Load Flow Analysis
in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Load Flow Applications
Why run load flows?
- Check loading, losses and voltage profile Are there any overloaded elements? Are the voltage constraits respected?
When to perform load flows?
Network planning and operation Generation scheduling, optimization Steady state initial conditions for short circuit and stability calculations
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
General Procedure
For each element 2 quantities can be defined (e.g. P and Q, or P and V) The other quantities are results of the load flow calculation The grid must contain one element without power dispatch (Slack element, in most cases the External Grid) According Node Types: PQ, PV, SL
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Load flow calculation with PowerFactory
Model set-up before calculation
Dispatch of generators
Setpoints of loads
Define bus type of External grid
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Load Flow Calculation Options
Basic options:
Balanced / unbalanced load flow AC or DC load flow method Automatic adjustment of taps and shunts Consider/ neglect reactive power limits Consider/ neglect voltage dependency
Active power control (according to inertia, secondary control etc.) Iteration control (number of iterations, calculation accuracy etc.)
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
AC and DC Load Flow
AC load flow
The calculation requires the solving of a set of non-linear equations. Therefore done iteratively Accurate, but complex Voltages, angles, active and reactive powers calculated
DC load flow
The calculation requires the solving of a set of linear equations Approximate solution No iterations, fast, no convergence problems
All node voltage magnitudes fixed at 1.0 per unit. Only Active Power and Voltage Angles calculated Losses neglected
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculations (1)
Study output window - find cause.
information messages, warnings and error messages.
Error messages could be generated by PowerFactorys data checking function, e.g. DIgSI/err - missing type !
Open element dialogue window or mark in graphic. Use the data-verification tool
Evaluate importance of warnings.
Example: Exceeding Mvar limit range may not be acceptable.
Use graphic colouring.
Find problematic elements.
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculations (2)
Explanation of Isolated Areas
A network area is isolated, if no galvanic connection exist to the slack bus bar. If this isolated area is not connected to a generator, then it is isolated and not suplied. It is recommended to check, if the isolated areas are meant to be isolated.
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Accessing Results & Reporting
1. Result and Text Boxes on the single line diagram 2. Results in form of Tabular Data (export results to Microsoft Office tools, windows clipboard)
3. Predefined PowerFactory Reports
4. Verification and Convergence Reports
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
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Load Flow Analysis in PowerFactory
PowerFactory Models for Load-Flow Analysis
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
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Synchronous Generator Model in PowerFactory
Type data:
Rated power, voltage, power factor Reactances, inertia, time constants Saturation characteristic Etc.
Element data
PV or PQ machine, reference machine Dispatched power, voltage / reactive power Mvar limits Reference to station controller & secondary controller, Virtual Power Plant Etc.
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...Synchronous Generator Model
I , I
xd
U 0 , U 0
U , U
Qmax
) 1. P , cos( 2. P ,U 3. U , U
Qmin
1. Large machines: P,V (or PU) 2. Smaller machines (in distribution networks): often P,Q (or P cos ) 3. Reference machine (slack): U,
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Mvar limit curves
Capability Diagram shows following limits: Stator Current Limit Prime Mover Maximum Output Rotor Current Limit Under-Excitation Limit Colour Convention: Physical Capability Curve in blue User-Defined operational limits in red Operating Point in green/red
Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Max. Stator Current
Stability-/ Minimum Excitation
Max. Exciter Current
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Mvar Limits Capability Curves
Application for: Synchronous Generators Static Generators Mvar Limits depend on: Active Power Voltage (optional)
Prime Mover Maximum Stability-/ Minimum Excitation
Max. Stator Current
Scaling
Max. Exciter Current
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Static Generator
Application for: Photovoltaic Wind Power Fuel Cells Battery Systems Other Storage Systems HVDC Terminals Reactive Power Compensations Other Renewable Energy Generators
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General Load Model
A general load model can be defined as having a constant active and reactive power, P and Q But the load can also be defined to be voltage-dependent: Consider voltage dependency of loads on the load flow command.
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Transformer model in PowerFactory
Type data:
Rated power, voltages, vector group Reactances and resistances Tap changer location, step size, range Etc.
Element data
Tap position Tap controller details Etc.
Some element data is classified as operational data
e.g. Tap position
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Transformer Model (example)
2 winding transformer model
Tap changer can be modeled on any winding Impedance can be tap-dependent Tap controller includes time constant
Schematic of tap changer with time constant
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Transformer Model (cont...)
Open-circuit voltage vectors
t t
(1 + t) 1
Ordinary power transformer: Quad booster transformer:
t 0o
t 90o
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Load Flow Analysis in DIgSILENT PowerFactory
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Transmission Line Models
Lumped Parameter Model (or PI-Nominal):
R L
Z = Z l = R l + j L l
C/2
G/2
C/2
G/2
Y =
1 1 Y l = (G l + j C l ) 2 2
Cascade connection of many sections and complex transposition schemes Zand Y in ohm/km (line type) or calculated from a tower geometry (tower type with conductor types). Good accuracy for short lines (<150km)
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Transmission Line Models
Distributed Parameter Model (or PI-Equivalent):
Z = Z C sinh l = Z l
sinh l l
l thg 2 l 2
cosh l 1 1 Y = = Y l Z C sinh l 2
Zand Y in ohm/km (line type) or calculated from a tower geometry (tower type with conductor types). Good accuracy even for long lines (>150km)
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11
Asynchronous Machine
Model, Single Cage Rotor
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Asynchronous Machine
Double Cage Rotor:
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12
Asynchronous Machine Parameters Calculation
Rated Mechanical Power (pgn) Rated Load Factor (cosn) Efficiency in Rated Operation (effic) Rated mech. Frequency (anend) Ratio ILR (LockedRotor)/Ir (aiazn) Max. Torque (amkzn) Locked-Rotor Torque (amazn)
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Load Flow Analysis in PowerFactory
Reactive Power & Voltage Control
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13
Transformer Automatic Tap Changer
Summary of tap type info) Tap position Automatic tap changer for load flow calculation
Taps adjusted to reach voltage setpoint Error if final voltage not within band Warning if tap limit reached Time constant used to influence priorities amongst transformers
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Station Controller
Participants: generators, transformers, static var systems etc. Control by:
Separate controllers Station controller for a group of devices
Set Value Voltage Control 1 Ue Generator 1 QG
Set Value
Voltage Control 2
Ue
Generator 2
QG Busbar
Set Value
Voltage Control 3
Ue
Generator 3
QG
U Contribution Station Control
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Load Flow Analysis in PowerFactory
Active Power Control
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Control of Power Exchange
Netw. 1
G G
Netw. 2
G
G G
Power Exchange
Power Exchange
Netw. 3
G G
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15
Active Power Control Secondary control
How to balance supply (generation) and demand (load): As dispatched + reference machine According to secondary frequency control
Set Value Turbine 1 PT Generator 1 PG
Set Value
Turbine 2
PT
Generator 2
PG
Network
Set Value
Turbine 3
PT
Generator 3
PG
f Contribution
PA Secondary Control
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Load Flow Analysis in PowerFactory
Analysis of Radially Operated Grids
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Feeders
Purpose: Automatic load scaling in DNO networks. Related functions: Colouring according to feeder definitions Load flow results can be displayed for individual feeders
Maximum loading Minimum voltage
Load scaling must be enabled in the load flow command Option: Feeder Load Scaling
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Radial Feeders
Measured 50MW
Approx 10MW
Known 20MW
Approx 10MW
Scale
Do not scale
Scale
15MW
20MW
15MW
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17
Feeders into meshed network
Measured total 350MW
Power flow in each feeder depends on interconnections in meshed network. Cannot set power of each feeder independently. Can scale loads to achieve required total for all feeders.
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Feeder Definitions
Used for :
- Automatic loadscaling - Voltage profile diagrams
Colouring to feeder definitions Loadflow results per feeder:
- Losses - max. Loading - min. Voltage
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Voltage Profile
0.984 [p.u.] 0.980
1.000 km 0.975 p.u.
DIgSILENT
0.976
0.972
0.968
Lower Limit y= 0.962 p.u.
0.964
4.037 km
0.960
-1.00
0.0
Infeed
1.00
245 459
2.00
4218
3.00
2445
4.00
2924
[km]
789
5.00
Voltage, Magnitude
DIgSILENT
Feeder Voltage Profile
Voltage Profile
Date: 8/23/2000 Annex: Distr.2 /1
Voltage profile, overloading and limits in one diagram
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Load Scaling
Load Scaling: - Edit or create feeder definition: - Options:
a ) no scaling b) scaling to measured reactive power c) scaling to measured active power d) scaling to measured current
Loads that are to be scaled in order to match the measured value must be marked as such
Option in the load Adjusted by Load Scaling
Load scaling must be enabled in the loadflow command
Option: Feeder Load Scaling
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Load Scaling
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