Copyright 2008, Society of Petroleum Engineers
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Abstract
The economics of exploration and production (E&P)
continue to encourage use of new methods to reduce
problems and costs. Underbalanced technology is one such
method, which offers effective solution to conventional
drilling problems. Underbalanced drilling or UBD is a
procedure used intentionally to drill oil and gas wells
where the equivalent circulating density (ECD) of the
drilling fluid is less than the pore pressure in the formation
being drilled. Underbalanced drilling (UBD) has been
used with increasing frequency to minimize problems
associated with invasive formation damage, which often
greatly reduce the productivity of oil and gas reservoirs,
particularly in openhole horizontal well applications.
UBD, when properly designed and executed, minimizes or
eliminates problems associated with the invasion of
particulate matter into the formation as well as a multitude
of other problems such as adverse clay reactions, phase
trapping, precipitation, and emulsification, which can be
caused by the invasion of incompatible mud filtrates in an
overbalanced condition. In many UBD operations,
additional benefits are seen because of a reduction in
drilling time, greater rates of penetration, increased bit life,
a rapid indication of productive reservoir zones, and the
potential for dynamic flow testing while drilling.
Introduction
The drilling technology has evolved over the years. The
prime reasons for the advancements in this technology are
the ever increasing demand for energy i.e. Oil and Gas,
and the increase in energy price. These reasons are
actually driving the oil industry to drill the zones which
were considered a No No in the past due to the economic
and technological constraints.
Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) is one such technology
which is helping the industry in its hunger for new
horizons for the exploration and production of oil and gas.
Underbalanced drilling as a concept is not new to the
industry; it is as old as Drilling. Acutually, this technology
was considered as hazardous to the health and safety of the
individuals working at the site. It has evolved in terms of
safety and technology in the last 100 years or so, and the
industry no longer considers it to be unsafe for operations
both on land and off-shore. But in order to keep this
technology rosy there is a constant need to innovate and
develop the existing technology that would raise the bar in
terms of value added to the industry.
With this view in mind the concept of Underbalanced
Drilling or UBD is developed and is successfully applied
in onshore and offshore drillig operations. It is predicted
that this technology would save the industrys millions of
dollars by increasing the amount of recoverable oil within
a shorter time frame. Almost every drilling operation is a
potential source of damage to well productivity, lost
circulation, differential sticking and other related
conventional drilling problems. In UBD, the basic idea is
to maintain the wellbore mud column pressure below the
fromation pressure, while drilling, so as to avoid formation
damage, which ultimately greatly reduces poductivity of
oil or gas reservoirs
1, 2
. This would in turn lead to
minimization of the stimulation requirements and hence
considerable savings. UBD, when properly designed and
executed, minimizes problems associated with the
invasion of particulate matter into the formation as well as
a multitude of other problems such as adverse clay
reactions, phase trapping, etc. In many UBD operations,
additional benefits are seen because of a reduced
differential sticking, reduced lost circulation problems,
reduction in drilling time, greater rates of penetration,
increased bit life, a rapid indication of productive reservoir
zones, and the potential for dynamic flow testing while
drilling. However, today, it is always said that UBD is
done for the love of reservoir. Thus the practice of UBD
is done with a due consideration towards the reservoir
oriented benefits and little towards the drilling oriented
benefits.
SPE 114186
Underbalanced Drilling: Remedy for Formation-Damage, Lost-Circulation,
and Other Related Conventional-Drilling Problems
Maqsood Ahmad Rafique, SPE, University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan
2 SPE 114186
As majority of hydrocarbons being exploited today are
found in existing pressure depleted and lower quality
reservoirs with a lot of conventional drilling problems, this
is where UBD Technology can add value. Soon, UBD will
become the standard field development technique, both
onshore and offshore, where the geology and reservoir are
suitable.
This paper reviews the problems, which arise during
conventional drilling operation and how they can be
controlled and prevented using Underbalanced drilling
technology. Some real results are also presented to support
the whole discussion.
UBD Planning
Underbalanced drilling technology is a very useful
technique to drill wells in order to minimize formation
damage that is common in conventional overbalanced
drilling operations. Underbalanced drilling occurs when
the bottom hole pressure exerted by the hydrostatic head
of the drilling fluid column is less than the pressure of the
formation being drilled. Or, more simply put,
Underbalanced maintains wellbore pressure below
formation pressure while drilling. It differs from
conventional drilling in that the bottomhole circulating
pressure is lower than the formation pressure, thereby
permitting the well to flow while drilling proceeds as
shown in Figure (1) and (2)
3,4
. Underbalanced drilling
technology is a valuable method for minimizing formation
invasion related problems. Because the majority of
hydrocarbons today are found in existing fields with
depleting pressures, or in complex and low quality
reservoirs, the economical use of UBD becomes more and
more popular.
UBD Design Criteria
Underbalanced drilling conditions may be achieved either
by utilizing non-compressive drilling fluids or by the
addition of gas to reduce the drilling fluid density. It will
depend on the reservoir pressure and depth. UBD
coditions will be obtained when the equivalent circulating
density exerted by the drilling fluid is less than the
reservoir pressure. Based on the reservoir pressure, the
induced level of Underbalanced will insure that
hydrocarbons continuously flows into the wellbore
assuming hydrocarbons are present in the reservoir rock.
4, 5
When designing the drilling circulating system,
specific criteria must be met in order to satisfy all of the
objectives of a properly drilled Underbalanced section.
While considering these criteria, it is sensible for the
selected UB system to be simplest possible that can
achieve all of the required objectives.
The design of an Underbalanced drilling circulating
system considers the following criteria:
1. Bottomhole Pressure the bottomhole circulating
pressure must be controlled at all times to maintain
continuous, steady state, Underbalanced conditions
throughout the entire length of the drilling and
completion operations.
2. Hole Cleaning the drilling fluid system should
guarantee the hole cleaning at any depth or
inclination.
3. Surface Separation Equipment the reservoir inflow
must be controlled in order to remain in the safe
operational envelope of the surface equipments flow
containment capacities, related pressure and pipe
work erosional limitations.
Based on these criteria, an Underbalanced drilling window
is defined and an acceptable circulating system is
developed.
Drilling Fluids Selection
A wide variety of fluid systems have been used in UBD
operations, including straight air, mist, foam, gasified
fluids and straight liquid fluids. Based on the formation
pore pressure and depth a preliminary selection of the
drilling fluid systems should be made.
Underbalanced drilling fluids are summarized in three
groups
6
:
Single phase Gas
Two phase Gas + Liquid/Liquid + Gas
Single phase Liquid
The selection of the appropriate drilling fluid system
is crucial for the application of a successful UBD
operation as well as the selection of each of its phases,
when multiphase drilling fluids systems are required.
Whichever the fluid is selected, it must be evaluated on the
basis of its effects on the formation, the hole-cleaning
capability, general hydraulics and the surface separation
equipment.
Typical fluid densities range from near 0 to 7 pounds
per gallon. The density range of various drilling fluids is
summarized in the Figure (3).
With this brief introduction and basic definition of
UBD, let us move towards out point of stress,
Underbalanced Drilling as a remedy for conventional
drilling problems. Here, we will see the basic
mechanisms of these problems and the application of UBD
to solve them.
Understanding Formation Damage
Many reservoirs can be affected by different types of
damage. Understanding the reservoir is generally the
key to understanding the formation damage. Once we
know the problems - we can then devise the best
solutions
9
.
Formation damage is the reduction of the permeability
of a producing formation/zone in the vicinity of the well
SPE 114186 3
bore and hence the productivity of the well. The term skin
effect is also used in the same connection to connote a skin
or cylinder of reduced permeability about the well bore.
Two phenomenons can change the permeability of the
rock. One is change of porosity, due to the swelling of clay
minerals or deposition of solids in the pore body. The
other is plugging of pore throats, caused by organic or
inorganic matter. Damage caused by organic matter is due
to the formation of high hydrocarbon scale when
temperature and pressure conditions in the reservoirs are
changed. The inorganic damage involves release and
capture of particulate including in-situ fines and
precipitates from chemical reactions.
Causes of Formation Damage
Formation damage is caused by the invasion of foreign
fluids and/or solids into the exposed section adjacent to the
well bore. Generally, the drilling mud is the main source
of such contaminants. Fluids used in stimulation
treatments may also have some undesirable effects, which
practically nullify their beneficial actions. But, present
discussion will, however, be concerned with drilling mud
formation damage, caused during drilling
12
.
In many areas a necessary function of the drilling
mud is the control of encountered subsurface pressures. To
carry out this function, the mud column pressure must
exceed that of the formation. Hence the mud filtrate as
well as particulate matter flows radially outward in
accordance with the filtration characteristics of the
particular mud in use. Let us consider the possible
injurious effects that various liquids may have on invaded
zone permeability.
Liquid Invasion
The susceptibility of a particular formation to damage by
foreign fluids is largely dependent on its clay content.
Dirty sands (those with high clay content) are generally
quite sensitive to the filtrate from fresh water based muds
which brings about the hydration and swelling of
interstitial clay particles as shown by Figure (4) & Figure
(5)
10,11
. The substitution of the water in the clay matrix
causes a physical expansion of the clay and the resulting
expansion in some cases, up to 500% of the original clay
size. This expansion can obviously cause significant
reduction in permeability. Saline filtrates cause less of this
kind of trouble, and may in fact reduce particle size and
increase oil permeability in some cases. Therefore, the
clay swelling problems depend on the interaction between
the particular clay and filtrate involved.
Secondly, as the aqueous filtrate invades dirty
sands, the interstitial clay particles my shift position as the
increased water saturation gives them freedom of
movement. The movement of such particles enables them
to relocate within the pore network, thereby obstructing
flow and causing a reduction in permeability. Figure (6)
illustrates the phenomenon of fines migration that will
ultimately redeuce the formation permeability on their
deposition.
Other Possible Effects of Foreign Fluid Invasion are
a) Emulsification with formation fluids, resulting in
highly viscous mixtures, and capillary blocking by
insular bubbles.
b) Precipitation of solids: A variety of materials, when
contacted by certain crude oils, can result in the
precipitation of solids. These include HCl, CO2, rich
hydrocarbon solvents and asphalts.
c) Reduction in relative permeability to gas, by the
presence of a third immiscible fluid. For example,
consider gas sand which originally contains only gas
and water. If this section is drilled with an oil base
fluid, some filtrate invasion will occur. When gas
production begins, some of this oil will backflow and
cleanup; however, some will remain as an irreducible
or immobile saturation. This reduces the permeability
to gas in the affected zone and hence lowers the
productivity of the well. Figure (7) and Figure (8)
11
illustrate this phenomenon of phase trapping with the
help of relative permeability curves.
d) Rduction of relative permeability to oil due to an
increase increased water saturation. Figure (9) shows
how the basic phase trapping mechanism (for a water
based fluid in this example) is motivated by the
capillary pressure forces which trap a higher water
saturation in matrix after water based fluid invasion -
causing a large potential reduction in permeability to
oil.
e) Clay deflocculation: A clay mineral is in a
flocculated condition when the particles of clay tend
to come together to form flocks or lumps, and is in a
deflocculated condition when these flocks or lumps
are broken up. Dispersed particles may plug the pore
throats resulting in reduced permeability
9
, shown by
Figure (10).
Solids Invasion
It has been recognized that the invasion of solid particles
may also be a considerable source of formation damage.
For solids to enter into a rock the solid particles must,
naturally, be smaller than the pore openings. An extreme
case of whole mud invasion is the loss of circulation.
Due to this particulate matter invasion into the
formation, formation permeability reduces. The
permeability decreases are believed due to two basic
causes
a) Plugging of internal pores by solid particles.
b) Reduction of effective pore radius with
consequent increase in interstitial water
content and reduction in effective permeability
to oil or gas.
The depth of solid particle invasion is of course
less than that of the filtrate. Also, the severity of damage
decreases with distance from the well bore. Figure (11),
(12) and (13)
11
illustrate the mechanism of solids invasion
into the reservoir according to the size of solid particles.
Figure (11) shows that a solid invasion is no problem as
for as their size is very small. Figure (12) & (13) shows
4 SPE 114186
the formation of internal and external cakes as the size of
solid particles increases. As the speed of fluid will reduce
as it goes deeper into the formation, solids particles settle
down. The internal deposition (cake formation) will
reduce the permeability, and such depositions are strongly
undesired.
Formation Damage can cause significant decreases
in well productivity and worldwide yearly-lost production
due to formation damage is equivalent to billions of
dollars in lost revenue. Identification and reduction of
formation damage problems can lead to immediate returns
in the form of increased production rates and extension of
the life of any field.
An effective alternative to this conventional
overbalanced drilling problem (formation damage) is the
Underbalanced drilling technique, which involves no
formation damage and lost circulation.
Lost Circulation
A problem often encountered in the drilling of a well is the
loss of unacceptably large amounts of drilling fluid into
subterranean formations penetrated by the well. This
problem is often referred to generally as "lost circulation"
and the formations into which the drilling fluid is lost are
often referred to as "lost circulation zones" or "thief
zones." Various causes may be responsible for the lost
circulation encountered in the drilling of a well. For
example, a formation penetrated by the well may exhibit
unusually high permeability or may contain fractures or
crevices therein. In addition, a formation may simply not
be sufficiently competent to support the hydrostatic
pressure applied by the drilling fluid and may break down
under this hydrostatic pressure and allow the drilling fluid
to flow thereinto. Mudcake developed during lost
circulation due to the deposition of particulate matter on
the internal walls of the well against lost circulation zones,
will stuck the drillpipe, another common drilling problem.
Figure (14) demonstrates the phnomenon of lost-
circulation.
When lost circulation occurs, you need a fast, proven
response to keep your drilling program and your well costs
under control. Lost circulation can hinder and stall wellsite
operations, adding greatly to the overall cost of drilling
and completing a well. Some times loss circulation can
result in an extremely difficult well control situation and
sometimes-even lead to the abandonment of the well.
These conventional drilling problems (lost
circulation and pipe sticking) can be prevented or
controlled by using Underbalanced drilling technique,
which involves no lost circulation, as long as
Underbalanced condition is maintained.
Differential Sticking
Another common conventional drilling problem is
Differential sticking, a condition whereby the drill string
cannot be moved (rotated or reciprocated) along the axis
of the well bore. Differential sticking typically occurs
when high-contact forces caused by low reservoir
pressures, high well bore pressures, or both, are exerted
over a sufficiently large area of the drill string. Differential
sticking is, for most drilling organizations, the greatest
drilling problem worldwide in terms of time and financial
cost.
In the Figure (15) the cross-sectional views show
a drill collar embedded inmud cake, developed due to fluid
loss against permeable formation, and pinned to the
wellbore wall by the pressure differential between the
drilling mud and the formation. As time passes, if the drill
string remains stationary, the area of contact can increase
(right) making it more difficult to free the drill string.
This differential sticking problem can be avoided
by using UBD because the reservoir pressure is greater
than the wellbore pressure in UBD; the pipe is pushed
away from the walls, eliminating differential sticking.
Increased Rate of Penetration (ROP)
Underbalanced drilling operations exhibit significantly
increased ROP than conventional overbalanced
applications due to the decreased pressure at the bit head
as shown in Figure (16) and (17). This can reduce drilling
time significantly in extended reach horizontal sections,
improve bit life, and may reduce drilling costs.
Figure (16) shows a comparision of drilling rate for gas
and mud drilling. It is clear that drilling rate is quite high
for gas drilling as compared to mud (overbalanced). A
10000 ft depth drilled with gas as drilling fluid takes
almost 35days while mud drilling takes more than
130days. Similarly, figure (17) is showing a practical field
example where drilling fluid system is switched from air
to mud. We can see that drilling rate is reduced as we
switch from air to mud drilling.
UBD Provides a Rapid Indication of Productive
Reservoir Zones
Since the hydrostatic pressure of the circulating fluid
system in a truly Underbalanced operation is less than the
formation pressure to be drilled, a condition of net outflow
of formation fluids (oil, water or gas) should occure given
sufficient formation pressure and in-situe permeability.
Proper flow monitoring of the produced fluids at surface
can provide a good indication of productive zones of the
reservoir and act as a valuable aid in the geosteering of the
well (if a horizontal application). Significant production of
liquid hydrocarbons (because gas is usually flared) during
the drilling operation may provide some early cash
netback to partially defer some of the additional costs
associated with the UBD operation
18
.
Ability to Flow/Well Testing While Drilling
Recently, several operators have taken advantage of the
flowing condition occuring during drilling Underbalanced
to conduct either single or multirate drawdown tests to
evaluate the productive capacity of the formation, and
SPE 114186 5
formation properties during the drilling operation (in a
static mode or while drilling ahead in some situations).
Less Need for Stimulation
If the formation is not damaged during drilling and
completion, stimulation to remove the damage will not be
needed. And once the formation is damaged it is difficult
to recover it to its original condition.
Summary
From above discussion, we conclude that using UBD some
drilling as well as reservoir oriented benefits are achieved,
discussed below:
Drilling Related Advantages of Underbalanced
Drilling (UBD)
No fluids are lost into the formations during
Underbalanced drilling.
Minimized or eliminated formation damage.
Drilling speed increases by 2 to 5 fold when
drilling Underbalanced.
Drilling bit life is increased.
There is less chance of the pipe getting stuck
when drilling Underbalanced.
Reservoir Related Advantages of UBD
No need to clean up the well after drilling
(Stimulation job is not required).
Reduced plugging of the rocks in the reservoir
leads to an increase in production of up to 5
times when compared to conventionally drilled
wells.
Able to find the most productive zones of the
reservoir while drilling.
Although it is more difficult to drill Underbalanced,
we are now able to drill more wells in older reservoirs and
access areas that were previously thought too difficult to
drill. Due to the benefits achieved through drilling
Underbalanced, we are able to squeeze more oil from a
reservoir than previously thought possible.
How Underbalanced is Solving Drilling Problems
around the World
Real Results
19
1) Underbalanced Drilling in Mexico Prevents
Circulation Losses, Reduces Formation Damage
in Highly Fractured Carbonates:
Location: Reforma, Chiapas, southern Mexico
Formations: Upper, middle, and lower Cretaceous
Depth: 14,596 ft (4,449 m)
Pore Pressure: 4,500 PSI (310.3 bar)
Well Type: Directional, development
Hole Size: 8-1/2 in.
No. Of Wells: 1
Operating Company: Weatherford
Objectives
Reduce circulation losses.
Reduce formation damage.
Prevent differential sticking.
Results
Use of invert emulsion and nitrogen in a two-
phase system prevented circulation losses by
reducing extremely overbalanced pressures
previously encountered with conventional
drilling.
Drilling Underbalanced minimized formation
damage and expedited nitrogen lifting and
production testing of the well compared to other
wells in the area.
Drilling Underbalanced mitigated the drilling
hazard of differential sticking encountered in
offset wells.
2) UBD Improves Rate of Penetration and
Reduces No. of Bits to Drill Barnett Shale:
Location: Tarrant and Wise Counties, Texas
Formations: From below surface casing through Barnett
Shale
Depth: 7,400 ft TVD
Well Type: Vertical gas
Hole Size: 8-3/4 in.
No. of Wells: 2
Operating Company: Weatherford
Objectives
Increase penetration rate from a well average of 40 to
80 ft/hr.
Decrease number of bits required from an average of
3.
Provide better definition of formations seen on logs.
Results
Averaged a penetration rate of 80 ft/hr.
Reduced number of bits required to 1.
3) First Underbalanced Dual Lateral In Libya
Improves Productivity, Protects Against
Formation Damage:
Location: Libya
Formation: Facha C
Well Type: Dual-Lateral Horizontal
Hole Size: 6 in
Product/Services: Controlled Pressure Drilling (CPD)
Services
Operating Company: Weatherford
Objectives
Improve reservoir productivity.
Eliminate formation damage caused by invasion
of drilling fluids, avoid lost circulation, and
prevent differential sticking.
6 SPE 114186
Evaluate and characterize well productivity while
drilling.
Reduce nonproductive time (NPT).
Results
This dual-lateral well was the first of its kind in Libya
to be drilled Underbalanced. Reservoir productivity
was improved by a factor of 4.5.
The job proceeded as planned, with a slight
increase in rate of penetration (ROP), compared
to ROPs in conventionally drilled offset wells
and no formation damage.
Surface Equipment for UBD Operations
The surface equipment used during overbalanced drilling
is not compromised during underbalanced drilling and
special closed loop surface equipment system is designed
to ensure the success of UBD operation as shown in figure
(18). UBD surface equipment involves:
Drilling system
Gas Generation Equipment
Well Control Equipment
Surface Separation Equipment
Figure (19) shows a typical closed loop system used for
UBD operation. Closed loop as name indicates means the
drilling fluid is recirculated after processing at surface.
This also means that less waste is transferred to the
atmosphere during UBD operation, another advantage of
UBD.
Why all the UBD Surface Equipment?
Primarily, to safely manage the produced fluid at
surface within the expected flow rates and
pressures.
To separate cuttings, produced fluid, and drilling
fluid at surface for disposal, export and re-
injection into the well bore.
To accurately measure and analyze the fluid
produced.
To introduce lift gas into the drilling fluid,
allowing under balanced conditions.
Conclusions
A good understanding of the conventional overbalanced
drilling problems would lead the operators to carefully
design the drilling operation. A properly designed and
executed Underbalanced drilling program, if feasible, is
still the best way to significantly reduce Formation
damage, lost circulation and differential sticking. UBD
allows the gathering of valuable data required for the
proper assessment of economical oil and gas reserves
(reservoir evaluation while drilling), and enhance
productivity by surrounding the well bore with and an
environment that is conductive to maximum performance,
therefore enhancing the productivity and the use of special
surface equipment reduces the risks associated with UBD.
Even though the cost of drilling Underbalanced
could be more expensive than conventional overbalanced
drilling, but due to the increased ROP and reduced
formation damage, UBD often turns out to be the more
cost-effective drilling technique as well.
Acknowledgement
The author presents thanks to Almighty Allah to give him
courage to work on this paper and to all of his class
fellows for their cooperation. The author presents Special
thanks to Mr. Maqsood Ahmed Malik, UBD/MPD
Operations Manager, FX Solutions Group, Pakistan, for
his help and guidance to prepare this paper. Finally, thanks
to SPE for giving him an honour to present at 2008 IPTC.
Nomenclature
CPD = Controlled Pressure Drilling
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
E & P = Exploration and Production
ECD = Equivalent Circulating Density
HCl = Hydro Chloric Acid
NPT = Nonproductive Time
PPG = Pounds Per Gallon
PSI = Pounds Per Square Inch
ROP = Rate Of Penetration
TVD = True Vertical Depth
UBD = Underbalanced Drilling
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SPE 114186 7
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th
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8 SPE 114186
Figure (1)
Figure (2)
Figure (3)
Figure (4)
Figure (5)
Figure (6)
SPE 114186 9
Figure (7)
Figure (8)
Figure (9)
Figure (10)
Figure (11)
Figure (12)
10 SPE 114186
Figure (13)
Figure (14)
Figure (16)
Figure (17)
Figure (15)
SPE 114186 11
Figure (18)
Figure (19)
