
Accelerated Testing Laboratory for Highway Research
in Kansas, Proceedings of the Fifth International Con-
ference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields,
Trondheim, Norway, Vol. II, July 68, 1998, pp. 793
802.
Melhem, H.G. and F. Sheffield, Accelerated Testing for
Studying Pavement Design and Performance (FY 99),
Report FHWA-KS-99-7, Kansas Department of Trans-
portation, Topeka, 2000.
Steyn, W.J. vdM., E.S. Sadzik, and M. De Beer, Evalua-
tion of Superlight Pavements Under Accelerated Traf-
fic, Transportation Research Record 1639, Transporta-
tion Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1998, pp. 130139.
Structural Design of Interurban and Rural Road Pave-
ments, TRH4, Committee of State Road Authorities,
Department of Transport, Pretoria, South Africa, 1980.
Theyse, H.L. and M. Muthen, Pavement Analysis and De-
sign Software (PADS) Based on the South African
MechanisticEmpirical Design Method, Proceedings
of the South African Transport Conference, Pretoria,
July 1720, 2000.
Van Vuuren, D.J., Pavement Performance in the S12 Road
Experiment: An AASHO Satellite Test Road in South
Africa, 3rd International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, London, United Kingdom, 1972.
Vijayanath, B.K., Z. Wu, M. Hossain, and A.J. Gisi, Instru-
mentation of the Superpave Test Sections at the Kansas
Accelerated Testing Laboratory (CD-ROM), Proceedings
of the First International Conference on Accelerated
Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.


LOADING ENVIRONMENT

Publications in this category are related to chapter three,
VehiclePavementEnvironment Interaction.

Atanasiu, D., et al., Correlation Between the Simulated and
the Actual Traffic, Bul. I.P. Iasi, Tom XIII(XVII) fasc.
12, 1967.
Atanasiu, D., et al., Studies Concerning the Correlation
Between Traffic and Deformations in the Case of Two
Flexible Pavements Based on Local Materials, Bul. I.P.
Iasi, Tom XIV(XVIII) fasc. 12, 1968.
Chen, D.-H., J. Bilyeu, H. Lin, and M. Murphy, Tempera-
ture Correction on FWD Measurements, Transporta-
tion Research Record 1716, Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
2000, pp. 3039.
De Beer, M., Determination of Pneumatic Tire/Pavement
Interface Contact Stresses Under Moving Loads and
Some Effects on Pavements with Thin Asphalt Surfac-
ing Layers, Proceedings of the 8th International Con-
103
ference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 10
14, 1997.
De Pont, J., B. Steven, and B. Pidwerbesky, The Relation-
ship Between Dynamic Wheel Loads and Road Wear,
Transfund New Zealand Research Report No. 144, Wel-
lington, 1999.
Himeno, K., T. Kamkjima, T. Ikeda, and T. Abe, Distribu-
tion of Tire Contact Pressure of Vehicles and Its Influ-
ence on Pavement Distress, Proceedings of the 8th In-
ternational Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle,
Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997, pp. 129139.
Melhem, H.G., Accelerated Testing for Studying Pavement
Design and Performance, Report FHWA-KS-99-2,
Kansas Department of Transportation, Topeka, May
1999, 110 pp.
Melhem, H.G. and F. Sheffield, Accelerated Testing for
Studying Pavement Design and Performance (FY 99),
Report FHWA-KS-99-7, Kansas Department of
Transportation, Topeka, 2000.
Steyn, W.J. vdM. and M. De Beer, Simulation of Dynamic
Traffic Loading Based on Accelerated Pavement Test-
ing, Presented at the 2000 South African Transport
Convention (SATC), Pretoria, South Africa, 2000.
Steyn, W.J. vdM., M. De Beer, and W. Du Preez, Simula-
tion of Dynamic Traffic Loading for Use in Accelerated
Pavement Testing (APT) (CD-ROM), Proceedings of
the First International Conference on Accelerated
Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Zarojanu, H., B. Cososchi, and N. Vlad, Binders Contain-
ing Phosphogypsum TreatmentsNational Romanian
Carryforward: Problem 2 [in French], Proceedings of
the XVIIIth PIARC Congress, Brussels, Belgium, 1987.
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Responses and Perform-
ance of a Test Pavement to One Freeze-Thaw Cycle,
Danish Road Testing Machine RTM3: 2000, VI report
102, DRI Report 102, Danish Road Institute, Roskilde,
Denmark, 2000a.
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Responses and Perform-
ance of a Test Pavement to Two Freeze-Thaw Cycles,
Danish Road Testing Machine RTM2: 1998, VI report
100, DRI Report 100, Danish Road Institute, Roskilde,
Denmark, 2000b.


MATERIALS AND TESTS

Publications in this category are related to chapter four,
Evaluation of Materials and Tests.

Chen, D.-H., C. Murphy, C. Pilson, and R. Hudson, Test-
ing and Analysis of the TxMLS Test Pads at Victoria,
Texas, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference
on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Chen, D.-H., J.-N. Wang, and J. Bilyeu, Application of
the DCP in Evaluation of Base and Subgrade Layers,
Transportation Research Record 1764, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washing-
ton, D.C., 2001, pp. 110.
Cososchi, B., H. Zarojanu, and N. Vlad, Binders Containing
Raw Phosphogypsum TreatmentsNational Romanian
Carryforward: Problem 2 [in French], Proceedings of the
XVIIIth PIARC Congress, Brussels, Belgium, 1987.
Cososchi, B., H. Zarojanu, N. Vlad, and V. Boboc, Hy-
draulic Binder for Pavement Layers, Romanian Inven-
tion Patent nr. 93869/25.7/1987, 1987.
Daniel, J.S., Y.R. Kim, and H.J. Lee, Effects of Aging on
Viscoelastic Properties of AsphaltAggregate Mix-
tures, Transportation Research Record 1630, Transpor-
tation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1998, pp. 2127.
De Beer, M., Aspects of the Design and Behavior of Road
Structures Incorporating Lightly Cementitious Layers,
Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Pretoria, South Africa, 1990.
Du Plessis, J.L. and B.M.J.A. Verhaeghe, Performance of
BitumenRubber Porous Asphalt Subjected to Acceler-
ated Trafficking, Project Report DPVT C/263, Transvaal
Roads Department, South Africa, 1994.
Edwards, W.F. and S.M. Sargand, Response of an Ultra-
Thin Whitetopping Pavement to Moving Wheel Loads
(CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First International Con-
ference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev.,
Oct. 1820, 1999.
Grogan, W.P., Aggregate Surface Requirements for C-17
Aircraft Operations (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the
First International Conference on Accelerated Pave-
ment Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Horak, E. and F.C. Rust, The Performance and Behavior
of Bitumen Emulsion Treated Road Bases in South Af-
rica, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference
on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 2: Performance, Notting-
ham, United Kingdom, Aug. 1992, pp. 118133.
Kong Kam Wa, N., B.M.J.A. Verhaeghe, H.L. Theyse, and
E.C. Knottenbelt, Stiffness and Fatigue Characteristics
of Some Asphalt Wearing Courses Used in South Af-
rica, 8th International Conference on Asphalt Pave-
ments, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Lea, J. and A. Heath, Using APT to Fast-Track Innovative
Materials (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Inter-
national Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Louw, L. and B.M.J.A. Verhaeghe, Development of a
Stone Mastic Asphalt Design Method for South African
Conditions, 8th International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
McDaniel, M., D. Yuan, D.-H. Chen, and S. Nazarian, Use
of Seismic Pavement Analyzer in Forensic Studies in
Texas, Symposium on Nondestructive Testing of Pave-
ments and Backcalculation of Moduli: Third Volume
(S.D. Tayabji and E.O. Lukanen, eds.), ASTM STP
1375, American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, Pa., 2000, pp. 346364.
104
Nazarian, S., D. Yuan, D.-H. Chen, and M. McDaniel,
Use of Seismic Methods in Monitoring Pavement De-
terioration During Accelerated Pavement Testing with
TxMLS (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Nielsen, C.B., Accelerated Testing of Permanent Defor-
mation in Hot Rolled Asphalt Concrete Overlaid with
Rut Resistant Asphalt Wearing Courses (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820,
1999.
SABITA, GEMSThe Design and Use of Granular Emul-
sion Mixes: Manual 14, Southern African Bitumen As-
sociation, Roggebaai, South Africa, 1993.
SABITA, LAMBSThe Design and Use of Large Aggre-
gate Mixes for Bases: Manual, Southern African Bitu-
men Association, Roggebaai, South Africa, 1993.
SABITA, ETBThe Design and Use of Emulsion-Treated
Bases: Manual 21, Southern African Bitumen Associa-
tion, Roggebaai, South Africa, May 1999.
Semmelink, C.J., Evaluation of Deflection Bowls Meas-
ured with Impact, Static, and In-Depth Deflection
Measuring Devices on an HVS Test Site (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820,
1999.
Stokoe, K., II, J.A. Bay, B.L. Rosenblad, M.R. Murphy,
K.W. Fults, and D.-H. Chen, Super-Accelerated Test-
ing of a Flexible Pavement with the Stationary Dynamic
Deflectometer, Transportation Research Record 1716,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 98107.
Yuan, D., S. Nazarian, D.-H. Chen, and M. McDaniel,
Use of Seismic Methods in Monitoring Pavement De-
terioration During Accelerated Pavement Testing with
TxMLS (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Zarojanu, H., B. Cososchi, and N. Vlad, Hydraulic Binder
of Cement Type Without ClinkerNational Romanian
Carryforward: Problem 3 [in French], Proceedings of
the XVIIIth PIARC Congress, Brussels, Belgium, 1987.
Zarojanu, H., B. Cososchi, and N. Vlad, Nonconventional
Rigid PavementNational Romanian Carryforward:
Problem 3 [in French], Proceedings of the XVIIIth
PIARC Congress, Brussels, Belgium, 1987.
Zarojanu, H., B. Cososchi, and N. Vlad, Study of Rigid
Pavements with Pozzolanic Over Sulphated Binders,
International Symposium on Concrete Roads, Lisbon,
Portugal, 1988.

MODELING

Publications in this category are related to chapter five,
Enhancement of Modeling in Pavement Engineering.
Ahlvin, R.G., H.H. Ulery, Jr., R.L. Hutchinson, and J.L. Rice,
Multiple-Wheel Heavy Gear Load Pavement Tests, Vol I:
Basic Report, TR S-71-17, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1971.
Barker, W.R. and F. Parker, Jr., Comparative Performance
of Structural Layers in Pavement Systems, Vol. IV:
Analysis of Insulating Layers in Pavement Test Sections,
TR S-74-8, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1977, 143 pp.
Burns, C.D., Total Thickness and Compaction Require-
ments for Flexible Pavements to Be Subjected to Ca-
nalized Traffic, TR 3-610, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1962.
Burns, C.D., R.L. Hutchinson, H.H. Ulery, Jr., D. Watkins,
and R.W. Grau, Multiple-Wheel Heavy Gear Load
Pavement Tests, Vol. II: Design, Construction, and Be-
havior Under Traffic, TR S-71-17, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1971.
Burns, C.D., C.L. Rone, W.N. Brabston, and H.H. Ulery,
Jr., Comparative Performance of Structural Layers in
Pavement Systems, Vol. I: Design, Construction, and
Behavior Under Traffic of Pavement Test Sections, TR
S-74-8, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Ex-
periment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1974.
Burns, C.D., C.L. Rone, W.N. Brabston, and H.H. Ulery,
Jr., Comparative Performance of Structural Layers in
Pavement Systems, Vol. II: Analysis of Test Section Data
and Presentation of Design and Construction Proce-
dures, TR S-74-8, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wa-
terways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1974.
Chen, D.-H., Pavement Distress Under Accelerated Traf-
ficking, Transportation Research Record 1639, Trans-
portation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1998, pp. 120129.
Chen, D.-H., Determination of Bedrock Depth from FWD
Data, Transportation Research Record 1655,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1999, pp. 127134.
Chen, D.-H., J. Bilyeu, and F. Hugo, Monitoring Pavement
Response and Performance Using In Situ Instrumenta-
tion Under Full-Scale Accelerated Loading: Field In-
strumentation for Soil and Rock (G.N. Durham and
W.A. Marr, eds.), ASTM STP 1358, American Society
for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, Pa.,
1999, pp. 121134.
Chen, D.H. and H.H. Lin, Development of an Equation to
Predict Permanent Deformation (CD-ROM), Proceed-
ings of the First International Conference on Acceler-
ated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Chen, D.-H. and M. Murphy, Analysis of Pavement Struc-
tural Responses Using In Situ Instrumentation, Pro-
ceedings of the 11th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Con-
ference, Boca Raton, Fla., May 1922, 1996, pp. 705
708.
105
Chen, D.-H., H. Lin, and F. Hugo, Application of
VESYS3AM in Characterization of Permanent Defor-
mation, International Journal of Pavement Engineer-
ing, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2000, pp. 171192.
Collum, C.E., R.H. Denson, and G.C. Hoff, Repair and
Restoration of Paved Surfaces: Bomb Damage Repair
Field Trials, June 1975November 1976, TR C-78-2
Rpt 1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Ex-
periment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1978.
Djakfar, L. and F.L. Roberts, Performance Prediction of
Louisiana ALF Test Sections, Transportation Research
Record 1716, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 103
115
Frye, Leese, and Tucker, Prefabricated Airfield and Road
Surfacing Membrane Investigation: Engineering Tests,
July 1953December 1954, TR 3-492 Rpt 1, 1959.
Green, Performance of Soils Under Tire Loads: Develop-
ment and Evaluation of Mobility Numbers for Coarse-
Grained Soils, TR 3-666 Rpt 5, 1967.
Grogan, W.P., Determination of Semi-Prepared Airfield
Pavement Structural Requirements for Supporting C-17
Aircraft Gear, TR GL-98-12, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.,
1998.
Hammitt, G.M., II, R.L. Hutchinson, and J.L. Rice, Multi-
ple-Wheel Heavy Gear Load Pavement Tests, Analysis
of Behavior Under Traffic, TR S-71-17, Vol. IV, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion, Vicksburg, Miss., 1971.
Hammitt, G.M., II, Comparative Performance of Structural
Layers in Pavement Systems: Design and Construction
of MESL, TR S-74-8, Vol. III, U.S. Army Corps of En-
gineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1974.
Jooste, F.J., et al., The Effect of Allowable Thickness
Variation on Back-Calculated Moduli, Transportation
Research Record 1639, Transportation Research Board
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997,
pp. 4352.
Ledbetter, R.H., J.L. Rice, H.H. Ulery, Jr., Kearney and
Gambill, Multiple-Wheel Heavy Gear Load Pavement
Tests: Presentation and Initial Analysis of Stress
StrainDeflection and Vibratory Measurements; Instru-
mentation, TR S-71-17, Vol. IIIA, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1971.
Ledbetter, R.H., J.L. Rice, H.H. Ulery, Jr., Kearney, Gam-
bill, and Hall, Multiple-Wheel Heavy Gear Load Pave-
ment Tests: Presentation and Initial Analysis of Stress-
Strain-Deflection and Vibratory Measurements; Data
and Analysis, TR S-71-17, Vol. IIIB, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1971.
Mohammad, L., 3-D Numerical Simulation of Asphalt
Pavement at Louisiana Accelerated Loading Facility,
Transportation Research Record 1764, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Wash-
ington, D.C., 2001, pp. 4458.
Molenaar, A.A.A., L.J.M. Houben, A.F.H.M. Visser, C.H.
Vogelzang, A.E. Van Dommelen, and A.C. Maagden-
berg, Full-Scale Testing and Modeling of Permanent
Deformation in Asphalt Pavements, 2nd International
Symposium on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of
Pavements and Technological Control, Auburn, Ala.,
July 29Aug. 1, 2001.
Powell and Green, Performance of Soils Under Tire Loads:
Analysis of Tests in Yuma Sand Through August 1962,
TR 3-666 Rpt 2, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Water-
ways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1965.
Prozzi, J.A. and M. De Beer, Mechanistic Determination
of Equivalent Damage Factors for Multiple Load and
Axle Configurations, Proceedings of the 8th Interna-
tional Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle,
Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Romanoschi, R. and J.B. Metcalf, The Evaluation of the
Probability Distribution Function for the Life of Pave-
ment Structure, Transportation Research Record 1730,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 9198.
Theyse, H.L., Mechanistic Empirical Modelling of the
Permanent Deformation of Unbound Pavement Layers,
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on As-
phalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Tucker, S.G., Prefabricated Airfield and Road Surfacing
Membrane Investigation: Engineering Tests, January
1956December 1959, TR 3-492 Rpt 2, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Miss., 1962.
Turnage, G.W. and A.J. Green, Jr., Performance of Soils
Under Tire Loads: Analysis of Tests in Sand from
September 1962 Through November 1963, TR 3-666
Rpt 4, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1966.
Webster, S.L., Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability
Enhancement Using SandGrid Confinement and Mem-
brane Reinforcement Concepts: Sand Test Sections 1
and 2, TR GL-79-20 Rpt 1, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.,
1979, 35 pp.
Webster, S.L., Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability
Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Mem-
brane Reinforcement Concepts: Sand Test Sections 3
and 4, TR GL-79-20 Rpt 2, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.,
1981, 37 pp.
Webster, S.L., Geogrid Reinforced Base Courses for Flexi-
ble Pavements for Light Aircraft: Test Section Construc-
tion, Behavior Under Traffic, Laboratory Tests, and De-
sign Criteria, TR GL-93-6, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., 1993.
106
Webster, S.L. and R.L. Santoni, Contingency Airfield and
Road Construction Using Geosynthetic Fiber Stabiliza-
tion of Sands, TR GL-97-4, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.,
1997, 62 pp.
Wismer, R.D., Performance of Soils Under Tire Loads,
Tests in Clay Through November 1962, TR 3-666 Rpt 3,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research Development
Center, Vicksburg, Miss., 1966, 21 pp.
Wolff, H., Easto-Plastic Modelling of Granular Layers,
Research Report RR92/312, Department of Transport,
South Africa, 1992.



CONSTRUCTION AND REHABILITATION

Publications in this category are related to chapter six, De-
velopment and Validation of Rehabilitation, Construction,
and Maintenance Strategies.

Anderson, D.A., W.P. Kilareski, and Z. Siddiqui, Pavement
Testing FacilityDesign and Construction, Interim Re-
port, FHWA-RD-88-059, Federal Highway Administra-
tion, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington,
D.C., Aug. 1987.
Ashmore, S.C. and T.M. Mitchell, WesTrackPutting
ITS to Work, Public Roads, Vol. 61, No. 1, July/Aug.
1997, pp. 815.
Atkinson, V.M. and D.I. Blackman, Relative Wear Effects
of Different Wheel Types and Tire Pressure, Working
Paper WP/PE/74, 1991.
Atkinson, V.M., B.C. Chaddock, and A.R. Dawson, Ena-
bling the Use of Secondary Aggregates and Binders in
Pavement Foundations, TRL Unpublished Project Re-
port PR/CE/79/78, 1998.
Aurilio, V., T. Pellinen, E.T. Harrigan, and K.D. Stuart,
Preliminary Validation of Superpave Using the Accel-
erated Loading Facility, Proceedings of the Forty-First
Annual Conference of Canadian Technical Asphalt
Association, Vol. XLI, Nov. 1996, pp. 323348.
t. 1997.
Bhairo, P.D., J. Groenendijk, and A.A.A. Molenaar,
Comparison of the Predicted and Observed Pavement
Life of LINTRACK Test Lane Va, Report 7-97-209-38
M, Road and Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft Uni-
versity of Technology, The Netherlands, Oc
Bhairo, P.D., J. Groenendijk, A.A.A. Molenaar, A.E. Van
Dommelen, A. Miradi, and C.H. Vogelzang, Pavement
Performance Modelling Using APT, Proceedings of the
5th International Conference on the Bearing Capacity
of Roads and Airfields, Norwegian University of Sci-
ence and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, July 68,
1998, Vol. 2, pp. 803812.
Bhairo, P.D., A. Miradi, J. Groenendijk, A.A.A. Molenaar,
and A.E. Van Dommelen, Levensduur Evaluatie van
LINTRACK Proefvak Va (Fatigue Life Evaluation of
LINTRACK Test Section Va), Proceedings Weg-
bouwkundige Werkdagen, part II, CROW, Ede, The
Netherlands, 1998, pp. 155166.
Blab, R. and J. Harvey, Modeling Measured 3D Tire Con-
tact Stresses in a Viscoelastic FE Pavement Model,
Third International Symposium on Finite Element Mod-
eling of Pavements, West Virginia University, Morgan-
town, Oct. 2000.
Blackman, D.I., M.G. Earland, and A.R. Halliday, Acceler-
ated Full-Scale Load Testing of Recycled Heavy Duty
Macadam Roadbase Material, TRL Project Report 193,
Crowthorne, Berkshire, United Kingdom, 1996.
Bonaquist, R., An Assessment of the Increased Damage
Potential of Wide-Based Single Tires, Proceedings of
7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements,
Nottingham, United Kingdom, Aug. 1992.
Bonaquist, R. and W.S. Mogawer, Analysis of Pavement
Rutting Data from the FHWA Pavement Testing Facility
Superpave Validation Study: Asphalt Mixture Quality,
Characteristics, and Performance, Transportation Re-
search Record 1590, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997,
pp. 8088.
Bonaquist, R., C. Churilla, and D. Freund, Effect of Load,
Tire Pressure, and Tire Type on Flexible Pavement Re-
sponse, Public Roads, Vol. 52, No. 1, June 1988, pp. 17.
Bonaquist, R., R. Surdahl, and W. Mogawer, Effect of
Tire Pressure on Flexible Pavement Response and Per-
formance: Rigid and Flexible Pavement Design and
Analysis, Transportation Research Record 1227,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1989, pp. 97106.
Bonaquist, R., R. Surdahl, and W. Mogawer, Pavement
Testing Facility: Effects of Tire Pressure on Flexible
Pavement Response and Performance, Report FHWA-
RD-89-123, Office of Engineering and Highway Opera-
tions R&D, Federal Highway Administration, McLean,
Va., 1989.
Bouman, S.R., A.A.A. Molenaar, C.A.P.M. Van Gurp, and
C.H. Vogelzang, LINTRACK Responsmetingen
(LINTRACK Response Measurements): Comparison of
Measured Asphalt Strains with Predicted Values. Part I:
Measurement Report, Report 7-91-209-18, Road and
Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, Oct. 1991.
Bouman, S.R., A.A.A. Molenaar, C.A.P.M. Van Gurp, and
C.H. Vogelzang, LINTRACK Responsmetingen
(LINTRACK Response Measurements): Comparison of
Measured Asphalt Strains with Predicted Values. Part
II: Interpretation Report, Report 7-91-209-17, Road and
Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, Oct. 1991.
Brown, E.R. and R.B. Powell, A General Overview of
Research Efforts at the NCAT Pavement Test Track,
Paper 01-149, Proceedings of the Second International
Symposium on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of
107
Pavements and Technological Control, Auburn, Ala.,
July 29Aug. 1, 2001.
Chaddock, B.C.J., Stabilized Sub-Bases in Road Founda-
tions: Structural Assessment and Benefits, Unpublished
TRL Project Report PR/CE/79/78, Transport Research
Library, Crowthorne, Berkshire, United Kingdom, 1996.
Chen, D.-H. and F. Hugo, Comparison of the Effective-
ness of Two Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies, Jour-
nal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 1,
Jan./Feb. 2001, pp. 4758.
Clifford, J.M. and P.F. Savage, Heavy Vehicle Simulator
Testing of Some Segmental Concrete Block Pave-
ments, Proceedings of the 1982 Annual Transportation
Convention, Session H (iii), Vol. 3, Pretoria, South Af-
rica, Aug. 1982.
Cornelius, P.D.M. and A.C. Edwards, Assessment of the
Performance of Off-Site Recycled Bituminous Material,
TRRL Report RR 305, Department of Transport, Crow-
thorne, Berkshire, United Kingdom, 1991.
Deacon, J., A. Tayebali, J. Harvey, and C. Monismith, In-
fluence of Binder Loss Modulus on the Fatigue Per-
formance of Asphalt Concrete Pavements, Journal of
the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol.
66, 1997, pp. 633685.
De Beer, M., J. Groenendijk, and C. Fisher, Three Dimen-
sional Contact Stresses Under the LINTRACK Wide
Base Single Tires, Measured with the Vehicle-Road Sur-
face Pressure Transducer Array (VRSPTA) System in
South Africa, Contract Report No. CR-96/056 (Confi-
dential), Division of Roads and Transport Technology,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria,
South Africa, Nov. 1996.
Dohmen, L.J.M. and A.A.A. Molenaar, Full-Scale Pavement
Testing in the Netherlands, Proceedings of the 7th Inter-
national Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Nottingham,
United Kingdom, Vol. 2, Aug. 1992, pp. 6482.
Epps, J., C. Monismith, S. Seeds, S. Alavi, C. Ashmore,
and T. Mitchell, WesTrack Full-Scale Test Track: In-
terim Findings, Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. III, Seattle,
Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Epps, J., C. Monismith, S. Seeds, S. Alavi, C. Ashmore, R.
Leahy, and T. Mitchell, WesTrack Performance
Interim Findings, Journal of the Association of Asphalt
Paving Technologists, Vol. 67, 1998, pp. 738769.
Garg, N. and G.F. Hayhoe, Asphalt Concrete Strain Re-
sponses at High Loads and Low Speeds at the National
Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF), Submitted
for Presentation at the 6th International Conference on
the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways, and Airfields,
Lisbon, Portugal, June 2426, 2002.
Groenendijk, J., Accelerated Testing and Surface Cracking
of Asphaltic Concrete Pavement, Ph.D. thesis, Delft
University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1998.
Groenendijk, J. and C.H. Vogelzang, Pavement Perform-
ance Under LINTRACK Accelerated Loading: Meas-
urement Report Section Va, Report 7-96-209-36, Road
and Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, Nov. 1996.
Groenendijk, J. and C.H. Vogelzang, Pavement Perform-
ance Under LINTRACK Accelerated Loading: Meas-
urement Report Section Vb, Report 7-97-209-37, Road
and Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, Nov. 1997.
Groenendijk, J. and C.H. Vogelzang, Pavement Perform-
ance Under LINTRACK Accelerated Loading: Extended
Measurement Report and Interpretation Report Section
Vb, Report 7-98-209-40, Road and Railroad Research
Laboratory, Delft University of Technology, The Neth-
erlands, Nov. 1998.
Groenendijk, J., G.F. Jafari, A. Miradi, A.A.A. Molenaar,
R. Van Doorn, and C.H. Vogelzang, Performance of a
Full-Depth Asphalt Structure Tested by Means of the
LINTRACK Report, Road and Railroad Research Labo-
ratory, Delft University of Technology, The Nether-
lands, Nov. 1994.
Groenendijk, J., B.R. Mante, C.H. Vogelzang, A.A.A.
Molenaar, and L.J.M. Dohmen, LINTRACK Respons
Metingen: Bepaling van de Schade Effecten van Ver-
schillende WiellastConfiguraties (LINTRACK Re-
sponse Measurements: Identification of the Damaging
Effects of Several Wheel-Load Configurations), Pro-
ceedings Wegbouwkundige Werkdagen 1996, part I,
CROW, Ede, The Netherlands, pp. 643656.
Groenendijk, J., A. Miradi, A.A.A. Molenaar, C.H. Vogel-
zang, L.J.M. Dohmen, A.M. Maagdenberg, and M. De
Beer, Pavement Performance Modeling Using
LINTRACK, Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. II, Seattle,
Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997, pp. 15051526.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, L.J.M. Dohmen, and
B.R. Mante, LINTRACK Responsiemetingen:
Vergelijken van Gemeten Asfaltrekken met Voorspelde
Waarden (LINTRACK Response Measurements:
Comparison of Measured Asphalt Strains with Predicted
Values), Proceedings Wegbouwkundige Werkdagen
1992, Publication 60-II, part II, CROW, Ede, The
Netherlands, pp. 603614.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A. Miradi, A.A.A.
Molenaar, and L.J.M. Dohmen, Linear Tracking Re-
sponse Measurement: Determining Response to Wheel-
Load Configuration, Transportation Research Record
1570, Transportation Research Board, National Re-
search Council, Washington, D.C., 1997, pp. 19.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A. Miradi, A.A.A. Mole-
naar, and L.J.M. Dohmen, Rutting Development in
Linear Tracking Test Pavements to Evaluate Shell Sub-
grade Strain Criterion, Transportation Research Re-
cord 1570, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997, pp. 2329.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A. Miradi, A.A.A. Molenaar,
and L.J.M. Dohmen, Linear Tracking Performance Test
108
on Full-Depth Asphalt, Transportation Research Record
1570, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1997, pp. 3947.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A.A.A. Molenaar, and
L.J.M. Dohmen, Performance Tests Under Accelerated
Loading with the LINTRACK Test Facility in the Neth-
erlands, Proceedings of the 4th International Confer-
ence on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Vol. 2, July 17
21, 1994, pp. 11631179.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A.A.A. Molenaar, A.
Miradi, and L.J.M. Dohmen, Resultaten van de Eerste
LINTRACK Duurproef (Results of the First
LINTRACK Performance Test), Proceedings Weg-
bouwkundige Werkdagen, Publication 82-I, 1994,
CROW, Ede, The Netherlands, pp. 6982.
Groenendijk, J., C.H. Vogelzang, A.A.A. Molenaar, A.
Miradi, and L.J.M. Dohmen, Resultaten van de
LINTRACK Performance Metingen op een Full-Depth
Asfaltconstructie (Results of the LINTRACK Perform-
ance Tests on a Full-Depth Asphalt Structure), Pro-
ceedings Wegbouwkundige Werkdagen, part I, CROW,
Ede, The Netherlands, 1996, pp. 615630.
Guo, E.H. and W. Marsey, Verification of Curling in PCC
Slabs at FAA National Airport Pavement Test Facility.
Halliday, A.R., Comparative Performance Tests of Two
Drylean Concrete Roadbase Constructions, TRRL
Technical Paper PE/TP/94/91, 1991.
Hand, A.J.T., Relationships Between Laboratory Meas-
ured HMA Material and Mixture Properties and Pave-
ment Performance at WesTrack, Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Nev. at Reno, 1998.
Harvey, J. and M. Bejarano, Performance of Two Overlay
Strategies Under HVS Trafficking, Transportation Re-
seearch Record 1769, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000,
pp. 123133.
Harvey, J. and F. Long, CAL/APT ProgramComparison
of Caltrans and AASHTO Pavement Design Methods,
Draft Report for the California Department of
Transportation, Institute of Transportation Studies,
University of California, Berkeley, July 1997.
Aug. 2000.
, Dec. 1999.
Harvey, J. and B. Tsai, Long-Term Oven Aging Effects on
Fatigue Life and Initial Stiffness, Transportation Re-
search Record 1590, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997,
pp. 8998.
Harvey, J. and L. Popescu, Accelerated Pavement Testing
of Rutting Performance of Two Caltrans Overlay
Strategies, Transportation Research Record 1716,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 116125.
Harvey, J. and L. Popescu, Rutting of Caltrans Asphalt
Concrete and Asphalt-Rubber Hot Mix Under Different
Wheels, Tires, and TemperaturesAccelerated Pave-
ment Testing Evaluation, Draft Report for the California
Department of Transportation, Institute of Transporta-
tion Studies, University of California, Berkeley, Jan.
2000.
Harvey, J., M. Bejarano, A. Fantoni, A. Heath, and H.-C.
Shin, Performance of Caltrans Asphalt Concrete and
AsphaltRubber Hot Mix Overlays at Moderate
TemperaturesAccelerated Pavement Testing
Evaluation, Draft Report for the California Department
of Transportation, Institute of Transportation Studies,
University of California, Berkeley,
Harvey, J., A. Chong, and J. Roesler, Climate Regions for
MechanisticEmpirical Pavement Design in California
and Expected Effects on Performance, Draft Report for
the California Department of Transportation, Institute of
Transportation Studies, University of California, Berke-
ley, June 2000.
Harvey, J., N. Coetzee, and L. Louw, CAL/APT Program
Construction of the Goal 3 Overlays and Recommenda-
tions for Improved Overlay Performance in California,
Draft Report for the California Department of
Transportation, Institute of Transportation Studies,
University of California, Berkeley
Harvey, J., D. Hung, J. Prozzi, L. Louw, I. Guada, and C.
Scheffy, CAL/APT Program: Test Results from Acceler-
ated Pavement Test on Pavement Structure Containing
Aggregate Base (AB)Section 503RF, Draft Report for
the California Department of Transportation, Institute of
Transportation Studies, University of California, Berke-
ley, July 1997.
Harvey, J., F. Long, and J. Prozzi, Application of
CAL/APT Results to Long Life Flexible Pavement Re-
construction (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First In-
ternational Conference on Accelerated Pavement Test-
ing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Harvey, J., L. Louw, I. Guada, D. Hung, and C. Scheffy,
Performance of CAL/APT Drained and Undrained
Pavements Under HVS Loading, Transportation Re-
search Record 1615, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1998,
pp. 1120.
Harvey, J., J. Prozzi, J. Deacon, D. Hung, I. Guada, L. Du
Plessis, F. Long, and C. Scheffy, CAL/APT Program:
Test Results from Accelerated Pavement Test on Pave-
ment Structure Containing Aggregate Base (AB)
Section 501RF, Draft Report for the California Depart-
ment of Transportation, Institute of Transportation Stud-
ies, University of California, Berkeley, Sept. 1997.
Harvey, J., J. Roesler, J. Farver, and L. Liang, Preliminary
Evaluation of Proposed LLPRS Rigid Pavement Struc-
tures and Design Inputs, Draft Report for the California
Department of Transportation, Institute of Transporta-
tion Studies, University of California, Berkeley, Sept.
1998.
Harvey, J., C. Rust, N. Coetzee, W. Nokes, and J. Van Kirk,
Overview of Caltrans Accelerated Pavement Testing
Pilot Project, Proceedings of the Fourth International
109
Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Air-
fields, Vol. II, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
July 1721, 1994, pp. 15331548.
Harvey, J., B. Tsai, F. Long, and D. Hung, Asphalt
Treated Permeable Base (ATPB): Laboratory Testing,
Performance, and Predictions, Transportation Re-
search Record 1629, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1998,
pp. 127136.
Hayhoe, G.F. and N. Garg, Material Properties Database
for the Test Pavements at the National Airport Pave-
ment Test Facility (NAPTF).
Hayhoe, G.F., R. Cornwell, and N. Garg, Slow-Rolling Re-
sponse Tests on the Test Pavements at the National Air-
port Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF).
Heath, A.C., J.R. Roesler, and J.T. Harvey, Quantifying
Longitudinal and Other Cracking Modes in Jointed
Concrete Pavements, Submitted for presentation and
publication by the Transportation Research Board, Aug.
2000 (not published).
Holster, A.M., A.A.A. Molenaar, H.G. Van den Bosch, and
C.A.P.M. Van Gurp, Comparison Between Observed
and Predicted Pavement Response: Interpretation of
Asphalt Strains and FWD-Measurements Carried Out
During the FORCE Project in Nantes, France. Part I:
Measuring Report, Report 7-91-209-13, Road and Rail-
road Research Laboratory, Delft University of Technol-
ogy, The Netherlands, Jan. 1991.
Holster, A.M., A.A.A. Molenaar, H.G. Van den Bosch, and
C.A.P.M. Van Gurp, Comparison Between Observed
and Predicted Pavement Response: Interpretation of
Asphalt Strains and FWD-Measurements Carried Out
During the FORCE Project in Nantes, France. Part II:
Interpretation Report, Report 7-91-209-14, Road and
Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, Jan. 1991.
Houben, L.J.M., A.F.H.M. Visser, and A.E. Van
Dommelen, LINTRACK Research into Rutting of As-
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1999.
Houben, L.J.M., A.F.H.M. Visser, and A.E. Van
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phalt Concrete Test Pavement 1999/2000, Report 7-00-
200-28M, Road and Railroad Research Laboratory,
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, June
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Houben, L.J.M., A.F.H.M. Visser, and A.E. Van
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phalt Concrete Test Pavement 2000, Report 7-00-200-
32M, Road and Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft
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Houben, L.J.M., A.F.H.M. Visser, C.H. Vogelzang, and
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Robinson, R.G. and V.M. Atkunson, Effects of Traffic Re-
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United Kingdom, 1991.
Roesler, J., L. Du Plessis, D. Hung, D. Bush, and J. Har-
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Roesler, J., J. Harvey, J. Farver, and F. Fong, Investigation
of Design and Construction Issues for Long Life Con-
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tation Studies, University of California, Berkeley, Sept.
1998.
Roesler, J., J. Harvey, D. Hung, L. Du Plessis, and D.
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for California Using Both Accelerated Pavement and
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111
Romero, P. and W.S. Mogawer, Evaluation of the Super-
pave Shear Testers Ability to Discern Two Mixtures
with Different Size Aggregates Using the Federal
Highway Administrations Accelerated Loading Facil-
ity, Asphalt Mixture Stiffness Characterization, Vari-
ables, and Performance, Transportation Research Re-
cord 1630, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1998, pp. 6976.
Romero, P. and K.D. Stuart, Evaluating Accelerated Rut
Testers, Public Roads, Vol. 62, No. 1, July/Aug. 1998,
pp. 5054.
Romero, P., K.D. Stuart, and W.S. Mogawer, Fatigue Re-
sponse of Asphalt Mixtures Tested by the Federal
Highway Administrations Accelerated Loading Facil-
ity, Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Tech-
nologists, Vol. 69, Apr. 2000, pp. 212235.
Rubin, Y., S. Hubbard, M. Riemer, J. Harvey, and K. Grote,
Calibration of Surface Ground Penetrating Radar for
Measuring Water Content Using Buried Reflectors,
Draft Report for the California Department of Transpor-
tation, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of
California, Berkeley, Apr. 1999.
Rust, C., J. Harvey, B. Verhaeghe, W. Nokes, and J. Van
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Sherwood, J.A., X. Qi, P. Romero, K.D. Stuart, S. Naga,
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Fatigue Testing from FHWA Superpave Validation
Study (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
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Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Sherwood, J.A., N.L. Thomas, and X. Qi, Correlation
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Stas, W.F., A.A.A. Molenaar, and C.A.P.M. van Gurp,
Evaluation of the Structural Condition of Test Pave-
ments: FORCE Project Interpretation of Falling Weight
Deflection Testing Carried Out During the FORCE Pro-
ject in Nantes, France, Report 7-91-209-16, Road and
Railroad Research Laboratory, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands, June 1991.
Stas, W.F., A.A.A. Molenaar, and C.A.P.M. van Gurp,
Road Roughness and Visual Distress on Test Pave-
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Strauss, P.J., J. Du Plessis, V. Francis, and A.W. Viljoen,
The Application and Validation of an Analytical
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Stuart, K.D. and R.P. Izzo, Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavement
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Transportation, Apr. 1999, 56 pp.
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Superpave G*/sin with Rutting Susceptibility from
Laboratory Mixture Tests (with discussion and clo-
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Stuart, K.D. and W.S. Mogawer, Effect of Compaction
Method on Rutting Susceptibility Measured by Three
Laboratory Wheel-Tracking Devices, Presented at the
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Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1997.
Stuart, K.D. and W.S. Mogawer, Validation of Asphalt
Binder and Mixture Tests That Predict Rutting Susceptibil-
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Stuart, K.D., W.S. Mogawer, and P. Romero, Validation of
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2001.


ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING IN GENERAL

Publications in this category are related to chapter seven,
Pavement Engineering Applications and Issues.

Aparicio, . and R. Romero, The Base of the Data of the
Accelerated Testing Facility of the CEDEX [in French],
Conference Road and Data Processing, National School
of Highways and Bridges, Marne La Vallee, France,
1990.
Arnold, G., Bartley Consultants (Ltd.), and B. Steven, Ma-
terials and Methods Needed to Prepare Subgrades Suit-
able for CAPTIF, Transfund New Zealand Research
Report No. 142, Wellington, New Zealand, 1999, 56 pp.
Autret, P. and F. Brillet, Comparison Between the Ex-
perimental Results on the LTF of LCPC and a Simula-
tion Using the Model HDM3 [in French], 19th

Con-
gress of PIARC, Marrakech, Morocco, 1991.
Autret, P. and G. Caroff, Behavior of Inverse Structures
[in French], Pavements of the Expressways, No. 9, Pre-
sented at the 18th Congress of PIARC, Brussels, Bel-
gium, 1987.
Autret, P. and G. Caroff, Inverse Structures: Presentation
of First Experiences on the ATF [in French], Pave-
ments of the Expressways, No. 1, Presented at the 18th
Congress of PIARC, Brussels, Belgium, 1987.
Autret, P. and J.-C. Gramsammer, The LTF and Innova-
tion [in French], Revue Generale des Routes (RGRA),
No. 680, Paris, France, Dec. 1990.
Autret, P. and J.-C. Gramsammer, An Experiment of Pro-
gressive Maintenance with the LFT: Test B0 [in
French], In Roadways: Management of the Maintenance
of the Road, Paris, France, 1995.
113
Autret, P., G. Caroff, and J.-C. Gramsammer, Testing of
Very Thin Asphaltic Concrete Layers with the ATF [in
French], Motorway Pavements, No. 16, Jan. 1989.
Autret, P., A.B. De Boissoudy, and J.-C. Gramsammer,
The Circular Test Track of the Laboratoire Central de
Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC) Nantes: First Results, Pro-
ceedings of the 6th International Conference on the
Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1987, pp. 550561.
Balay, J.-M., J.-C. Gramsammer, J.-L. Nissoux, and A.
Sainton, Testing of Concrete Pavements at LCPCs
LTF, Proceedings of the Conference on Concrete
Pavements, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., 1992.
Baltzer, S. and R. Macdonald, The Excavation Report,
International Pavement Subgrade Performance Study
1 (RTM1), Danish Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark,
1996.
Baltzer, S. and R. Macdonald, Materials, Construction,
and Instrumentation, International Pavement Subgrade
Performance Study 2 (RTM2), Danish Road Institute,
Roskilde, Denmark, 1997.
Baltzer, S., R.A. Macdonald, and G. Hildebrand, Sensors
for Pavement InstrumentationApplication in the Dan-
ish Road Testing Machine, DRI Report 103, Danish
Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark, 2001.
Baltzer, S., W. Zhang, and P. Ullidtz, Comparison of
Some Structural Analyses Methods Used for the Test
Pavement in the Danish Road Testing Machine, The
5th International Conference on the Bearing Capacity
of Roads and Airfields, Danish Road Institute, Roskilde,
Denmark, 1998.
Beligni, M., et al., Heiss- und Kaltmischfundationsschich-
ten aus Recycliertem Ausbauasphalt (Rundlaufversuch
Nr. 5), Schlussbericht zu Forschungsauftrag 14/91,
Bundesamt fr Strassenbau, Bern, Switzerland, Nr. 351,
Aug. 1995.
Bonaquist, R., Pavement Testing Facility: Phase 1: Final
Report, Report FHWA-RD-92-121, Office of Engineer-
ing and Highway Operations R&D, TurnerFairbank
Highway Research Center, Federal Highway Admini-
stration, McLean, Va., 1993, 140 pp.
Bonaquist, R., J.A. Sherwood, and K.D. Stuart, Acceler-
ated Pavement Testing at the Federal Highway Admini-
stration Pavement Testing Facility, Journal of the As-
sociation of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 67,
1998, pp. 690716.
Burgstaller, J., A. Jacot, and I. Scazziga, Dynamic Deflec-
tion Measurements Under Moving Wheel Loads, Pro-
ceedings of the International Conference on the Bearing
Capacity of Roads and Airfields 82, Trondheim, Nor-
way, 1982.
Caroff, G., J.-C. Gramsammer, and H. Odeon, Fatigue
Behaviour of Asphalt Mixes: Experimental Structures
and Modeling, Proceedings of the International Con-
ference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 10
14, 1997.
Caroff, G., A. Spernol, and J.-F. Corte, Experiments on
LTF: Assessment [in French], Pavements of Express-
ways, No. 46, Apr. 1995.
Chen, D.-H. and F. Hugo, Test Results and Analyses of
the Full-Scale Accelerated Pavement Testing of
TxMLS, Journal of Transportation Engineering, Sept./
Oct. 1998, Vol. 124, No. 5, pp. 479490.
Chen, D.-H., K. Fults, and M. Murphy, The Primary Re-
sults for the First TxMLS Test Pad, Transportation Re-
search Record 1570, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997,
pp. 3038.
Chen, D.-H., M. Murphy, and K. Fults, Accelerated
Pavement Testing with TxMLS, Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Road and Airfield Pave-
ment Technology, Beijing, China, Vol. 1, 1998, pp. 478
486.
Churilla, C., Ultra-Thin Whiteopping, Public Roads, Vol.
62, No. 2, Sept./Oct. 1998, pp. 3739.
Corte, J.-F., Y. Brosseaud, and J.-C. Gramsammer,
Contributions of LTF Tests for the Study of the Rutting
of the Bituminous Surfacing [in French], Proceedings
of the 20th World Congress of PIARC, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, 1995.
Corte, J.-F., Y. Brosseaud, J.P. Simoncelli, and A. Spernol,
Investigation of Rutting of Asphalt Surface Layers: In-
fluence of Binder and Axle Loading Configuration,
Transportation Research Record 1436, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1994, pp. 2837.
Corte, J.-F., et al., Study of the Rutting of Wearing
Courses: Influence Factor Binding and of the Configu-
ration of the Traveling Loads [in French], Revue Gen-
erale des Routes (RGRA), No. 714, Jan. 1994.
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Paving Technologists, Vol. 67, 1998, pp. 644689.
Harvey, J., T. Hoover, N. Coetzee, W. Nokes, and F. Rust,
Caltrans Accelerated Pavement Test (CAL/ATP) Pro-
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Horat, M., Untersuchung des Verhaltens von Recycling-
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Horat, M., M. Caprez, and M. Beligni, Comparison of
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Horat, M., O. zkul, and M. Caprez, Full-Scale Test with
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Trondheim, Norway, July 68, 1998.
Huet, M., A. De Boissoudy, J.-C. Gramsammer, J. Sama-
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Board, Washington, D.C., 1990.
115
Hugo, F., K. Fults, D.-H. Chen, A. Smit, and J. Bilyeu, An
Overview of the TxMLS Program and Lessons
Learned (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing,
Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Identification of Aggregate Role in Performance of Super-
pave Mixtures Employing Accelerated Testing Facility,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, Pa., 2000.
Jacot, A., Langzeitverhalten und Dimensionierung von
Zementstabilisierungen. (Rundlaufversuch Nr. 2),
Schlussbericht zu Forschungsauftrag 8/83, Forschungs-
berichte des Eidg. Departementes des Innern, Nr. 113,
Bern, Switzerland, Feb. 1985.
Jooste, F.J., S.V. Kekwick, E.S. Sadzik, and G.T. Rohde,
Comparison of Accelerated Pavement Test Results with
Long-Term Pavement Behaviour and Performance, Pro-
ceedings of the 8th International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug. 1014, 1997.
Kerzreho, J.-P., Application of a System of Simulation of
Heavy Traffic on Roadways: The LTF of the LCPC [in
French], Report presented before a jury of the INSA of
Rennes to obtain the title Engineer Graduate by the
State, Nov. 5, 1993.
King, B., et al., Construction of Louisianas Conventional
and Alternative Base Course Under Accelerated Load-
ing, Construction Report, Louisiana Transportation Re-
search Center, Baton Rouge, Mar. 2000.
King, B., et al., Construction and Comparison of Conven-
tional and Rubberized Hot Mix Under Accelerated
Loading, Louisiana Transportation Research Center, Ba-
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Kobisch, R., et al., MODULOTAL TE2: Development of
Bituminous Mixes with Very High Stiffness Model in
the Pavement Layers: Testing with the LTF of the
LCPC [in French], Revue Generale des Routes
(RGRA), No. 747, Jan. 1997.
Krarup, J., Part 1: Materials, Construction, and Instru-
mentation, Bearing Capacity and Water, Danish Road
Institute, Roskilde, Denmark, 1992.
Krarup, J., Part 2: Measured Response, Bearing Capacity
and Water, Danish Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark,
1994.
Krarup, J., Part 3: Measured Pavement Performance,
Bearing Capacity and Water, Danish Road Institute,
Roskilde, Denmark, 1995.
Lanicca, E., Hartes Pflaserwie dauerhaft, Bautechnck
SBW 24, Nov. 1995.
Larsen, H.E. and P. Ullidtz, Development of Improved
Mechanistic Deterioration Models for Flexible Pave-
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Pavements, Durban, South Africa, May 1721, 1998,
pp. 583598.
Macdonald, R. and S. Baltzer, Report on the Construction, In-
strumentation, and Load Testing of the Preliminary Test
Pavement to 100,000 Load Repetitions, International
Pavement Subgrade Performance Study 1 (RTM1), Danish
Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark, 1995.
Metcalf, J.B., Accelerated Pavement Testing: A Brief Re-
view Directed Towards Asphalt Interests, Journal of
the Association of Asphalt Technologists, Vol. 67, 1998,
pp. 553572.
Metcalf, J., et al., Construction of Louisianas Conven-
tional and Alternative Base Courses Under Accelerated
Loading: Interim Report 1: Phase 1, Louisiana Trans-
portation Research Center, Baton Rouge, 1998.
Mitchell, T.M., WesTrack: The Road to Solutions, Public
Roads, Autumn, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1996, pp. 2325.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), Full-Scale Testing of OECD Pavement Struc-
tures: Project FORCE Carried Out on the LTF of the
LCPC [in French], Conference of the BAULE, May
1517, 1991.
Paterson, W.D.O., Observations of Pavement Behaviour Un-
der Heavy Vehicle Simulator Testing During 19711976,
NIRR Technical Report RP7/77, Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa, 1977.
Paute, J.-L., R. Kobisch, and J.-C. Gramsammer, Use of
the Deflection Basin to Characterize the Stiffness of
Untreated Layers in Flexible Pavement with the LTF
[in French], 19th Congress of PIARC, Marrakech, Mo-
rocco, 1991.
Rajan, S., J. Olek, T.L. Robertson, and K. Galal Analysis
of Performance of the Ultra-Thin Whitetopping Sub-
jected to Slow Moving Loads in an Accelerated Pave-
ment Testing Facility, 7th International Conference on
Concrete Pavements, International Society of Concrete
Pavements, Orlando, Fla., Sept. 913, 2001, 16 pp.
Romero, R., Calibration Pavement Models of the Spanish
Full-Scale Test Track, 2nd European Road Research
Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 1999.
Romero, R., A. Ruiz, and C. Bartolom, Comparative
Study of Discontinuous Mixtures of Thin Layers on the
Test Track of the CEDEX [in Spanish], Technical
Magazine of the Spanish Association of Highways, No.
1, MayJune 2000, pp. 108140.
Romero, R., A. Ruiz, and J. Prez, First Test on the
CEDEX Test Track, Transportation Research Record
1354, Transportation Research Board, National Re-
search Council, Washington, D.C., 1992, pp. 6573.
Romero, R., A. Rubio, and J. Prez, Sensor Measurements
in the Test Track During Trials of the CEDEX [in
Spanish], XIII World Congress of the International
Road Federation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, June 1997.
Romero, R., A. Rubio, R. Rodil, and M.A. Lechuga,
Variation of Deflection with the Measuring Equipment
and with the Load Speed in a Test Track, Transporta-
tion Research Record 1448, Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
Oct. 1994, pp. 5360.
Romero, R., J.L. Tostado, and J.M. San Miguel, Investi-
gation Attended by Computer Scientists (CIA) on the
116
Monitoring of the Pavements of the CEDEX [in Span-
ish], Proceedings, No. 1, Zaragoza, Spain, 1998.
Rossner, H.P., et al., Verhalten des Strassenoberbaus unter
Wiederholter Belastung (Rundlaufversuch Nr. 1),
Schlussbericht zu Forschungsauftrag 13/77 und 34/80,
Forschungs berichte des Eidg. Departementes des In-
nern, Nr. 50, Bern, Switzerland, Marz, 1982
Ruiz, A. and R. Romero, The Monitoring of Pavement
Tests on the Test Track of the CEDEX [in Spanish],
Magazine Wagon, Vol. 30, No. 29, 1987.
Ruiz, A. and R. Romero, The Cedex Full-Scale Test
Track: Accelerated Pavement Testing (CD-ROM),
Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820,
1999.
Ruiz, A., R. Romero, and J. Prez, Analysis of Deflec-
tions on a Test Track, Paper NDT-040, Symposium on
Nondestructive Testing and Back-Calculation for Pave-
ments, Nashville, Tenn., 1991.
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Sections for Caltrans, Contract Report DPVT C/255,
California Department of Transportation, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Af-
rica, 1993.
Sacristan, J., S. Garzn, J. Gmez, and J. Sampedro,
Automatic System of Data Acquisition for the Moni-
toring of Tests of Pavements of the CEDEX [in Span-
ish], Magazine Wagon, Vol. 30, No. 24, 1986.
Scazziga, I., et al., Vergleich von Oberbauvarianten fr
Kantons- und Gemeindestrassen (Rundlaufversuch Nr.
3), Schlussbericht zu Forschungsauftrag 35/80 und
17/85, Bundesamt fr Strassenbau, Bern, Switzerland,
Nr. 316, Aug. 1994.
Scazziga, I., M. Horat, and M. Caprez, Cross Test Experi-
ence: What if Results Do Not Match? Proceedings
Concluding ConferenceFORCE Project, La Baule,
France, May 1517, 1991, pp. 309317.
Sherwood, J.A. and T. Mitchell, Full-Scale Accelerated
Testing of Ultra-Thin Whitetopping Pavements,
Techbrief, Publication FHWA-RD-99-087, June 1999.
Sherwood, J.A., T. Mitchell, X. Qi, R.O. Rasmussen, and
M. Ruiz, Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) Test of
Ultra-Thin Whitetopping, Presented and published at
2001 American Concrete Institute Spring Convention,
Philadelphia, Pa., Mar. 2001.
Steven, B., J. De Pont, B. Pidwerbesky, and G. Arnold,
Accelerated Dynamic Loading of Flexible Pavements
at CAPTIF (CD-ROM), Proceedings of the First In-
ternational Conference on Accelerated Pavement Test-
ing, Reno, Nev., Oct. 1820, 1999.
Steven, B., K. Sharp, and G. Arnold, Comparison of Accel-
erated Pavement Test Facilities in New Zealand and
Australia, Transfund New Zealand Research Report No.
198, Transfund New Zealand, Wellington, New Zea-
land, 2000, 115 pp.
Stiady, J.L. A.J.T. Hand, A.S. Noureldin, K. Galal, J. Hua,
and T.D. White, National Pooled Fund Study Number
176: Validation of SHRP Asphalt Mixture Specifications
Using Accelerated Testing, Final Report, FHWA/
IN/JTRP-2003/02, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C., 2003, 571 pp.
Tamarit, J., J. Bueno, J. Aleixandre, B. Mingovillalobos,
and J. Prez, Data Acquisition System in Real Time
During Accelerated Pavement Testing of the CEDEX
Facility [in Spanish], Civil Engineering, No. 1,
1999, p. 114.
Theyse, H.L., M. De Beer, and F.C. Rust, Overview of
South African Mechanistic Pavement Design Method,
Transportation Research Record 1539, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1996, pp. 617.
Walker, R.N., W.D.O. Paterson, C.R. Freeme, and C.P.
Marais, The South African Mechanistic Pavement De-
sign Procedure, Proceedings of the 4th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 2, Ann Arbor,
Mich., 1977.
White, T.D., Determining Percent Crushed Aggregate Re-
quirements in Asphalt Mixture Using Accelerated
Pavement Testing (HRP 2030), JTRP Final Report, Pur-
due University, West Lafayette, Ind.
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Pore Pressure in the Danish Road Testing Machine,
The Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Singapore,
May 1820, 2000.
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Response and Perform-
ance of a Test Pavement to Freeze/Thaw Cycles in Dan-
ish Road Testing Machine RTM3: 2000, VI Report 102,
DRI Report 102, Danish Road Institute, Roskilde,
Denmark, 2000
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Structural Testing and
Performance to the Danish RTM-2 Test Pavement,
The 5th International Symposium on Unbound Ag-
gregates in Roads, Nottingham, United Kindom, June
2123, 2000.
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Models for Determining
Permanent Strains in the Subgrade and the Pavement
Functional Condition, The 20th AARB Conference,
Melbourne, Australia, Mar. 1921, 2001.
Zhang, W. and R.A. Macdonald, Pavement Response and
Performance of a Rehabilitated Test Pavement in the
Danish Road Testing Machine, International Pavement
Subgrade Performance Study 3 (RTM3), Danish Road
Institute, Roskilde, Denmark, 2001.
Zhang, W., P. Ullidtz, and R. Macdonald, Data Analysis
Report, Parts IIII, International Pavement Subgrade
Performance Study 1 (RTM1), Danish Road Institute,
Roskilde, Denmark, 1996.
Zhang, W., P. Ullidtz, and R. Macdonald, Modeling Pave-
ment Response and Predicting Pavement Performance,
International Pavement Subgrade Performance Study 2
117
(RTM2), Danish Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark,
1998.
Zhang, W., P. Ullidtz, and R. Macdonald, Response and
Performance of a Test Pavement to Freeze/Thaw Cycles
in the Danish Road Testing Machine, The 5th Interna-
tional Symposium on Unbound Aggregates in Roads,
Nottingham, United Kingdom, June 2123, 2000.
Zhang, W., P. Ullidtz, and R. Macdonald, Pavement Re-
sponse and Performance of the RTM3 Test Pavement in
a Freeze/Thaw Period, International Pavement Sub-
grade Performance Study 3 (RTM3), Danish Road Insti-
tute, Roskilde, Denmark, 2001.
Zhang, W., P. Ullidtz, and R. Macdonald, Pavement Re-
sponse and Performance of a Rehabilitated Test Pave-
ment in Danish Road Testing Machine, International
Pavement Subgrade Performance Study 3 (RTM3),
Danish Road Institute, Roskilde, Denmark, 2001.



MANAGEMENT

Publications in this category are related to chapter eight,
Improvement of Pavement Economics and Management
Through Accelerated Pavement Testing Applications.
Horak, E., E.G. Kleyn, J.A. du Plessis, E.M. de Villiers,
and A.L. Thompson, The Impact and Management of
the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) Fleet in South Af-
rica, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference
on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 2: Performance, Notting-
ham, United Kingdom, Aug. 1992, pp. 134150.
Melhem, H.G., Development of an Accelerated Testing
Laboratory for Highway Research in Kansas, Report
FHWA-KS-97-5, Kansas Department of Transportation,
Topeka, 1997.
Melhem, H.G. and R. McReynolds, Development of an Ac-
celerated Testing Laboratory for Highway Research in
Kansas, Proceedings of the Fifth International Confer-
ence on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields,
Trondheim, Norway, July 68, 1998, Vol. II, pp. 793802.
Rust, F.C. and J.H. Maree, A Proposed Holistic Framework
for Technology Development and Implementation in South
Africa, Research Report DPVT/236, Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa, June 1995.
Rust, F.C., S.V. Kekwick, E.G. Kleyn, and E.S. Sadzick,
The Impact of the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)
Test Programme on Road Pavement Technology and
Management, Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Wash., Aug.
1014, 1997, pp. 10731085.

118
GLOSSARY


The following are the words and definitions of some com-
mon terms used in the field of pavement engineering that
may be unknown to some of the readers of this synthesis.

AsphaltA mixture of inert mineral matter, such as ag-
gregate, mineral filler (if required), and bituminous binder
in predetermined portions. Commonly known in the
United States as asphalt concrete (AC) or hot-mix asphalt
(HMA).

Asphalt, continuously gradedA mechanically mixed
asphalt in which the aggregate and filler are distributed in
size fractions from coarse to fine within a specified smooth
grading envelope.

Asphalt, gap-gradedAn asphalt mixture composed of
mineral particles, with certain intermediate sizes missing
from the size range, and filler.

Asphalt, LAMBsLarge aggregate mixes for bases con-
taining graded large aggregates and meeting prescribed en-
gineering properties for use as base course material in
South Africa.

Asphalt, open-gradedA mechanically mixed asphalt
constituted to give a high air void content and rough sur-
face texture in the compacted state.

Asphalt, semi-gap-gradedAn asphalt mixture com-
posed of mineral particles, with certain intermediate sizes
missing from the size range, and filler. The coarse aggregate
fraction is more graded than that of gap-graded asphalt.

Asphalt-treated permeable base (ATPB)Known as a
drained pavement in California.

BitumenA noncrystalline solid or viscous mixture of
complex hydrocarbons that possesses characteristic ag-
glomerating properties. Bitumen, which is obtained from
crude petroleum by refining processes, softens gradually
when heated and is substantially soluble in trichloroethyl-
ene. Commonly known in the United States as asphalt.

Bitumen rubberA blend of bitumen and approximately
20% by weight of crumb rubber, containing where neces-
sary extender oil and/or dilutent.

Bituminous-treated baseA layer consisting of granular
material mixed with a bituminous binder.

BogieA mechanical structure designed to enable a wheel
carriage to transfer loading to the surface on which it runs,
such as a pavement or a rail.
Cape sealA single application of binder and stone fol-
lowed by one or two applications of slurry.

CementationStabilization with the objective of increas-
ing the compressive or tensile strength to a predetermined
level. The term cemented material is also used.

ESALEquivalent single-axel load. In the United States,
this equates to a load of 80 kN. It is sometimes abbreviated
as E80.

FORCE ProjectAn accelerated full-scale pavement test
at the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses (LCPC,
Central Laboratory for Roads and Bridges) circular test
track in Nantes, France. The joint test program is known
internationally as the FORCE Project (19881991).

GEMsBitumenemulsion treatment of soils and crushed
stone. Commonly known as granular emulsion mixes in
South Africa.

MacadamContains a high-quality aggregate with large,
single-sized particles stabilized by filling the voids with a
suitable material. Typically the macadam is defined more
specifically in relation to the material used for filling the
voids; e.g., waterbound macadam (WM) has a filler of
natural material with a low plasticity, whereas slurry-bound
macadam (SM) has a filling of slurry.

Macadam, dense bitumen (DBM)A very coarse and
densely continuously graded asphalt used in the United
Kingdom.

Macadam, heavy-dutyA variation of macadam.

Milled granulated blast furnace slag (MGBS)
Granulated slag, a by-product of the processing of iron ore,
milled to a fine powder.

Modified materialA material the physical properties of
which have been improved by the addition of a stabilizing
agent, but in which cementation has not occurred.

Pavement behaviorThe function of the condition of the
pavement with time.

Pay adjustment schedule (for quality)Also called
price adjustment schedule or adjusted pay schedule. A
preestablished schedule, in either tabular or equation form,
for assigning pay factors associated with estimated quality
levels of a given quality characteristic. The pay factors are
usually expressed as percentages of the original contract
bid price.
119
Pay adjustment system (for quality)Also called price
adjustment system or adjusted pay system. All pay ad-
justment schedules along with the equation or algorithm
that is used to determine the overall pay factor for a sub-
mitted lot of material or construction. (A pay adjustment
system, and each pay adjustment schedule, should yield
sufficiently large pay increases/decreases to provide the
contractor some incentive/disincentive for high/low qual-
ity.)

Polymer-modified bitumenA bitumen with improved
physical properties obtained by the addition of a polymer.

PrecoatingThe precoating of the seal stone with a
binder to improve the initial adhesion between the stone
and the seal binder (precoating of chips).

SealA term frequently used instead of reseal or sur-
face treatment. Also used in the context of double seal
and sand seal where sand is used instead of stone.

Surface treatmentApplications of bituminous materials
to a pavement surface with a cover of mineral aggregate.

Surface treatment, doubleAn application of bitumi-
nous binder and stone, followed by a second application of
binder and stone or sand. A fog spray is sometimes applied
on the second layer of aggregate.

Surface treatment, singleAn application of bituminous
binder, followed by a layer of stone or clean sand. The
stone is sometimes covered with a fog spray.

Standard aggregate baseKnown as an undrained
pavement in California.

Test laneThe track (normally linear) along which a bo-
gie travels, applying axle loads to the surface on which it
runs.

TruckSet of wheels or a frame mounted on wheels to sup-
port a structure. [Synonym for bogie and undercarriage.]

Wheel assemblyMay be fixed to an APT device (e.g., a
test truck traveling along a test pavement). It may also be
a loose assembly that is guided to travel along a pre-
planned wheel path. [Synonym for bogie, truck, and
undercarriage.]

Wheel tracking Application of wheel load repetitions to
a surface.

UndercarriageSupporting framework of a vehicle with
a wheel system (United States). [Synonym for landing
gear (of an aircraft), truck, and bogie.]

UNPG The aggregate producers union in France.


120
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS


AC asphalt concrete
ALF Accelerated Loading Facility
APT accelerated pavement testing
ARRB Australian Road Research Board
ASR alkalisilica reaction
ATLaS Accelerated Transportation Loading System
ATPB asphalt-treated permeable base
CAL/APT California Department of Transportation Accelerated Pavement Testing
CAM crack activity meter
CAPTIF Canterbury Accelerated Pavement Testing Indoor Facility
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CEDEX Spanish Centro De Estudios De Carreteras test facility
CM crack movement
COST Cooperative Science and Technology
CRCP continuously reinforced concrete pavement
CRREL (USACEERDC) Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory
CSIRO Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
CTCR cement-treated crushed rock
CTSB cement-treated subbase
DBM dense bitumen macadam
DIVINE Dynamic Interaction between Vehicles and Infrastructure Experiment
DOT department of transportation
EDE environmental damage exponent
ERDC U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center
ESAL equivalent single-axle load
EVA ethylene vinyl acetate
FE finite element
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
GEMs granular emulsion mixes
GSL (USACEERDC) Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory
HCC hydraulic cement concrete
HDM heavy-duty macadam
HMA hot-mix asphalt
HVS Heavy Vehicle Simulator
HVSNordic mobile linear full-scale accelerated pavement testing machine
IRI International Roughness Index
JCP jointed unreinforced concrete pavement
LAMBs large aggregate mixes for bases
LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses
LINTRACK (Dutch) LINear TRACKing Apparatus
LTPP long-term pavement performance
LWAC lightweight aggregate asphalt concrete
MMLS3 one-third scale mobile load simulator
Mn/ROAD Minnesota Road Research Project
NAPTF National Airport Pavement Test Facility
NCAT National Center for Asphalt Technology
PCC portland cement concrete
PMS pavement management system
PTF Pavement Test Facility
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
RAP recycled asphalt pavement
SASW spectral analysis of surface waves
SBS styrene butadiene styrene
121
SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program
SMA stone matrix asphalt
SMDM South African Mechanistic Design Method
TRL Transport Research Laboratory (United Kingdom)
TxMLS Texas Mobile Load Simulator
USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
UTFRC ultra-thin fiber-reinforced concrete
UTW ultra-thin whitetopping
VRSPTA VehicleRoad Surface Pressure Transducer Array
VTI VAG-OCH TRANSPORTFORSKNINGSINSTITUT (Swedish
National Road and Transport Research Institute)



122
APPENDIX A

Survey Questionnaire


NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Project 20-5, Synthesis Topic 32-04

SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS FROM FULL-SCALE/ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING

QUESTIONNAIRE





Purpose of this Survey

This is a survey to collect information on issues pertaining to full-scale/accelerated pavement testing (APT). In this regard,
APT is defined as the application of a wheel loading, close to or above the legal load limit(s) to a prototype or actual,
layered, structural pavement system. The objective of the survey is to collect significant findings from various
experimental activities to assess the application of APT in research and practice and to address actual and potential benefits
to the U.S. pavement community. A questionnaire is set out for completion online. This is preferable. To do so return to the
Internet site and access the electronic version. Alternatively, you can complete and mail this downloaded version to one of
the addresses provided below. The information you supply will provide valuable input to the development of a summary
report on this important topic.

Please provide the name of the person completing this questionnaire or someone else who may be contacted to obtain
any needed follow-up information, below:



Name:

Title:

Agency:

Street Address:

City/State/Zip:

Country:

Telephone:

Fax:

E-mail:

123
Please complete and return this questionnaire and any supporting documents you can provide, such as copies of papers,
proceedings or reports by June 30, 2001 to

Amy Epps, Ph.D.
503F CE/TTI Bldg.
3136 TAMU
College Station, TX 77843-3136
USA

or

Fred Hugo, P.E., D.Eng. Ph.D.
University of Stellenbosch
Department of Civil Engineering
Banghoek Street
Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa

In lieu of sending hard copies of supporting documents by mail, it would be appreciated if you could provide access to
electronic files. Should you have any questions, please contact:

Dr. Epps at +1 (979) 862 1750 (t), (979) 845 0278 (f) or
Dr. Hugo at +27 (21) 808 4364 (t), +27 (21) 808 4361 (f), or
e-mail them at: [email protected] or [email protected]


Preface to Questionnaire

During the international APT conference in Reno, Nevada, in October 1999, it was apparent that a primary goal of APT
world wide was ultimately to improve the performance and economics of pavements. This was being done by focusing on
APT programs on all aspects of pavement engineering; from design to maintenance and management of constructed
pavements, as well as rehabilitation of distressed pavements.

To achieve this goal, various tools for monitoring pavement response and various APT trafficking devices have been
used. While these aspects are important, the purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information on ATP findings. Given
the extent of APT research and application around the world, the focus of the survey will therefore be on a number of
categories of information that were identified in preliminary surveys as being major factors that impact on the stated goal
namely

Structural Composition
Loading and Environment
Materials and Tests
Modeling
Construction
Rehabilitation
Maintenance

Figure A1 gives an outline of the apparent interrelationship between these elements. This was used as a framework for
exploring the vast volume of knowledge from APT programs.

A survey of this nature cannot and does not attempt to address each of the above listed items in detail. However, in order
to optimize the procedure, the questionnaire has been structured to solicit responses at three levels. The first level (green)
should not require too much time to complete, and the answers should be readily available. The second level (blue) will
require more time and effort, while the third level (red) is probably best suited for those APT users that have intensive
programs with detailed information readily available. Respondents are kindly requested to provide as much information as
they are able to.

124
Response
Tool
Trafficking
Device
Structural
Capacity
Functional
Service
Structural
Composition
Traffic
Loading
Climatic
Impact
Loading and
Environment
Material
Laboratory/Field
Engineering
Laboratory/Field
Material
and Tests
Performance
Prediction
Remaining
Life
Modeling
Improve Performance
and
Economics of Pavements
PRS
Conventional
procedures
Warranties
Properties Properties
Implementation through Construction,
Rehabilitation and Maintenance

FIGURE A1 Framework for exploring knowledge generated by APT programs.




1. MANAGEMENT

1.1 Nature of your APT program (check as many as apply).

National research program Academic research program
State research program Partnership with others in private sector

If other, please specify.


1.2 Implementation of your APT is geared towards (check as many as apply):

Evaluation/validation of pavement structural composition
Evaluation/validation of loading environment (traffic/climate)
Evaluation/validation of materials and tests
Evaluation/validation of performance models
Evaluation/validation of construction techniques
Evaluation/validation of rehabilitation strategies

1.3 Type of APT application (check as many as apply).

Field Laboratory
Fixed-site In-service pavements
Test roads Specially constructed

1.4 Type of APT device/system.

Number of Axles
Single Multiple
Linear
Unidirectional
Bidirectional






125
Circular
Elliptical
Trucks
Other

If other, please specify.


1.5 Number of pavement sections tested: 15 610 1120 2150 >50

1.6 Typical duration of APT tests in months: 13 46 711 1224 >24

1.7 Estimated capital cost of APT facility and equipment: <$1 M $12 M $25 M >$5 M

1.8 Yearly APT budget:
<$0.1 M $0.10.2 M $0.20.4 M $0.40.8 M $0.81.6 M >$1.6 M

1.9 Breakdown of budget:
Operational <10% 1020% 2030% >30%
Maintenance <10% 1020%
Staff <10% 1020% 2030% >30%

1.10 Average (typical) operational cost/test: <$0.5 M $0.51 M $11.5 M >$1.5 M

1.11 Number of direct APT personnel:
Professional <5 >5
Technical <5 510 >10
Administrative <5 >5

1.12 Overall estimated savings/benefits in monetary terms:

<$100 k $100200 k $200500 k $0.51 M $12 M >$2 M

1.13 Benefit/cost (B/C) ratio of APT programs:

<1:1 10:1
1:1 15:1
2:1 20:1
5:1 >20:1

Please briefly outline the process used to determine B/C ratio.

1.14 Benefits of APT (check as many as apply).

None Improved performance modeling
Improved structural design procedures Improved pavement management
Improved material design procedures Better understanding of variability
Use of new or innovative materials Warranty contracts
Development of performance-related
specifications
Weather databases
Material databases Evaluation/validation of Superpave
Other

126
If other, please specify.


Motivate answer in less than 50 words per item.




2. STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION

2.1 What was the purpose of the structural compositions used in your APT program?

Structural performance Functional performance

2.2 Indicate which pavement layers were evaluated/validated in the structural
performance tests.

Layer/
Material

Seal

Sand

Clay

Granular
Cement
Stabilized

Asphalt

Concrete
Composite/
Recycled
Ultrathin
White-topping
Surface
Base
Subbase
Subgrade

2.3 Distress criterion evaluated for seals.

Ravelling (abrasion) Bleeding
Other Aggregate loss (loss of bond)
Not applicable

If other, please specify.

2.4 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with clay/sand material.

Collapsing Freeze/thaw
Swelling Permanent deformation
Other Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.5 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with granular materials.

Permanent deformation Shear failure
Frost/thaw damage Other
Not applicable

If other, please specify.

127
2.6 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with stabilized or cemented materials.

Cracking Carbonation
Crushing Other
Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.7 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with asphaltic materials.

Rutting Moisture damage/stripping
Fatigue Aging
Low temperature cracking Other
Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.8 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with concrete.

Cracking Fatigue
Stress ratio Curling and warping
Joint failure Load transfer failure
Faulting Spalling
Punchouts Steel rupture
Erosion of subbase Other
Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.9 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with composite materials.

Rutting Fatigue
Cracking Debonding
Slippage Other
Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.10 Which aspects of functional performance were addressed?

Safety User costs
Environment Roughness
Not applicable Other

If other, please specify.



128
2.11 Which safety aspects were addressed in your APT program?

Rutting Punchouts
Skid resistance Delamination
Roughness Spalling
Other Not applicable

If other, please specify.


2.12 Which environmental aspects were addressed in your APT program?

Noise Dust pollution
Other Not applicable

If other, please specify.



2.13 List significant APT findings related to pavement structural composition.




3. LOADING AND ENVIRONMENT

3.1 To which of the following load characteristics has APT performance been related (check all that apply)?

Applied wheel load Channelized/wandering
Tire pressure Speed
Tire type Rest periods
Contact stress Overloading
Load configuration Roughness/PSI
Suspension system Other
Vehicle/pavement dynamics

If other, please specify.


3.2 To which of the following environment/weather data has APT performance been related (check all that apply)?

Air temperature Water table
Pavement temperature Drainage
Rainfall Depth to bedrock
Relative humidity Other
Aging

If other, please specify.

129
3.3 Which of the following environment/weather conditions are directly controlled (check all that apply)?

Air temperature Subgrade moisture
Pavement temperature Aging
Relative humidity Other

If other, please specify.


3.4 APT Test temperature used (check all that apply).

Hot (>40C) (>104F) Cold (<10C) (<50F)
Moderate (>10C < 40C) (>50F < 104F) Freezing (<5C) (<41F)

3.5 List significant APT findings related to loading environment.




4. MATERIALS AND TESTS

4.1 APT has led to an improved characterization of (check all that apply).

Granular materials Whitetopping
Stabilized/cemented materials Geofabrics
Asphalt (hot mix) Reinforcement
Asphalt (cold mix) Concrete
Concrete Other

If other, please specify.


4.2 Which of the following asphaltic materials have been tested?

Surface Base
Continuously graded
Open graded
Semi-gap graded
Gap graded
Large stone mixes
SMA
Porous asphalt
RAP
Gussasphalt
Sand asphalt

4.3 Which of the following material properties have been related to APT performance?

Stiffness Binder content
Poissons ratio Film thickness
Density Moisture content
Gradation Visco-elastic properties
Atterberg limits Aging index
Volumetric properties Other
130
If other, please specify.


4.4 Laboratory tests used in conjunction with APT.

Wheel trafficking tests: Other performance related tests:
PTF Direct tensile tests (strength or fatigue)
MMLS3 Indirect tensile tests (strength or fatigue)
French Rut Tester Bending beam fatigue
Hamburg Tester Cantilever fatigue tests
Asphalt Pavement Analyzer Semi-circular bending test
Other wheel tracking Triaxial testing
Dynamic creep
Static creep
Other performance related tests
Laboratory tests used in conjunction with APT (cont.)
SST: Laboratory compaction:
Volumetric shear test Marshall
Repeated shear test at constant height Modified Marshall (Hugo)
Simple shear test at constant height Gyratory
Repeated shear test at constant stress Roller
Uniaxial strain test Other compaction tests:
Shear frequency sweep test at constant height Short- or long-term aging
Asphalt binder tests: Permeability
Penetration, softening point, ductility Basic aggregate tests:
Dynamic shear rheometer Unconfined compressive strength
Bending beam rheometer California bearing ratio
Rotational viscometer Seismic measurements
Sliding plate rheometer
Other asphalt binder tests
Other


If other, please specify.


4.5 Which of the following concrete materials/structures were tested with APT?


JCP

CRCP
Pre-
stressed
Block
Pavers

Other
None (continue with Question 4.8)
Ordinary portland cement concrete
High alumina cement concrete
Blast furnace cement concrete
Polymer-modified concrete
Fiber-reinforced concrete
Other


If other, please specify.

131
4.6 Which of the following properties have been related to APT performance of concrete pavements?

Tensile strength Flexural strength
Compressive strength Stiffness modulus
Other

If other, please specify.


4.7 Which laboratory tests were used in conjunction with APT of concrete pavements?

Direct tensile strength tests Direct tensile fatigue tests
Cylinder compression tests Field core strength tests
Split tensile strength tests Split tensile fatigue tests
Cube compression tests Other

If other, please specify.


4.8 Which field tests were used in conjunction with APT?

Scaled wheel trafficking (MMLS3) Seismic measurements
Penetration tests (DCP) Ground penetrating radar
Density/moisture measurements FWD
Benkelman Beam Permeability
Rolling Dynamic Deflectometer In situ concrete strength
Plate load tests Relative concrete joint movement
Other

If other, please specify.


4.9 List significant APT findings related to materials and tests.





5. MODELING

5.1 Which aspect of modeling have you studied using APT (check all that apply)?

Stress/strain modeling Back-calculation of modulus
Deflection modeling Load equivalency
Deformation modeling Pavement serviceability
Fatigue modeling Other

If other, please specify.

132

5.2 Which instrumentation have you used to gather modeling data?

Strain gauges Displacement gauges
Pressure cells Subgrade moisture sensors
Load cells Other

If other, please specify.


5.3 Which models have you been using with your APT studies?

None Elasto-plastic analysis
Elastic layer analysis Finite-element analysis
Visco-elastic analysis Other

If other, please specify.


Please provide specifics of models developed from APT tests.


5.4 List significant APT findings related to modeling.



6. CONSTRUCTION/REHABILITATION

6.1 Which aspects of pavement engineering have you studied to enhance construction and rehabilitation through APT
(check all that apply)?

Unconventional materials Gradients
Joints Slippage
Buried pipes Road marking
Durability Traffic accommodation
Compaction Patching
Reinforcement Risk management
Preventative maintenance QA/QC
Surface texture Surface tolerance
Surface drainage Subsurface drainage
Other

If other, please specify.


133
6.2 APT has aided in the development of construction specifications and contracts with regards to

Performance-related specifications Pay factors
Warranties Risk management
Other Not applicable

If other, please specify.


6.3 List significant APT findings related to construction.

6.4 List significant APT findings related to rehabilitation.



7. REFERENCES

It is assumed that active APT programs have extensive databases and bibliographies related to their research. It is with this
in mind that respondents are requested to provide references pertaining to each of the listed items below that have been
published in recognized journals or proceedings. Information on reports will also be useful. This feedback will enable
specific information to be accessed beyond the scope that was possible to extract through the general questionnaire.

7.1 Please include a list of your published references that pertain to APT. Link your references to each of the listed
related fields. Alternatively, you may insert your references as a single list in the box provided at the end of this
section. You can of course expand the size of the boxes to suit your requirements.

Management
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



Structural composition
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



Loading environment
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



Materials and tests
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



Modeling
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



134
Construction
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



Rehabilitation
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher



List of references pertaining to APT in general
Ref. Number Author(s) Date Title Journal/Proceeding/Report Publisher





THANK YOU FOR THE EFFORT YOU PUT IN TO COMPLETE THE QUESTIONNAIRE. WE APPRECIATE IT!


Please send your response to one of the two optional addresses on the front page of the questionnaire if you are not
submitting the electronic version via the Internet. In the same vein, all other material that you have prepared and are able to
send should also go to one of the same addresses on the front page.


If you have any questions, please call either Dr. Fred Hugo or Dr. Amy Epps or send an e-mail or fax.





135
APPENDIX B

Summary of Questionnaire Responses




























136

United States Departments of Transportation with submissions stating no APT facilities
Respondent
Ref.

Entity

Location

Year Name E-mail

Status 2001
1. Arkansas DOT Arkansas NA Meadors [email protected] No APT
2. Colorado DOT Colorado NA Griffin [email protected] No APT
3. Connecticut DOT Connecticut NA Laine [email protected] No APT
4. Georgia DOT Georgia NA Geary [email protected] No APT
5. Hawaii DOT Hawaii NA Choy [email protected] No APT
6. Idaho DOT Idaho NA Smith [email protected] No APT
7. Illinois DOT Illinois NA Lipperdt [email protected] No APT
8. Iowa DOT Iowa NA MacGillivray [email protected] No APT
9. Maryland DOT Maryland NA Smith [email protected] No APT
10. Missouri DOT Missouri NA Donahue [email protected] No APT
11. Nebraska DOT Nebraska NA Traynowicz [email protected] No APT
12. Nevada DOT Nevada NA Tedford/Weitzel [email protected] /
[email protected]
No APT
13. New Jersey DOT New Jersey NA Vitillo [email protected] No APT
14. New York DOT New York NA Bernard [email protected] No APT
15. Oregon DOT Oregon NA Griffith [email protected] No APT
16. Pennsylvania DOT Pennsylvania NA Moretz [email protected] No APT
17. South Carolina DOT South Carolina NA Zwanka [email protected] (via NCAT)
18. Tennessee DOT Tennessee NA Egan [email protected] (via NCAT)
19. Utah DOT Utah NA Anderson [email protected] No APT
20. West Virginia DOT West Virginia NA Roush [email protected] No APT





International Programs from whom no responses were received
Respondent
Ref.

Entity

Acronym/Location

Year Name E-mail

Status 2001

1. Ecole Polytechnique Federale de
Lausanne
EPFL/Switzerland 1977 Perret [email protected] A
2. Port and Harbor Research Institute PHRI/PW RIJapan 1969 A
3. Canadian Transportation Innovation
Center
C-TICSaskatchewan,
Canada
1978 Not known
4. Laboratory of Japan Highway Public
Corporation
JHPCJapan 1979 A
5. Vuis Cesty S-KSDSlovakia 1994 Cesty [email protected] A
6. Institute of Engineering The
Universided Nacional Autonome de
Mexico
UNAMMexico 1970 A
7. Bundesanstalt fur Strassenwesen BAStGermany 1963 [email protected] /
[email protected]
Not applicable


137
APPENDIX C

Graphical Representation of Answers to Selected Questions by Respondents to the
Questionnaire Survey (see Appendix A)



RIOHALF
WesTrack
RRTRom
NCAT
MnROAD TRACKER RIOHALF
LCPCFr RRTRomania TRLPTF
ISETH PRFLa PRFLa TRACKER
InAPLF MnROAD NCAT TRLPTF
HVSSA LINTRACK LINTRACK MnROAD
HVSNordic KATL KATL LCPCFr
FHWAPTF ATLaS ATLaS ATLaS
NAPTF ISETH ISETH ISETH
DRTM HVSSA InAPLF HVSSA
HVSCRREL DRTM FDOTHVS NAPTF HVSA
CEDEX HVSCRREL HVSCRREL DRTM TxMLS
CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ CAL/APT CAL/APT ISETH
ARRBALF CAL/APT ARRBALF ARRBALF HVSSA
OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF CAL/APT
National research
program
Academic research
program
State research program
Partnership with others in
private sector
Service rendered for
others; e.g., state DOTs,
military, etc.
FIGURE C1 Nature of your APT program. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT testing, Question 1.1).




























138
RIOHALF
HVSA RIOHALF
TxMLS WesTrack
TRLPTF HVSA
RRTRom TRACKER RIOHALF
PRFLa TxMLS WesTrack
NCAT TRLPTFTRLPTF HVSA
MnROAD HVSA RRTRom TxMLS
LINTRACK TxMLS PRFLa PRFLa HVSA
LCPCFr TRLPTF NCAT NCAT TxMLS
KATL MnROAD MnROAD MnROAD MnROAD
ATLaS LINTRACK LINTRACK LINTRACK

LINTRACK
ISETH LCPCFr LCPCFr LCPCFr HVSA LCPCFr
InAPLF ATLaS KATL ATLaS TRLPTF KATL
HVSSA ISETH ATLaS ISETH PRFLa ATLaS
HVSNordic InAPLF ISETH INDOT MnROAD ISETH
FHWAPTF HVSSA InAPLF HVSSA LCPCFr InAPLF
FDOTHVS FHWAPTF HVSSA FHWAPTF KATL HVSSA
NAPTF NAPTF FHWAPTF NAPTF ATLaS HVSNordic
DRTM DRTM FDOTHVS DRTM InAPLF FHWAPTF
HVSCRREL HVSCRREL HVSCRREL HVSCRREL HVSSA FDOTHVS
CEDEX CEDEX CEDEX CEDEX FDOTHVS NAPTF
CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ HVSCRREL HVSCRREL
CAL/APT CAL/APT CAL/APT CAL/APT CEDEX CEDEX
ARRBALF ARRBALF ARRBALF ARRBALF CAL/APT CAL/APT
OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF
Pavement structural
composition
Loading environment
(traffic/climate)
Materials and tests Performance models
Construction
techniques
Rehabilitation
strategies
FIGURE C2 Implementation of your APT is geared towards. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.2).






















139
WesTrack
HVSA

TxMLS WesTrack
RRTRom HVSA
PRFLa TxMLS
NCAT TRLPTF
MnROAD RRTRom
LINTRACK NCAT
LCPCFr MnROAD
ATLaS LINTRACK

ISETH LCPCFr
RIOHALF HVSNordic KATL
WesTrack TRACKER FHWAPTF ATLaS
TxMLS TxMLS FDOTHVS ISETH
PRFLa TRLPTF NAPTF

NAPTF
MnROAD KATL HVSCRREL RIOHALF DRTM
HVSSA InAPLF CEDEX TxMLS HVSA HVSCRREL
FHWAPTF DRTM CAPTIFNZ MnROAD NCAT CAL/APT
CAL/APT HVSCRREL CAL/APT CAL/APT MnROAD ARRBALF
ARRBALF OhAPLF OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF OhAPLF
Field Laboratory Fixed site In-service pavements Test roads Specially constructed
FIGURE C3 Type of APT application. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.3).




RIOHALF

PRFLa HVSA
FHWAPTF TRACKER
FDOTHVS DRTM
TRLPTF TRLPTF
LINTRACK LINTRACK
KATL KATL
ATLaS ATLaS
InAPLF InAPLF
HVSSA HVSSA
HVSNordic HVSNordic

ARRBALF FDOTHVS


HVSCRREL HVSCRREL

HVSA RRTRom Mn/ROAD Mn/ROAD k
CAL/APT CAL/APT TxMLS NAPTF ISETH LCPCFr

WesTrack WesTrack
OhAPLF OhAPLF KATL KATL CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ CEDEX NCAT NCAT
Unidirectional
Single axles
Bidirectional
Single axles
Unidirectional
Multiple axles
Bidirectional
Multiple axles
Single axles Multiple axles Single axles Multiple axles Single axles Multiple axles
Linear Circular Elliptical (Oval) Trucks
FIGURE C4 Type of APT device/system. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.4).
140
FIGURE C5 Number of pavement sections tested. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.5).
HVSA
TxMLS RIOHALF MnROAD
LINTRACK WesTrack LCPCFr
TRACKER KATL

TRLPTF InAPLF
ISETH HVSNordic RRTRom NCAT HVSSA
FDOTHVS NAPTF PRFLa CEDEX FHWAPTF
HVSCRREL OhAPLF CAPTIFNZ CAL/APT ARRBALF
15 610 1120 2150 >50*
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.







TRACKER RIOHALF
TRLPTF TxMLS
LCPCFr LINTRACK
KATL LCPCFr HVSA
InAPLF FHWAPTF NAPTF
HVSSA FDOTHVS DRTM
HVSNordic HVSCRREL CEDEX RRTRom WesTrack
CAL/APT CAL/APT CAPTIFNZ PRFLa MnROAD
OhAPLF ARRBALF CAL/APT NCAT ISETH
13 46 711 1224 >24*
FIGURE C6 Typical duration of an APT test per test section in months. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.6).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.









RIOHALF
TRLPTF
ATLaS PRFLa WesTrack
RRTRom HVSSA FHWAPTF MnROAD
LINTRACK CAPTIFNZ FDOTHVS LCPCFr
KATL ARRBALF CEDEX NAPTF
InOhAPLF OhAPLF CAL/APT HVSCRREL
<$1 M $12 M $25 M >$5 M*
FIGURE C7 Estimated capital cost of APT facility equipment. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.7).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.


141

RIOHALF
TRLPTF
RRTRom WesTrack
ISETH LINTRACK

FDOTHVS
CAPTIFNZ KATL TxMLS NAPTF NCAT
InAPLF ARRBALF HVSNordic PRFLa HVSCRREL MnROAD
HVSNordic OhAPLF FHWAPTF HVSSA CEDEX CAL/APT
<$0.1 M $0.10.2 M $0.20.4 M $0.40.8 M $0.81.6 M >$1.6 M*
FIGURE C8 Yearly APT budget without pavement construction cost. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 1.8).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.





WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
PRFLa
LINTRACK
WesTrack HVSA RIOHALF KATL
TxMLS TRACKER TRLPTF ATLaS
TRLPTF NCAT RRTRom ISETH
RRTRom ATLaS PRFLA InAPLF
PRFLa NCAT HVSSA LINTRACK FHWAPTF
ATLaS KATL FHWAPTF KATL NAPTF
InAPLF ISETH FDOTHVS ISETH CAPTIFNZ
FHWAPTF CAPTIFNZ CAL/APT INDOT CAL/APT
TRACKER FDOTHVS CAL/APT ARRBALF NAPTF RRTRom ARRBALF
LINTRACK OhAPLF NAPTF ARRBALF OhAPLF CAPTIFNZ FDOT NCAT DRTM OhAPLF
<10% 1020% 2030% >30%* <10% 1020% <10% 10
20%
2030% >30%
Operational Maintenance Staff
FIGURE C9 Breakdown of budget (N/A). (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.9).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.

142

RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TRACKER
TRLPTF
RRTRom
NCAT
LINTRACK
LCPCFr
KATL
ATLaS
ISETH
InAPLF
HVSSA
HVSNordic
FHWAPTF
DRTM
HVSCRREL
CAPTIFNZ TxMLS
ARRBALF PRFLa
OhAPLF FDOTHVS CEDEX
<$0.5 M $0.51 M $12 M >$2 M*
FIGURE C10 Average (typical) operational cost/test section. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.10).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.


































143
RIOHALF
RIOHALF HVSA
HVSA TRACKER
TxMLS TxMLS
TRLPTF TRLPTF
RRTRom

RRTRom
PRFLa

RIOHALF PRFLa
NCAT HVSA NCAT
LINTRACK TRACKER LINTRACK
KATL TRLPTF ATLaS
ATLaS RRTRom ISETH
ISETH PRFLa InAPLF
InAPLF NCAT HVSSA
HVSSA LINTRACK HVSNordic
HVSNordic KATL FHWAPTF
FHWAPTF ATLaS FDOTHVS
FDOTHVS InAPLF NAPTF
NAPTF FHWAPTF HVSCRREL
HVSCRREL HVSCRREL

CEDEX
CEDEX

CEDEX HVSSA CAPTIFNZ
CAPTIFNZ WesTrack CAPTIFNZ HVSNordic WesTrack CAL/APT TxMLS
ARRBALF MnROAD ARRBALF FDOT MnROAD ARRBALF MnROAD
OhAPLF CAL/APT OhAPLF NAPTF CAL/APT OhAPLF HVSNordic
<5 >5* <5 510 >10* <5 >5*
Professional Technical Administrative
FIGURE C11 Number of direct APT personnel. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.11).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.






WesTrack
HVSA
NCAT
MnROAD
NAPTF
CAPTIFNZ
CAL/APT
ISETH ARRBALF
<$100 k $100200 k $200500 k $0.51 M $12 M >$2 M*
FIGURE C12 Overall estimated savings/benefits in monetary terms for the respective programs. (Source: Significant findings from full-
scale/APT, Question 1.12).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.



144
ISETH NCAT
HVSSA

NAPTF
CAL/APT InAPLF CAPTIFNZ
<1:1 1:1 2:1 5:1 10:1 15:1 20:1 >20:1*
FIGURE C13 Benefit-cost ratio** of APT programs. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.13).
*Upper limit not defined in questionnaire.
**Details to be found elsewhere in the report.








RIOH
ALF
RIOH
ALF
HVSA WesTrack
TxMLS


HVSA
PRFLa RIOHALF HVSA TxMLS
NCAT WesTrack TRACKER PRFLa

RIOHALF
MnROAD HVSA TxMLS

NCAT WesTrack
LIN-
TRACK
TxMLS TRLPTF RIOHALF MnROAD HVSA
LCPCFr PRFLa RRTRom WesTrack LINTRACK TxMLS
KATL NCAT PRFLa TRLPTF

LCPCFr TRLPTF
ISETH MnROAD MnROAD PRFLa WesTrack KATL PRFLa
InAPLF LINTRACK LINTRACK NCAT TxMLS InAPLF NCAT
RIOH
ALF
HVSSA LCPCFr LCPCFr MnROAD PRFLa HVSSA MnROAD TxMLS
FHWA
PTF
ISETH ISETH LINTRACK MnROAD
FHWA
PTF
LINTRACK PRFLa
NAPTF InAPLF InAPLF InAPLF ISETH DRTM LCPCFr NCAT WesTrack
DRTM HVSSA HVSSA HVSSA InAPLF
HVS
CRREL

ISETH MnROAD PRFLa
CEDEX
FHWA
PTF
FHWA
PTF
NAPTF HVSSA

CEDEX RRTRom InAPLF

LCPCFr MnROAD
CAPTIF
NZ
CEDEX DRTM CEDEX NAPTF WesTrack
CAPTIF
NZ
MnROAD DRTM WesTrack ISETH LCPCFr
CAL/APT CAL/APT CEDEX CAPTIFNZ CEDEX HVSA CAL/APT LINTRACK CEDEX TxMLS InAPLF KATL

ARRB
ALF
ARRB
ALF
CAL/APT CAL/APT CAL/APT LINTRACK
ARRB
ALF
CEDEX
CAPTIF
NZ
NCAT CAL/APT InAPLF
ATLaS OhAPLF OhAPLF
ARRB
ALF
ARRBALF
ARRB
ALF
CEDEX OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF InAPLF
ARRB
ALF
FHWA
PTF
None
Improved
structural
design
procedures
Improved
material
design
procedures
Use of new
or
innovative
materials
Development
of
performance-
related
specifications
Material
databases
Other
Improved
performance
modeling
Improved
pavement
management
Better
understand-
ing of
variability
Warranty
contracts
Weather
databases
Evalua-
tion/
validation
of
Superpave
FIGURE C14 Benefits of APT. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 1.14).





145
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
RRTRom
PRFLa
NCAT
MnROAD
LINTRACK
LCPCFr
ATLaS WesTrack
ISETH HVSA
HVSSA TxMLS
HVSNordic RRTRom
FHWAPTF NCAT
FDOTHVS MnROAD
NAPTF LINTRACK
HVSCRREL LCPCFr
CAPTIFNZ ISETH
CAL/APT InAPLF
ARRBALF HVSCRREL
OhAPLF ARRBALF
Structural performance Functional performance
FIGURE C15 Purpose of the structural compositions used in APT programs.
(Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 2.1).



S
e
a
l

S
a
n
d

C
l
a
y

G
r
a
n
u
l
a
r

C
e
m
e
n
t

s
t
a
b
i
l
i
z
e
d

A
s
p
h
a
l
t

C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
/
r
e
c
y
c
l
e
d

U
l
t
r
a
t
h
i
n

w
h
i
t
e

t
o
p
p
i
n
g

Surface
Subbase
0
5
10
15
20
25






















FIGURE C16 Pavement layers evaluated/validated in the structural performance tests. (Source: Significant
findings from full-scale/APT, Question 2.2).

146

PRFLLa
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
NCAT
LINTRACK
KATL
FHWAPTF
FDOTHVS
MnROAD NAPTF
MnROAD MnROAD MnROAD ISETH DRTM
HVSSA HVSSA HVSSA HVSSA CAL/APT
ARRBALF ARRBALF CAPTIFNZ ARRBALF OhAPLF
Ravelling Bleeding Other Aggregate loss Not applicable
FIGURE C17 Distress criterion evaluated for seals. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 2.3).








RIOHALF
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
MnROAD
LINTRACK
KATL
ISETH
HVSSA
HVSNordic
NAPTF
DRTM
HVSCRREL FHWAPTF
CEDEX WesTrack
HVSA MnROAD CAPTIFNZ NCAT

HVSSA DRTM CAL/APT FDOTHVS MnROAD
ISETH ARRBALF HVSCRREL ARRBALF OhAPLF NAPTF
Collapsing Swelling Freeze/thaw Permanent deformation Not applicable Other
FIGURE C18 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with clay/sand material. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 2.4).





147

RIOHALF
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
PRFLa
MnROAD
LCPCFr
KATL
ISETH
HVSSA
HVSNordic
NAPTF RIOHALF
DRTM HVSA
HVSCRREL MnROAD
CEDEX

HVSSA WesTrack
CAPTIFNZ MnROAD HVSCRREL NCAT
CAL/APT DRTM CAPTIFNZ

FDOTHVS
ARRBALF HVSCRREL ARRBALF KATL OhAPLF
Permanent deformation Frost/thaw damage Shear failure Other Not applicable
FIGURE C19 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with granular materials. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/
APT, Question 2.5).






RIOALF
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
RRTRom
PRFLa
MnROAD FHWAPTF
LCPCFr WesTrack
ISETH RIOHALF NCAT
HVSSA HVSA LINTRACK
NAPTF TRLPTF FDOTHVS
DRTM ISETH MnROAD HVSCRREL
CEDEX HVSSA RRTRom CA.L/APT CAPTIFNZ
ARRBALF ARRBALF HVSSA ARRBALF OhAPLF
Cracking Crushing Carbonation Other Not applicable
FIGURE C20 Distress criterion for pavements with stabilized or cemented materials. (Source: Significant findings from full-
scale/APT, Question 2.6).

148
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF RIOHALF
RRTRom WesTrack
PRFLa TxMLS
NCAT TRLPTF
MnROAD RRTRom
LINTRACK PRFLa
LCPCFr NCAT
KATL MnROAD
ISETH LINTRACK
InAPLF LCPCFr
HVSSA KATL
FHWAPTF ISETH
FDOTHVS InAPLF RIOHALF
DRTM HVSSA

WesTrack
HVSCRREL FHWAPTF TxMLS
CEDEX DRTM

NCAT TxMLS
CAPTIFNZ CEDEX RIOHALF MnROAD RRTRom WesTrack
CAL/APT CAPTIFNZ WesTrack InAPLF MnROAD MnROAD
ARRBALF CAL/APT MnROAD HVSSA HVSSA KATL
OhAPLF ARRBALF HVSCRREL CAL/APT FHWAPTF OhAPLF NAPTF
Rutting Fatigue
Low temperature
cracking
Moisture damage/
stripping
Aging Other Not applicable
FIGURE C21 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with asphaltic materials. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 2.7).

HVSA
TRLPTF
RRT
Rom
MnROAD
LCPCFr
KATL
ATLaS HVSA HVSA
InAPLF

MnROAD TRLPTF
HVSSA HVSA LCPCFr MnROAD
HVS
Nordic
MnROAD TRLPTF ATLaS LCPCFr TRLPTF MnROAD WesTrack
NAPTF ATLaS MnROAD InAPLF ATLaS MnROAD TRLPTF KATL TxMLS
DRTM HVSSA ISETH HVSSA InAPLF KATL MnROAD

ATLaS NCAT
CAL/APT HVSNordic HVSSA NAPTF CAL/APT ATLaS KATL TRLPTF TRLPTF HVSSA FDOTHVS
ARRB
ALF
DRTM CAL/APT CAL/APT
ARRB
ALF
HVSSA HVSSA MnROAD MnROAD

CAL/APT

HVSCRREL
OhAPLF CAL/APT
ARRB
ALF
ARRB
ALF
OhAPLF CAL/APT
ARRB
ALF
ARRB
ALF
ATLaS
TRL
PTF
ARRB
ALF
RRT
Rom
CAPTIFNZ
Cracking Stress ratio
Joint
failure
Fatigue
Curling
and
warping
Load
transfer
failure
Faulting Spalling Punchouts
Steel
rupture
Erosion
of
subbase
Other
Not
applicable
FIGURE C22 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with concrete. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 2.8).

149
PRFLa
PRFLa
HVSA

TxMLS
HVSA TRLPTF
TxMLS RRTRom HVSA
TRLPTF NCAT TxMLS TxMLS
RRTRom MnROAD TRLPTF TRLPTF
NCAT KATL NCAT MnROAD FDOTHVS
ISETH ISETH ISETH InAPLF

NAPTF
DRTM InAPLF

InAPLF FHWAPTF RRTRom HVSCRREL
CAL/APT FHWAPTF NCAT FHWAPTF DRTM MnROAD CAPTIFNZ
ARRBALF ARRBALF DRTM ARRBALF ARRBALF FHWAPTF OhAPLF
Rutting Cracking Slippage Fatigue Debonding Other Not applicable
FIGURE C23 Distress criterion evaluated for pavements with composite materials. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 2.9).





WesTrack
PRF-La
RIOH-ALF HVS-A
TxMLS TxMLS
RRT-Rom RRT-Rom
NCAT NCAT
MnROAD NCAT LCPC-FR
LINTRACK MnROAD ISETH TRL-PTF
HVS-SA HVS-SA CEDEX In-APLF
HVS-CRREL HVS-CRREL WesTrack CAPTIF-NZ FDOT-HVS
CEDEX Oh-APLF NCAT ARRB-ALF K-ATL NAPTF
Safety Environment User cost Roughness Other Not applicable
FIGURE C24 Which aspects of functional performance were addressed? (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 2.10).













150
RIOHALF
WesTrack
TxMLS
TRLPTF
RRTRom
PRFLa
NCAT
MnROAD
LINTRACK
WesTrack
LCPCFr

HVSA
ISETH WesTrack TxMLS
HVSSA TxMLS RRTRom
FHWAPTF TRLPTF PRFLa
FDOTHVS PRFLa NCAT
HVS
CRREL
NCAT MnROAD
CAPTIFNZ MnROAD LCPCFr

KATL
CAL/APT CEDEX ISETH RIOHALF NAPTF
OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF HVSSA HVSSA MnROAD MnROAD DRTM
Rutting Skid resistance Roughness Punchouts Delamination Spalling Other
Not
applicable
FIGURE C25 Which safety aspects were addressed in your APT program? (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question
2.11).







WesTrack
HVSA
TRLPTF
RRTRom
PRFLa
LINTRACK
KATL
ISETH
FHWAPTF
NCAT FDOTHVS

LINTRACK NAPTF
TxMLS HVSCRREL CAPTIFNZ
HVSSA MnROAD OhAPLF ARRBALF
Noise Dust pollution Other Not applicable
FIGURE C26 Which environmental aspects were addressed in your APT program?
(Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 2.12).







151
RIOH
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF

WesTrack
RRTRom RIOHALF HVSA
PRFLa HVSA TxMLS
NCAT TxMLS TRLPTF
LINTRACK TRLPTF RRTRom
LCPCFr RRTRom PRFLa
KATL MnROAD

ISETH
ISETH LINTRACK RIOHALF


InAPLF
InAPLF LCPCFr TRLPTF RIOHALF HVSA HVSSA
HVSSA ISETH MnROAD WesTrack TRACKER HVSNordic
HVS
Nordic
InAPLF LINTRACK HVSA TRLPTF FHWAPTF

FHWAPTF HVSSA LCPCFr TRACKER PRFLa FDOTHVS RIOHALF WesTrack
NAPTF
HVS
Nordic
InAPLF TRLPTF MnROAD NAPTF TxMLS RRTRom
DRTM FHWAPTF HVSSA LINTRACK LINTRACK

DRTM TRLPTF PRFLa
HVS
CRREL
DRTM
HVS
Nordic
HVSSA LCPCFr WesTrack
HVS
CRREL

MnROAD NCAT
CEDEX
HVS
CRREL
FHWAPTF DRTM ISETH NCAT CEDEX NCAT LINTRACK MnROAD
CAPTIF
NZ
CEDEX DRTM CEDEX FHWA

MnROAD CAPTIFNZ MnROAD

HVSSA ISETH
ARRBALF
CAPTIF
NZ
CEDEX
CAPTIF
NZ
NAPTF MnROAD HVSSA ARRBALF CEDEX
LCPC
Fr
HVS
CRREL
CAPTIF
NZ

OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF ARRBALF CEDEX
CAPTIF
NZ
CAPTIF
NZ
OhAPLF OhAPLF FHWA
ARRB
ALF
ARRB
ALF
HVS
SA
Applied
wheel load
Tire
pressure
Tire type
Contact
stress
Load
configuration
Suspension
system
Vehicle/
pavement
dynamics
Channelized/
Wandering
Speed
Rest
periods
Overloading
Roughness/
PSI
Other
FIGURE C27 Load characteristics that have been related to APT. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 3.1).











152
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
TRLPTF
RRTRom
PRFLa

NCAT
RIOHALF MnROAD
WesTrack LCPCFr
TxMLS KATL

RRTRom ISETH HVSA
PRFLa InAPLF

PRFLa
NCAT HVSSA RIOHALF MnROAD
MnROAD HVSNordic TxMLS LCPCFr

ISETH FHWAPTF PRFLa ISETH HVSA
InAPLF NAPTF NCAT

HVSSA TxMLS
HVSSA DRTM MnROAD WesTrack HVSNordic NCAT
DRTM HVSCRREL LCPCFr

PRFLa DRTM MnROAD
HVS
CRREL
CEDEX HVSSA PRFLa MnROAD HVSCRREL KATL

CEDEX ARRBALF CEDEX NCAT HVSSA CEDEX HVSSA TxMLS MnROAD
ARRBALF APLF ARRBALF MnROAD FHWAPTF ARRBALF ARRBALF MnROAD KATL
Air
temperature
Pavement
temperature
Rainfall
Relative
humidity
Aging Water table Drainage
Depth to
bedrock
Other
FIGURE C28 Environment/weather data that have been related to APT performance. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 3.2).





RIOHALF
HVSA
TRLPTF

RRTRom RIOHALF
HVSA LINTRACK HVSA
RRTRom LCPCFr LCPCFr
LCPCFr KATL KATL
KATL InAPLF HVSNordic
InAPLF HVSSA DRTM
HVSSA HVSNordic HVSCRREL
HVSNordic FHWAPTF CEDEX
DRTM DRTM CAPTIFNZ WesTrack
HVSCRREL HVSCRREL

ARRBALF

KATL
OhAPLF ARRBALF OhAPLF OhAPLF HVSSA NAPTF
Air temperature Pavement temperature Relative humidity Subgrade moisture Aging Other
FIGURE C29 Environment/weather conditions that are controlled. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 3.3).
153
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TRACKER
TxMLS
TRLPTF
RRTRom
PRFLa
NCAT

LINTRACK
RIOHALF LCPCFr
WesTrack KATL
TxMLS ISETH
PRFLa HVSSA WesTrack
NCAT HVSNordic TxMLS
LCPCFr FHWAPTF NCAT
KATL FDOTHVS LINTRACKNL
InAPLF NAPTF LCPCFr

HVSSA DRTM HVSSA WesTrack
FHWAPTF HVSCRREL HVSCRREL TxMLS
FDOTHVS CEDEX CEDEX NCAT
CEDEX CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ KATL
ARRBALF ARRBALF ARRBALF DRTM
OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF HVSCRREL
Hot (>40C) (>104F)
Moderate (>10C <40C) (>50F
<104F)
Cold (<10C) (<50F) Freezing (<5C) (<41F)
FIGURE C30 APT test temperatures used. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 3.4).



TRACKER
TxMLS
TRL-PTF
RRT-Rom
RIOH-ALF PRF-La
HVS-A NCAT
TxMLS MnROAD
TRL-PTF RIOH-ALF LINTRACK
MnROAD TxMLS LCPC-Fr
LCPC-Fr TRL-PTF K-ATL
K-ATL RRT-Rom ISETH
ISETH PRF-La In-APLF HVS-A
HVS-SA MnROAD HVS-SA TRL-PTF MnROAD
HVS-CRREL LCPC-Fr FHWA-PTF MnROAD TRL-PTF NCAT K-ATL
CEDEX ISETH CEDEX LCPC-Fr RRT-Rom TRL-PTF MnROAD TRL-PTF HVS-SA
CAPTIF-NZ HVS-SA CAL/APT K-ATL MnROAD MnROAD HVS-CRREL RRT-Rom FDOT-HVS
CAL/APT CEDEX ARRB-ALF ISETH LCPC-Fr In-APLF CEDEX ISETH CAL/APT
ARRB-ALF ARRB-ALF Oh-APLF HVS-SA HVS-SA FHWA-PTF ARRB-ALF CEDEX ARRB-ALF

Granular
materials
Stablized/
cemented
materials
Asphalt (Hot
mix)
Asphalt
(Cold
mix)
Concrete Whitetopping Geofabrics Reinforce-
ments
Other
FIGURE C31 APT has led to the improved characterization of: (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 4.1).
154





















FIGURE C32 Asphaltic materials tests. (Source: Significant findings from
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s
l
y

g
r
a
d
e
d

O
p
e
n

g
r
a
d
e
d

S
e
m
i
-
g
a
p

g
r
a
d
e
d

G
a
p

g
r
a
d
e
d

L
a
r
g
e

s
t
o
n
e

m
i
x
e
s

S
M
A

P
o
r
o
u
s

a
s
p
h
a
l
t

R
A
P

G
u
s
s
a
s
p
h
a
l
t

S
a
n
d

a
s
p
h
a
l
t

Surface
Base
0
5
10
15
20
25

full-scale/APT, Question 4.2).





RIOHALF
WesTrack
WesTrack HVSA
HVSA TxMLS RIOHALF
TRACKER TRLPTF WesTrack
TxMLS RRTRom HVSA WesTrack
TRLPTF PRFLa RRTRom

HVSA
PRFLa NCAT NCAT WesTrack TxMLS
MnROAD MnROAD MnROAD HVSA TRLPTF
LINTRACK LINTRACK LCPCFr NCAT
RRT
Rom
LCPCFr LCPCFr KATL MnROAD NCAT
ISETH KATL ISETH LINTRACK MnROAD WesTrack
HVSSA ISETH InAPLF KATL LCPCFr TxMLS TxMLS
FHWA
PTF
InAPLF HVSSA

ISETH KATL TRLPTF MnROAD

FDOT
HVS
HVSSA FHWAPTF HVSA InAPLF ISETH MnROAD LINTRACK MnROAD
CEDEX

CEDEX CEDEX MnROAD HVSSA InAPLF

KATL LCPCFr KATL
CAL/APT MnROAD
CAPTIF
NZ
CAPTIFNZ HVSSA FDOTHVS HVSSA MnROAD HVSSA FHWAPTF

FHWA
PTF
ARRB
ALF
ISETH CAL/APT ARRBALF CEDEX CEDEX CEDEX InAPLF CEDEX FDOTHVS MnROAD NAPTF
OhAPLF CEDEX
ARRB
ALF
OhAPLF
ARRB
ALF
ARRBALF
ARRB
ALF
HVSSA
ARRB
ALF
CAL/APT ISETH OhAPLF
Stiffness
Poisson's
ratio
Density Gradation
Atterberg
limits
Volumetric
properties
Binder
content
Film
thickness
Moisture
content
Visco-elastic
properties
Aging
index
Other
FIGURE C33 Material properties that have been related to APT performance. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question
4.3).

155


WesTrack
WesTrack TRACKER TxMLS WesTrack
WesTrack PRFLa TRLPTF PRFLa

TxMLS
WesTrack TxMLS NCAT NCAT NCAT TxMLS PRFLa
LCPCFr NCAT MnROAD InAPLF InAPLF PRFLa

NCAT
WesTrack FHWAPTF KATL FHWAPTF HVSSA FHWAPTF FHWAPTF TxMLS FHWAPTF
TxMLS ARRBALF FHWAPTF FDOTHVS CEDEX

CAL/APT ARRBALF PRFLa HVSA CAL/APT

PTF MMLS3
French Rut
Tester
Hamburg
Tester
Asphalt
Pavement
Analyzer
Other
wheel
tracking
Volu-
metric
shear
test
Repeated
shear test at
constant
height
Simple
shear test at
constant
height
Repeated
shear test
at
constant
stress
Uniaxial
strain
test
Shear
frequency
sweep test at
constant
height
Wheel Trafficking
Tests
Wheel Tracking Tests SST




RIOH
TxMLS
TRLPTF WesTrack
RRTRom TxMLS
PRFLa TRLPTF
NCAT PRFLa
MnROAD NCAT
LINTRACK MnRoad WesTrack WesTrack
LCPC-Fr LCPC-Fr PRF-La TRL-PTF
KATL KATL NCAT PRFLa
HVSSA HVSSA MnROAD NCAT

TRLPTF FHWAPTF LCPCFr MnROAD TRLPTF WesTrack
NAPTF FDOTHVS KATL HVSSA TRLPTF MnROAD TRLPTF
DRTM CEDEX FHWAPTF FHWAPTF HVSSA ISETH RRTRom
CEDEX CAL/APT FDOTHVS FDOTHVS FDOTHVS InAPLF MnROAD
ARRBALF ARRBALF CEDEX CEDEX ARRBALF HVSSA LINTRACK
Penetration,
Softening point,
Ductility
Dynamic
shear
rheometer
Bending beam
rheometer
Rotational
viscometer
Sliding plate
rheometer
Other
asphalt
binder tests
Other
Asphalt Binder Tests
FIGURE C34 Laboratory tests used in conjunction with APT of asphalt pavements. (Source: Significant
findings from full-scale/APT, Question 4.4).

156
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA HVSA
TxMLS TRLPTF
TRLPTF PRFLa
RRTRom NCAT
PRFLa

MnROAD
NCAT RIOHALF LINTRACK
MnROAD WesTrack LCPCFr

LINTRACK HVSA ISETH RIOHALF
TRACKER LCPCFr TRLPTF InAPLF HVSA
TxMLS KATL NCAT HVSSA HVSA PRFLa
TRLPTF ISETH MnROAD FDOTHVS PRFLa NCAT Auburn
RRTRom HVSSA LINTRACK NAPTF NCAT MnROAD
PRFLa FDOTHVS HVSSA CEDEX MnROAD ISETH
LCPCFr CEDEX FHWAPTF CAPTIFNZ HVSSA HVSSA
KATL CAPTIFNZ CEDEX

CAL/APT FDOTHVS CEDEX

NAPTF ARRBALF CAL/APT LCPCFr ARRBALF CEDEX ARRBALF HVSSA
OhAPLF OhAPLF ARRBALF ISETH MnROAD OhAPLF ARRBALF OhAPLF CAL/APT
Direct
tensile tests
Indirect
tensile tests
Bending
beam
fatigue
Cantilever
fatigue tests
Semi
circular
bending
test
Triaxial
testing
Dynamic
creep
Static creep
Other
performance
related tests
Other performance related tests



RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA WesTrack RIOHALF
RRTRom HVSA WesTrack
PRFLa TRACKER TxMLS
NCAT PRFLa RRTRom
MnROAD

NCAT


NCAT


KATL MnROAD MnROAD
ISETH LCPCFr WesTrack WesTrack LCPCFr RIOHALF RIOHALF
InAPLF KATL NCAT RRTRom KATL MnROAD TxMLS
HVSSA InAPLF

InAPLF MnROAD ISETH KATL TRLPTF
NAPTF HVSSA HVSA HVSSA LCPCFr HVSSA ISETH MnROAD
DRTM FDOTHVS LCPCFr FHWAPTF HVSSA

FHWAPTF HVSSA ISETH
CEDEX CAL/APT HVSSA CEDEX FHWAPTF MnROAD DRTM CEDEX HVSSA

ARRBALF

ARRBALF CAL/APT CAPTIFNZ CEDEX KATL CEDEX ARRBALF CEDEX TxMLS
OhAPLF HVSSA OhAPLF ARRBALF CAL/APT ARRBALF FDOTHVS ARRBALF OhAPLF ARRBALF MnROAD
Marshall
Modified
Marshall
(Hugo)
Gyratory Roller
Other
compaction
tests
Short or
long term
aging
Perme-
ability
Basic
aggregate
tests
Unconfined
compressive
strength
California
bearing ratio
Seismic
measure
ments
Laboratory compaction
FIGURE C34 (Continued).

157

























FIGURE C35 Concrete materials/structures tested with APT. (Source:
O
r
d
i
n
a
r
y

p
o
r
t
l
a
n
d

c
e
m
e
n
t

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

H
i
g
h

A
l
u
m
i
n
a

c
e
m
e
n
t

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

B
l
a
s
t

f
u
r
n
a
c
e

c
e
m
e
n
t

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

P
o
l
y
m
e
r

m
o
d
i
f
i
e
d

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

F
i
b
e
r

r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
d

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

O
t
h
e
r

JCP
CRCP
Pre-stressed
Block pavers
Other
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 4.5).









HVSA HVSA
RRTRom

TRLPTF
MnROAD HVSA RRTRom
LCPCFr MnROAD MnROAD
KATL KATL LCPCFr
HVSA FHWAPTF HVSSA KATL
MnROAD NAPTF FHWAPTF FHWAPTF
LCPCFr CAL/APT CAL/APT CAL/APT MnROAD
KATL ARRBALF ARRBALF OhAPLF OhAPLF
Tensile strength Flexural strength Compressive strength Stiffness modulus Other
FIGURE C36 Properties that have been related to APT performance of concrete pavements. (Source: Significant
findings from full-scale/APT, Question 4.6).


158
HVSA
RRTRom
MnROAD
LCPCFr
KATL
HVSSA
FHWAPTF HVSA HVSA
NAPTF MnROAD MnROAD TRLPTF
CAL/APT HVSSA LCPCFr TRLPTF RRTRom
MnROAD ARRBALF CAL/APT NAPTF RRTRom FHWAPTF
NAPTF

OhAPLF OhAPLF OhAPLF

HVSSA NAPTF
Direct tensile
strength test
Direct tensile
fatigue tests
Cylinder
compression
tests
Strength tests
on field cores
Split tensile
strength test
Split tensile
fatigue tests
Cube
compression
tests
Other
FIGURE C37 Laboratory tests used in conjunction with APT of concrete pavements. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT,
Question 4.7).





FHWAPTF WesTrack
WesTrack HVSA
HVSA TxMLS
TxMLS TRLPTF
TRLPTF PRFLa
PRFLa NCAT
NCAT MnROAD
MnROAD LINTRACK
LINTRACK KATL
HVSA LCPCFr ISETH
TxMLS ISETH InAPLF
TRLPTF InAPLF

HVSSA
MnROAD HVSSA HVSA HVSA
HVS
Nordic
LINTRACK HVSNordic TRLPTF TxMLS FHWAPTF

ISETH FDOTHVS MnROAD TRLPTF FDOTHVS HVSA
HVSSA NAPTF LINTRACK MnROAD NAPTF TRLPTF
FDOTHVS DRTM LCPCFr ISETH DRTM

MnROAD
NAPTF HVSCRREL ISETH
FHWA
PTF
HVS
CRREL
MnROAD KATL
HVS
CRREL
CEDEX HVSSA

FDOT
HVS
CEDEX

FHWA
PTF
ISETH

CEDEX CAPTIFNZ CEDEX HVSA
HVS
CRREL
CAPTIF
NZ
NCAT NAPTF
HVS
Nordic

WesTrack
CAPTIF
NZ
CAL/APT
CAPTIF
NZ
TxMLS CEDEX CAL/APT MnROAD

CAL/APT NAPTF MnROAD
TxMLS CAL/APT ARRBALF CAL/APT HVSSA CAL/APT ARRBALF HVSSA TxMLS
ARRB
ALF
HVS
CRREL
TRLPTF NAPTF
HVSSA ARRBALF OhAPLF ARRBALF CEDEX
ARRB
ALF
OhAPLF CAL/APT FHWAPTF OhAPLF CEDEX MnROAD
CAPTIF
NZ
Scaled
wheel
trafficking
(MMLS3)
Penetration
tests (DCP)
Density/
moisture
measurements
Benkelman
beam
Seismic
measurements
Ground
penetrating
radar
FWD Permeability Rolling
Dynamic
Deflectometer
Relative
concrete
joint
movement
Plate load
tests
In situ
concrete
strength
Other
FIGURE C38 Field tests used in conjunction with APT. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 4.8).




159
RIOHALF RIOHALF
WesTrack RIOHALF WesTrack
HVSA RIOHALF HVSA HVSA
TRACKER HVSA TxMLS TxMLS
MnROAD TxMLS RRTRom PRFLa
LINTRACK RRTRom PRFLa

MnROAD
LCPCFr MnROAD MnROAD RIOHALF LINTRACK
InAPLF LINTRACK LINTRACK WesTrack LCPCFr
HVSSA LCPCFr LCPCFr PRFLa ISETH
HVSNordic ISETH InAPLF MnROAD InAPLF RIOHALF
FHWAPTF HVSSA HVSSA LINTRACK HVSSA TxMLS
NAPTF NAPTF FHWAPTF LCPCFr HVSNordic RRTRom
DRTM DRTM NAPTF InAPLF DRTM PRFLa
HVSCRREL HVSCRREL DRTM HVSSA HVSCRREL MnROAD HVSA
CEDEX CEDEX HVSCRREL FHWAPTF CEDEX LINTRACK TxMLS
CAPTIFNZ CAPTIFNZ CEDEX HVSCRREL CAPTIFNZ InAPLF PRFLa
CAL/APT CAL/APT CAPTIFNZ CEDEX CAL/APT HVSSA MnROAD
ARRBALF ARRBALF CAL/APT CAL/APT ARRBALF CAPTIFNZ ISETH RIOHALF
OhAPLF OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF OhAPLF ARRBALF ARRBALF MnROAD DRTM
Stress/strain
modeling
Deflection
modeling
Deformation
modeling
Fatigue
modeling
Back-
calculation of
modulus
Load
equivalency
Pavement
serviceability
Cracking Other
FIGURE C39 Aspects of modeling studied using APT. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 5.1).
































160
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA
TxMLS
PRFLa

RIOHALF
MnROAD HVSA RIOHALF
LINTRACK

TxMLS WesTrack
LCPCFr RIOHALF

RRTRom HVSA
KATL HVSA MnROAD TxMLS
ISETH TxMLS LCPCFr RRTRom
InAPLF PRFLa KATL NCAT
HVSSA MnROAD InAPLF MnROAD
HVSNordic LCPCFr HVSSA LCPCFr
FHWAPTF KATL HVSNordic KATL

NAPTF HVSNordic NAPTF HVSSA MnROAD
DRTM NAPTF

HVSCRREL NAPTF LINTRACK
HVSCRREL DRTM RIOHALF CEDEX DRTM FHWAPTF
CEDEX HVSCRREL HVSA CAPTIFNZ HVSCRREL DRTM
CAL/APT CEDEX TxMLS CAL/APT CEDEX CAPTIFNZ
ARRBALF CAPTIFNZ PRFLa ARRBALF CAL/APT CAL/APT
OhAPLF ARRBALF MnROAD OhAPLF ARRBALF OhAPLF
Strain gauges Pressure cells Load cells Displacement gauges
Subgrade moisture
sensors
Other*
*Other instruments cited by respondents:
Temperature sensorsOhAPLF; CAL/APT Temperature gaugeDRTM
Emu & Bison strain coilsCAPTIFNZ
LVDTFHWAPTF
Several attempts for measurement of asphalt sublayers: LINTRACKNL
MnROADsee website (http://mnroad.dot.state.mn.us/researc/Mnresearc.asp) and beyond the surface handout.
FIGURE C40 Instrumentation used to gather modeling data. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 5.2).
























161
RIOHALF
WesTrack
HVSA RIOHALF
TxMLS WesTrack
RRTRom HVSA
PRFLa TxMLS
NCAT PRFLa
LINTRACK MnROAD
LCPCFr LINTRACK
KATL LCPCFr
ISETH InAPLF
HVSSA

HVSSA
HVSNordic WesTrack FHWA
NAPTF TxMLS NAPTF
DRTM PRFLa DRTM
HVSCRREL MnROAD HVSCRREL
CEDEX LINTRACK

CEDEX

CAPTIFNZ LCPCFr TxMLS CAPTIFNZ PRFLa
CAL/APT ISETH MnROAD CAL/APT MnROAD
ARRBALF FHWAPTF HVSSA ARRBALF InAPLF
OhAPLF CEDEX CAL/APT OhAPLF DRTM
None Elastic layer analysis Visco-elastic analysis Elasto-plastic analysis Finite element analysis Other
FIGURE C41 Models used with APT studies. (Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 5.3).
162

HVSA RIOHALF
TxMLS WesTrack
TRLPTF HVSA
RRTRom NCAT
MnROAD

MnROAD
LCPCFr MnROAD RRTRom InAPLF HVSA
ISETH KATL MnROAD HVSSA TRLPTF NCAT
HVSSA ISETH

LCPCFr HVSCRREL RRTRom RIOHALF MnROAD
CEDEX HVSSA TRLPTF ISETH CAPTIFNZ LCPCFr TxMLS HVSSA

CAL/APT ARRBALF MnROAD HVSCRREL CAL/APT HVSNordic MnROAD CEDEX MnROAD
ARRBALF OhAPLF ISETH CEDEX ARRBALF HVSCRREL ARRBALF ARRBALF HVSSA
Uncon-
ventional
materials
Joints Buried pipes Durability Compaction Reinforcement
Preventive
maintenance
Surface
texture
Surface
drainage






PRFLa
NCAT

MnROAD WesTrack HVSA MnROAD PRFLa
PRFLa MnROAD HVSSA HVSA NCAT NCAT

CAL/APT MnROAD
OhAPLF CEDEX CEDEX ARRBALF ARRBALF LCPCFr MnROAD CEDEX NCAT ARRBALF HVSNordic
Gradients Slippage
Road
marking
Traffic
accomo
dation
Patching
Risk
mana-
gement
QA/QC
Surface
tolerance
Layers
Subsurface
drainage
Other
FIGURE C42 Aspects of pavement engineering that enhance construction and rehabilitation through APT. (Source: Significant findings
from full-scale/APT, Question 6.1).

163

RIOHALF
WesTrack
TRLPTF
NCAT

KATL TxMLS
ISETH

RRTRom
HVSSA WesTrack PRFLa
CEDEX

HVSA InAPLF
CAL/APT WesTrack NCAT

HVSCRREL

ARRBALF NCAT CAL/APT ARRBALF OhAPLF MnROAD
Performance-
related
specifications
Warranties Pay factors Risk management Not applicable Other
FIGURE C43 APT aids in development of construction specifications and contracts with regards to:
(Source: Significant findings from full-scale/APT, Question 6.2).





164
APPENDIX D

Summary of Answers to Selected Questions by Respondents to the Questionnaire
Survey


(SEE APPENDIX AQUESTION 1.13)

Note: Summaries should be read in context with the rest of the text where further details have been provided in many
instances.

Table D1. Process used to determine B/C ratio
OhAPLF No economic benefits calculated to date.
ARRB B/C ratios have varied from 1:1 to 15:1. Processes vary from full whole of life type analyses to
discussions with clients regarding direct applications resulting from the trial and savings made on
specific projects.
CAL/APT Benefit/cost ratio of CAL/APT equals 10:1. Savings in hundreds of millions of dollars. Costs are
for two machines, two sites, two crews, etc. Test section construction estimated at $60 K/year.
Most staff not full-time APT.
CAPTIF Various outcomes are predicted; associated probabilities and savings for each outcome are
combined to determine overall expected value. This sum is divided by actual cost of the project
to give overall benefit/cost ratio for the project. The benefits are summed over 5 years and
factored back to the present worth using a 10% discount rate.
FAA Rehabilitation avoided plus material cost savings in new construction and rehabilitation.
FHWAPTF We have not done any benefit/cost determinations for our Pavement Test Facility (PTF)
experiments.
HVSSA The impact and management of the HVS fleet in South Africa (Ref., Horak 1992):
In total the quantifiable benefits obtained from HVS testing expressed as an annual benefit that
should continue year after year at about US $17 million per year (exchange rate R 2,65/US$ and
15% inflation rate). If the present total cost per year of running the HVS fleet of US $1,358,490
is used, the benefit/cost ratio is 12.8 to 1. This is obviously only a rough guide, but clearly
indicates the extent of the benefits possible from the application of HVS research technology.
ISETH Reduction of layer thickness, reduction of time needed for research.
IUT2 The B/C ratio is expected in excess of 20:1. This ratio compares the cost of placement of a
typical HMA pavement in the APT compared with the cost of field placement of the same mix.
KDOT Savings/benefits not yet estimated. Continued financial support by pooled fund member states
indicates that states are receiving some benefits from the facility.
LCPC The cost of the LCPC carousel itself was practically written off in less than 5 years. We might
even say that one experiment alone has been sufficient to recoup the cost of the facility. The
inverted structure motorway section saved approximately $100,000 per km compared with
classical construction.
TxDOT Although guesses can be made to obtain the B/C ratio, there are insufficient data to back them
up.
MnRoad Currently not calculated.
NCAT Total cost of sponsor participation compared with sponsors annual paving costs and anticipated
improvements in the life of their pavements.
PRFLA B/C ratio analyses have not been conducted; field performance and life-cycle cost has not been
varified. B/C ratio is expected to be high, based on cost estimation and expected life expectancy
shown by APT.
RRT Overall estimated savings and B/C ratio of APT programs not available.
ERDCGSL The ERDCGSL airfield design criteria were developed with the help of APT (load carts). Rapid
methods for military road construction were developed with APT.
WesTrack Benefit/cost results for the WesTrack experiments have not yet been published.

165
Table D2. Significant APT findings related to pavement structural composition
OhAPLF Magnitude of vertical deformation during curling of PCC slabs.
Effect of curling/warping on dowel bar stresses.
ARRB Guidelines for the construction of pavements incorporating cemented layers (prevention
of erosion and pumping of fines).
Guidelines for the use of geotextile-reinforced seals on expansive clay subgrades subject
to periodic inundation, including traffic operations.
Guidelines for the most appropriate use of marginal materials (lateritic gravel, sandstone,
etc.) in pavements.
Guidelines for the use of industrial by-products (blast furnace slag, fly ash, etc.) in
pavements.
Guidelines for the rehabilitation of asphalt pavements using thin asphalt overlays
incorporating modified binders.
Use of cemented and unbound subbases under plain concrete bases.
Use of granite set pavements under tourist bus and similar traffic.
CALAPT Recommendation for use of rich-bottom design.
The results of the study support the current Caltrans practice of the 2 to 1 thickness
equivalency of ARHMGG to DGAC for overlays on fatigue-cracked asphalt pavements.
Stripping of and intrusion of fines into ATPB test results support recommendations
resulting from ATPB laboratory test study pertaining to clogging and the use of modified
binders such as asphalt rubber.
Shrinkage and environmental effects on the performance of FSHCC pavements at
Palmdale, California.
Dowels and tie-bars were effective in restricting curling movements along transverse and
longitudinal joints resulting from daily temperature changes.
Evaluate adequacy of structural design options for concrete pavements under
consideration by Caltrans for LLPR strategies.
To minimize slab thickness, higher than current required flexural strengths and small
coefficients of thermal expansion should be used.
For heavier truck traffic conditions, dowels should be used at transverse joints.
FAA New data for six-wheel gears on flexible pavements.
Current thickness requirement for stabilized base materials in flexible pavement found to
be over-conservative.
FHWAPTF The stiffness of the underlying asphalt layer affects the performance of ultra-thin
whitetopping (UTW) overlays significantly.
That stiffness appears to be more important than the primary UTW variables studied
(overlay thickness, joint spacing, and the addition of polypropylene fibers to the
concrete).
HVSNordic In dry condition even a thin pavement structure could carry rather high wheel load (sand
subgrade).
Pavement life (10-mm rut depth) in dry condition was 2.5 to 5 times longer compared
with wet condition.
Most of the surface rutting before rehabilitation could be found as deformation of the
sand subgrade, whereas after rehabilitation up to half of the surface rutting was due to
deformation of the asphalt layers.









166
Table D2. (Continued)
HVSSA Effective use of granular layers as a structural component.
Development of the balance pavement concept.
Development of the inverted pavement structure.
Effective use of innovative materials (i.e., emulsion mixes, large aggregate mixes for
bases, fly ash, and foamed asphalt).
Development of the South African Mechanistic Design Method.
Field-verified fatigue and rutting performance prediction.
Field verification of mechanistic approaches, and verification that the exponent n of the
well-known equivalency formula F = (P/80)
n
, is not constant.
TRH4structural design manual and catalogue of designs (portland cement concrete,
granular bases, cemented bases, etc.).
TRH12rehabilitation design manual.
More cost-effective pavements.
IUT2 Please see list of publications provided at end of this survey.
KDOT PCCP with epoxy-coated (1 in.) steel dowels perform the same as PCCP with 1.5-in. fiber-
reinforced polymer (FRP) dowels.
The performance of 127 mm (5 in.) of asphalt concrete on 127 mm (5 in.) of asphalt
concrete millings with fine-grained subgrade is the same with that of a 203-mm (8-in.) layer
of asphalt concrete on fine-grained siltclay subgrade. As a result of these findings, NDOR
established a structural number for RAP and made a design change that should realize up to a
20% cost savings.
The above structures should have the same performance even after rehabilitation. The
rehabilitation consisted of milling 51 mm (2 in.) from the surface and replacing it with a 51-
mm (2-in.) asphalt overlay.
LINTRACK For thin asphalt pavement structure on sand subbase/subgrade confirmation of classical
models, such as decrease of asphalt stiffness modulus with increasing number of load
repetitions, and Shell subgrade deformation design criterion.
For thin asphalt pavement not only structural fatigue cracking in asphalt, but also
considerable amount of surface cracking.
From rutting performance tests on asphalt motorway structures, compared with dual tire
315/80:
Dual tire 295/60 gave about the same rutting;
Wide base tire 495/45 gave 1.1 to 1.6 times more rutting, dependent on pavement
structure;
Wide base tire 385/65 gave 1.4 to 2.0 times more rutting, again dependent on pavement
structure;
Actual rutting significantly greater than rutting calculated on basis of triaxial test results.
TxDOT Any rehab or overlay must be done atop a solid base or underlying structure.
Remixed pavements may be too stiff to prevent reflected cracking and stripping, a problem
exacerbated by insufficient support as above.
Temperature is the most influential factor on rutting of AC layers.
MnRoad MnPAVE flexible pavement design (ME Design).
Spring load restrictions policy.
Winter overload policy (starting fall/winter of 2001/2002).
Developing a PCC ME Design (future plan after 2002 comes out)We are participating in
this.
Developing a whitetopping design method.
Participate in the AASHTO 2002 design guide with materials and performance data for both
HMA and PCC.
Education of Minnesota city/county/state engineers in pavement design and management.
This includes providing in-house experts to assist them in their work.
Web page: http://mnroad.dot.state.mn.us/research/Mnresearch.asp.

167
Table D2. (Continued)
NCAT Possible establishment of a structural coefficient for SMA that is different from conventional
mixes.
PRFLA Thicker/weaker cement-treated base courses were proven to be as effective as thinner layers
with higher cement contents (10% vs. 4%).
Stone interlayer or inverted pavements had five times the life of our conventional
pavements.
RRT The APT studies have been included in the research program necessary to elaborate the
Flexible Pavements Catalogue in Romania, 1977.
ERDCGSL Design criteria for both flexible and rigid pavements.
Analysis techniques for predicting pavement response and performance.
Innovative materials for rapid road construction.
Improved nondestructive test methods.
ERDC Subgrade failure criterion is a function of soil type.
Geogrids have potential for reinforcement of base course layers over weak subgrade soils.



Table D3. Significant APT findings related to loading environment
ARRB Axle load equivalencies for unbound pavement materials.
Relative pavement damaging effects of dual and wide-based single tires.
Influence of tire type and tire pressure on pavement response.
Demonstration of curling and warping behavior of plain concrete pavements with and
without shoulders and with and without dowels.
CAPTIF Exclusion of moisture greatly increases pavement life when compared with the expected
design life.
Suspension type changes the spatial location and severity of damage, but not the average
levels of damage.
FAA Four-wheel gear versus six-wheel gear pavement performance and response data.
FDOT Both loading direction and wander, including the magnitude of wander increments, are
important in simulating in-service rut performance.
FHWAPTF Tire pressure was not nearly as important a factor in fatigue damage of hot-mix asphalt test
sections as were load magnitude and pavement temperature.
Wide-based single tires (super-singles) generated significantly more damage in hot-mix
asphalt test sections than dual tire pairs carrying the same load. This was true in terms of
both fatigue cracking and rutting.
HVSNordic In dry conditions even a thin pavement structure could carry rather high wheel load (sand
subgrade).
Pavement life (10-mm rut depth) in dry condition was 2.5 to 5 times longer compared with
wet condition.
Most of the surface rutting before rehabilitation could be found as deformation of the sand
subgrade, whereas after rehabilitation up to half of the surface rutting was due to
deformation of the asphalt layers.
HVSSA Quantification of nonuniform contact stresses.
Investigation into the dynamic effects of vehicle loading.
Quantification of the damaging effects of channelized traffic versus that of normal wander.
Quantification of the differences in bidirectional and unidirectional loading.
Mechanistic determination of equivalent damage factors for multiple load and axle
configurations.
168
Table D3. (Continued)
LINTRACK From rutting performance tests on asphalt motorway structures, compared with dual tire 315/80:
Dual tire 295/60 gave about the same rutting;
Wide base tire 495/45 gave 1.1 to 1.6 times more rutting, dependent on pavement structure;
Wide base tire 385/65 gave 1.4 to 2.0 times more rutting, again dependent on pavement
structure.
Actual rutting significantly greater than rutting calculated on basis of triaxial test results.
TxDOT AC temperature is not controlled under the MLS; it is only measured. It is one of the
uncontrollable and confounding variables relating to the rutting performance under the MLS.
The MLS may later go to a fixed or temperature-controlled facility to eliminate this problem.
Temperature is one of the most important factors that effects rutting observed on the MLS test
sites. It was observed that the rate of the rutting decrease significantly during wintertime.
MnRoad Spring load restriction policy.
Winter overload policy.
Seasonal material properties defined for use in a ME design.
Seasonal pavement response (stress, strain, warp/curl, etc.).
Rutting (surface and base) related.
Top down cracking.
Thermal cracking effects based on loadings.
Base failures.
Superpave binder effects.
PRFLA The duration of test (time-to-failure) was accelerated when loading was increased. Tests were
started at deadweight of 4432 kg and additional plates each weighing 1045 kg were added for
this purpose.
ERDCGSL Typically, environment is controlled for the purpose of limiting the number of variables.
However, moisture migration measurements have permitted refinement in 2-D FEM model
predictions of same.
ERDC Reduction factors during thaw weakening developed from FWD tests not the same as from in
situ stress/strain measurements.
WesTrack Driverless vehicle technology is far enough advanced to allow 24/7 operation of multi-truck
loading on a closed test track with a single operator. The driverless vehicle operation at
WesTrack provided safety advantages and was cost competitive with trucks driven by human
drivers. The instrumentation, control, and monitoring systems required in a driverless system
allows for a variety of additional experiments in areas such as truck dynamics, effect of vehicle
wander on pavement performance, and vehicle operating costs.
An increase in pavement roughness increased fuel consumption of trucks applying load to
WesTrack pavement sections. Under otherwise identical conditions, trucks used 4.5% less fuel per
kilometer on smooth pavement than on rough pavement.
An increase in pavement roughness increased the frequency of fatigue failures of truck and trailer
components during WesTrack loading.
OhAPLF Polymer modifiers improve the stability of AC mixes.
ARRB Development of laboratory test methods for the characterization of asphalt and unbound
materials.
Demonstration of the applicability of these tests to stabilized, recycled, and marginal materials.
CALAPT Comparison of measured and predicted results demonstrate the validity of the fatigue analysis
and design system developed during the SHRP program and refined within the CAL/APT
program.
Preliminary results have demonstrated feasibility of this methodology to measure in situ water
contents in untreated materials in the pavement sections.
169
Table D3. (Continued)
CAPTIF Small-scale field testing (in situ CBR, nuclear density, Loadman, etc.) very dependent on
surface conditions beneath the instrument.



Table D4. Significant APT findings related to materials and tests
FHWAPTF







HVSSA
For unmodified binders in surface mixes, the Superpave binder parameter, G*/sin,
correlates well with PTF Accelerated Load Facility (ALF) pavement rutting. Higher
G*/sin values generally correspond to less rut depth under the ALF for a given number of
loads.
For two modified binders (Styrelf and Novophalt), the same correlation did not hold.
Although the G*/sin of the Styrelf binder after rolling thin film oven aging was higher than
that of the Novophalt binder at each pavement test temperature, the pavement with
Novophalt was always more resistant to rutting under the ALF.
Improved materials design:
TRH8asphalt mix design manual,
TRH14 materials selection for roads,
Large-stone asphalt (new design method),
Modified binders in mixes, and
Treated bases (cement, lime, and emulsion treated).
Evaluation of innovative materials:
Drainage layers,
Roller-compacted concrete,
Geotextiles,
Block pavements,
Coarse power station generator ash as a road-building material,
Slag as a granular base material,
Bitumenrubber asphalt mixture as an overlay material,
Emulsion treatment of recycled granular bases,
Waterbound macadam coarse aggregated bases,
Recycled asphalt base material,
Marginal natural aggregates with various additives, and
Styrenebutadienerubber (SBR) asphalt mixture in an overlay.
IUT2 The findings are summarized in several research projects.
List of publications is provided at the end of this summary.
KDOT Superpave (SM-2C) mix performs better than a Marshall (BM-2C) mix when used as
overlay mixes over a distressed PCCP, under radiant heat condition. The two AC mixes are
the most used in Kansas.
Superpave mixture with optimum binder content performs better than those with optimum
+ 0.5%.
Fiber-reinforced concrete performs the same as the ordinary concrete when used in a
nondoweled, nonreinforced PCC overlay on a highly distressed PCCP.
Superpave asphalt mix with reduced ratio of river sand (15%) has a much better rutting
performance than the mixes with higher (20% and 30%) river sand ratio.
PCCP performed better on a drainable base than on a semi-drainable base.
LCPC Heat during fatigue test in lab with rest leads causes field tests to exhibit a shorter life.
TxDOT DCP tests correlate well to FWD back-calculated moduli.
The equation from Corps of Engineers provides good relationship between CBR and
modulus.
Seismic tests also correlate well to FWD after adjustment for strain rate and temperature.
GPR is great for finding layer thickness, stripping, subsurface moisture.
FWD results depend highly on AC temperature; some correction equations were developed.
Bedrock depth equation was developed.
170
Table D4. (Continued)
MnRoad Seasonal characteristics of materials for ME designs (surface, base, subgrade).
Field tests to support ME design in the field for users.
ASR testing of materials.
Seasonal loadings (spring and winter) policies.
HMA materials to work to eliminate thermal cracking.
Superpave binder effects on performance.
NCAT Relating laboratory performance to field performance, comparing field performance to binder
grade and modifier type, relating aggregate properties to field performance, etc.
PRFLA Variability of moisture contents in the foundation/embankment material influenced pavement
support when deflection tests were conducted.
Localized failure caused separation of asphalt pavement layer.
In-place mixing of soilcement and plant mixing had similar pavement performance.
ERDCGSL APT was used during our development of DCP.
FWD on test sections provided data helpful for refining back-calculation algorithms.
Test sections were used during development of seismic analysis surface wave techniques.
WesTrack Premature rutting failures of test sections containing coarse-graded Superpave mixes at WesTrack led
to a number of recommendations for such mixes:
Design for any mix should be based on a 20-year design life, regardless of the actual expected
life.
For high-volume roads, a laboratory performance test (wheel tracker or other) is necessary after
the volumetric mix design is completed.
The upper end of the allowable range for the dust-to-binder ratio should be increased for coarse-
graded mixtures.
Specifications include requirements on minimum values for the voids-in-mineral aggregate
(VMA); for coarse aggregate mixes they should also have maximum value requirements (2%
above the minimum value).
Results with the ignition oven for asphalt content determination emphasized the importance of
careful calibration of the equipment, especially when the mix design includes hydrated lime as
an anti-stripping additive.


Table D5a. Specifics of models developed from APT tests
OhAPLF Validation of curling/warping models.
ARRB CIRCLY.
EFROMD2 (back-calculation).
STRAND2.
Various generic rutting models.
CALAPT The subgrade strain criteria used by the Asphalt Institute can be used by Caltrans as a part of a
mechanisticempirical design procedure.
Evaluate adequacy of structural design options for concrete pavements under consideration by
Caltrans for LLPR strategies.
To minimize slab thickness, higher than current required flexural strengths and small coefficients
of thermal expansion should be used.
For heavier truck traffic conditions, dowels should be used at transverse joints.
DRTM Plastic strain at top of subgrade and functional condition index are related to number of load
repetitions and dynamic vertical stress and strain at top of subgrade: mep = A*Na*(s/p)b*m
e.g., A = 0.087, a = 0.33, b = 0.333, g = 1, p = 0.1 MPa
IRI (or rutting) = A*(N/106)a*(s/p)b*(m e/1000)g
For IRI (m/km) A = 0.87, a = 0.333, b = 0.333, g = 1, p = 0.1 MPa
For rutting (mm) A = 5.54, a = 0.333, b = 0.333, g = 1, p = 0.1 MPa
171
Table D5a. (Continued)
FHWAPTF Calibrating mechanistic flexible pavement rutting models (VESYS-5) from full-scale
accelerated pavement tests.
Calibrating response/load capacity models for ultra-thin whitetopping from accelerated tests.
HVSSA The development of the South African Mechanistic Design Method
Mechanistic Empirical Modeling of the Permanent Deformation of Unbound Pavement
Layers.
Elasto-Plastic Modeling of Granular Layers.
TxDOT MLS has been run over pressure cells and strain gauges to find actual pressures and strains
within pavement. No models obtained, as cells and gauges unreliable.
Back-calculation of layer moduli done regularly using both surface deflections measured by an
FWD and at-depth deflections measured by Multi-Depth Deflectometers (MDDs).
MDD deflections used to refine the back-calculation through an iterative elastic layer analysis.
MDDs also used to measure motion of underlying bedrock.
MDDs invaluable for deformation modeling, as they can measure permanent deformation of
each layer, eliminating uncertainties about each layers contribution to overall (surface)
rutting.
Field measured layer rutting match well with VESYS model.
MnRoad See web page: http://mnroad.dot.state.mn.us/research/MnROAD_Project/products90.asp.
NCAT Pending.
RRT APT studies have been included in the research program for the design methods (calculation
and dimensioning) of flexible and semi-rigid pavements based on the allowable elastic
deflexion, 1968.
APT studies have been included in the program for elaboration of the design method for
reinforcement of existent flexible and semi-rigid pavements, 1971.
ERDCGSL Layered elastic is now a standard design procedure.
FEM is several years away from implementation.
ERDC In progress.
WesTrack Empirical and mechanisticempirical models developed for predicting rutting and fatigue
cracking from traffic and materials (percent asphalt content, percent air voids, and gradation).
Models are suitable for inclusion in a system of performance-related specifications for hot-mix
asphalt (HMA) and for generating pay factors for HMA construction based on relationship
between materials and construction property test results and subsequent pavement
performance.




Table D5b. Significant APT findings relating to modeling
ARRB The cost and effort associated with pavement instrumentation is often not worth it.
Demonstration of the use of Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) gauges to monitor moisture
movement and to measure moisture content.
Back-calculation is a useful tool; however, it must be used widely and can be difficult to
manage, particularly with respect to unbound, stress-dependent, materials and thin asphalt
surfacing layers.
Roughness data useful in developing maintenance intervention strategies.
CAPTIF Measured stresses and strains under thin surfaced unbound granular pavements are 2 to 3
times higher than values predicted by elastic theory.
172
Table D5b. (Continued)
CALAPT Use fatigue analysis/design system (calibrated with HVS tests) to evaluate effects of binder loss
modulus, G*sin, on pavement performance in fatigue lead to a recommendation that G*sin be
eliminated from PG specification for binders.
Development of CalCool, computer software for determining pavement temperatures during AC
placement, a program that determines the temperature profile for multilift AC paving operations.
Inputs include AC lifts (up to 9), mix and underlying mat characteristics, and environment
characteristics; e.g., ambient temperature, wind speed, etc.
DRTM For the strains at the bottom of the asphalt, reasonably good agreement was mostly found with
Layered Elastic Theory with linear elastic materials.
The method where any layer may be nonlinear elastic, although some comparisons gave very
large differences. For the strains at the subgrade top, the assumption of linear elastic materials
gave very poor agreement. A reasonably good agreement could be obtained with a nonlinear
elastic subgrade. In most cases the best agreement (and the most reasonable values for layer
moduli) was found using the Method of Equivalent Thicknesses.
FAA Developing failure models for thickness design procedures.
Asphalt strain response as a function of travel speed for heavy aircraft loading.
HVSSA Development of the South African Mechanistic Design Method.
Development of the Elasto-Plastic Modeling of Granular Layers.
Development of the Mechanistic Empirical Modeling of the Permanent Deformation of
Unbound Pavement Layers.
LINTRACK See Table D2.
TxDOT See Table D5a.
NCAT Pending.
PRFLA VESYS 3A-M and flexpass can be used to model and predict the performance of the pavements
consisting of HMA wearing course over crushed stone base. These included prediction of rutting
and PSI of test lanes.
ERDCGSL Recently developed a granular model for FEM that accumulates permanent deformationnow
extending the capability of the theory (multi-mechanical model) for asphalt concrete and soil.
ERDC Subgrade failure criteria as a function of soil type and moisture content.


Table D6a. Significant APT findings related to construction
ARRB Development of maintenance intervention strategies for unbound granular pavements with thin
bituminous surfacings.
Guidelines for the construction of pavements incorporating cemented layers (prevention of erosion
and pumping of fines).
Guidelines for the use of geotextile-reinforced seals on expansive clay subgrades subject to periodic
inundation, including traffic operations.
Guidelines for the most appropriate use of marginal materials (lateritic gravel, sandstone, etc.) in
pavements.
Guidelines for the use of industrial by-products (blast furnace slag, fly ash, etc.) in pavements.
CALAPT Importance of mix compaction conclusively demonstrated.
Recommendation for tightening Caltrans compaction requirements.
The lack of bond between compacted lifts of asphalt concrete observed in the HVS tests suggests
reexamination by Caltrans of the use of a tack coat between lifts to improve the bond.
Dry density and degree of saturation have significant impact on stiffness, strength, and permanent
deformation resistance.
Recommendation that Caltrans change the method of compaction control for untreated granular
materials from current procedure to Modified AASHTO Test (T-180).
HVSSA The design and construction of emulsion-treated bases.
The design and construction of large aggregate mixes for bases.
The design and construction of porous asphalt wearing courses.
The importance of granular layer compaction.
The effective use of cemented layers.
173
Table D6a. (Continued)
KDOT Above the forbidden zone (fine, low permeability) Superpave mixes have adequate rutting resistance
to be used in pavements on moderate-to-low traffic roadways.
MnROAD Whitetopping procedures.
Large stone base construction.
NCAT Impact of varying asphalt content on life-cycle costs.
PRFLA Two most-APT-proven-effective construction techniques, the construction of the weaker and thicker
cement-treated base layers, were used in construction of several experimental and full-scale field
projects.
ERDC
GSL
Density requirements for asphalt concrete and granular layers.
Airfield base course proof-rolling techniques and equipment requirements.
WesTrack Combined full-scale testing and performance monitoring on pavement sections at WesTrack with a
comprehensive laboratory testing program of component materials and analysis of pavement
response to develop a performance-related specification with realistic pay factors for hot-mix asphalt.
ARRB Guidelines for the most appropriate rehabilitation treatments for asphalt pavements.
Use of in situ stabilization using bitumen/cement and slag/lime blends.



Table D6b. APT findings related to rehabilitation
HVSSA Deep in situ recycling using emulsion- or foam-treated bases.
The effective use of pothole fillers.
Structural evaluation and determination of optimum rehabilitation options.
Evaluation of AC hot-mix and bitumenrubber overlay.
KDOT Pavements constructed partial depth with RAP can perform as well as new full-depth new mixes.
TxDOT Same as APT findings related to pavement structural composition.
Closer attention needs to be paid to the effective gradation and binder viscosity of remixed
pavements. Since the operation reuses old asphalt and mills (crushes) the original aggregate, the
final product tends to have a too-fine gradation and overly stiff binder, which makes it prone to
cracking.
The recycled content should be lowered and the new materials should use a lower asphalt grade.
The remixer provides excellent rut resistance, but does poorly on stopping reflected cracking. The
remixer should be placed on where there are rutting problems.
MnRoad Micro-surfacing.
Sealing effects on moisture movement in base layer and edge drains from rainfall.
Whitetopping rehabilitation procedures.
PRFLA Some of the thicker and weaker cement-treated base layers were implemented in rehabilitation jobs.
ERDC
GSL
Bomb crater damage repair techniques.
WesTrack Two repair procedures used at WesTrack have potential for in-service pavements.
The procedure for rutting involved milling the rutted areas and replacing the milled-out sections with
a rut-resistant mix.
The other, to repair sections with extensive fatigue cracking, used a patching procedure referred to as
a T-patch.



174
APPENDIX E

Characteristics of Accelerated Pavement Testing Facilities Established Since 1996



E1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRREL HVS MK IV FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM ERDC

FACILITY ACRONYM CRREL HVS Mk IV

LOCATION U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions
72 Lyme Road, Hanover, N.H.
Commissioned 1997
Costs

>$5 million (costs includes facility)
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area 12 test cells each 6.4 m wide
- 8 cells are 7.6 m long and 2.4 m deep
- 4 cells are 11.4 m long and 3.7 m deep
Size of test section 6.1 m long 1.5 m wide
Wheel path width 1.5 m with lateral wander 900 mm in 50
mm increments
Testing length

6.1 m
TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Tractor drawn structure: 30 m 4.9 m 4.3
m (length width height) indoors in
2508 m
2
building
Wheel configuration Single, dual, or aircraft
Wheel load 20 kN to 100 kN on super singles or
duals/up to 200 kN on C141 tires
Wheel suspension Airbag
Wheel velocity 13 km/h
Wheel passes 700/h unidirectional
Load propulsion Cable
Power Single electric motor
Housing

Mobile unit in a 2700 m
2
environmentally
controlled building
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Air temperature, pavement temperature, and
subgrade moisture (water table) controlled
drainage, freeze/thaw (6 cycles/year). See
Appendix F
Instrumentation Strain gauges, pressure cells, displacement
gauges, subgrade moisture sensors,
temperature sensors, soil suction



















175
E2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HVS-A (BIGFOOT) FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM ERDCGSL

FACILITY ACRONYM HVSA (Bigfoot)

LOCATION U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research
and Development Center
3909 Halls Ferry Road (attn: GMA)
Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199
Commissioned 1998
Costs

~$3 million
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area 76 m 24 m
Size of test section 23 m 3 m
Wheel path width 1.5 m, including lateral wander
Testing length

12.2 m
TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Tractor-drawn structure housed indoors:
36.6 m 4.9 m 4.3 m (length width
height)
Wheel configuration Single, dual-wheel, and single-twin aircraft
Wheel load 45445 kN
Wheel suspension The test wheel carriage uses its own
independent hydraulic system, which
generates and regulates the load that is
applied to the test surface
Wheel velocity 13 km/h
Wheel passes 10,000/daybidirectional
Load propulsion Chainunidirectional and bidirectional
Power 480 volt 3-phase power or the onboard 228
kW Caterpillar generator that produces
240/480 volts
60 Hz at 1,800 rpm
Housing Operated in a open-ended hangar:116 m
46 m (approximately 5,300 m
2
)
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
See Appendix F



176
E3 CHARACTERISTICS OF NAPTF FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM FAA

FACILITY ACRONYM NAPTF

LOCATION William J. Hughes Technical Center,
Atlantic City, N.J.
Commissioned 1999
Costs $21 million

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area 274.3 m x 18.3 m 274.3 m x 18.3 m
Size of test section Size of test section Variable depending on the test plan.
Typically 9 to 12 independent sections,
each 12 to 30 m long
Variable depending on the test plan.
Typically 9 to 12 independent sections,
each 12 to 30 m long
Wheel path width

13.5-m width of pavement can be loaded.
Typical test plan has two wheel paths 3.6
m wide and 9 m apart. Aircraft wander
can be simulated
Testing length 274.3 m

TRAFFICKING DETAIL
Loading device Gantry structure supported on rails 23.2 m
apart
Wheel configuration Two complete landing gears with one to six
wheels per undercarriageadjustable 6.1
m forward and sideways
Wheel load Maximum 334 kN/wheel
Wheel suspension Rail-based with rubber springs
Wheel velocity 0.124 km/h. Typical test speed is 4 km/h
Wheel passes Number of repetitions 15/h to 40/h at a
specific location. Depends on test plan
Load propulsion Variable frequency electric drives
Power Active hydraulic servo-system
Housing Located in-house in a building 365 m long,
30.5 m wide, 12 m high

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Building environmentally controlled
Instrumentation Heavy-Weight Deflectometer (HWD),
comprehensive instrumentation system,
strain gauges, pressure cells,
displacement gauges, temperature and
subgrade moisture sensors
Instrumentation Typically kept simple. The following are
monitored at various depths: moisture,
temperature, vertical stress, vertical
deflection. Horizontal strain has also been
monitored at the bottom of HMA

















177
E4 CHARACTER/ISTICS OF FDOTAPTFHVS FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM FDOT

FACILITY ACRONYM FDOTAPTFHVS

LOCATION Florida Department of Transportation,
5007 NE 39th Avenue, Gainesville, FL
APT Devices HVSMk IV
Commissioned 1999
Costs $25 million

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area t area 45 m 3.6 m (10 test sections) 45 m 3.6 m (10 test sections)
Size of test section Size of test section 6 m 1.6 m 6 m 1.6 m
Wheel path width Wheel path width 1070 mm with lateral wander 0 to 760 mm 1070 mm with lateral wander 0 to 760 mm
Testing length Testing length 6 m 6 m

TRAFFICKING DETAILS TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Loading device Tractor drawn structure: 30 m 4.9 m 4.3 m
(length width height)
Tractor drawn structure: 30 m 4.9 m 4.3 m
(length width height)
Wheel configuration Wheel configuration Super single and dual tire Super single and dual tire
Wheel load Wheel load 32 kN205 kN, mass of device 50 tons 32 kN205 kN, mass of device 50 tons
Wheel suspension Wheel suspension Fixed load hydraulically applied Fixed load hydraulically applied
Wheel velocity Wheel velocity 13 km/h 13 km/h
Wheel passes Wheel passes 29,000 bidirectional and 14,000
unidirectional/24 h
29,000 bidirectional and 14,000
unidirectional/24 h
Load propulsion Load propulsion Chain Chain
Power Power Electrical (external power or on-board diesel
generator)
Electrical (external power or on-board diesel
generator)
Housing Housing Mobile vehicular unit: 30 m 4.9 m 4.3 m
(length width height)
Mobile vehicular unit: 30 m 4.9 m 4.3 m
(length width height)

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Heating using a detachable insulation
chamber. See Appendix F
Heating using a detachable insulation
chamber. See Appendix F
Instrumentation Instrumentation As needed As needed
Ancillary Equipment Ancillary Equipment Automated laser profilometer Automated laser profilometer






























178


E5 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATLAS FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM JUT2

FACILITY ACRONYM ATLaS

LOCATION Advanced Transportation
Research & Engineering
Laboratory
ed Transportation
Research & Engineering
Laboratory
University of Illinois University of Illinois
205 N. Mathews MC-250 205 N. Mathews MC-250
Urbana, IL 61801 Urbana, IL 61801
Commissioned Commissioned 2002 2002
Costs Costs $2 million including site
development
$2 million including site
development

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area Size of test area 168 m 81 m 168 m 81 m
Size of test section Size of test section 26 m [wheel carriage width +
1.8 m]
26 m [wheel carriage width +
1.8 m]
Wheel path width Wheel path width Bogie 900 mm Bogie 900 mm
Testing length Testing length 26 m with constant speed over
central 19.8 m
26 m with constant speed over
central 19.8 m
Mobile shed size Mobile shed size 42 m 15.2 m 7.3 m 42 m 15.2 m 7.3 m

TRAFFICKING DETAILS TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Loading device Tractor drawn mobile structure:
26 3.7 3.7 m. Load applied
by means of a hydraulic ram
attached to the wheel carriage
capable of accommodating a
single truck wheel, a dual-truck
wheel, an aircraft wheel or a
single axle rail bogie
Tractor drawn mobile structure:
26 3.7 3.7 m. Load applied
by means of a hydraulic ram
attached to the wheel carriage
capable of accommodating a
single truck wheel, a dual-truck
wheel, an aircraft wheel or a
single axle rail bogie
Wheel configuration Wheel configuration Single-tire/dual-tire/aircraft-
tire/single-axle rail bogie
Single-tire/dual-tire/aircraft-
tire/single-axle rail bogie
Wheel load Wheel load 0358 kN can be varied by
computer control while
traveling, uni- or bidirectional,
velocity variable over length of
test section but constant over
central 20 m of test section
0358 kN can be varied by
computer control while
traveling, uni- or bidirectional,
velocity variable over length of
test section but constant over
central 20 m of test section
Wheel suspension Wheel suspension Hydraulic Hydraulic
Wheel velocity Wheel velocity 16 km/h 16 km/h
Wheel passes Wheel passes 10,000/24 h (bidirectional) 10,000/24 h (bidirectional)
Load propulsion Load propulsion Cable and winch motor assembly Cable and winch motor assembly
Power Power Electrical Electrical
Housing Housing Operated within a movable
structure enclosing the unit with
allowance for maneuvering
inside
Operated within a movable
structure enclosing the unit with
allowance for maneuvering
inside

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL See Appendix F See Appendix F
Instrumentation Instrumentation As need arises As need arises












179


E6 CHARACTERISTICS OF K-ATL HVS FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM KSUCISL

FACILITY ACRONYM KATL

LOCATION Kansas State University
Civil Engineering Infrastructure
Laboratory
2112 Fiedler Hall, Manhattan, KS Hall, Manhattan, KS
Commissioned Commissioned 1997 1997
Costs Costs <$1 million <$1 million

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION


Size of test area Size of test area 418 m
2
418 m
Size of test section Size of test section Two test pits both 1.8 m deep: one is
9.7 m long 1.8 m wide, the other is
6.1 m long 1.8 m wide; the later is
used for environmental control
testing
Two test pits both 1.8 m deep: one is
9.7 m long 1.8 m wide, the other is
6.1 m long 1.8 m wide; the later is
used for environmental control
testing
Wheel path width Wheel path width Dependent on selected tire
configuration. No wander capability
Dependent on selected tire
configuration. No wander capability
Testing length Testing length 9.75 m and 6.1 m, respectively 9.75 m and 6.1 m, respectively

TRAFFICKING DETAILS TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Loading device Regular tandem axle truck bogie
loaded by pushing against a reaction
frame suspended along the test
section. Loading can also be applied
to one tandem axle to simulate a
single axle
Regular tandem axle truck bogie
loaded by pushing against a reaction
frame suspended along the test
section. Loading can also be applied
to one tandem axle to simulate a
single axle
Wheel configuration Wheel configuration Dual tandem (48 wheels) and single
axle (24 wheels)
Dual tandem (48 wheels) and single
axle (24 wheels)
Wheel load Wheel load Adjustable with a maximum of 178 kN
for the whole bogie assembly
Adjustable with a maximum of 178 kN
for the whole bogie assembly
Wheel suspension Wheel suspension Air bags Air bags
Wheel velocity Wheel velocity 11 km/h constant over central 5 m of
test section
11 km/h constant over central 5 m of
test section
Wheel passes Wheel passes 313 cycles/h unidirectional 313 cycles/h unidirectional
626 cycles/h bidirectional 626 cycles/h bidirectional
Load propulsion Load propulsion A wide, flat conveyor belt driven by a
15-kW variable-speed electric motor
with an energy absorption/release
system at each end
A wide, flat conveyor belt driven by a
15-kW variable-speed electric motor
with an energy absorption/release
system at each end
Power Power Electrical (480 V, 3-phase) Electrical (480 V, 3-phase)
Housing Housing Located in-house in a building: 537 m
2
Located in-house in a building: 537 m

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Air temperature, pavement
temperature, and subgrade moisture
by means of water sprinklers
consisting of three soaker hoses
buried at three positions in the
pavement structure. Also see
Appendix F
Air temperature, pavement
temperature, and subgrade moisture
by means of water sprinklers
consisting of three soaker hoses
buried at three positions in the
pavement structure. Also see
Appendix F
Instrumentation Instrumentation Strain gauges, pressure cells,
displacement gauges, subgrade
moisture sensors
Strain gauges, pressure cells,
displacement gauges, subgrade
moisture sensors


2

2










180



E7 CHARACTERISTICS OF NCAT FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM NCAT

FACILITY ACRONYM NCAT

LOCATION LOCATION NCAT Pavement Test Track NCAT Pavement Test Track
1600 Lee Road 151, Opelika, AL 1600 Lee Road 151, Opelika, AL
Commissioned Commissioned 1996 1996
Costs Costs $15 million including site development $15 million including site development

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area Size of test area 46 test sections, each 3.4 m 61 m lanes
in the outer lane of the test track
46 test sections, each 3.4 m 61 m lanes
in the outer lane of the test track
Size of test section Size of test section Two tangent sections each of 1.2 km
linked through curved sections at both
ends
Two tangent sections each of 1.2 km
linked through curved sections at both
ends
Wheel path width Wheel path width Trucks wander in the wheelpath within a
range of 1.21.3 m
Trucks wander in the wheelpath within a
range of 1.21.3 m
Testing length Testing length 2700 m oval track 2700 m oval track

TRAFFICKING
DETAILS
TRAFFICKING
DETAILS

Loading device Loading device Four conventional truck tractor-trailor
vehicle trains
Four conventional truck tractor-trailor
vehicle trains
Wheel configuration Wheel configuration Triple-trailer and tractor (front axle plus
tandem axle plus five single axles)
Triple-trailer and tractor (front axle plus
tandem axle plus five single axles)
Wheel load Wheel load 53.4 kN + 623 kN (89 7) = 676.4 kN per
vehicle train unit. Taken to be
equivalent to 10.4 ESALs per vehicle
train
53.4 kN + 623 kN (89 7) = 676.4 kN per
vehicle train unit. Taken to be
equivalent to 10.4 ESALs per vehicle
train
Wheel suspension Wheel suspension Steel spring Steel spring
Wheel velocity Wheel velocity 76 km/h 76 km/h
Wheel passes Wheel passes 28 axle trains/h of trafficking 28 axle trains/h of trafficking
Load propulsion Load propulsion Driven and towed axles (tractor/trailer
assembly)
Driven and towed axles (tractor/trailer
assembly)
Power Power Truck engine Truck engine
Housing Housing None None

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
None but air temperature, pavement
temperature, rainfall, relative humidity
monitored continuously. Also see
Appendix F
None but air temperature, pavement
temperature, rainfall, relative humidity
monitored continuously. Also see
Appendix F
Instrumentation Instrumentation Subgrade moisture sensors. Other
measurements include FWD, 3-point
laser profilometer, Australian automated
dipstick, and ARAN
Subgrade moisture sensors. Other
measurements include FWD, 3-point
laser profilometer, Australian automated
dipstick, and ARAN























181



E8 CHARACTERISRTICS OF APLF FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM ORITE

FACILITY ACRONYM APLF LF

LOCATION LOCATION 1570 Granville Pike 1570 Granville Pike
Ohio UniversityLancaster Branch Ohio UniversityLancaster Branch
Lancaster, OH 43130 Lancaster, OH 43130
Commissioned Commissioned 1997 1997
Costs Costs $1.35 million $1.35 million

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION
PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area Size of test area 13.7 m long 11.6 m wide 2.4 m
deep
13.7 m long 11.6 m wide 2.4 m
deep
Size of test section Size of test section 13.7 m long 1.8 m wide 2.4 m
deep (5 off-max) 13.7 m long 3.7
m wide 2.4 m deep (2 off-normal)
13.7 m long 1.8 m wide 2.4 m
deep (5 off-max) 13.7 m long 3.7
m wide 2.4 m deep (2 off-normal)
Wheel path width Wheel path width 350 mm + 350 mm + 254 mm or 535 mm + 254
mm incl. wander
Testing length 10.7 m

TRAFFICKING DETAILS
Loading device Rolling wheel load mechanism
pushing against reaction steel
girders, spanning along the length of
the test pit
Wheel configuration Single wide-base or dual
Wheel load 22 kN134 kN
Wheel suspension Hydraulic
Wheel velocity 28 km/h
Wheel passes 250/h for unidirectional and 500 for
biderectional
Load propulsion Cable driven
Power Electric motor
Housing Inside specially constructed building:
24 m long 11.6 m wide 5.4 m
high

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Humidity0100%. Moisture can be
added to the subgrade on the floor of
the test pit. Also see Appendix F.
Instrumentation TMW transducers, Dynatest gauges,
Carlson gauges, pressure cells, linear
variable differential transformers,
resistivity, time domain
reflectometer, thermistor, and
thermal conductivity probes




182

E9 CHARACTERISTICS OF HVS-Nordic FACILITY
ENTITY ACRONYM VTT, Finnra, and VTI

FACILITY ACRONYM HVSNordic

LOCATION VTI
58195 Linkping
Commissioned 1997
Costs $25 million

PAVEMENT
CONFIGURATION

Size of test area 36 m long 4 m wide 2.5 m deep.
Test pit narrows to 3 m width at
bottom
Size of test section 2 test pits: one concrete with thermal
insulation and water table control
and one excavated in rock with no
cladding or control of water table.
Two or three test sections are
possible in a pit
Wheel path width 1070 mm with lateral wander 0 to 760
mm
Testing length 36 m 4/3



TRAFFICKING
DETAILS

Loading device Tractor drawn structure: 30 m 4.9 m
43 m (length width height)
Wheel configuration Dual/single with standard/wide-based
tires
Wheel load 20 kN110 kN (linear)
Can vary dynamically(20%)
sinusoidly
Wheel suspension Fixed load hydraulically applied
Wheel velocity 15 km/h
Wheel passes 25,000 per day including maintenance
time
Load propulsion Chain
Power Diesel/electrical
Housing A test can be used to cover the test
section to reduce environmental
impact

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
Heating and cooling using a
detachable insulation chamber with
controlled air/pavement temperature
and subgrade moisture. Also see
Appendix F.

Instrumentation Strain gauges in asphalt layers,
temperature sensors, suction sensors.
Pore water pressure, moisture
content, frost depth, and density is
also measured.



183
APPENDIX F

Accelerated Pavement Testing Systems with Artificial Cooling and/or Heating
Control Units





Entity/APT
Acronym


Capacity
to Cool


Capacity to
Heat
Capacity to
Control
Chamber
Temperature


Range of
temperature

Capacity to
Control Pavement
Temperature


Range of
Temperature

ARRB ALF No Yes n/a n/a Yes Ambient up to 60C
CAL/APT
HVS
Richmond
Yes Yes Yes Not monitored since
heating and cooling
is controlled by
thermocouples in the
pavement. In
general, must run
hotter than pavement
at hot temperatures,
colder than pavement
at cold temperatures.
Yes Surface Temperatures:
To date facility has
operated at 10C (very
short time); 20C most of
the time; 55C for several
months at a time.
CAL/APT
HVS
Palmdale
Yes Yes Yes The HVS maintained
20C (with a small
variation), despite
large variations in
external air
temperatures.
Yes Mostly operated at
20C, or without
temperature control on
concrete. Temperature
controlled slabs are
influenced by adjacent
slabs not temperature
controlled. Accordingly,
it is being used less often
on concrete.
DRTM
Denmark
Yes Yes Yes, building
enclosure with
air
conditioning
units.
10C to +40C Yes 4C at subgrade level
after 2 months.
Temperature then raised
to 25C in stages for
testing after thawing.
ERDC
CRREL
HVS Mk IV
Yes Yes,
building
enclosure
only. No
infra-red
heaters
attached to
the HVS.
Yes, building
enclosure only.
3.9C to 24C
(2C)
Yes, surface
panels used to
freeze/heat. Brine
at 37C is used
to freeze
pavement to given
depth. Frosting 25
mm per 24 h is
feasible. When
frost penetration
depth is reached,
panels are
removed and APT
is done during
thawing.
37C to +49C
ERDCGSL
HVSA
(Bigfoot)
Yes Yes Yes, the
compartment
under the HVS
4C to 38C

Yes, limited,
depending upon
environmental
conditions.
Asphalt temperature of
25C has been maintained
year round.
FAA
NAPTF
No No Yes, building
enclosure only.
1C to 35C Not controlled,
but measured.
2C to 27C








184



Entity/APT
Acronym


Capacity
to Cool


Capacity
to Heat
Capacity to
Control
Chamber
Temperature


Range of
Temperature
Capacity to
Control
Permanent
Temperature


Range of
Temperature

FDOT
HVS Mk IV

No Yes Yes, using air
conditioning
with a
detachable
insulation
chamber.
Ambient to 70C Yes Ambient to 70C (six
heating zones
independently controlled
using resistance-type
radiant heaters).
FHWA PTF
ALF 1
No Yes n/a n/a Yes Tests have been
conducted between
ambient (10C) and
76C at mid-depth of the
pavement. Upper limit
is higher.
FHWA PTF
ALF 2
No Yes n/a n/a Yes 10C76C

KSUCISL
KATL
Yes Yes No 20C to +60C Not to a very
exact value
10C to +45C
LCPC
France
No Yes n/a n/a Yes Approximately 10C
above ambient
temperature.
ORITE
OHIO APLF
Yes Yes Yes 12C to 54C Yes, through air
temperature
12C to 54C
SA
Gautrans/
CSIR
HVS Mk III
Yes Yes Yes 26C air temperature
in chamber
5C pavement
temperature
Yes 5 to 40C. 50C
maximum pavement
temperature is
achievable, possibly
even higher.
SA
Gautrans/
CSIR
HVS Mk
VI+
Yes Yes Yes 26C air temperature
in chamber
5C pavement
temperature
Yes 5 to 40C. 50C
maximum pavement
temperature is
achievable, possibly
even higher.




Entity/APT
Acronym

Capacity
to Cool

Capacity
to Heat
Capacity to
Control
Chamber
Temperature

Range of
Temperature
Capacity to
Control
Permanent
Temperature

Range of
Temperature

TRL
PTF
No Yes No Up to about 25C
above ambient
Pavement
temperature can
be controlled by
feedback from
sensors in
pavement
Ambient to 45C
TUDelft
DWW/
LINTRACK
No Yes Surrounded by
a mobile
chamber used
to insulate the
machine. Heat
accomplished
by radiant
heaters.
n/a Yes 3035C above ambient
temperature
(depending on wind);
until now maximum
applied temperature
was 40C at pavement
surface.
University
of Illinois/
IUT2
ATLaS
Yes Yes No, but
environmental
cover used to
protect the
machine.
n/a No n/a
VTT, Finnra
and VTI
HVS
Nordic
Yes Yes Yes, using
aircondition-
ing with a
detachable
insulation
chamber
5C to +30C Not controlled but
measured



185
APPENDIX G

Summary of Accelerated Pavement Testing Objectives and Applications



Table G1 Structural Design Applications (refer to chapter two)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
Proof trial ALF.
Evaluate macadam base.
Structural adequacy of Somersby pavement
confirmed.
ALF confirmed as reliable and effective.
Compare thin (200 mm) and standard
(300 mm) cement-treated base (CTB).
Failure mode was debonding of CTB layers,
ingress of water at interfaces, and subsequent
erosion of bottom of upper layer, leading to
break-up of top CTB layer.

Compare pavements with and without a
bitumen heavy-cure coat interlayer and
constructed in one lift instead of two or
three lifts.
Failure mechanism of adjacent National highway
found to be the same. Major changes to
construction practice implemented.

ALF
Australia
Determine the relative fatigue
characteristics of various types of
asphalt rehabilitations including
geotextiles, modified asphalt, and high
asphalt content mixes in the tensile
zone applied to a distressed pavement.
Overlay trials demonstrated improved
performance, for a modified binder compared
with conventional binder; a significant impact on
treatment for urban rehabilitation.
SAMI successfully delayed crack propagation.

Inaugural testing: four thicknesses of
unbound granular pavements under chip
seals.
Proving trials and assessment of traditional
pavements.
Lime-stabilized subbases: three
thicknesses.
An experiment with lime-stabilized subbase
course showed that an increase in thickness from
150 to 250 mm would increase life by 15 times
(Pidwerbesky 1995a).
CAPTIF
New Zealand
Life-cycle performance of a thin-
surfaced unbound granular pavement.
Assessment of traditional pavement
configuration.
FHWAPTF
USA
To evaluate accuracy of AASHO designs
used.
Good agreement was reached on one section;
the second section failed prematurely by
cracking.
HVS
South Africa
Reduction of pavement cost by
improved designs.
New designs incorporated in the catalogue
resulting in construction cost savings.
Comparison of pavement configurations. Effective ranking procedure developed. ISETH
Switzerland
Evaluation of design procedure. Existing practice shown to be conservative.
Performance of doweled concrete
pavements and different cements.
Revision of design procedure.
Trafficking of three thick structures (up
to 200 mm) of bitumen-treated materials.
Adjustment of the circular test track.
Evaluation of four structures:
CTM/CTM, CTM/CTM, BTM/CTM,
and CTM/UTM.
Heavily traveled pavements with road bases
treated with hydraulic binders.
Comparison of bitumen-treated materials
on WRM and cement-treated sand
subbases.
Demonstration of separating layer of WRM to
reduce reflective cracking.
LCPC
France
Two very thin rolled asphalt overlays
assessed.
For maintenance motorway pavements.
186
Table G1 (Continued)
Reduce pavement costs by using
stabilized bases and thin asphalt
surfacing.
A 90150-mm asphalt layer over a stabilized
base was equivalent to 200-mm full-depth
asphalt.
RIOHALF
China
Compare the performance of 10
different asphalt pavement
configurations.
New asphalt pavement structures were
recommended for the national specifications.
TRL
United Kingdom
Forest road design. Pavement design methods for specialized log
traffic developed.





Table G2 VehiclePavementEnvironment Interaction (refer to chapter three)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
To determine the axle load equivalency
for a typical crushed-rock pavement,
300 mm thick, subjected to accelerated
loading under ALF single-axle dual-
wheel loads of 40, 60, and 80 kN.
Load equivalency factors of 10 and 8,
respectively, were estimated for a maximum
surface deformation of 10 mm.
ALF
Australia
Compare the performance of crushed-
rock pavements, constructed at different
moisture/compaction conditions at
sealing and after drying-back and
wetting-up after sealing.
At Beerburrum the low-plasticity, highly
permeable crushed-rock bases, when placed on a
CTSB having a 3% cross-fall, quickly dried back
in the dry environment operating at that time.

Comparative rutting: dual and wide-
base single tires.
Tire studies, which compared single low-profile,
wide-based, radial ply to standard dual tires, and
showed 92% greater rutting for the singles.
Strain response of subgrades and
unbound granular pavements: wheel
load, tire pressure, and tire type.
Development of subgrade strain criteria for
design.
Dynamic wheel loads and pavement
wear: single-unit and multi-leaf spring
suspensions.
Vehiclepavement interaction studies.
CAPTIF
New Zealand
DIVINE project; air bag and multi-leaf
suspensions.
Vehiclepavement interaction studies.
Evaluation of frost protection design. Existing practice shown to be conservative.
Evaluation of drainage layer. Shown to be very effective in freeze/thaw
environments.
EPFLa
Switzerland
Effects of temperature and loading
pattern.
Dependence of rutting on temperature and
transverse distribution of wheel path shown.
FHWAPTF
USA
To assess the impact of tire pressure on
pavement response and performance.
Tire pressure effects shown to be less significant
than load and temperature on flexible pavement
response and performance.
Characterization of tire/pavement
interface stresses.
As part of the HVS program it was possible to
develop a 3-D load cell. This provided a means
of accurately characterizing and modeling the
tire/pavement interface.
HVS
South Africa
Improved understanding of response
and performance.
Improved load equivalency factors.
187
Table G2 (Continued)
Comparison of the effects of 13-t and
10-t axles and of an 80 mm against two
successive 40 mm overlays.
To design of WRM and CTM road bases and
overlay practice.
To compare: design methods and
performance models; tandem axles
versus standardized European axle.
Working group 14 of the OECD tested two
flexible and one semi-rigid pavement.
LCPC
France
Observation of rutting behavior of
bituminous concrete.
Evaluation of high-performance mixes, influence
of speed-temperature and wheel load effects.
Determine structural damage of tri-
axles.
Approximate load equivalency factor of 2.6
established, varying with load and pavement
configuration.
Evaluation of free draining base course. Shown to be compaction-sensitive and best used
deep in a pavement.
PTI
USA
Structural coefficient of surface mixes. New materials and mixes performed in a similar
manner to existing materials.
Determine the failure mechanism
investigation of axle-load equivalencies
for this type of pavement.
Surface seal maintenance was important to
prevent water entering cracks and precipitating
failure.
RIOHALF
China
Determine the relative damaging effects
of different axle loads in terms of
structural failure and surface rutting.
The current equivalent exponent was
increased.
TRL
United Kingdom
Single versus dual tire damage
evaluation.
Single tires cause twice the damage on the thick
pavements typical of the UK and Europe.



Table G3 Materials and Tests (refer to chapter four)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
Validate ERDCGSLWES tentative
classification for lateritic gravel for road
and airfield pavements.
Performance of both materials constructed to
both compaction standards was excellent when
tested soon after construction.
When the pavements were retested after a wet
season, the performance of the good material was
still satisfactory but the poor material failed very
quickly under traffic.
Determine the effects of bitumen and
bitumen/cement stabilization on the
performance of a reconstructed high-
quality crushed-rock pavement.
Recycling existing crushed-rock bases by
stabilizing with 2% bitumen and 2% cement
could improve performance and resistance to
water penetration.
Performance was very sensitive to additive
content and compaction level.
Evaluate high-quality dense crushed-
rock base pavement for heavy traffic.
Structural adequacy of Benalla pavement
confirmed.
Compare performance of this pavement
(double-chip seal surface) with similar
pavement tested at Somersby (asphaltic
concrete surface).
Heavy compaction and prompt seal maintenance
shown to be essential.
ALF
Australia
Assess the use of unbound and stabilized
slag as base materials.
Specification for road base materials adjusted to
permit wider use of slag materials.
188
Table G3 (Continued)
Compare performance of different
thicknesses of two qualities of recycled
marginal unbound bases.
When subgrade in existing pavement is adequate
for the design traffic, existing sandstone base can
be reconstructed to support the seal and provide
additional load capacity. Reconstructed
sandstone base thicker than 125 mm may not
enhance pavement performance, particularly for
traffic with low axle loads (<40 kN).
Recycling existing sandstone bases by stabilizing
with 2% bitumen and 2% cement could improve
performance and resistance to water penetration.
Validate ERDCGSLWES tentative
classification for lateritic gravel for road
and airfield pavements.
Performance of both materials constructed to
both compaction standards was excellent when
tested soon after construction.
When the pavements were retested after a wet
season, the performance of the good material was
still satisfactory, but the poor material failed very
quickly under traffic.
Quantify relative rut resistance of new
and conventional mixes.
The performance of the AUSTROADS mix was
contrary to expectations because laboratory creep
testing had indicated that this mix was more rut-
resistant than the control mix.
ALF
Australia
To quantify rut resistance of
experimental mixes developed by
industry compared with a conventional
mix of known performance, both in the
field and under accelerated loading.
The results associated with the control mix are
yet to be analyzed.
To compare rutting of a dense-graded
asphalt under channelized and normal
traffic.
Channelized traffic doubled the rutting surface
rut rates. This compared well with previous HVS
trials at about 100,000 repetitions.
CALAPT
California
To compare the fatigue performance of a
rubberbitumen mix to a conventional
mix.
Life to cracking failure compared well with that
calculated by the Caltrans overlay design
procedure, a reduction of 50% in layer thickness
is justified for the rubberbitumen mix.
Effect of particle shape and gradation
on base course.
Performance: nine pavements.
New Zealand specifications currently limit the
rounded aggregate content in base course to a
maximum of 30%. The research showed that,
while the best performance was obtained with
this mix content, up to 50% could be tolerated
(Pidwerbesky 1995a) and that mixes with greater
than 70% rounded aggregate could not be
compacted.
CAPTIF
New Zealand
Asphalt mixes with four modified and
two conventional binders.
Six asphaltic concrete layers compared high and
conventional stiffness mixes (Pidwerbesky
1995a). The sections showed little deterioration
and the tests were truncated at a surface
deformation of 4 mm; at this stage the stiffer
asphalt mixes were performing better than a
thicker layer with conventional binder.
HVS
South Africa
Use of nonstandard materials. Use of sands and sandstones in stabilized
subbase specifications for: emulsion-treated
bases, use of blast furnace slag, use of water-
bound macadam.
189
Table G3 (Continued)
Investigation of porous asphalt. Performance of bitumenrubber porous asphalt,
with void contents in excess of 20%, investigated
in terms of deformation. Findings used in porous
asphalt design manual (SABITA 1996).
HVS
South Africa
Comparison of HVS predicted behavior
with actual pavement performance.

Performance of a road 15 years after HVS testing
investigated. Good agreement was found with this
study, the first such comparison of any extent.
Number of important issues relate to effective
long-term pavement performance monitoring.
JHPC
Japan
To compare low-volume road base
courses.
Base course materials were ranked in order of
performance; a manual for low-volume roads was
prepared.
Tests of four free-draining coated
materials.
Ranking of performance in relation to rutting,
cracking, drainage, and frictional characteristics.
Evaluation of four structures of untreated
materials having very different
characteristics.
Funded by aggregate producers.
Evaluation of special materials. To acceptance of commercial mixes.
Study of high-performance mixes and
fatigue behavior.
Comparison with normal mixes and laboratory
tests.
Observation of rutting behavior of
bituminous concrete.
Evaluation of high-performance mixes, influence of
speed-temperature, and wheel load effects.
Comparison of hot and cold bituminous
mixes.
Development of maintenance techniques.
LCPC
France
Test commercial emulsion-bound
composite material.
Validated performance.
Determine in situ moduli from surface
deflection.
Moduli higher than laboratory estimates and
affected by many variables.
PTI
USA
Evaluation of free-draining base course. Shown to be compaction-sensitive and best used
deep in a pavement.
Investigate the performance of low-cost,
heavy-duty pavements with lime-
stabilized soil bases.
Asphalt surfaced lime-stabilized soil base
pavement had a life in excess of 6 million ESALs.
RIOHALF
China
Determine the fatigue performance of
stabilized base materials using tensile
strains.
Pavement life models using laboratory tensile
(beam) tests did not correlate closely to behavior
under ALF.

















190
TABLE G4 Modeling (refer to chapter five)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
ALF
Australia
Establish relationships between back-
calculated asphalt stiffness and CTCR
modulus, determined from FWD
deflection bowl data, pavement
temperature, and the severity and extent
of surface cracking.
Asphalt fatigue relationships derived.
Potential benefits much higher as use of heavy-
duty asphalt pavements in urban applications
increases.
To compare estimated and measured
pavement responses.
There was general agreement between peak
deflection, back-calculated moduli, and strain
data.
Cracking was not a good indicator of failure
unless the cracks propagate to the surface.
FHWAPTF
USA
To establish load equivalencies. Not yet complete.
Improved understanding of response
and performance.
Improved mechanistic models. HVS
South Africa
Improvements in modeling permanent
deformation.
Contributions of the various rock types in the
pavement structure.
To compare: design methods and
performance models; tandem axles
versus standardized European axles.
Working group 14 of the OECD tested two
flexible and one semi-rigid pavement.
LCPC
France
To test cold mix. Two phases were used. The first load cycles
were applied at 45 kph with a reduced load.
The second trafficking took place after a few
months with full load and speed. This allowed
for maturing.
Develop structural equivalency factors. Layer coefficients recommended. PTI
USA Develop estimates of remaining service
life.
Remaining service life can be predicted from
Surface Curvature Index; effect of layer
thickness considered in terms of structural
number.
RIOHALF
China
Compare field measurements of stresses
and strains and evaluate the theoretical
model.
A theoretical linear elastic model and back-
analysis procedure were amended to allow for
conditions from full to no layer bonding.



Table G5 Rehabilitation, Construction, and Maintenance (refer to chapter six)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
Compare pavements with and without a
bitumen heavy-cure coat interlayer and
constructed in one lift instead of two or
three lifts.
Failure mechanism of adjacent National
highway found to be the same. Major changes
to construction practice implemented.
ALF
Australia
Compare the performance of two
thicknesses of gravel pavements and the
geotextile-reinforced seal pavements.
Guidelines for the design, construction,
maintenance, and management of geotextile-
reinforced seal pavements prepared.
Major long-term benefit is more effective use
of local materials and scant resources in a
location where it is imperative to maintain road
links during the wet season.
191
Table G5 (Continued)
Compare performance of different
thicknesses of two qualities of recycled
marginal unbound bases.
When subgrade in existing pavement is
adequate for the design traffic, existing
sandstone base can be reconstructed to support
the seal and provide additional load capacity.
Reconstructed sandstone base thicker than 125
mm may not enhance pavement performance,
particularly for traffic with low axle loads.
Recycling existing sandstone bases by
stabilizing with 2% bitumen and 2% cement
could improve performance and resistance to
water penetration.
Compare the performance of crushed-
rock pavements, constructed at different
moisture/compaction conditions at
sealing and after drying-back and
wetting-up after sealing.
At Beerburrum the low-plasticity, highly
permeable crushed-rock bases, when placed on
a CTSB having a 3% cross-fall, quickly dried
back in the dry environment operating at that
time.
ALF
Australia
Establish the performance of deep-lift
recycled pavements using a slag/lime
binder over subgrades of relatively low
and relatively high strengths.
At Cooma, deep-lift recycled pavements tested
on a low-strength subgrade (CBR = 4) had
fatigue lives at least twice that estimated for the
adjacent National highway. The findings
suggest that this type of pavement recycling is
suitable for moderate rural arterial traffic.
Development of low-risk maintenance
strategies.
Better use of cemented materials for heavy
traffic roads.
Use of crushed-stone bases for heavy traffic
1520 ESALs.
Reduced cost of bituminous bases for heavy
traffic.
Extended use of natural gravel.
Importance of proper maintenance.
Evaluation of rehabilitation. Recycling of asphalt pavement.
Advantages of early rehabilitation of crushed-
stone bases.
Prediction of remaining life and recommended
rehabilitation procedure for concrete
pavement affected by alkaliaggregate
reaction.
Rehabilitation of a deformed bitumen premix.
Materials test methods. HVS testing resulted either directly or
indirectly in the development or refinement of
several material test methods and associated
design criteria. It included the erosion test for
cementitious materials, the crack movement
simulator for evaluating crack reflection, and
the refinement of the dynamic creep test for
asphalt deformation. The link between
laboratory test results and APT test results is
vital to ensure full benefit from the program.
HVS
South Africa
Comparison of bases constructed by
labor-enhanced techniques.
Labor-enhanced, or labor-intensive,
construction techniques. The construction
covered different bases including penetration
macadam, emulsion-treated natural gravel,
slurry bound macadam, and clinker ash.
192
Table G5 (Continued)
HVS
South Africa
Rehabilitation measures for cemented-
base pavements.
A long-term HVS investigation into the
selection of rehabilitation measures for lightly
cemented-base pavements concluded (Steyn et
al. 1997).
ISETH
Switzerland
Evaluation of failures. Construction quality shown to be a common
factor.
Comparison of hot and cold bituminous
mixes.
Development of maintenance techniques. LCPC
France
Comparison of very high modulus
bituminous and cement-treated
materials.
Rehabilitation techniques.
Rigid pavement repair. Techniques validated.
Evaluation of recycled asphalt. Technique validated.
PTI
USA
Overlay design. Simplified mechanistic procedure based on
Road Rater deflections.
Trench reinstatement techniques. Present methods shown to be conservative and
thus legal requirements realistic.
Ecopave evaluation. New concrete paving technology proven and
patented.
TRL
United Kingdom
Nu-pave evaluation Thin fiber-reinforced concrete overlay
technique designed to crack without failing.


Table G6 Pavement Engineering Applications and Issues (refer to chapter seven)
Acronym/Location Objectives Applications
Compare the performance of two
thicknesses of gravel pavements and the
geotextile-reinforced seal pavements.
Guidelines for the design, construction,
maintenance, and management of geotextile-
reinforced seal pavements prepared.
Major long-term benefit is more effective use
of local materials and scant resources in a
location where it is imperative to maintain road
links during the wet season.
Establish relationships between back-
calculated asphalt stiffness and cement-
treated crashed-rock (CTCR) modulus,
determined from FWD deflection bowl
data, pavement temperature, and the
severity and extent of surface cracking.
Asphalt fatigue relationships derived.
Potential benefits much higher as use of heavy-
duty asphalt pavements in urban applications
increases.
ALF
Australia
Assess the use of unbound and stabilized
slag as base materials.
Specification for road base materials adjusted
to permit wider use of slag materials.
FHWAPTF
USA
To establish load equivalencies. Not yet complete.
Improved understanding of response
and performance.
Improved mechanistic models.
Improvements in modeling permanent
deformation.
Contributions of the various rock types in the
pavement structure.
HVS
South Africa
Enhancement of PMS procedures. Visual cracking was adopted as a trigger for
resealing. The HVS showed that cracking in the
thin surfacing used in South Africa would lead
to rapid pavement deterioration with ingress of
water, before any significant change in
deflection.
193
Table G6 (Continued)
JHPC
Japan
To rank the durability of overlay
treatments
Findings were used in a maintenance manual.
To test cold mix. Two phases were used. The first load cycles
were applied at 45 kph with a reduced load.
The second trafficking took place after a few
months with full load and speed. This allowed
for maturing.
Evaluation of four structures of untreated
materials having very different
characteristics.
Funded by aggregate producers.
LCPC
France
Evaluation of special materials. Towards acceptance of commercial mixes.
Skid resistance. Calibration service provided.
Develop structural equivalency factors. Layer coefficients recommended.
Develop estimates of remaining service
life.
Remaining service life can be predicted from
Surface Curvature Index; effect of layer
thickness considered in terms of structural
number.
PTI
USA
Roughness measurement. Calibration technique developed using
sinusoidal blocks.
Reduce reflective and thermal cracking
of asphalt pavements by using a rubber
asphalt interlayer.
Life to the onset of cracking was much
improved.
Evaluate the performance of the
prototype desert pavements.
A design for a desert highway was
recommended and has been used.
RIOHALF
China
Compare field measurements of stresses
and strains and evaluate the theoretical
model.
A theoretical linear elastic model and back-
analysis procedure were amended to allow for
conditions from full to no layer bonding.
Sidewalk damage by heavy vehicles. Damage to sidewalks evaluated because of
legal liability issues.
TRL
United Kingdom
Industrial by-products. Specifications developed to permit use of
several materials shown to be structurally
adequate and environmentally safe.
(Source: Metcalf 1996, with some referenced supplements.)

194
APPENDIX H

Implementation of the Results of Accelerated Loading Facility Trials into Practice and
the Relationship Between Accelerated Pavement Testing and Long-Term Pavement
Performance Trials


Prepared for Synthesis Report on Significant Findings from Accelerated Pavement Testing, November 2001

K.G. Sharp, ARRB Transport Research Limited
B.M. Clayton, ARRB Transport Research Limited


Relationship Between Accelerated Loading Facility Trials
and Long-Term Pavement Performance Testing

The weakest element of Pavement Management Systems
currently in place or being developed in Australia is the
prediction of pavement performance. The use of long-term
pavement performance (LTPP) monitoring results will im-
prove our understanding of the performance of pavements
and lead to cost savings and more appropriate construction
and rehabilitation practices.

To address this issue, and to take advantage of the op-
portunity to be directly involved in the U.S. Strategic High-
way Research Program (SHRP), an Austroads-funded project
was established that had, as its primary aim, the monitoring of
the performance of a range of Australian test sections that
both the quantity and quality of pavement performance
data could be enhanced and prediction models improved.

The overall objectives of the LTPP study are to:

Enhance asset management strategies through the use
of improved pavement performance models based on
an improved understanding of the behavior of pave-
ment structures (SHRPLTPP program), and
Compare the results of accelerated pavement testing
(APT) studies with actual road pavement perform-
ance (ALFLTPP program).

Pavement monitoring of 19 Australian test sections has
been under way for 5 continuous years; two more sites
were established during 1999/2000 and the addition of fur-
ther sites is planned. These sections include those set up
specifically as LTPP sites, and also sites specifically estab-
lished in tandem with ALF trials. The preliminary analysis
conducted to date has produced significant findings and
clearly demonstrated the need to continue this long-term
study. The benefits of the LTPP studies as identified by the
findings of the comparative analysis and related recom-
mendations are as follows:

Excavations in the pavement adjacent to the Beerbur-
rum LTPP test pavement (spray seal surface over ce-
ment-treated base and cement-treated subbase) re-
vealed a similar failure mechanism to that observed
during the ALF trial, viz. pumping of fines from the
cement-treated subbase through the surface seal.
The environmental effects that are being experienced
in the Beerburrum LTPP test section and that were
not experienced in the Beerburrum ALF trial have
possibly contributed to the occurrence of transverse
cracking not observed during the ALF trial.
The mean rut depths recorded in the Beerburrum
LTPP test section were comparable to those measured
during the ALF trial. However, it is too early in the
loading of the LTPP test section to draw any long-
term conclusions. The LTPP test section has allowed
the environmental affects to be examined, by means
of the ingress of moisture through surface cracks.
The findings of the Beerburrum ALF trial were that
the mean surface deflections did not reflect the per-
formance of the CTCR, as the mean surface deflec-
tion remained relatively low, despite the evident
structural damage to the CTCR. The surface deflec-
tion of the LTPP test pavement has generally in-
creased slightly, and if load-related fatigue cracking
of the CTCR layers is occurring, then it is not evident
from the deflection data.
Early comparative analysis between the Benalla ALF
trial and the Benalla LTPP test pavement section
(spray seal surface and unbound granular base)
showed that there was an excellent correlation be-
tween maximum surface deflection, rutting, and
overall pavement surface condition.
Analysis of the data from the Callington LTPP trial
and the related ALF trial (asphalt pavements) has
proven inconclusive to date. There has been a poor
correlation between the development of rutting and
the pavement surface performance for the two sets of
data. However, there was a better correlation for sur-
face deflection. The differences are probably related
to the differing visco-elastic behavior of the asphalt
in the two tests. This points to the difficulties associ-
ated with the use of accelerated pavement testing to
accommodate the range of environmental conditions
195
encountered over the life of the pavements, espe-
cially when the properties of the materials within the
pavement also change over time (binder hardening,
curing, etc.).
One of the primary aims of the ALFLTPP study is to
verify the fundamental purpose of ALF; namely, its
ability to predict the behavior of a pavement struc-
ture. To this effect, the analysis to date has suggested
that ALF has been able to predict in-service behavior,
especially with respect to loading effects. The com-
parative analysis has also highlighted the significant
effect of the interrelationship between environment,
age, and traffic loading on the performance of pave-
ments and the inability of ALF to predict them.
The comparative analysis has clearly demonstrated
the need to continue the long-term studies on pave-
ments in conjunction with the ALF studies, so that
the results of ALF experiments can be fully inter-
preted and thus fully implemented into design and
rehabilitation or asset management strategies. To this
end, new sites have recently been established so that
the results of more recent ALF trials can be compared
with observed in-service performance.
Because of the need for consistency in data collection
and storage, a draft guideline document for the estab-
lishment of sites, and the data to be collected from them,
has now been produced. This document sets out the re-
quirements for the establishment of a site for on-going
pavement condition monitoring in terms of site-
selection criteria. Although the guidelines were devel-
oped in terms of the requirements of the LTPP studies,
they can also be used as the basis for monitoring the
condition of other trial or experimental pavements.


Implementation of Findings of ALF Trials into Practice

Changes to construction practice associated with ce-
ment-treated crushed-rock pavements to avoid ob-
served debonding, followed by erosion at the inter-
face. The behavior observed under ALF duplicated
that which had been observed on the adjacent Na-
tional highway, which led to an increased confidence
in the ability of ALF to duplicate field behavior.
The use of unbound and stabilized slags in place of
unbound and stabilized crushed rock provided they
were protected from excessive tensile strains by the
provision of an adequate subgrade and that an ade-
quate wearing course, preferably asphalt, was used to
prevent surface wear. This trial also led to the devel-
opment and publication of guidelines for the most
appropriate use of slag materials in pavements.
Changes to rehabilitation practice based on the find-
ings that, at high temperatures, deformation on as-
phalt overlays were mainly confined to the upper as-
phalt layer, indicating that only this layer needed to
be replaced with a more rut-resistant product when
repairs owing to rutting were carried out. An associ-
ated outcome was the more widespread use of high-
bitumen-content asphalt mixes and, in thinner layers
than previously adopted, the addition of bitumen was
shown to result in improved fatigue life.
Guidelines for the design and management of all-
weather low-cost pavements involving the use of
geotextile-reinforced seals over expansive clay sub-
grades, and the more effective use of local materials
and scant resources in a location where it is impera-
tive to maintain road links during the wet season.
Changes to road widening and pavement rehabilita-
tion projects associated with the confirmation that
nonstandard sandstone materials could be usedand
in thinner layers than previously thoughtin many
regions of Australia. This resulted in savings of ap-
proximately 15% of total project costs. The concept
was also to be transferred to different climatic re-
gions (up to 500 mm mean annual rainfall) using dif-
ferent nonstandard paving materials and subgrades
on a trial basis.
Changes to specifications for the compaction, and
moisture content at sealing, of crushed rock based,
specifically: (1) the control of compaction and mois-
ture content at sealing to maximize base perform-
ance, (2) the risk of early pavement failure at combi-
nations of high level of compaction and high degree
of saturation, and (3) the risk of large errors in Opti-
mum Moisture Content and Maximum Dry Density
values of low-plasticity crushed rocks determined us-
ing the current standard compaction techniques.
Revision of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers tenta-
tive classification scheme for the use of lateritic
gravels in airfield pavements constructed in tropical
areas and the more widespread use of these materials
in low-cost pavements constructed in tropical areas
of Queensland. An associated finding was the con-
firmation of laboratory testing protocolsbased on
repeat load triaxial testingfor these materials.
Confirmation of the superior deformation-resistance
performance of asphalt mixes incorporating polymer-
modified and multigrade binders compared with
mixes incorporating conventional binders. The analy-
sis of the laboratory creep test results suggested that
the minimum creep slope could rank the relative per-
formance of mixes having the same composition but
different binder type, but not the relative performance
of mixes having different gradings and compositions,
which had implications in terms of the use of this test
in an asphalt mix design. These results were made
possible because of the development of a pavement
heating system to ensure that all testing was con-
ducted at the same (and high) asphalt temperatures.
Confirmation that materials recycled in situ with
slag/lime blends to a depth up to 350 mm would per-
196
form satisfactorily under moderate rural traffic load-
ings up to about 107 ESALS. The results suggested
that, for high subgrade strengths, the pavements
would also provide adequate service at higher traffic
loading. An associated finding was that the Aus-
troads fatigue relationship generally under-predicted
the fatigue life of this material but that there was jus-
tification in using a conservative approach for the de-
sign of in situ stabilized pavements because of the
variability of the properties of the parent material,
constructed thickness, binder quantity, levels of com-
paction and curing regimes.
The development of design charts for pavements
incorporating cement-stabilized fly ash material as a
base or subbase layer based on crushing life per-
formance data collected during the trial. In the case
of cement-stabilized fly ash base pavements, the fail-
ure mechanism was fatigue followed by crushing of
the material. However, when the material was used
as a subbase under a granular base, the pavements
rutted after a relatively low number of loading cycles,
with rutting of the granular base being the principal
distress mechanism.
Guidelines for the most appropriate use of materials
stabilized in situ with bitumen/cement and slag/lime
blends, including the effect of curing time on per-
formance. The preparation of these guidelines has re-
sulted in a wider range of options being available
with respect to the most appropriate strategy for the
rehabilitation of pavements.

197
INDEX


AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials) 11, 17
Absorption 8
AC (asphalt concrete) mixes 82
Accelerated loading tests (ALT) 87
Accelerated pavement testing 1, 2, 5, 25, 67, 80
Additives 12, 44
Aggregate 12, 13, 16, 17, 24, 25, 28, 35, 39, 40, 41, 4345,
56, 57, 6467, 75, 79
Aggregate base 12, 24, 25, 28, 44, 57
Aging 11, 27, 49, 57, 64, 71, 76, 87
Air temperature 9, 19, 27, 35, 57, 83
Air voids 56, 57
Airport pavements 71, 78
Alkaline aggregate reaction (AAR) 75
Analysis 2, 14, 16, 18, 21, 2325, 27, 31, 35, 3741, 44
46, 49, 51, 55, 58, 59, 63, 65, 68, 71, 75, 77, 79, 83, 84, 91
Applications 2, 6, 913, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 33, 37, 41, 46,
47, 5355, 59, 63, 6567, 70, 71, 76, 78, 79, 81, 85, 89,
91
Asphalt
Base 12, 51, 66, 86
Concrete 1113, 16, 24, 28, 3841, 4345, 49, 57, 58,
63, 65, 67, 69, 82, 89
Content 57, 67, 83
Layer 17, 21, 24, 28, 33, 35, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 5860,
62, 64, 67, 74, 79, 84, 86
Materials 37, 38, 64, 85
Mixes 56, 67, 85
Mixtures 16, 28, 31
Pavement 11, 13, 18, 21, 28, 45, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 58
60, 66, 84, 87, 88
Rubber 12, 63
Stiffness 59
Asphalt over asphalt 70
Asphalt over concrete 70
Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) 1, 15, 64, 68, 72,
76, 77, 82, 83, 87
Austroads Pavement Design Guide 13, 64, 72, 82
Axle 8, 9, 14, 17, 1921, 24, 26, 31, 50, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58,
67, 69, 72, 74, 78, 83, 85, 87, 89
Configuration 26, 89
Load 9, 13, 17, 20, 21, 25, 50, 53, 55, 58, 67, 72, 74


Back-calculation 47, 51
Base 8, 1117, 2025, 2831, 3335, 37, 4147, 5052,
54, 5759, 64, 6668, 70, 72, 74, 77, 7983, 88, 89, 92
Course 11, 16, 21, 29, 31, 34, 37, 46, 66, 79, 82, 83,
88, 89
Material 12, 16, 43, 44, 46, 54, 67, 88
Behavior 5, 16, 18, 37, 40, 52, 56, 60, 73, 77, 79, 82, 83
Bending beam rheometer 37
Benefits 3, 18, 24, 40, 64, 67, 77, 8087, 89, 91, 92
Bidirectional 9, 10, 22, 35, 79
Binder 12, 16, 18, 2729, 3745, 5557, 59, 61, 64, 65, 69,
70, 73, 75, 84, 85, 88
Bitumen content 12, 13, 29, 56
Bitumen/cement 43, 68, 82
Bitumenrubber asphalt 39
Bituminous 13, 18, 38, 42, 55, 56, 74, 82
Materials 13, 18, 42, 56
Blast furnace slag 16, 82
Bleeding 45, 79, 83
Block pavers 11, 37, 71, 78

Calibration 89
CAL/APT 1, 30, 38, 39, 42, 44, 63, 69, 84, 87
Carbonation 30
Carousel 12, 22, 26, 28, 71, 72
Canterbury Accelerated Pavement Testing Indoor Facility
(CAPTIF) 21, 22, 25, 30, 39, 42, 43, 52, 82, 83
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) 12, 16, 17, 53, 79
Cement-treated crushed rock (CTCR) 13, 15, 43
Cement-treated subbase (CTSB) 15
Cement
Modified 46
Stabilized 68
Treated 20, 25, 82
Cement base 16, 17, 44, 82
Cemented 15, 45, 51, 68, 69, 72, 82, 83
CEntro De Estudios De Carreteras test facility (CEDEX)
16, 33, 44
Chip seal 38, 42
Clay 15, 16, 35, 42, 45, 79, 82
Coarse aggregate 41
Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory (CRREL)
9, 29, 45
Compaction 9, 12, 15, 16, 33, 37, 43, 44, 54, 61, 63, 64,
6770, 84, 86
Complex modulus 56
Composite 3, 11, 16, 18, 43, 6365, 67, 74, 91
Composite structures 1518
Compressive strength 38
Concrete 2, 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 24, 28, 30, 35, 3742, 44, 45,
47, 60, 6567, 69, 70, 75, 78, 79, 82, 87, 89
Concrete pavement 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 3739, 41, 42, 47,
60, 65, 66, 69, 75, 87, 89
Configuration 8
Constructability 69
Construction 2, 3, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 22, 26, 33, 40,
43, 53, 63, 6770, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 8285, 87, 89
91
Construction specifications 63, 67, 70
Contact stress 19, 2325, 55
Continuously graded 28, 37, 65
198
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) 65,
75, 89
Conventional trafficking 20, 71, 74, 77
Cooperative Science and Technology (COST) 1, 46
COST 347 1, 3, 4, 6, 46, 87, 91, 92
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO) 31
Crack 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 5961, 65, 7274, 76, 86, 89
Cracking 1118, 24, 27, 29, 3941, 4345, 47, 49, 58
61, 6468, 7173, 75, 76, 78, 83, 8688
Propagation 73
Sealing 30
Crack Activity Meter (CAM) 65, 86
Crack movement (CM) 65
Creep 25, 38, 39, 44
Crumb-rubber modified (CRM) 39
Crushed stone/crusher run 11, 17, 25, 33, 4346, 65, 67,
7476, 79, 83, 88
Crushing 15, 17, 30
Curling 13, 14, 18, 28, 37, 60, 66
Curvature 47, 79

Damage 6, 11, 20, 21, 23, 24, 3133, 35, 38, 40, 41, 44,
4749, 60, 61, 67, 68, 72, 82, 85
Debonding 15, 18, 43, 66
Deflection 14, 25, 26, 31, 35, 38, 42, 43, 47, 50, 51, 5759,
61, 65, 74, 78, 79, 86
Deflection bowl 51
Deflection measurements 38, 50
Deformation 13, 18, 2125, 2731, 33, 38, 39, 4345, 47,
5153, 55, 57, 60, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 79, 82
Degradation 12, 41, 68
Delamination 16
Dense bitumen macadam (DBM) 13
Density 3739, 43, 52, 6870, 74
Design 1012, 1417, 19, 25, 26, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 40
42, 44, 45, 51, 53, 55, 57, 60, 63, 64, 6770, 76, 77, 79,
80, 82, 84, 85, 8890, 92
Criteria 53, 69
Procedure 17, 35, 53, 67, 80, 82
Transfer functions 51, 76
Deterioration 17, 21, 22, 29, 30, 39, 41, 43, 48, 49, 54, 58,
68, 84, 85
Displacement gauges 47
Distress 2, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21, 23, 27, 29, 30, 34, 3740,
44, 45, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 7479, 84, 91
DIVINE 21, 22, 68, 85
Dowels 13, 14, 18, 42, 65
Dual wheel 8, 13, 24, 29
Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) 38, 57, 86
Dynamic creep 38, 39, 44, 82
Dynamic loads 21, 22, 85

Economic gains 3, 85, 91
Economy 83, 84
Elastic layer analysis 47
Elastic modulus 50
Emulsion-treated 43, 44, 46, 67
Environment 2, 5, 9, 19, 27, 29, 33, 35, 71, 74, 75, 77, 80,
82, 83, 87, 92
Environmental damage exponent (EDE) 33
Environmental effects 3, 14, 17, 33, 35, 36, 53, 91
Environmental impact 3, 19, 26, 27, 35, 75, 92
Equipment 38, 78
Equivalent single-axle load (ESAL) 57, 72
Erosion 1315, 17, 33, 4345, 74
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 28, 39, 46
European APT Synthesis Study 6
Evaluation 15, 37, 38, 40, 41, 4346, 50, 63, 69, 79, 80,
82, 8789
Experimental pavement 72

Failure criteria 47, 49, 88
Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) 9, 16, 31, 38, 45, 50,
53, 57, 58, 63, 64, 72
Fatigue 1113, 15, 17, 18, 20, 24, 3845, 47, 49, 51,
53, 5860, 6264, 6769, 71, 72, 74, 76, 82, 84, 86,
88
Analysis 84
Behavior 39, 59
Cracking 12, 13, 17, 24, 38, 40, 41, 43, 45, 58, 59, 64,
69, 76, 88
Life 12, 13, 24, 3941, 5860, 64, 67, 72, 82
Performance 12, 13, 15, 18, 3842, 4446, 5860, 64
Resistance 18, 44, 60
Federal Aviation Administration, New Jersey 8
Fiber-reinforced concrete 66
Fibers 17, 44, 66, 82
Field
Density 67
Performance 13, 39, 40, 82, 89
Filler 13, 39
Film thickness 57
Finite-element (FE) analysis 14, 23, 25, 47
Finite-element method 24, 62
Finnish National Road Administration 10
Fixed site 1, 7, 18, 70, 89
Flexible 11, 1618, 23, 25, 35, 41, 42, 53, 58, 65, 67, 69,
78, 79, 82, 84, 88
Flexible pavement 8, 11, 16, 17, 23, 25, 35, 53, 58, 67, 69,
78, 79, 84
Flexural fatigue 17, 3841
Flexural strength 13, 38, 60
Florida Department of Transportation, Florida 8
Freeze/thaw 29, 34, 46
Freezing 27, 29, 30, 35
Frost 16, 29, 35
Functional performance 11, 62, 83

Gap graded 65
Geofabrics 18, 66
Geogrid 82
199
Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory (GSL) 9, 46, 82,
87
Geotextile 12, 15, 42, 44, 82
Geotextile reinforced 15, 42, 82
Gradation 37, 40, 41, 43, 56, 67
Granular base 12, 15, 23, 30, 53, 88
Granular emulsion mixes (GEMs) 44, 69
Granular materials 11, 16, 33, 37, 4245, 60, 85, 86
Gravel base 17, 20, 21, 31, 33, 67
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) 38

Healing 59, 73
Heating 27, 64, 72
Heavy-duty macadam (HDM) 13, 64
Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) 11, 18, 23, 27, 28, 33, 35, 37, 53,
6469, 74, 79, 84
Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) 1, 810, 12, 15, 2126,
2931, 3335, 39, 41, 4345, 5053, 60, 6369, 7376,
78, 79, 82, 83, 8689
HVS-A (Bigfoot) 88
HVSNordic 10, 16, 34, 35, 41, 44, 45, 88
Hydraulic cement concrete (HCC) 87

Impact of water 30, 31, 33
Implementation 2, 12, 41, 46, 73, 84, 88, 89, 91
Indirect tensile fatigue 31, 38, 41, 45
Indirect tensile strength 3840, 45
Indirect tensile test 37, 38, 42
Inflation pressure 2325
Ingress of water 15, 30, 33, 34, 65, 74, 75, 78, 86
In-service pavements 3, 16, 20, 27, 29, 41, 43, 49, 53, 62,
71, 75, 77, 92
In situ strength 74
Interaction 13, 5, 8, 11, 13, 1936, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 84,
85, 91, 92
Interlayers 39, 65, 75
International roughness index (IRI) 29, 84
Inverted pavements 82
Issues 18, 19, 63, 6972, 74, 80, 87, 89, 92

Joint failure 11, 14
Jointed unreinforced concrete (JCP) 65
Joints 9, 13, 14, 60, 65, 66

Kansas State University Facility, Kansas 8

Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses (LCPC) 1, 5, 12,
14, 15, 17, 18, 2022, 24, 26, 27, 29, 39, 59, 68, 71, 72,
85, 87
Laboratory compaction 54
Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases (LAMBS) 44, 69, 70
Large stone mixes 70
Lateritic gravel 15, 43, 82
Lessons 46, 63, 70, 75
Life cycle 75
Lightweight aggregate asphalt concrete (LWAC) 41, 64
Lime 12, 15, 16, 4244, 64, 68, 69, 82
LINear TRACKing Apparatus (LINTRACK) 13, 25, 45,
53, 55, 59, 73
Load and environment 19, 37, 46, 91
Load, configuration 47, 49
Load, equivalency 20, 31, 47
Long-term pavement performance (LTPP) 3, 6, 71, 72, 76,
77, 88, 92
Longitudinal joint 13
Longitudinal profile 22, 38
Low temperature cracking 29

Maintenance 2, 3, 7, 12, 15, 22, 37, 44, 49, 53, 6264, 68,
70, 7275, 77, 8082, 8486, 91
Marginal materials 18, 43, 82
Material
Characterization 35, 37, 38, 46, 53, 56, 62
Design 81, 82
Properties 22, 35, 45, 46, 50, 53, 54, 56
Testing 53
Materials and tests 2, 7, 20, 37, 38, 46
Mathematical model 25, 48, 49, 52, 62, 63
Maximum density line 82
Mechanistic models 67, 74
Milling 64, 79, 89
Minnesota Road Research Project (Mn/ROAD) 6, 26, 29,
35, 45, 52, 58, 61, 66, 67
Mix design 3941, 54, 82
Model Mobile Load Simulator (MMLS3) 27, 31, 42, 76
Modeling 7, 12, 23, 25, 37, 38, 4762, 7173, 8183
Modulus 12, 17, 18, 21, 27, 31, 32, 39, 4244, 50, 56, 59,
72, 75
Modulus of Elasticity 31
Moisture content 16, 31, 33, 45, 54, 68, 70, 74, 86, 88
Moisture damage 11, 31, 40, 41, 44, 68
Multi-Depth Deflectometer (MDDs) 47, 51, 79, 86

National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) 8, 14,
79, 82, 83, 87, 88
National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) 1, 8, 9,
45, 8284, 89
Noise 12, 34

Ohio Research Institute for Transportation and the
Environment 8
Open graded 75
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) 3, 2022, 25, 46, 85, 91, 92
Overlay design 63, 89
Overloading 24

Particle shape 69
Pavement, behavior 73
Construction 15, 22, 68
Design 8, 1114, 16, 17, 34, 45, 46, 50, 52, 53, 62, 68,
73, 79, 82, 83, 85, 87, 88
200
Deterioration 21, 33, 86
Distress 21, 22
Economics 81
Evaluation 3, 91, 92
Management 3, 47, 77, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87
Performance 2, 3, 6, 14, 17, 2022, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34,
35, 38, 41, 46, 47, 49, 53, 61, 62, 68, 7377, 80, 86,
91, 92
Response 3, 6, 21, 29, 38, 41, 49, 57, 62, 73
Rutting 17, 64
Temperature 8, 9, 27, 28, 57, 61, 83
Pavement management systems (PMS) 3, 47, 85, 86, 91,
92
Pavement Test Facility (PTF) 14, 64, 66, 83, 88
Pavers 78
Paving 55
Pay factors 63, 67, 70, 84, 90
Performance 2, 3
Prediction 3, 42, 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 90, 92
Prediction model 77
Permanent deformation 11, 12, 24, 28, 29, 3841, 4345,
47, 4957, 62, 67, 74, 76, 79, 83, 86
Permeability 12, 38, 44
Plastic 17, 25, 28, 29, 44, 50, 52, 54, 55, 60, 64, 85, 87
Plastic deformation 28, 29, 64, 87
Polymer 39, 40, 88
Modifiers 88
Portland cement concrete 11, 13, 30, 37, 42, 60, 87
Prediction models 72
Present serviceability index (PSI) 61
Pressure cells 35, 47, 50, 62
Pumping 14, 15, 33, 45, 74, 83


Rain 30, 33, 75
Rainfall 32, 33, 54, 83
Rational pavement design 71
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) 45, 46, 88, 89
Reconstruction 69, 85, 89
Recycled 3, 37, 44, 45, 64, 66, 91
Recycling 4143, 64, 70, 72
Regression 23, 32, 4851, 5458
Regression model 56
Rehabilitation 2, 3, 7, 18, 30, 3739, 41, 43, 45, 6365, 67,
69, 70, 74, 75, 7880, 8284, 86, 91
Reinforcement 17, 18, 42, 45, 65, 67, 88
Resilient modulus 38, 39, 43, 54, 57, 69
Rest periods 40, 58, 59, 61, 73
Rich bottom 12, 18, 38, 84
Rigid pavement 16, 20, 66, 69, 79, 82
Road construction 67
Road structure 17, 88
Road-building materials 82
Rotational viscometer 37
Roughness 11, 22, 25, 29, 84
Rut depth 9, 22, 23, 29, 3335, 5053, 5558, 72, 76, 79
Rutting 9, 1113, 1618, 2030, 34, 35, 3841, 44, 45, 49
58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 71, 7376, 79, 8385, 88,
89
Rutting performance 23, 24, 3841, 45, 54, 57, 58, 61, 64,
67, 69, 76, 84

Safety 11, 84
Sand 13, 16, 28, 29, 35, 41, 45, 53, 78, 82
Savings 3, 15, 42, 44, 68, 78, 81, 8386, 91
Seal 15, 43, 45, 65, 75, 83
Seasonal variation 61
Semi-circular bending test 38
Semi-gap graded 64, 65, 79
Sensors 47, 67
Serviceability 61, 69
Service life 22, 55, 68, 74, 88, 90
Shear strength 15, 24, 30, 74
Shoving 66, 76
Shrinkage 13, 15, 17, 44, 60, 65
Significant findings 2, 7, 26, 37, 46, 77, 83, 86, 87, 91, 92
Simple shear test at constant height 39
Simulation 35, 67
Single wheel 17, 23, 24, 79
Skid resistance 11, 38
Slag 15, 28, 4144, 64, 68, 82
Softening point 28
South African Method for Pavements (SMDM) 12, 51, 73,
74
Specially constructed 7, 76
Specification 40, 43, 56, 67, 88
Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) 31, 38, 46, 58
Speed 9, 19, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29, 36, 55, 58, 79
Spring load restrictions 35
Stability 82, 85
Stabilizer 43
Static creep 55
Stiffness 11, 12, 15, 16, 31, 34, 3739, 4143, 45, 46, 48,
5559, 63, 65, 67, 69, 73, 76, 86
Stiffness loss 73, 76
Stiffness modulus 12
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) 38, 41, 45, 82
Strain 21, 24, 25, 29, 3335, 41, 45, 47, 4955, 5760, 62,
64, 67, 72, 74, 82, 88
Strain gauges 35, 47, 62, 67, 82
Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) 6, 3840,
58, 77
Stress 12, 2326, 40, 47, 4955, 5860, 62, 65, 72, 75, 76,
78, 82, 88
Stress dependent 54, 76
Stress-in-Motion (SIM) 23, 25, 86
Stress range to number curves (SN curves) 60
Stress ratio 60, 82
Stripping 11, 12, 44, 64
Structural
Composition 2, 91
Configuration 4, 19, 46, 92
201
Design 2, 1118, 37, 47, 58, 69, 70, 72, 81, 82, 91
Performance 11, 62, 78, 88
Structure 9, 1118, 22, 25, 26, 2830, 3335, 3841, 44,
46, 49, 52, 53, 5760, 6365, 68, 7072, 7476, 78, 79,
85, 86, 89
Styrenebutadienestyrene (SBS) 39, 46, 88
Subbase 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 25, 28, 29, 4245, 53, 57,
64, 65, 68, 69, 74, 79
Subgrade 8, 1116, 18, 19, 21, 24, 28, 29, 31, 3335, 43
47, 4954, 5862, 64, 65, 69, 72, 79, 82, 87, 88
Moisture 19
Strain criterion 13, 45, 52
Subsurface drainage 69
Super single 9
Superpave 82
Surface 8, 9, 1315, 17, 20, 2225, 2731, 33, 34, 36, 38
45, 5055, 5760, 64, 65, 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 79, 84, 85,
87, 88
Course 87
Cracking 13, 22, 23, 27, 72
Seal 11, 33, 43, 72, 74
Texture 9, 25, 39
Suspension system, surface 8, 19, 21
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute
(VTI) 10


Tack coat 84
Technical Research Center of Finland (VTT) 10
Temperature 2730
Temperature susceptibility 39
Tensile strength 27, 69
Test facilities 18, 22
Test method 38, 43
Test road 84
Texas Mobile Load Simulator (TxMLS) 13, 2123, 31, 42,
50, 51, 57, 63, 68, 83, 85, 89
Thaw weakening 17, 50
Thermal 13, 28, 38, 40
Thermal cracking 38, 40
Time Domain Reflectomentry (TDR) 1, 68
Tire pressure 17, 19, 20, 2325, 58, 59, 61, 89
Tire type 19, 24, 89
Tracking tests 6
Traffic loading 12, 15, 19, 21, 23, 55
Trafficking 1, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, 19, 20, 2226, 28, 30, 31, 34,
35, 39, 41, 45, 46, 50, 53, 5861, 65, 66, 71, 72, 7480,
8288
Transfer functions 12, 13, 35, 49, 51, 60
Transport Research Laboratory Ltd. (TRL) 5, 64
Triaxial testing 38, 44, 82
Trucks 9, 13, 16, 20, 45

Ultra-thin fiber-reinforced concrete (UTFRC) 66
Ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW) 66, 67
Unconfined compressive strength 42, 43
Unconventional materials 63
Unidirectional 58
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 5, 9, 15, 35
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development
Center (ERDC ) 15, 46, 79, 82, 87
University of Illinois/Advanced Transportation Research &
Engineering Laboratory 9
User costs 84

VAGOCH Transportforskningsinstitut (VTI) 10
Validation 3, 15, 34, 37, 46, 66, 80, 83, 86, 89, 91
Vehiclepavementinteraction 23
VehicleRoad Surface Pressure Transducer Array
(VRSPTA) 2325, 86
VESYS 49, 55
Viscosity 5557
Voids 12, 13, 57, 65
Voids-in-mineral aggregate (VMA) 57
Volumetric properties 56

Wander 8, 9, 19, 22, 23, 28, 35, 73, 76
Warping 18, 37, 65, 66
Warranty contracts 4, 70, 83, 92
Water 3035
Water infiltration 43
Water table 8, 9, 19, 35, 87
Weather databases 83
Websites 8, 10, 87
Wet trafficking 31, 34, 36, 41, 46, 64, 75, 78
Wheel, tracking 6, 25, 39, 76
Wheel load 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17, 1922, 25, 26, 29, 31, 50,
54, 55, 58, 60, 61, 71, 78, 79
Whitetopping 37, 66, 70
Wide-based single tires 24







Abbreviations used without definition in TRB Publications:

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NCTRP National Cooperative Transit Research and Development Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TRB Transportation Research Board
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation