Chapter 4 : Memory system
4.1 Characteristics of Computer Memory System 1-LOCATION
Refers to whether memory is internal and external to the computer Internal memory is often equated with main memory Processor requires its own local memory, in the form of registers Cache is another form of internal memory External memory consists of peripheral storage devices that are accessible to the processor via I/O controllers
2-CAPACITY
An obvious characteristic of memory is its capacity. Total number of bits that can be stored. For internal memory, this is typically expressed in terms of bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) or words. Common word lengths are 8, 16, and 32 bits. External memory capacity is typically expressed in terms of bytes.
3-Unit Of Transfer
-For internal memory the unit of transfer is equal to the number of electrical lines into and out of the memory module -Internal -External Usually a block which is much larger than a word Usually governed by data bus width
-Addressable unit Smallest location which can be uniquely addressed In some systems, this is the word. Relationship between length in bits A of an address and number N of addressable units is 2A = N
4- Access Method
Sequential access
Memory is organized into units of data called records
Direct access
Involves a shared read-write mechanism
Random access
Each addressable location in memory has a unique, physically wired-in addressing mechanism
Associative
A word is retrieved based on a portion of its contents rather than its address
Access must be made in a specific linear sequence
Individual blocks or records have a unique address based on physical location
The time to access a given location is independent of the sequence of prior accesses and is constant
Each location has its own addressing mechanism and retrieval time is constant independent of location or prior access patterns
Access time is variable
Access time is variable
Any location can be selected at random and directly addressed and accessed
Cache memories may employ associative access
Main memory and some cache systems are random access
5- Performance
6- Physical Types
-Volatile memory Information decays naturally or is lost when electrical power is switched off
-Nonvolatile memory Once recorded, information remains without deterioration until deliberately changed No electrical power is needed to retain information
-Magnetic-surface memories Are nonvolatile
-Semiconductor memory May be either volatile or nonvolatile
-Nonerasable memory Cannot be altered, except by destroying the storage unit Semiconductor memory of this type is known as read-only memory (ROM)
7- Physical Characteristics
Volatility Erasable Power consumption
8- Organisation
Physical arrangement of bits into words Obvious arrangement not always used For example: interleaved
Semiconductor Memory Types
SRAM v DRAM
Both volatile Power needed to preserve data
Dynamic cell Simpler to build, smaller More dense Less expensive Needs refresh Larger memory units
Static Faster Cache
Cache
Small amount of fast memory Intermediate buffer between normal main memory and CPU May be located on CPU chip or module
Elements of Cache Design
Direct mapping
Each block of main memory maps to only one cache line Address is in two parts Least Significant w bits identify unique word Most Significant s bits specify one memory block
Associative Mapping
A main memory block can load into any line of cache Memory address is interpreted as tag and word Tag uniquely identifies block of memory Every lines tag is examined for a match Cache searching gets expensive
:: Associative Mapping
Cache Replacement
When the address accessed by CPU is not in cache, access has to be made to main memory. Along with the required word, the entire block is transferred to cache But if cache is full, some existing cache memory is deleted to create space for the new entry.
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
Requires very little power to retain its contents. Usually powered by a battery. Stores vital data about the configuration of the computer system, even when the computer is turned off. Information kept in the CMOS memory includes information about floppy and hard disk drives, the amount of memory installed and the type of display system such as the date, time, and system setup parameters.
