1 | Page Access

John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

Network Access Introduction

to. Switch devices and wireless access points are often two separate dedicated devices within a network implementation. However, there are also devices that Managing the Medium You and your colleague are attending a networkingoffer both wired and wireless connectivity. In many conference. There are many lectures andhomes, for example, individuals are implementing presentations held during this event, and because home integrated service routers (ISRs), as shown in they overlap, each of you can only choose a limited Figure 1. ISRs offer a switching component with multiple ports, allowing multiple devices to be set of sessions to attend. Therefore, you decide to split, each of you attendingconnected to the local area network (LAN) using a separate set of presentations, and after the eventcables, as shown in Figure 2. Additionally, many ISRs ends, you share the slides and the knowledge each ofalso include a WAP, which allows wireless devices to connect as well. you gained during the event. Physical Layer Protocols Try to answer the following questions: How would you personally organize a conference Getting It Connected where multiple sessions are held at the same time? Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to Would you put all of them into a single conference the network. Ethernet NICs are used for a wired room or would you use multiple rooms? What would connection whereas WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) NICs are used for wireless. An end-user be the reason? Assume that the conference room is properly fitteddevice may include one or both types of NICs. A with audiovisual equipment to display large-sizenetwork printer, for example, may only have an video and amplify voice. If a person wanted to attend Ethernet NIC, and therefore, must connect to the a specific session, does the seating arrangement network using an Ethernet cable. Other devices, such make a difference, or is it sufficient to visit the proper as tablets and smartphones, might only contain a WLAN NIC and must use a wireless connection. conference room? Would it be considered positive or harmful if the speech from one conference room somehow leaked Not all physical connections are equal, in terms of into another? the performance level, when connecting to a If questions or inquiries arise during a network. presentation, should attendees simply shout out their question, or should there be some form of process forFor example, a wireless device will experience handling questions, such as documenting them and degradation in performance based on its distance to handing them over to a facilitator? What would a wireless access point. The further the device is happen without this process? from the access point the weaker the wireless signal If an interesting topic elicits a larger discussion it receives. This can mean less bandwidth or no where many attendees have questions or comments,wireless connection at all. The figure shows that a can this result in the session running out of its time wireless range extender can be used to regenerate without going through the entire intended content? the wireless signal to other parts of the house that Why is that so? are too far from the wireless access point. Imagine that the session is a panel, i.e. a more Alternatively, a wired connection will not degrade in free discussion of attendees with panelists and performance, however, is extremely limited in optionally with themselves. If a person wants to movement and generally requires static positioning. address another person within the same room, can All wireless devices must share access to the he/she do it directly? What would be necessary to do airwaves connecting to the wireless access point. if a panelist wanted to invite another person to join This means slower network performance may occur who is not presently in the room? as more wireless devices access the network What was accomplished by the isolation of simultaneously. A wired device does not need to multiple sessions into separate conference rooms if,share its access to the network with other devices. after the event, people can meet and share the Each wired device has a separate communications information? channel over its own Ethernet cable. This is Class Activity - Let Me Tell You What I Heard at a important when considering some applications, like Conference Instructions online gaming, streaming video, and video Whether connecting to a local printer in the home or conferencing, which require more dedicated to a web site in another country, before any network bandwidth than other applications. communications can occur, a physical connection to Over the next couple of topics you will learn more a local network must be established first. A physical about the physical layer connections that occur and connection can be a wired connection using a cable how those connections affect the transportation of or a wireless connection using radio waves. data. The type of physical connection used is totallyPhysical Layer Protocols dependent upon the setup of the network. For Purpose of the Physical Layer example, in many corporate offices, employees haveThe OSI physical layer provides the means to desktop or laptop computers that are physically transport the bits that make up a data link layer connected, via cable, to a shared switch. This type of frame across the network media. This layer accepts a setup is a wired network, in which data is transmitted complete frame from the data link layer and encodes across a physical cable. it as a series of signals that are transmitted onto the In addition to wired connections, some businesses local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame may also offer wireless connections for laptops, are received by either an end device or an tablets, and smartphones. With wireless devices, intermediate device. data is transmitted using radio waves. The use ofThe process that data undergoes from a source node wireless connectivity is becoming more common asto a destination node is: individuals, and businesses alike, discover the The user data is segmented by the transport layer, advantages of offering wireless services. In order toplaced into packets by the network layer, and further offer wireless capability, a network must incorporate encapsulated as frames by the data link layer. a wireless access point (WAP) for devices to connect The physical layer encodes the frames and creates

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

the electrical, optical, or radio wave signals that interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable represent the bits in each frame. designs are all specified in standards associated with These signals are then sent on the media one at a the physical layer. The various ports and interfaces time. on a Cisco 1941 router are also examples of physical components with specific connectors and pinouts The destination node physical layer retrieves these resulting from standards. individual signals from the media, restores them to Encoding their bit representations, and passes the bits up to Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined "code. Codes the data link layer as a complete frame. are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable Physical Layer Protocols pattern that can be recognized by both the sender Purpose of the Physical Layer There are three basic forms of network media. The and the received. In the case of networking, physical layer produces the representation andencoding is a pattern of voltage or current used to represent bits; the 0s and 1s. groupings of bits for each type of media as: Copper cable: The signals are patterns ofIn addition to creating codes for data, encoding methods at the physical layer may also provide electrical pulses. codes for control purposes such as identifying the Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of beginning and end of a frame. light. Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave Common network encoding methods include: transmissions. Manchester encoding: A 0 is represented by a high to low voltage transition and a 1 is represented The figure displays signaling examples for copper, as a low to high voltage transition. This type of fiber-optic, and wireless. encoding is used in older versions of Ethernet, RFID To enable physical layer interoperability, all aspects and Near Field Communication. Non-Return to Zero (NRZ): This is a common of these functions are governed by standard means of encoding data that has two states termed organizations. zero and one and no neutral or rest position. A 0 Physical Layer Protocols may be represented by one voltage level on the Purpose of the Physical Layer media and a 1 might be represented by a different The protocols and operations of the upper OSI layers voltage on the media. are performed in software designed by software

engineers and computer scientists. For example, the services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined Note: Faster data rates require more complex by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in RFCs. encoding, such as 4B/5B, however, explanation of The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry,these methods is beyond the scope of this course. media, and connectors developed by engineers. Signaling Therefore, it is appropriate that the standardsThe physical layer must generate the electrical, governing this hardware are defined by the relevantoptical, or wireless signals that represent the "1" and electrical and communications engineering"0" on the media. The method of representing the bits is called the signaling method. The physical layer organizations. There are many different international and national standards must define what type of signal represents organizations, regulatory government organizations,a "1" and what type of signal represents a "0". This and private companies involved in establishing and can be as simple as a change in the level of an maintaining physical layer standards. For instance,electrical signal or optical pulse. For example, a long the physical layer hardware, media, encoding, and pulse might represent a 1, whereas a short pulse signaling standards are defined and governed by the: represents a 0. International Organization for StandardizationThis is similar to how Morse code is used for communication. Morse code is another signaling (ISO) Telecommunications Industrymethod that uses a series of on-off tones, lights, or Association/Electronic Industries Associationclicks to send text over telephone wires or between ships at sea. (TIA/EIA) Signals can be transmitted in one of two ways: International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Asynchronous: Data signals are transmitted American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineerswithout an associated clock signal. The time spacing between data characters or blocks may be of (IEEE) National telecommunications regulatoryarbitrary duration, meaning the spacing is not authorities including the Federal Communication standardized. Therefore, frames require start and Commission (FCC) in the USA and the European stop indicator flags. Synchronous: Data signals are sent along with a Telecommunications Standards Institute (ESTI) In addition to these, there are often regional cabling clock signal which occurs at evenly spaced time standards groups such as CSA (Canadian Standards durations referred to as the bit time. Association), CENELEC (European Committee forThere are many ways to transmit signals. A common Electrotechnical Standardization), and JSA/JSImethod to send data is using modulation techniques. (Japanese Standards Association), developing local Modulation is the process by which the characteristic of one wave (the signal) modifies another wave (the specifications. carrier). The following modulation techniques have Physical Layer Protocols been widely used in transmitting data on a medium: Fundamental Principles of Layer 1 Frequency modulation (FM): A method of The physical layer standards address three transmission in which the carrier frequency varies in functional areas: accordance with the signal. Physical Components Amplitude modulation (AM): A transmission The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors that transmit technique in which the amplitude of the carrier varies and carry the signals to represent the bits. Hardware in accordance with the signal. Pulse-coded modulation (PCM): A technique in components such as network adapters (NICs),

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

which an analog signal, such as a voice, is converted will function as anticipated with different data link into a digital signal by sampling the signals layer implementations. amplitude and expressing the different amplitudes as As an example, standards for copper media are a binary number. The sampling rate must be at leastdefined for the: twice the highest frequency in the signal. The nature of the actual signals representing the bits Type of copper cabling used on the media will depend on the signaling method in Bandwidth of the communication use. Some methods may use one attribute of signal Type of connectors used to represent a single 0 and use another attribute of Pinout and color codes of connections to the media signal to represent a single 1. Maximum distance of the media Physical Layer Protocols Network Media Fundamental Principles of Layer 1 Copper Cabling Different physical media support the transfer of bits Networks use copper media because it is at different speeds. Data transfer is usually discussed inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to in terms of bandwidth and throughput. electrical current. However, copper media is limited Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. by distance and signal interference. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data thatData is transmitted on copper cables as electrical can flow from one place to another in a given amount pulses. A detector in the network interface of a of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits destination device must receive a signal that can be per second (kb/s) or megabits per second (Mb/s). successfully decoded to match the signal sent. However, the longer the signal travels, the more it The practical bandwidth of a network is determined deteriorates in a phenomenon referred to as signal by a combination of factors: attenuation. For this reason, all copper media must follow strict distance limitations as specified by the guiding standards. The properties of the physical media The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses The technologies chosen for signaling and are also susceptible to interference from two sources: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio detecting network signals frequency interference (RFI) - EMI and RFI signals can Physical media properties, current technologies, and distort and corrupt the data signals being carried by the laws of physics all play a role in determining copper media. Potential sources of EMI and RFI available bandwidth. include radio waves and electromagnetic devices The table shows the commonly used units of such as fluorescent lights or electric motors as shown measure for bandwidth. in the figure. Physical Layer Protocols Fundamental Principles of Layer 1 Crosstalk - Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits the electric or magnetic fields of a signal on one wire across the media over a given period of time. Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does to the signal in an adjacent wire. In telephone not match the specified bandwidth in physical layer circuits, crosstalk can result in hearing part of implementations. Many factors influence throughputanother voice conversation from an adjacent circuit. Specifically, when electrical current flows through a including: wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around The amount of traffic the wire which can be picked up by an adjacent wire. The type of traffic The latency created by the number of networkPlay the animation in the figure to see how data devices encountered between source and destination transmission can be affected by interference. To counter the negative effects of EMI and RFI, some Latency refers to the amount of time, to include types of copper cables are wrapped in metallic delays, for data to travel from one given point to shielding and require proper grounding connections. To counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some another. In an internetwork or network with multiple types of copper cables have opposing circuit wire segments, throughput cannot be faster than the pairs twisted together which effectively cancels the slowest link of the path from source to destination. crosstalk. Even if all or most of the segments have high The susceptibility of copper cables to electronic noise bandwidth, it will only take one segment in the path can also be limited by: Selecting the cable type or category most suited with low throughput to create a bottleneck to the to a given networking environment. throughput of the entire network. Designing a cable infrastructure to avoid known There are many online speed tests that can reveal and potential sources of interference in the building the throughput of an Internet connection. The figure structure. provides sample results from a speed test. Using cabling techniques that include the proper Note: There is a third measurement to measure the handling and termination of the cables. transfer of usable data that is known as goodput. Network MediaCopper Cabling Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred There are three main types of copper media used in over a given period of time. Goodput is throughput networking: minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions, Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) acknowledgements, and encapsulation. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Physical Layer Protocols Coaxial Fundamental Principles of Layer 1 These cables are used to interconnect nodes on a The physical layer produces the representation and LAN and infrastructure devices such as switches, groupings of bits as voltages, radio frequencies, or routers, and wireless access points. Each type of light pulses. Various standards organizations have connection and the accompanying devices have contributed to the definition of the physical, cabling requirements stipulated by physical layer electrical, and mechanical properties of the media standards. available for different data communications. These specifications guarantee that cables and connectorsDifferent physical layer standards specify the use of

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

different connectors. These standards specify the The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to mechanical dimensions of the connectors and the protect it from minor physical damage. acceptable electrical properties of each type. Note: There are different types of connectors used Networking media use modular jacks and plugs towith coax cable. provide easy connection and disconnection. Also, aCoaxial cable was traditionally used in cable single type of physical connector may be used for television capable of transmitting in one direction. It multiple types of connections. For example, the RJ-45 was also used extensively in early Ethernet connector is widely used in LANs with one type of installations. media and in some WANs with another media type. Although UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial Network Media cable in modern Ethernet installations, the coaxial Copper Cabling cable design has been adapted for use in: Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most Wireless installations: Coaxial cables attach common networking media. UTP cabling, terminated antennas to wireless devices. The coaxial cable with RJ-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting carries radio frequency (RF) energy between the network hosts with intermediate networking devices, antennas and the radio equipment. such as switches and routers. In LANs, UTP cable consists of four pairs of colorCable Internet installations: Cable service coded wires that have been twisted together and providers are currently converting their one-way then encased in a flexible plastic sheath which systems to two-way systems to provide Internet protects from minor physical damage. The twisting of connectivity to their customers. To provide these wires helps protect against signal interference fromservices, portions of the coaxial cable and supporting other wires. amplification elements are replaced with fiber-optic Network Media cable. However, the final connection to the Copper Cabling customer's location and the wiring inside the Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noisecustomer's premises is still coax cable. This protection than UTP cabling. However, compared to combined use of fiber and coax is referred to as UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more expensive hybrid fiber coax (HFC). and difficult to install. Like UTP cable, STP uses an RJ- Network Media 45 connector. Copper Cabling All three types of copper media are susceptible to fire STP cable combines the techniques of shielding to and electrical hazards. counter EMI and RFI and wire twisting to counterFire hazards exist since cable insulation and sheaths crosstalk. To gain the full benefit of the shielding, STPmay be flammable or produce toxic fumes when cables are terminated with special shielded STP dataheated or burned. Building authorities or connectors. If the cable is improperly grounded, the organizations may stipulate related safety standards shield may act like an antenna and pick up unwanted for cabling and hardware installations. signals. Electrical hazards are a potential problem since the copper wires could conduct electricity in undesirable Different types of STP cables with different ways. This could subject personnel and equipment to characteristics are available. However, there are twoa range of electrical hazards. For example, a defective network device could conduct currents to common variations of STP: the chassis of other network devices. Additionally, STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires with network cabling could present undesirable voltage foil eliminating virtually all interference (more levels when used to connect devices that have power sources with different ground potentials. Such common). STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires as well situations are possible when copper cabling is used as the individual wire pairs with foil eliminating all to connect networks in different buildings or on different floors of buildings that use different power interference. The STP cable shown uses four pairs of wires, each facilities. Finally, copper cabling may conduct wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in voltages caused by lightning strikes to network devices. an overall metallic braid or foil. For many years, STP was the cabling structure The result of undesirable voltages and currents can specified for use in Token Ring network installations. include damage to network devices and connected With the decline of Token Ring the demand for computers, or injury to personnel. It is important that shielded twisted-pair cabling also waned. However,copper cabling be installed appropriately, and the new 10 GB standard for Ethernet has a provision according to the relevant specifications and building for the use of STP cabling which is providing acodes, in order to avoid potentially dangerous and damaging situations. renewed interest in shielded twisted-pair cabling. Network Media Network Media UTP Cabling Copper Cabling Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from When used as a networking medium, unshielded the fact that there are two conductors that share the twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of four pairs of same axis. As shown in the figure, coaxial cablecolor-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. consists of: Network UTP cable has four pairs of either 22- or 24gauge copper wire. A UTP cable has an external A copper conductor used to transmit the diameter of approximately 0.43 cm (0.17 inches), electronic signals. and its small size can be advantageous during The copper conductor is surrounded by a installation. layer of flexible plastic insulation. UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the The insulating material is surrounded in a woven effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers have copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the second discovered that they can limit the negative effect of wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner crosstalk by: conductor. This second layer, or shield, also reduces Cancellation: Designers now pair wires in a the amount of outside electromagnetic interference.

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

circuit. When two wires in an electrical circuit are Different situations may require UTP cables to be placed close together, their magnetic fields are the wired according to different wiring conventions. This exact opposite of each other. Therefore, the two means that the individual wires in the cable have to magnetic fields cancel each other out and also be connected in different orders to different sets of cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals. pins in the RJ-45 connectors. Varying the number of twists per wire pair :The following are main cable types that are obtained To further enhance the cancellation effect of pairedby using specific wiring conventions: circuit wires designers vary the number of twists of Ethernet Straight-through: The most common each wire pair in a cable. UTP cable must follow type of networking cable. It is commonly used to precise specifications governing how many twists or interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable. router. Notice in the figure that the orange/orange white Ethernet Crossover: An uncommon cable used pairs are twisted less than the blue/white blue pair. to interconnect similar devices together. For example Each colored pair is twisted a different number of to connect a switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a times. router to a router. UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect Rollover: A Cisco proprietary cable used to produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal connect to a router or switch console port. degradation and effectively provide self-shielding forUsing a crossover or straight-through cable wire pairs within the network media. incorrectly between devices may not damage the Network Media devices, but connectivity and communication UTP Cabling between the devices will not take place. This is a UTP cabling conforms to the standards establishedcommon error in the lab and checking that the jointly by the TIA/EIA. Specifically, TIA/EIA-568A device connections are correct should be the first stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LANtroubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved. installations and is the standard most commonly The figure shows the UTP cable type, related used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the standards, and typical application of these cables. It elements defined are: also identifies the individual wire pairs for the TIA Cable types 568A and TIA 568B standards. Cable lengths Network Media Connectors UTP Cabling Cable termination After installation, a UTP cable tester should be used Methods of testing cable to test for the following parameters: The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are Wire map defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Cable length Engineers (IEEE). IEEE rates UTP cabling according to Signal loss due to attenuation its performance. Cables are placed into categories Crosstalk according to their ability to carry higher bandwidthIt is recommended to thoroughly check that all UTP rates. For example, Category 5 (Cat5) cable is used installation requirements are met. commonly in 100BASE-TX FastEthernet installations. Network Media Other categories include Enhanced Category 5Fiber Optic Cabling (Cat5e) cable, Category 6 (Cat6), and Category 6a. Optical fiber cable has become very popular for Cables in higher categories are designed and interconnecting infrastructure network devices. It constructed to support higher data rates. As newpermits the transmission of data over longer gigabit speed Ethernet technologies are being distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than developed and adopted, Cat5e is now the minimally any other networking media. acceptable cable type, with Cat6 being the Optical fiber is a flexible but extremely thin recommended type for new building installations. transparent strand of very pure glass (silica) not Note: Some manufacturers are making cablesmuch bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded on exceeding the TIA/EIA Category 6a specifications and the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable acts refer to these as Category 7. as a waveguide, or light pipe, to transmit light Network Media between the two ends with minimal loss of signal. UTP Cabling As an analogy, consider an empty paper towel roll UTP cable is usually terminated with an ISO 8877 with the inside coated like a mirror that is a thousand specified RJ-45 connector. This connector is used for meters in length and a small laser pointer is used to a range of physical layer specifications, one of which send Morse code signals at the speed of light. is Ethernet. The TIA/EIA 568 standard describes the Essentially that is how a fiber-optic cable operates, wire color codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for except that it is smaller in diameter and uses Ethernet cables. sophisticated light emitting and receiving The video in Figure 1 displays a UTP cable terminatedtechnologies. with an RJ-45 connector. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit As shown in Figure 2, the RJ-45 connector is the male signals with less attenuation and is completely component, crimped at the end of the cable. The immune to EMI and RFI. socket is the female component in a network device, Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of wall, cubicle partition outlet, or patch panel. industry: Each time copper cabling is terminated there is the Enterprise Networks: Fiber is used for backbone possibility of signal loss and the introduction of noise cabling applications and interconnecting to the communication circuit. When terminated infrastructure devices. improperly, each cable is a potential source of FTTH and Access Networks: Fiber-to-the-home physical layer performance degradation. It is(FTTH) is used to provide always-on broadband essential that all copper media terminations be ofservices to homes and small businesses. FTTH high quality to ensure optimum performance with supports affordable high-speed Internet access, as current and future network technologies. well as telecommuting, telemedicine, and video on Network Media demand. UTP Cabling Long-Haul Networks: Service providers use long-

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

haul terrestrial optical fiber networks to connectstandardize on one kind of connector, depending on countries and cities. Networks typically range from a the equipment that they commonly use, or they few dozen to a few thousand kilometers and use up standardize per type of fiber (one for MMF, one for to 10 Gb/s-based systems. SMF). Taking into account all the generations of Submarine Networks: Special fiber cables are used connectors, about 70 connector types are in use to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity today. solutions capable of or surviving in harsh underseaThe three most popular network fiber-optic environments up to transoceanic distances. connectors include: Our focus is the use of fiber within the enterprise. Straight-Tip (ST): An older bayonet style Network Media connector widely used with multimode fiber. Fiber Optic Cabling Subscriber Connector (SC): Sometimes referred Although an optical fiber is very thin, it is composed to as square connector or standard connector. It is a of two kinds of glass and a protective outer shield. widely adopted LAN and WAN connector that uses a Specifically, these are the: push-pull mechanism to ensure positive insertion. Core: Consists of pure glass and is the part of the This connector type is used with multimode and fiber where light is carried. single-mode fiber. Lucent Connector (LC): Sometimes called a Cladding: The glass that surrounds the core and acts as a mirror. The light pulses propagate down the little or local connector, is quickly growing in core while the cladding reflects the light pulses. This popularity due to its smaller size. It is used with keeps the light pulses contained in the fiber core in a single-mode fiber and also supports multimode fiber. Note: Other fiber connectors such as the Ferrule phenomenon known as total internal reflection. Jacket: Typically a PVC jacket that protects the Connector (FC) and Sub Miniature A (SMA) are not core and cladding. It may also include strengthening popular in LAN and WAN deployments. Obsolete materials and a buffer (coating) whose purpose is toconnectors include biconic (obsolete) and D4 connectors. These connectors are beyond the scope protect the glass from scratches and moisture. Although susceptible to sharp bends, the properties of this chapter. of the core and cladding have been altered at the Because light can only travel in one direction over molecular level to make it very strong. Optical fiber isoptical fiber, two fibers are required to support full proof tested through a rigorous manufacturingduplex operation. Therefore, fiber-optic patch cables process for strength at a minimum of 100,000bundle together two optical fiber cables and pounds per square inch. Optical fiber is durable terminate them with a pair of standard single fiber enough to withstand handling during installation and connectors. Some fiber connectors accept both the deployment in harsh environmental conditions in transmitting and receiving fibers in a single networks all around the world. connector know as a duplex connector Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting Network Media Fiber Optic Cabling infrastructure devices. For example, common patch Light pulses representing the transmitted data as bits cords: on the media are generated by either: SC-SC multimode patch cord LC-LC single-mode patch cord Lasers Light emitting diodes (LEDs) ST-LC multimode patch cord Electronic semi-conductor devices called photodiodes SC-ST single-mode patch cord detect the light pulses and convert them to voltagesFiber cables should be protected with a small plastic cap when not in use. that can then be reconstructed into data frames. Note: The laser light transmitted over fiber-optic Also notice the use of color to distinguish between cabling can damage the human eye. Care must be single-mode and multimode patch cords. The reason taken to avoid looking into the end of an active is because of the TIA-598 standard which recommends the use of a yellow jacket for singleoptical fiber. Fiber-optic cables can be broadly classified into two mode fiber cables, and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables. types: Single-mode fiber (SMF): Consists of a veryFiber Optic Cabling small core and uses expensive laser technology to Terminating and splicing fiber-optic cabling requires send a single ray of light. Popular in long-distance special training and equipment. Incorrect termination situations spanning hundreds of kilometers such asof fiber-optic media will result in diminished signaling required in long haul telephony and cable TV distances or complete transmission failure. Three common types of fiber-optic termination and applications. Multimode fiber (MMF): Consists of a largersplicing errors are: Misalignment: The fiber-optic media are not core and uses LED emitters to send light pulses. Specifically, light from an LED enters the multimode precisely aligned to one another when joined. fiber at different angles. Popular in LANs because End gap: The media does not completely touch at they can be powered by low cost LEDs. It provides the splice or connection. End finish: The media ends are not well polished bandwidth up to 10 Gb/s over link lengths of up to 550 meters. or dirt is present at the termination. One of the highlighted differences betweenA quick and easy field test can be performed by multimode and single-mode fiber is the amount of shining a bright flashlight into one end of the fiber dispersion. Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a while observing the other end of the fiber. If light is light pulse over time. The more dispersion there is, visible, then the fiber is capable of passing light. Although this does not ensure the performance of the the greater the loss in signal strength. Network Media fiber, it is a quick and inexpensive way to find a broken fiber. Fiber Optic Cabling An optical fiber connector terminates the end of anIt is recommended that an optical tester such as optical fiber. A variety of optical fiber connectors are shown in the figure be used to test fiber-optic cables. available. The main differences among the types of An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) can connectors are dimensions and methods ofbe used to test each fiber-optic cable segment. This mechanical coupling. Generally, organizationsdevice injects a test pulse of light into the cable and

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John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

measures back scatter and reflection of light apply to wireless media are: detected as a function of time. The OTDR will Standard IEEE 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) calculate the approximate distance at which these technology, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, uses a faults are detected along the length of the cable. contention or non-deterministic system with a Carrier Fiber Optic Cabling Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) There are many advantages to using fiber-optic cable media access process. compared to copper cables. Standard IEEE 802.15: Wireless Personal Area Given that the fibers used in fiber-optic media are not Network (WPAN) standard, commonly known as electrical conductors, the media is immune to "Bluetooth", uses a device pairing process to electromagnetic interference and will not conductcommunicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters. unwanted electrical currents due to grounding issues. Standard IEEE 802.16: Commonly known as Because optical fibers are thin and have relatively Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access low signal loss, they can be operated at much (WiMAX), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to greater lengths than copper media, without the need provide wireless broadband access. for signal regeneration. Some optical fiber physical Note: Other wireless technologies such as cellular layer specifications allow lengths that can reach and satellite communications can also provide data multiple kilometers. network connectivity. In each of the above examples, Optical fiber media implementation issues include: physical layer specifications are applied to areas that More expensive (usually) than copper media over include: the same distance (but for a higher capacity) Different skills and equipment required to Data to radio signal encoding terminate and splice the cable infrastructure Frequency and power of transmission More careful handling than copper media At present, in most enterprise environments, optical Signal reception and decoding requirements fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high- Antenna design and construction traffic point-to-point connections between data Note: Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Wi-Fi distribution facilities and for the interconnection ofis used with certified products that belong to WLAN buildings in multi-building campuses. Because optical devices that are based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. fiber does not conduct electricity and has low signal loss, it is well suited for these uses. Wireless Media The figure highlights some of these differences. A common wireless data implementation is enabling Wireless Media devices to wirelessly connect via a LAN. In general, a Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that wireless LAN requires the following network devices: represent the binary digits of data communications Wireless Access Point (AP): Concentrates the using radio or microwave frequencies. wireless signals from users and connects, usually As a networking medium, wireless is not restricted to through a copper cable, to the existing copper-based conductors or pathways, as are copper and fiber network infrastructure, such as Ethernet. Home and media. Wireless media provides the greatest mobility small business wireless routers integrate the options of all media. As well, the number of wireless functions of a router, switch, and access point into enabled devices is continuously increasing. For these one device as shown in the figure. reasons, wireless has become the medium of choice Wireless NIC adapters:Provides wireless for home networks. As network bandwidth options communication capability to each network host. increase, wireless is quickly gaining in popularity in As the technology has developed, a number of WLAN enterprise networks. Ethernet-based standards have emerged. Care needs The figure highlights various wireless related to be taken in purchasing wireless devices to ensure symbols. compatibility and interoperability. However, wireless does have some areas of concern The benefits of wireless data communications including: technologies are evident, especially the savings on Coverage area: Wireless data communication costly premises wiring and the convenience of host technologies work well in open environments. mobility. However, network administrators need to However, certain construction materials used in develop and apply stringent security policies and buildings and structures, and the local terrain, will processes to protect wireless LANs from unauthorized limit the effective coverage. access and damage. Interference: Wireless is susceptible to Wireless Media interference and can be disrupted by such common Various 802.11 standards have evolved over the devices as household cordless phones, some types of years. Standards include: fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other IEEE 802.11a: Operates in the 5 GHz frequency wireless communications. band and offers speeds of up to 54 Mb/s. Because Security: Wireless communication coverage this standard operates at higher frequencies, it has a requires no access to a physical strand of media. smaller coverage area and is less effective at Therefore, devices and users who are not authorized penetrating building structures. Devices operating for access to the network can gain access to the under this standard are not interoperable with the transmission. Consequently, network security is a 802.11b and 802.11g standards described below. major component of wireless network administration. IEEE 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency Although wireless is increasing in popularity for band and offers speeds of up to 11 Mb/s. Devices desktop connectivity, copper and fiber are the most implementing this standard have a longer range and popular physical layer media for network are better able to penetrate building structures than deployments. devices based on 802.11a. Wireless Media IEEE 802.11g: Operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards band and offers speeds of up to 54 Mbps. Devices for wireless data communications cover both the implementing this standard therefore operate at the data link and physical layers. same radio frequency and range as 802.11b but with the bandwidth of 802.11a. Four common data communications standards that IEEE 802.11n: Operates in the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz

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frequency bands. The typical expected data rates are also communicates with wireless technologies such 100 Mb/s to 600 Mb/s with a distance range of up to as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth to send and receive frames 70 meters. It is backward compatible with wirelessly. 802.11a/b/g devices. IEEE 802.11ac: Can simultaneously operate inData Link Layer Protocols the 2.4 GHz and 5.5 GHz frequency bands providingPurpose of the Data Link Layer data rates up to 450 Mb/s and 1.3 Gb/s (1300 Mb/s.) It is backward compatible with 802.11a/b/g/n Layer 2 protocols specify the encapsulation of a devices. packet into a frame and the techniques for getting IEEE 802.11ad: Also known as "WiGig". It uses a the encapsulated packet on and off each medium. tri-band Wi-Fi solution using 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 The technique used for getting the frame on and off GHz and offers theoretical speeds of up to 7 Gb/s. media is called the media access control method. As packets travel from source host to destination host, they typically traverse over different physical networks. These physical networks can consist of different types of physical media such as copper The TCP/IP network access layer is the equivalent of wires, optical fibers, and wireless consisting of the OSI: electromagnetic signals, radio and microwave frequencies, and satellite links. The packets do not have a way to directly access Data link (Layer 2) these different media. It is the role of the OSI data Physical (Layer 1) The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of link layer to prepare network layer packets for frames between nodes over a physical networktransmission and to control access to the physical media. It allows the upper layers to access the mediamedia. The media access control methods described and controls how data is placed and received on the by the data link layer protocols define the processes by which network devices can access the network media. Note: The Layer 2 notation for network devicesmedia and transmit frames in diverse network environments. connected to a common medium is called a node. Specifically the data link layer performs these two Without the data link layer, network layer protocols such as IP, would have to make provisions for basic services: It accepts Layer 3 packets and packages them intoconnecting to every type of media that could exist along a delivery path. Moreover, IP would have to data units called frames. The data link layer effectively separates the mediaadapt every time a new network technology or transitions that occur as the packet is forwarded from medium was developed. This process would hamper the communication processes of the higher layers.protocol and network media innovation and The data link layer receives packets from and directs development. This is a key reason for using a layered packets to an upper layer protocol, in this case IPv4 approach to networking. or IPv6. This upper layer protocol does not need to be The animation in the figure provides an example of a PC in Paris connecting to a laptop in Japan. Although aware of which media the communication will use. Note: In this chapter, media and medium do not the two hosts are communicating using IP refer to digital content and multimedia such as audio, exclusively, it is likely that numerous data link layer animation, television, and video. Media refers to the protocols are being used to transport the IP packets material that actually carries the data signals, such over various types of LANs and WANs. Each transition at a router may require a different data link layer as copper cable and optical fiber.. protocol for transport on a new medium. Data Link Layer Protocols Data Link Layer Protocols Purpose of the Data Link Layer The data link layer is actually divided into twoPurpose of the Data Link Layer Different media access control methods may be sublayers: during the course of a single Logical Link Control (LLC): This upper sublayerrequired defines the software processes that provide services communication. Each network environment that to the network layer protocols. It places informationpackets encounter as they travel from a local host to in the frame that identifies which network layera remote host can have different characteristics. For protocol is being used for the frame. This information example, an Ethernet LAN consists of many hosts allows multiple Layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4 andcontending to access the network medium on an ad IPv6, to utilize the same network interface andhoc basis. Serial links consist of a direct connection between only two devices over which data flows media. Media Access Control (MAC): This lowersequentially as bits in an orderly way. sublayer defines the media access processes Router interfaces encapsulate the packet into the performed by the hardware. It provides data linkappropriate frame, and a suitable media access layer addressing and delimiting of data according tocontrol method is used to access each link. In any the physical signaling requirements of the medium given exchange of network layer packets, there may be numerous data link layer and media transitions. At and the type of data link layer protocol in use. Separating the data link layer into sublayers allows each hop along the path, a router: for one type of frame defined by the upper layer to Accepts a frame from a medium access different types of media defined by the lower De-encapsulates the frame layer. Such is the case in many LAN technologies, Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame Forwards the new frame appropriate to the including Ethernet. medium of that segment of the physical network The figure illustrates how the data link layer is The router in the figure has an Ethernet interface to separated into the LLC and MAC sublayers. The LLC connect to the LAN and a serial interface to connect communicates with the network layer while the MAC sublayer allows various network access technologies. to the WAN. As the router processes frames, it will For instance, the MAC sublayer communicates withuse data link layer services to receive the frame from Ethernet LAN technology to send and receive frames one medium, de-encapsulate it to the Layer 3 PDU, over copper or fiber-optic cable. The MAC sublayerre-encapsulate the PDU into a new frame, and place Data Link Layer Protocols Purpose of the Data Link Layer

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the frame on the medium of the next link of the Specifically the data link layer services and network. specifications are defined by multiple standards Data Link Layer Protocols based on a variety of technologies and media to Layer 2 Frame Structure which the protocols are applied. Some of these The data link layer prepares a packet for transport standards integrate both Layer 2 and Layer 1 across the local media by encapsulating it with a services. header and a trailer to create a frame. TheThe functional protocols and services at the data link description of a frame is a key element of each data layer are described by: link layer protocol. Engineering organizations which set public and Data link layer protocols require control information open standards and protocols. to enable the protocols to function. Control information typically answers: Communications companies which set and use Which nodes are in communication with each proprietary protocols to take advantage of new other? advances in technology or market opportunities. When does communication between individual nodes begin and when does it end? Engineering organizations that define open standards Which errors occurred while the nodes and protocols that apply to the data link layer communicated? include: Which nodes will communicate next? Institute of Electrical and Electronics Unlike the other PDUs that have been discussed inEngineers (IEEE) this course, the data link layer frame includes: International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Header: Contains control information, such as International Organization for addressing, and is located at the beginning of the Standardization (ISO) PDU. American National Standards Institute Data: Contains the IP header, transport layer (ANSI) header, and application data. The table in the figure highlights various standard Trailer: Contains control information for errororganizations and some of their more important data detection added to the end of the PDU. link layer protocols. These frame elements are shown in the figure, and Media Access Control will be discussed in greater detail. Topologies Data Link Layer Protocols Regulating the placement of data frames onto the Layer 2 Frame Structure media is controlled by the media access control When data travels on the media, it is converted into sublayer. a stream of bits, or 1s and 0s. If a node is receiving Media access control is the equivalent of traffic rules long streams of bits, how does it determine where athat regulate the entrance of motor vehicles onto a frame starts and stops or which bits represent theroadway. The absence of any media access control address? would be the equivalent of vehicles ignoring all other Framing breaks the stream into decipherable traffic and entering the road without regard to the groupings, with control information inserted in the other vehicles. However, not all roads and entrances header and trailer as values in different fields. This are the same. Traffic can enter the road by merging, format gives the physical signals a structure that can by waiting for its turn at a stop sign, or by obeying be received by nodes and decoded into packets at signal lights. A driver follows a different set of rules the destination. for each type of entrance. As shown in the figure, generic frame field types In the same way, there are different ways to regulate include: placing frames onto the media. The protocols at the Frame start and stop indicator flags : Used bydata link layer define the rules for access to different the MAC sublayer to identify the beginning and end media. Some media access control methods use limits of the frame. highly-controlled processes to ensure that frames are Addressing: Used by the MAC sublayer to identifysafely placed on the media. These methods are the source and destination nodes. defined by sophisticated protocols, which require Type: Used by the LLC to identify the Layer 3 mechanisms that introduce overhead onto the protocol. network. Control: Identifies special flow control services. Among the different implementations of the data link Data: Contains the frame payload (i.e., packet layer protocols, there are different methods of header, segment header, and the data). controlling access to the media. These media access Error Detection: Included after the data to control techniques define if and how the nodes share form the trailer, these frame fields are used for the media. error detection. The actual media access control method used Not all protocols include all of these fields. Thedepends on: standards for a specific data link protocol define the actual frame format. Topology: How the connection between the nodes Note: Examples of frame formats will be discussed appears to the data link layer. at the end of this chapter. Media sharing: How the nodes share the media. Data Link Layer Protocols The media sharing can be point-to-point such as in Layer 2 Standards WAN connections or shared such as in LAN networks. Media Access Control Unlike the protocols of the upper layers of the TCP/IP Topologies suite, data link layer protocols are generally not The topology of a network is the arrangement or defined by Request for Comments (RFCs). Although relationship of the network devices and the the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) maintains interconnections between them. LAN and WAN the functional protocols and services for the TCP/IPtopologies can be viewed in two ways: protocol suite in the upper layers, the IETF does not Physical topology: Refers to the physical define the functions and operation of that model'sconnections and identifies how end devices and network access layer. infrastructure devices such as routers, switches, and

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wireless access points are interconnected. Physical is the most common physical LAN topology primarily topologies are usually point-to-point or star because it is easy to install, very scalable (easy to Logical topology: Refers to the way a networkadd and remove end devices), and easy to transfers frames from one node to the next. Thistroubleshoot. arrangement consists of virtual connections between Extended star or hybrid : This is a combination the nodes of a network. These logical signal paths of the other topologies such as star networks are defined by data link layer protocols. The logical interconnected to each other using a bus topology. topology of point-to-point links is relatively simple Bus: All end systems are chained to each other while shared media offers deterministic and a non- and terminated in some form on each end. deterministic media access control methods. Infrastructure devices such as switches are not The data link layer "sees" the logical topology of a required to interconnect the end devices. Bus network when controlling data access to the media. It topologies were used in legacy Ethernet networks is the logical topology that influences the type of because it was inexpensive to use and easy to set network framing and media access control used. up. Media Access Control Ring: End systems are connected to their WAN Topologies respective neighbor forming a ring. Unlike the bus WANs are commonly interconnected using thetopology, the ring does not need to be terminated. following physical topologies: Ring topologies were used in legacy Fiber Distributed Point-to-Point: This is the simplest topologyData Interface (FDDI) networks. Specifically, FDDI which consists of a permanent link between twonetworks employ a second ring for fault tolerance or endpoints. For this reason, this is a very popular WAN performance enhancements. topology. Media Access Control Hub and Spoke: A WAN version of the starLAN Topologies topology in which a central site interconnects branchLogical topology of a network is closely related to the sites using point-to-point links. mechanism used to manage network access. Access Mesh: This topology provides high availability, but methods provide the procedures to manage network requires that every end system be interconnected to access so that all stations have access. When several every other system. Therefore the administrative andentities share the same media, some mechanism physical costs can be significant. Each link is must be in place to control access. Access methods essentially a point-to-point link to the other node. are applied to networks to regulate this media Variations of this topology include a partial mesh access. where some but not all of end devices are interconnected. Some network topologies share a common medium The three common physical WAN topologies are with multiple nodes. At any one time, there may be a illustrated in the figure. number of devices attempting to send and receive In this arrangement, two nodes do not have to share data using the network media. There are rules that the media with other hosts. Additionally, a node does govern how these devices share the media. not have to make any determination about whether an incoming frame is destined for it or another node. There are two basic media access control Therefore, the logical data link protocols can be very methods for shared media: simple as all frames on the media can only travel to or from the two nodes. The frames are placed on the Contention-based access: All nodes compete for media by the node at one end and taken off the the use of the medium but have a plan if there are media by the node at the other end of the point-tocollisions. Figure 1 shows contention-based access. point circuit. Controlled access: Each node has its own time Data link layer protocols could provide more to use the medium. Figure 2 shows controlled access. sophisticated media access control processes for The data link layer protocol specifies the media logical point-to-point topologies, but this would only access control method that will provide the add unnecessary protocol overhead. appropriate balance between frame control, frame Data can flow in one of two ways: protection, and network overhead. Half-duplex communication: Both devices can Media Access Control both transmit and receive on the media but cannot LAN Topologies do so simultaneously. Ethernet has established When using a non-deterministic contention-based arbitration rules for resolving conflicts arising from method, a network device can attempt to access the instances when more than one station attempts to medium whenever it has data to send. To prevent transmit at the same time. Figure 2 shows halfcomplete chaos on the media, these methods use a duplex communication. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) process to first Full-duplex communication: Both devices can detect if the media is carrying a signal. transmit and receive on the media at the same time. If a carrier signal on the media from another node is The data link layer assumes that the media is detected, it means that another device is available for transmission for both nodes at any time. transmitting. When the device attempting to transmit Therefore, there is no media arbitration necessary in sees that the media is busy, it will wait and try again the data link layer. Figure 3 shows full-duplex after a short time period. If no carrier signal is communication. detected, the device transmits its data. Ethernet and Media Access Control wireless networks use contention-based media LAN Topologies access control. Physical topology defines how the end systems are It is possible that the CSMA process will fail and two physically interconnected. In shared media LANs, end devices will transmit at the same time creating a devices can be interconnected using the following data collision. If this occurs, the data sent by both physical topologies: devices will be corrupted and will need to be resent. Star: End devices are connected to a central Contention-based media access control methods do intermediate device. Early star topologies not have the overhead of controlled access methods. interconnected end devices using hubs. However, A mechanism for tracking whose turn it is to access star topologies now use switches. The star topology the media is not required. However, the contention-

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CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

based systems do not scale well under heavy media Media Access Control use. As use and the number of nodes increases, the LAN Topologies probability of successful media access without a In a logical ring topology, each node in turn receives collision decreases. Additionally, the recoverya frame. If the frame is not addressed to the node, mechanisms required to correct errors due to these the node passes the frame to the next node. This collisions further diminishes the throughput. allows a ring to use a controlled media access control CSMA is usually implemented in conjunction with a technique called token passing. method for resolving the media contention. The twoNodes in a logical ring topology remove the frame commonly used methods are: from the ring, examine the address, and send it on if Carrier sense multiple access with collision it is not addressed for that node. In a ring, all nodes detection (CSMA/CD): The end device monitors thearound the ring (between the source and destination media for the presence of a data signal. If a data node) examine the frame. signal is absent and therefore the media is free, the There are multiple media access control techniques device transmits the data. If signals are then that could be used with a logical ring, depending on detected that show another device was transmitting the level of control required. For example, only one at the same time, all devices stop sending and try frame at a time is usually carried by the media. If again later. Traditional forms of Ethernet use this there is no data being transmitted, a signal (known method. as a token) may be placed on the media and a node Carrier sense multiple access with collision can only place a data frame on the media when it avoidance (CSMA/CA): The end device examineshas the token. the media for the presence of a data signal. If the Remember that the data link layer "sees" a logical media is free, the device sends a notification across ring topology. The actual physical cabling topology the media of its intent to use it. Once it receives a could be another topology. clearance to transmit, the device then sends theMedia Access Control data. This method is used by 802.11 wirelessData Link Frame networking technologies. The figure illustrates the following: Although there are many different data link layer How contention-based access methodsprotocols that describe data link layer frames, each operates frame type has three basic parts: Characteristics of contention-based access methods Header Examples of contention-based access methods Data Trailer A logical multi-access topology enables a number of nodes to communicate by using the same shared All data link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 media. Data from only one node can be placed on PDU within the data field of the frame. However, the the medium at any one time. Every node sees all the structure of the frame and the fields contained in the frames that are on the medium, but only the node to header and trailer vary according to the protocol. which the frame is addressed processes the contents of the frame. Having many nodes share access to the mediumThe data link layer protocol describes the features requires a data link media access control method to required for the transport of packets across different regulate the transmission of data and thereby reducemedia. These features of the protocol are integrated into the encapsulation of the frame. When the frame collisions between different signals. arrives at its destination and the data link protocol Media Access Control takes the frame off the media, the framing LAN Topologies When using the controlled access method, network information is read and discarded. devices take turns, in sequence, to access the medium. If an end device does not need to access There is no one frame structure that meets the needs the medium, then the opportunity passes to the nextof all data transportation across all types of media. end device. This process is facilitated by use of a Depending on the environment, the amount of token. An end device acquires the token and places a control information needed in the frame varies to frame on the media, no other device can do so until match the media access control requirements of the the frame has arrived and been processed at the media and logical topology. a fragile environment requires more control. destination, releasing the token. Note: This method is also known as scheduled However, a protected environment, requires fewer controls. access or deterministic. Media Access Control Although controlled access is well-ordered and Data Link Frame provides predictable throughput, deterministicThe frame header contains the control information methods can be inefficient because a device has tospecified by the data link layer protocol for the specific logical topology and media used. wait for its turn before it can use the medium. Frame control information is unique to each type of Controlled access examples include: protocol. It is used by the Layer 2 protocol to provide Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) demanded by the communication Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) which is features environment. based on the IEEE 802.4 token bus protocol. Note: Both of these media access control methods The figure displays the Ethernet frame header fields: are considered obsolete. Start Frame field: Indicates the beginning of the The figure illustrates the following: frame. How controlled access methods operate Source and Destination Address fields : Characteristics of controlled access methods Indicates the source and destination nodes on the Examples of controlled access methods

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CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

media. added at the data link layer because the signals on Type field: Indicates the upper layer servicethe media could be subject to interference, contained in the frame. distortion, or loss that would substantially change the Different data link layer protocols may use different bit values that those signals represent. fields from those mentioned. For example other A transmitting node creates a logical summary of the Layer 2 protocol header frame fields could include: contents of the frame. This is known as the cyclic Priority/Quality of Service field : Indicates aredundancy check (CRC) value. This value is placed particular type of communication service for in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field of the frame processing. to represent the contents of the frame. Logical connection control field: Used toClick the FCS and Stop Frame fields in the figure for establish a logical connection between nodes. more information. Physical link control field : Used to establishWhen the frame arrives at the destination node, the the media link. receiving node calculates its own logical summary, or Flow control field: Used to start and stop traffic CRC, of the frame. The receiving node compares the over the media. two CRC values. If the two values are the same, the Congestion control field: Indicates congestionframe is considered to have arrived as transmitted. If in the media. the CRC value in the FCS differs from the CRC Because the purposes and functions of data link layer calculated at the receiving node, the frame is protocols are related to the specific topologies and discarded. media, each protocol has to be examined to gain aTherefore, the FCS field is used to determine if errors detailed understanding of its frame structure. As occurred in the transmission and reception of the protocols are discussed in this course, moreframe. The error detection mechanism provided by information about the frame structure will be the use of the FCS field discovers most errors caused explained. on the media. Media Access Control There is always the small possibility that a frame Data Link Frame with a good CRC result is actually corrupt. Errors in The data link layer provides addressing that is used bits may cancel each other out when the CRC is in transporting a frame across a shared local media. calculated. Upper layer protocols would then be Device addresses at this layer are referred to asrequired to detect and correct this data loss. physical addresses. Data link layer addressing isMedia Access Control contained within the frame header and specifies theData Link Frame frame destination node on the local network. The In a TCP/IP network, all OSI Layer 2 protocols work frame header may also contain the source address of with the IP at OSI Layer 3. However, the actual Layer the frame. 2 protocol used depends on the logical topology of Unlike Layer 3 logical addresses, which are the network and the implementation of the physical hierarchical, physical addresses do not indicate onlayer. Given the wide range of physical media used what network the device is located. Rather, the across the range of topologies in networking, there physical address is a unique device specific address. are a correspondingly high number of Layer 2 If the device is moved to another network or subnet, protocols in use. it will still function with the same Layer 2 physical Each protocol performs media access control for address. specified Layer 2 logical topologies. This means that An address that is device-specific and non- a number of different network devices can act as hierarchical cannot be used to locate a device across nodes that operate at the data link layer when large networks or the Internet. This would be like implementing these protocols. These devices include trying to find a single house within the entire world, the network adapter or network interface cards with nothing more than a house number and street(NICs) on computers as well as the interfaces on name. The physical address, however, can be used to routers and Layer 2 switches. locate a device within a limited area. For this reason, The Layer 2 protocol used for a particular network the data link layer address is only used for local topology is determined by the technology used to delivery. Addresses at this layer have no meaning implement that topology. The technology is, in turn, beyond the local network. Compare this to Layer 3, determined by the size of the network - in terms of where addresses in the packet header are carried the number of hosts and the geographic scope - and from source host to destination host regardless of the the services to be provided over the network. number of network hops along the route. A LAN typically uses a high bandwidth technology If the data must pass onto another network segment, that is capable of supporting large numbers of hosts. an intermediate device, such as a router, is A LAN's relatively small geographic area (a single necessary. The router must accept the frame basedbuilding or a multi-building campus) and its high on the physical address and de-encapsulate thedensity of users make this technology cost effective. frame in order to examine the hierarchical address, However, using a high bandwidth technology is or IP address. Using the IP address, the router is able usually not cost-effective for WANs that cover large to determine the network location of the destination geographic areas (cities or multiple cities, for device and the best path to reach it. Once it knows example). The cost of the long distance physical links where to forward the packet, the router then creates and the technology used to carry the signals over a new frame for the packet, and the new frame isthose distances typically results in lower bandwidth sent onto the next segment toward its finalcapacity. destination. Difference in bandwidth normally results in the use of Media Access Control different protocols for LANs and WANs. Data Link Frame Common data link layer protocols include: Data link layer protocols add a trailer to the end of each frame. The trailer is used to determine if the Ethernet frame arrived without error. This process is called Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) error detection and is accomplished by placing a 802.11 Wireless logical or mathematical summary of the bits that Media Access Control comprise the frame in the trailer. Error detection isData Link Frame

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CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

CSMA/CA media access process. CSMA/CA specifies a random backoff procedure for all nodes that are Ethernet Ethernet is the dominant LAN technology. It is a waiting to transmit. The most likely opportunity for family of networking technologies that are defined inmedium contention is just after the medium becomes available. Making the nodes back off for a random the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards. Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols period greatly reduces the likelihood of a collision. networks also use data link and the Layer 1 technologies. Ethernet is the most 802.11 acknowledgements to confirm that a frame is widely used LAN technology and supports data received successfully. If the sending station does not bandwidths of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps (1,000 detect the acknowledgement frame, either because Mbps), or 10 Gbps (10,000 Mbps). The basic frame format and the IEEE sublayers of OSIthe original data frame or the acknowledgment was Layers 1 and 2 remain consistent across all forms of not received intact, the frame is retransmitted. This Ethernet. However, the methods for detecting andexplicit acknowledgement overcomes interference placing data on the media vary with different and other radio-related problems. Other services supported by 802.11 are implementations. Ethernet provides unacknowledged connectionlessauthentication, association (connectivity to a wireless service over a shared media using CSMA/CD as thedevice), and privacy (encryption). media access methods. Shared media requires thatAs shown in the figure, an 802.11 frame contains the Ethernet frame header use a data link layer these fields: Protocol Version field : Version of 802.11 frame address to identify the source and destination nodes. in use As with most LAN protocols, this address is referred Type and Subtype fields: Identifies one of three to as the MAC address of the node. An Ethernet MAC functions and sub functions of the frame: control, address is 48 bits and is generally represented in data, and management hexadecimal format. To DS field : Set to 1 in data frames destined for The figure shows the many fields of the Ethernet frame. At the data link layer, the frame structure is the distribution system (devices in the wireless nearly identical for all speeds of Ethernet. However, structure) at the physical layer, different versions of Ethernet From DS field: Set to 1 in data frames exiting the place the bits onto the media differently. Ethernet isdistribution system More Fragments field: Set to 1 for frames that discussed in more detail in the next chapter. have another fragment Media Access Control Retry field: Set to 1 if the frame is a Data Link Frame retransmission of an earlier frame Point-to-Point Protocol Power Management field: Set to 1 to indicate Another data link layer protocol is the Point-to-Point that a node will be in power-save mode Protocol (PPP). PPP is a protocol used to deliver More Data field: Set to 1 to indicate to a node in frames between two nodes. Unlike many data link layer protocols that are defined by electricalpower-save mode that more frames are buffered for engineering organizations, the PPP standard is that node Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) field : Set to 1 defined by RFCs. PPP was developed as a WAN protocol and remains the protocol of choice to if the frame contains WEP encrypted information for implement many serial WANs. PPP can be used on security Order field: Set to 1 in a data type frame that various physical media, including twisted pair, fiberuses Strictly Ordered service class (does not need optic lines, and satellite transmission, as well as for reordering) virtual connections. Duration/ID field: Depending on the type of PPP uses a layered architecture. To accommodate the frame, represents either the time, in microseconds, different types of media, PPP establishes logical required to transmit the frame or an association connections, called sessions, between two nodes. The PPP session hides the underlying physical mediaidentity (AID) for the station that transmitted the from the upper PPP protocol. These sessions also frame provide PPP with a method for encapsulating multiple Destination Address (DA) field : MAC address of protocols over a point-to-point link. Each protocolthe final destination node in the network Source Address (SA) field: MAC address of the encapsulated over the link establishes its own PPP node that initiated the frame session. Receiver Address (RA) field : MAC address that PPP also allows the two nodes to negotiate options identifies the wireless device that is the immediate within the PPP session. This includes authentication, recipient of the frame compression, and multilink (the use of multiple Fragment Number field: Indicates the number physical connections). for each fragment of a frame Refer to the figure for the basic fields in a PPP frame. Sequence Number field: Indicates the sequence Media Access Control number assigned to the frame; retransmitted frames Data Link Frame are identified by duplicate sequence numbers Transmitter Address (TA) field : MAC address 802.11 Wireless that identifies the wireless device that transmitted The IEEE 802.11 standard uses the same 802.2 LLC the frame and 48-bit addressing scheme as other 802 LANs. Frame Body field: Contains the information However, there are many differences at the MAC being transported; for data frames, typically an IP sublayer and physical layer. In a wireless packet environment, the environment requires special FCS field: Contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy considerations. There is no definable physical check (CRC) of the frame connectivity; therefore, external factors may Summary interfere with data transfer and it is difficult to control access. To meet these challenges, wireless The TCP/IP network access layer is the equivalent of the OSI data link layer (Layer 2) and the physical standards have additional controls. The IEEE 802.11 standard is commonly referred to aslayer (Layer 1). Wi-Fi. It is a contention-based system using a The OSI physical layer provides the means to

14 | P a g e Access

John Carlo Cahimat

Group C

CISCO 5.0 Chapter 4 : Network

transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across the network media. The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors that transmit and carry the signals to represent the bits. Hardware components such as network adapters (NICs), interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated with the physical layer. The physical layer standards address three functional areas: physical components, frame encoding technique, and signaling method. Using the proper media is an important part of network communications. Without the proper physical connection, either wired or wireless, communications between any two devices will not occur. Wired communication consists of copper media and fiber cable. There are three main types of copper media used in networking: unshielded-twisted pair (UTP), shielded-twisted pair (STP), and coaxial cable. UTP cabling is the most common copper networking media. Optical fiber cable has become very popular for interconnecting infrastructure network devices. It permits the transmission of data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other networking media. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and is completely immune to EMI and RFI. Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies. The number of wireless enabled devices continues to increase. For these reasons, wireless has become the medium of choice for home networks and is quickly gaining in popularity in enterprise networks. The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes over a physical network media. It allows the upper layers to access the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media. Among the different implementations of the data link layer protocols, there are different methods of controlling access to the media. These media access control techniques define if and how the nodes share the media. The actual media access control method used depends on the topology and media sharing. LAN and WAN topologies can be physical or logical. It is the logical topology that influences the type of network framing and media access control used. WANs are commonly interconnected using the pointto-point, hub and spoke, or mesh physical topologies. In shared media LANs, end devices can be interconnected using the star, bus, ring, or extended star (hybrid) physical topologies. All data link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 PDU within the data field of the frame. However, the structure of the frame and the fields contained in the header and trailer vary according to the protocol.