Groundwater Hydrology
Rain: Falls on and enters land surface. Some will flow over land surface as runoff- relatively commonimportant when the ground is frozen. Some will enter as interflow- just below the surface of the land- a very porous horizon (shallow flow system). The rest percolates into the soil A high percentage of that is transferred back into the vapor phase through evaporation and transpiration (in temperate climates).
When it rains, the water table can change dramatically. The flow of a stream will increase during/after a storm even though there is little runoff.
In this model, the stream represents area where the land is below the water table. Increased stream discharge- should be intuitively obvious why... Rain percolates down and raises the level of the water table. 2 cm rainfall may percolate quickly and dramatically change the level of the water table by about 50 cm! This is because the zone above the saturated zone is not totally devoid of water- only some of the void spaces have to be filled in (ie capillary fringe may be 90% full).
http://www.largest.org/c0d3/image_gimme.cgi?i=968
Change in the water table increase in the flow of the stream. Therefore, the slope of the water table has a direct effect on flow of water. In a flat water table the water wouldnt flow, so must have some gradient to drive the flow therefore need slope.
Drever, The Geochemistry of Natural Waters
Water box(Weir) constructed to monitor flow.
During rain events, the flow increases. But the water transported is not just the water from the precipitation event but rather water in the subsurface. How does the water flow through the subsurface? * Need to look at tools to measure flow and factors controlling flow. Flow is driven by gradient : height /length (h/l) of the water table The medium the water flows through also has an effect on the flow. The implications of these observations lead to
DARCYS LAW
Background
In 1856, Darcy was the 1st to do experiments with water flow through a tube to see how rapidly it flowed & what the controlling factors were.
Question of interest: What determines the
rate of discharge?
Henry Darcy (1803-1858)
http://www.edge.ou.edu/hydrogeology/page8.html
Experimental Apparatus for illustrating Darcys Law
Q = -KA((h1-h2)/L),where: Q = volumetric discharge rate (L3/T) K = proportionality constant = hydraulic conductivity (L/T) A = cross sectional area through which flow occurs (L2) h1-h2 = difference in hydraulic head over the flow distance (L) L = distance through which flow occurs (L)
http://www.rses.anu.edu.au/~uli/Teaching/Hydro/Berno_Darcy.html
Darcys Findings
A. rate of discharge (Q) was:
1. proportional to change in height h and change in length l. therefore, Q is proportional to the gradient h/ l 2. a function of the cross-sectional area (A). 3. a function of the constant hydraulic conductivity (K) which varied with the medium.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
B. Formula: Q (flux) = -KiA(dh/dl) = K*A*(l1-l0)/x for a pipe
1. Q is negative because were going from a higher to lower potential (dh is negative Q is negative).
Darcys Law
Figure 3.13 Original data from Darcys 1856 experiments that show a linear relationship between specific discharge and hydraulic gradient for two different sands.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
2. K typically equals the hydraulic conductivity of the medium(cm/sec), as given in Fetter for sand, silt, & clay
There is a huge range in how rapidly a certain medium will conduct water by 5 orders of magnitude!
http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/water/water.htm#>PERMSTRAT
Flow in Aquifer Systems
Basic Terminology:
Subsurface features in permeable rock
B.Water table:
determined line below which you could put a well and receive water.
C.Saturated zone:
Water percolates down through the unsaturated zone and is composed of sand particles, air space and water. The saturated zone is where all the pore spaces are full of water.
Drever, The Geochemistry of Natural Waters, Figure 1-8
Flow in Aquifer Systems
Basic Terminology
D. Capillary fringe ( the boundary between the water table and the
unsaturated zone): has all the pore spaces full of water, but you could not draw water from a well at that depth .
Reason: the surface tension associated with the grain boundary holds the water by the grain, at less than atmospheric pressure
This zone can be about 5 cm in sand and about 1 meter in silt (higher surface tension effects)
Groundwater conditions near the ground surface
Saturated and unsaturated zones
Figure 2.12. Freeze and Cherry, Groundwater, Ch. 2
Profile of moisture content vs. depth
Confined aquifer system characteristics:
* Often get freely flowing well (Artesian) where water flows to surface, because the water is held prisoner (i.e. CONFINED) at a point below the water table and the water pressure will drive the water in the well above the water table level.
Root zone Capillary fringe Water table
Unconfined aquifer
Confined (artesian aquifer)
http://www.epa.gov/seahome/groundwater/src/watertable.htm
Deep confined system:
* The water in wells from the confined aquifer doesnt reach up quite as high as the water from the unconfined aquifer.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
Freeze and Cherry, Groundwater, Ch. 2
Drever, The Geochemistry of Natural Waters
Steady flow through an unconfined aquifer resting on a horizontal impervious surface
Steady flow through a confined aquifer of uniform thickness
Figure 4.17. Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Figure 4.16. Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Determination of hydraulic gradients from piezometer installations.
Freeze and Cherry, Figure 2.6
In the ground: Vx = Q A*R
where = porosity k/ is the conductivity gradient gradients (dh/dl) are typically .001.01
= ( k/) dh dl
Measurement of hydraulic conductivity: (3 ways)
1. * Apply a hydraulic head and watch how the water flows through the sediments in the lab. One has a continuous supply of water and the other one drains in. * Large range of potentials (log K).; i.e. 2 orders of magnitude with peak at 10-5. This is a log normal distribution-- Where graph peaks equals the average conductivity.
Constant-head permeameter apparatus. This is similar to Darcys original test apparatus.
Figure 3.16. Fetter. Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Falling-head permeameter apparatus
Figure 3.17. Fetter. Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Measurement of hydraulic conductivity: (3 ways)
2) Pump testing: Water is removed from the well and the rate at which it fills is
measured. If the sediment is a clay, it will slowly return to equilibrium; if it is sand, it will return more quickly to equilibrium.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Measurement of hydraulic conductivity: (3 ways)
3. Slug test:
http://www.theshop.net/xibits/litigation/diagrams5.htm
Hvorslov constructed an algorithm: K= r2ln(L/R) 2Lto r = well radius L = length
Can calculate standard K for a medium. Can also use a slug test where you drop a slug in to raise the surface of the water and watch the time it takes for the water to sink back down.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Figure 5.21. Piezometer geometry for Hvorslev method. Note that for a piezometer installed in a low-permeability unit the value R is the radius of the highest permeable zone that includes the gravel pack zone and L is the length of the gravel pack zone.
Figure 5.18 Well into which a volume, V, of water is suddenly injected for a slug test of a confined aquifer.
Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Multilevel ground-water sampling device for use in sandy soil.
Source: J.F. Pickens and others. Ground Water Monitoring Review, 1, no.1 (1981):48-51.
Multilevel groundwater sampling device for use in fractured rock.
Source: J.A. Cherry and P.E. Johnson, Ground Water Review, 2, no.1 (1982): 41-44
All of these methods measure the horizontal conductivity how fast it comes from the sides to recover.
vertical conductivity is often quite different; hard to get at by the way these pump tests are done. Vertical is different because of anisotropy related to layering which can impede flow vertically but less so horizontally.
KV= 1/10 (Kh) generally. ( h = horizontal).
II. Controlling factors of the medium:
1. Size and porosity of the grains
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/wqassess/ch14.htm
A. Porosity = Solid material / Pore Space a ratio, often given as a % 1) Sedimentary rocks: -generally a high primary porosity
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/wqassess/ch14.htm
Controlling factors of the medium:
2. Packing of grains:
Cubic packing - all grains the same size and packed with edges touching 48% porosity.
Rhombohedral - the 2nd layer of grains lays on top of the large pore spaces of the first layer 26% porosity.
Poorly sorted - i.e. Glacial till; very low porosity - much less than 15-20%.
Most systems have about 30-35%.
http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/RPIO-4YD8NU?open
Range of Values of Porosity
Porosity (%) Unconsolidated deposits Gravel Sand Silt Clay Rocks Fractured basalt Karst limestone Sandstone Limestone, dolomite Shale Fractured crystalline rock Dense crystalline rock 25-40 25-50 35-50 40-70 5-50 5-50 5-30 0-20 0-10 0-10 0-5
Freeze and Cherry, Groundwater, Ch. 2, Table 2.4
Porosity, specific yield and hydraulic conductivity of granular materials
(Modified from Davis and De Wiest, 1966)
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/wqassess/ch14.htm#b2-9.2.%20Characteristics%20of%20groundwater%20bodies
Controlling factors of the medium:
B. Features of natural systems: 1) grains are usually sorted by size 2) there is typically a large size distribution of grains present, although some may be more concentrated in a single size fraction.
http://www.eos.ubc.ca/courses/eosc221/sed/sili/siligsize.html
Grain Size of Sediments
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/geology/8320/grainsize.html
Standard sizes of sediments
Figure 3.3 Standard sizes of sediments with limiting particle diameters and the scale of sediment size in which is equal to log2s (the particle diameter).
Relation between texture and porosity
Well-sorted sedimentary Deposit with high porosity. Well-sorted sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles Poorly sorted sedimentary that are themselves porous; deposit with low porosity. deposit has high porosity.
Well-sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished by the deposition of mineral matter in the interstices.
Rock rendered porous by solution
Rock rendered porous by fracturing.
Freeze and Cherry, Groundwater, Ch. 2, Figure 2.11
Controlling factors of the medium:
3) Note:
Well sorted sand with initial high primary porosity can be filled with mineral deposits (such as CaCO3 cements) leaving a lower porosity. Aside: This is a big problem is golf course where they use CaCO3 sand as opposed to quartz sand. Caretakers add acidic fertilizer so grass will grow well and water the lawns, which dissolves the calcium carbonate and it recrystallizes between the grains. Now the green will not drain properly when they try to water again- the grass dies.
2) Igneous and Metamorphic rocks have a low primary porosity because the grains are in fairly intimate contact. However, fractures can control the water flow in these rocks. This also occurs in shales (a sedimentary rock with low primary porosity) but higher secondary porosity.
Metamorphic
Igneous
Black Shale
http://www.mcmullans.org/canal/alum_hill_deep_cut.htm http://www2.vscc.cc.tn.us/svinson/geo100/library/sedimentary/large/shale.jpg
Marble (Metamorphose d Limestone)
fracture
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/glossary/l_n/metamorphic_rock.html
Controlling factors of the medium:
4) Also, CaCO3 (limestone) can dissolve large secondary porosity This is the cause of the large karst formation in limestone in Florida
http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2001/03/meetings5.html
Carbonate Dissolution Process and Karst Formation
http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/publications/ofr/00-180/intro/karst.html
Solution and collapse features of karst and karren topography
http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/publications/ofr/00-180/intro/karst.html
Transport mechanisms:
* Diffusion Advection Dispersion same units as diffusion but is mechanical (H2O follows a twisted & tortuous path not straight) ALSO, Chemical retardation 1. Physical adsorption 2. Retardation
A. Dispersion:
spreading of plumes
*water flowing through a porous medium takes different routes *important components: longitudinal & transverse dispersion velocity dependent, so equivalent only for very slow flow
D* = 10-5 m2/day. (D* = diffusion constant) L = .1m/day (dispersion constant, longitudinal). r = .001m/day (dispersion constant, transverse). ( L)(Vx) + D* = DL longitudinal ( T)(Vz) + D* = DT transverse
http://www.theshop.net/xibits/litigation/diagrams9.
Factors causing pore-scale longitudinal dispersion
Figure 10.8 Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
B. Advection: horizontal velocity
Advective transport and the influence of dispersion and diffusion on breakthrough of a solute
Figure 10.10 Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Transport and spreading of a solute slug with time due to advection and dispersion. A slug of solute was injected at x = 0 + at time t0 with a resulting concentration of C0. The ground-water flow is to the right.
Figure 2.6. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology 3rd Edition
C. Diffusion: function of concentration & diffusion coefficient
Spreading of a solute slug with time due to diffusion. A slug of solute was injected into the aquifer at time t0 with a resulting initial concentration of C0.
Figure 2.1. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology 3rd Edition
Diffusion Coefficients in water at 25oC
Table2.1 Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology 3rd Edition
D. Retardation:
KD = concentration absorbed/ concentration dissolved in water = ml/g
metals attach onto clays. contaminants attach onto organic carbons. the higher the KD, the slower things will move in water.
equations in Fetter
Influence of retardation on movement of a solute front in a one-dimensional column
Figure 10.14 Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Lead adsorption by Cecil clay loam at pH 4.5 and at 25oC described by a linear Freundlich equation through the origin.
Figure 10.13 Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
Vx = VH2O/ [1 + KD ( /)] Solubility of organics in H2O
KD is proportional to Koc ( octonal and water). KD is proportional to the organic carbon content -- the higher the KD, the more things attach onto organic carbon, and it moves slower. Vertical migration, in feet per 100 y, of various synthetic organic compounds through a soil with hydraulic conductivity of 1.6 x 108 cm/s, hydraulic gradient of 0.222, bulk density of 2.00 g/cm3, particle density of 2.65, effective porosity of 0.22, and soil organic carbon content of 0.5%.
Figure 10.16. Fetter, Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/plumeflow/ppt/ppt2_1_00/sld010.htm
