Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do Computer-System Organization Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations Process Management Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security Distributed Systems Special-Purpose Systems Computing Environments Open-Source Operating Systems
Objectives
To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components To provide coverage of basic computer system organization
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components
Hardware provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users
Operating system
Application programs define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games People, machines, other computers
Users
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer
OS is a control program
Operating System Definition (Cont)
No universally accepted definition Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system is good
approximation
But varies wildly
The one program running at all times on the computer is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through
the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed
to prevent a lost interrupt
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user
request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers
and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each
type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt Wait loop (contention for memory access) At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting
for I/O completion System call request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt
Direct Memory Access Structure
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to
memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to
main memory without CPU intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte
Storage Structure
Main memory only large storage media that the CPU can access directly Secondary storage extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed Cost
Volatility
Caching copying information into faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast) If not, data copied to cache and used there Cache management important design problem Cache size and replacement policy
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems Advantages include
1. 2. 3.
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Increased throughput Economy of scale Increased reliability graceful degradation or fault tolerance Asymmetric Multiprocessing Symmetric Multiprocessing
Two types
1. 2.
How a Modern Computer Works
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN) Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each other Applications must be written to use parallelization
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory One job selected and run via job scheduling When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling If processes dont fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity. Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes Suspending and resuming processes Providing mechanisms for process synchronization Providing mechanisms for process communication Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing All instructions in memory in order to execute Memory management determines what is in memory when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Memory management activities
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive) Varying properties include access speed, capacity, datatransfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
OS activities include Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
Mapping files onto secondary storage Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for a long period of time Proper management is of central importance Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms OS activities
Free-space management Storage allocation Disk scheduling Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape Still must be managed Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Some storage need not be fast
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no
matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware
such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs) General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS Security defense of the system against internal and external attacks Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated with each process, file Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights
Computing Environments
Traditional computer
Blurring over time Office environment
PCs
connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and timesharing
portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same resources to be single system, then modems
Now
Home networks
Used Now
firewalled, networked
Computing Environments (Cont)
Client-Server Computing Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e. database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files
Peer-to-Peer Computing
Another model of distributed system P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Web-Based Computing
Web has become ubiquitous PCs most prevalent devices More devices becoming networked to allow web access
New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar servers: load
balancers
Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have evolved into
Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and servers
Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just
binary closed-source
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)
movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has copyleft GNU
Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and
Sun Solaris
End of Chapter 1
