Disinfection
Kebreab Ghebremichael, PhD Prof. Gary Amy, PhD 2007
Objectives and means of disinfection
Destruction or inactivation of pathogenic organisms Disinfection can be done by:
chemical means- chlorine, ozone, non-chemical means- heat, UV irradiation
Mechanisms of pathogen inactivation
Destruction of cellular structure Interference with metabolic activities and protein synthesis
In water treatment combinations of these mechanisms play role
Microorganisms
Microorganisms of concern include: Type Viruses Bacteria Cryptosporidium oocysts Giardia cysts Protozoan Algae Size, m 0.01 to 0.1 0.1 to 5 3 6 5 to 5 to 10 to 100
10 to 25
Indicator organisms are often used to assess the presence or absence of pathogens Common indicator organisms are coliforms- E-coli
Disinfection kinetics
Chicks law
Best described by first order reaction
N dN = k * t = k * N ln dt N 0
N/N0 = e -k.t reduction factor (R) Where
number of micro-organisms destroyed per unit of time is proportional to the number of organisms
N = concentration of organisms (N/m3) No = initial concentration of organisms (N/m3) t = time k = rate constant- this depends on disinfectant concentration, organism and temperature
Disinfection kinetics
Chick-Watson model
Relates the rate constant of inactivation, k, to the disinfectant concentration, C. k = kCb b is coefficient of dilution ln (N/N0) = kCb t
Source: Faust and Aly, 1998
(Lee and Nam, 2002)
Removal of microorganisms during water treatment
Significant removal of microorganisms is achievable by processes other than disinfection. USEPA- Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) gives log removal credits to other processes Treatment SWTR Conventional treatment Direct filtration Slow sand filtration Membrane processes Log removal Giardia 3.0 (99.9%) 2.5 2.0 2.0 3-4 Viruses 4.0 (99.99%) 2.0 1.5 2.0 3-4*
* using Ultrafiltration
Factors affecting disinfection
Turbidity (particulates can shield micro organisms); turbidity should not exceed 0.5 NTU; Organic matter and ammonia (they react with disinfectants); pH (may change chemical form of disinfectant e.g. HOC / OCl-); Temperature (diffusion and reaction rate); Disinfectant dose and contact time
Primary and secondary disinfection
Primary disinfection: Commonly achieved by combination of filtration and chemical oxidation Secondary or post disinfection: Maintaining residual disinfectant in the distribution system in order to control re-growth Residual chlorine requirements at consumers points
WHO Residual concentration, mg/L 0.2 USEPA 0.25 NL 0.0
Re-growth
Main cause Availability of AOC and nutrient in the distribution system Main effects Formation of taste and odour under anaerobic conditions Growth of macro-organisms e.g. worms; Corrosion Control mechanisms Effective treatment to produce biostable water; Ensuring sufficient residual disinfectant in the network
Common disinfection chemicals
Chlorine compoundsCl2, Ozone (O3) Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) Chloramine (eg. NH2Cl) Can be found in liquefied gas, solution or solid forms produced on site produced on site formed by addition of ammonium and chlorine to the water
Potassium permanganate a violet solid (KMnO4) Silver (Ag+) in ceramic filters
Strength and stability of disinfectants
Disinfectant OCl (hypochlorite) HOCl (Hypochlorous acid) NH2Cl (Monochloramine) ClO2 O3 KMnO3
Power Weak Strong Very weak Strong Very strong Weak
Stability Decomposes slowly Decomposes slowly Very stable (Very) stable Very unstable Unstable
Which disinfectants are suitable for post disinfection?
Effectiveness of disinfectants
Disinfectants can be compared in terms of CT value C is disinfectant dosage, mg/L T contact time, min
Chlorine
Chlorine is the most commonly used and low cost disinfectant. It is available in four different forms: Compound Chlorine(Cl2) Sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) Bleaching powder (CaOCl2) High test hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2 Form Liquefied gas Solution Solid Solid % Chlorine 100 10 to 15 25 to 35 70
Dissociation of chlorine
Chlorine dissolves in water & at normal pH it yields HOCl and OClCl2 + H2O HOCl HOCl + H+ + Cl OCl- + H+
Sodium hypochlorite, Bleaching powder, High Test Hypochlorite also form HOCl and OCl-
Note that above pH 4, Cl2 does not exist
Break point chlorination
Break point chlorination is the addition of sufficient chlorine to produce free available chlorine HOCl and OCl- react with ammonium to form: monochloramine; dichloramine; trichloramine or oxidize it to N2 sum of HOCl and OCl= Sum of mono-, di- and tri- chloramines = Sum of free and combined chlorine = Free available chlorine Combined available chlorine Total available chlorine
All forms are expressed as mg Cl2/l.
Break point chlorination
Summary of the reactions: I. II. III. IV. 2NH4+ + 2Cl2 2NH2Cl + 2Cl2 2NHCl2 2NH4+ + 3 Cl2 2NH2Cl + 4H+ + 2Cl 2NHCl2 + 2H+ + 2 Cl N2 + Cl2 + 2H+ + 2Cl N2 + 8H+ + 6Clformed Cl2 reacts with remaining NH4
1 mg NH4 requires 4 mg Cl2
The overall reaction is known as: " Breakpoint Chlorination "
In general 6 mg Cl2 is required per mg NH4+ In practice more chlorine is required due to presence of organic matter
Break point chlorination
Disinfection by products (DBPs)
DBPs are produced by the reaction of disinfectants and
mainly organic compounds (NOM) bromide ion
Most common DBPs include:
Trihalomethanes (THMs) Haloaceticacids (HAAs) Bromate Chlorite
Guidelines for DBPs
DBPs Maximum contaminant level (g/L) WHO (1993) Bromoform Dibromochloromethane Bromodichloromethane Chloroform TTHM HAA5** Bromate Chlorite 100 100 60 200 50 USEPA (2006) 0* 60* 0* 70* 80 60 10 (Average value) 1mg/L 10 100 EU
**
Maximum contaminant levels goals HAA5: Sum of five HAAs,
Factors affecting DBPs formation
Water quality:
Type and concentration of precursors NOM, bromide pH Temperature Ammonia concentration
Operational parameters
Disinfectant type and dose
Contact time (water age)
Factors affecting DBPs formation
Time
50
TTHM / THAAs (ug/L)
40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20
pH
Water age (hours)
TTHM THAAs ( six species )
80 TTHM / THAAs (ug/L)
60
40
20
0 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH
T T HM T HAAs ( six species )
Isopleths of DBPs and chlorine residual in distribution networks
TTHM
THAA
Chlorine residual
Chemical risks
DBPs CHCl3 CHBrCl2 CHBr2Cl CHBr3 DCAA TCAA Chemical risk factors (per g/L) 1.7x10-7 1.7x10-6 2.4 x10-6 2.5 x10-7 3.0 x10-6 2.4 x10-6
Risk from BrO3- is much higher - a shift to H2O2-UV is envisaged
Total chemical risks for DBPs formations
Advanced disinfection
Ozonation
More effective than chlorine, but expensive Not much DBPs compared to chlorine Ozone reacts with organic matter to form biodegradable DOC
DOC + O3 BDOC + O2 BDOC include: Aldehydes, Carboxylic Acids, etc.
Ozonation process
Influent Effluent
Ozone disinfection by products
Ozone can directly or indirectly react with bromide to form ozone DBPs including bromate ion (BrO3-) In the presence of NOM, non-halogenated DBPs are formed These compounds are more easily assimilable (AOC) by bacteria than NOM, If both NOM and bromide are present, ozonation forms hypobromous acid, resulting in the formation of brominated organohalogen compounds (e.g. bromoform).
A Potential Consequence of using ozone
Creation of Biodegradable Organic Matter (BOM) from Natural Organic Matter (NOM) This results in
Transformation of Rapid Sand Filter (RSF) into Biological Sand Filter (BSF) with Biofilm Transformation of Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) into Biological Activated carbon (BAC) with Biofilm
UV disinfection
Very effective with up to 99 % removal- Viruses requires higher UV dosage Penetrates the cell wall and destroys DNA No residual disinfectant Requires good water quality
UV disinfection
High tech using UV lamps
UV disinfection
Low tech using solar energy (SODIS)
www.sodis.ch
Disinfection experience in the Netherlands and elsewhere
Philosophical approach
North America:
Remove NOM before Cl2 DOC as a contaminant
Central Europe:
Biostability Limit biodegradable NOM (BOM) and eliminate Cl2 BDOC (or AOC) as a contaminant
Practice in USA
Chemical Disinfectants Employed
Chlorine Chloramines Ozone Chlorine Dioxide
Practice in Europe
Southern Europe and UK
Chlorine with Distribution System Residual
Central Europe (e.g., Berlin, Amsterdam, Zurich, Vienna)
No Distribution System Residual!
Some parts of Europe (e.g., Paris)
Low Cl2 levels in distribution system- use booster chlorination
Thank you
Conventional water treatment
Lime
Alum
Chlorine
Lime
Coagulation
Flocculation
Sedimentation
Filtration
Storage
Sludge
Backwash
