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Memory failures [edit]
Transience - memories degrade with the passing of time. This occurs in the storage stage of
memory, after the information has been stored and before it is retrieved. This can happen in
sensory, short-term, and long-term storage. It follows a general pattern where the information is
rapidly forgotten during the first couple of days or years, followed by small losses in later days or
years.
Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to the lack of attention. Attention plays a key role in
storing information into long-term memory; without proper attention, the information might not be
stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.
Physiology [edit]
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala,
the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For
example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while
the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory.
[32]
Damage to certain areas in patients
and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather
than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling
through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe
memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and
memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term
potentiation and long-term depression.
In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the better it is remembered; this
phenomenon is known as the memory enhancement effect. Patients with amygdala damage,
however, do not show a memory enhancement effect.
[33][34]
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that
stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory.
Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections
of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the
amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the
amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients
with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally
charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for
memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its
output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory
areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory
loss and problems with memory storage.
[35]
Cognitive neuroscience of memory [edit]
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the
experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such
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definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious
level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also
called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly
equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences
as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or
thought (Moscovitch 2007).
One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are
coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes
from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple
neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex
examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events
(Byrne 2007).
Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves the spiking of individual neurons induced by
sensory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005;
Fransen et al. 2002). Encoding ofepisodic memory involves persistent changes in molecular
structures that altersynaptic transmission between neurons. Examples of such structural changes
include long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity(STDP). The persistent
spiking in working memory can enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the encoding of
episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman 2005).
Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working memory signals in both medial
temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal
cortex (Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong relationship between working memory and long-
term memory. However, the substantially more working memory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe
suggest that this area play a more important role in working memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).
Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-term memory (STM) is temporary and subject to disruption,
while long-term memory (LTM), once consolidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidation of STM
into LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes: synaptic consolidation and
system consolidation. The former involves a protein synthesis process in the medial temporal lobe
(MTL), whereas the latter transforms the MTL-dependent memory into an MTL-independent memory
over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In recent years, such traditional consolidation dogma has been
re-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsolidation. These studies showed that prevention
after retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that
post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors and many other compounds can lead to an
amnestic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai 2006). These findings on reconsolidation fit
with the behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not a carbon copy of the initial experiences,
and memories are updated during retrieval.
Genetics [edit]
Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association
of APOE with memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. The search for genes associated with
normally varying memory continues. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the
gene KIBRA,
[36]
which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay
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period.
Memory in infancy [edit]
For the inability of adults to retrieve early memories, see Childhood amnesia.
Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve
information.
[37]
A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall
information after a 24-hour delay.
[38]
Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they
can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour
period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months.
[39]
In
addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14-month-olds
can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately six
exposures in order to be able to remember it.
[24][38]
It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have
difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall
the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - that is, recalling step 1 and then step
2.
[40][41]
In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in
the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate
the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-
olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence.
[38]
Researchers have suggested that these age
differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal
components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months.
[25][42][43]
Memory and aging [edit]
Main article: Memory and aging
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the
hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in
normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price,
2005). Research has revealed that individuals performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal
regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal
order in which they learned information;
[44]
source memory tasks that require them to remember the
specific circumstances or context in which they learned information;
[45]
and prospective memory tasks
that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems
with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.
Effects of physical exercise on memory [edit]
Main article: Effects of physical exercise on memory
Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exercises such as running, cycling and swimming, has
many cognitive benefits and effects on the brain. Influences on the brain include increases in
neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the
hippocampus. The effects of exercise on memory have important implications for improving children's
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academic performance, maintaining mental abilities in old age, and the prevention and potential cure of
neurological diseases.
Disorders [edit]
Main article: Memory disorder
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly
amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the
regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the
parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices
[46]
or the (b) midline diencephalic region,
specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the
hypothalamus.
[47]
There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become
possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus
hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurologicaldisorders such as Alzheimer's
disease and Parkinson's disease
[48]
can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or
hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory,
essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be
stored.
[49]
Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory
syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory.
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-
tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic aphasia (also called Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however,
do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and
parietal lobes of the brain.
Factors that influence memory [edit]
Influence of odors and emotions [edit]
In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the
brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.
[50]
Emotion can have a
powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical
memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity
and detail than neutral events.
[51]
The part of the brain that is critical in creating the feeling of emotion is the amygdala, which allows for
stress hormones to strengthen neuron communication.
[52]
The chemicals cortisone and adrenaline are
released in the brain when the amygdala is activated by positive or negative excitement. The most
effective way to activate the amygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protective mechanism which
comes on strong making it memorable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. This is when a
memory can be hazy yet vivid, or haunting with perfect clarity. This discovery led to the development of a
drug to help treat posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
[53]
When someone is in a heightened emotional
state, the events causing it become strong and ground in the memory, sometimes disrupting daily life for
years.
[54]
An experiment done with rats helped create the drug for treating this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory
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University, used tones and shocks to test an existing drug called cycloserine (an anti-tuberculosis drug).
Rats would hear a tone and receive a mild shock, training them to fear the tone. Then the drug was
given to one set of rats, and the tests were done again. The rats that did not receive the drug froze in
fear. When the tone was heard, the rats given the drug ignored the tone and continued on.
[55]
The drug
can effectively allow for new receptor connections between neurons and relaxing of the amygdala when
it comes to fear, allowing patients to have a chance of recovery from PTSD.
Dr. Barbara Rothbaum at Emory University conducts experimental treatments for PTSD using the
knowledge that exactly the same neurons are active when remembering an event as when it was
created. Her administration of the drugcycloserine is intended to help patients foster new connections
between neurons, providing a window to lessen former traumatic connections. Rothbaum decided to use
the drug in a therapy session that utilizes virtual reality to give PTSD suffers a second chance. Once the
events that have caused the PTSD are identified, the process can begin. The surroundings of the
events are recreated in a virtual reality helmet (for instance, in a combat vehicle in the desert).
[56]
This
would help to recall the target memories in a safe environment, and activate the neurons without
activating the fear response from the amygdala. When the dicyclomine is in the patient's system and the
same neurons are active that were active during the event, the patient can now have a chance to re-
form neural connections, with less chemicals present from the amygdala. This does not erase the
memory, but rather lessens the strength of it, giving some relief so that people suffering from PTSD can
try to move on and live their lives.
Recall is linked with emotion. If pain, joy, excitement, or any other strong emotion is present during an
event, the neurons active during this event produce strong connections with each other. When this
event is remembered or recalled in the future, the neurons will more easily and speedily make the same
connections. The strength and longevity of memories is directly related to the amount of emotion felt
during the event of their creation.
[57]
Interference from previous knowledge [edit]
At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found that memory
accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more, and have more experience than children, and
tend to apply all this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August
2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning
new information makes it harder to recall old information
[58]
and proactive interference, where prior
learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to
keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information.
Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French this
phenomenon is known as positive transfer.
[59]
Memory and stress [edit]
Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the
brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect
memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic
stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats.
[60]
An
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experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how
learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans.
[61]
In this study, 48 healthy female and
male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned
to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or Socially
Evaluated Cold Pressor Test) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the
stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both
groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they
could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear
impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the
control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by
diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even
when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf
shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning
task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can
be attenuated.
[62]
Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the
SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture
cards a computerized version of the card game "Concentration" or "Memory". The room in which the
experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory.
Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again
present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who
experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an
unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of
stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla
scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed
faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.
[63]
This research on the effects of stress on memory may have practical implications for education, for
eyewitness testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform better when tested in their regular
classroom rather than an exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better at the scene of an event
than in a courtroom, and persons suffering from post-traumatic stress may improve when helped to
situate their memories of a traumatic event in an appropriate context.
Memory construction and manipulation [edit]
Although people often think that memory operates like recording equipment, it is not the case. The
molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and
comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime.
[64]
In fact, research
has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memories when they
encode them and/or when they recall them. To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974)
[65]
in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic
accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that the people who were asked,
"How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher estimates than those
who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore, when asked a
week later whether they have seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question
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with smashed were twice more likely to report that they have seen broken glass than those who had
been asked the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of
the questions distorted viewers memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led
people to construct different memories of the event those who were asked the question
with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this
experiment were replicated around the world, and researchers consistently demonstrated that when
people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known
as the misinformation effect.
[66]
Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have
never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. For
instance, Goff and Roediger
[67]
(1998) asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g.,
break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed
that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that
they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her
colleagues (1996)
[68]
asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a
number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked
them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to
imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children. That is,
when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events.
Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible to artificially stimulate prior memories and
artificially implant false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a team of RIKEN-MIT scientists caused the
mice to incorrectly associate a benign environment with a prior unpleasant experience from different
surroundings. Some scientists believe that the study may have implications in studying false memory
formation in humans, and in treating PTSD and schizophrenia.
[69]
Improving memory [edit]
Main article: Improving memory
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes
such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their
daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight
subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain
teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not
memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore
unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.
[70]
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly
improve memory known as the Art of memory.
The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report
[71]
which includes in pages 1416
recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the
recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically
active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time
regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.
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Levels of processing [edit]
Main article: Levels-of-processing effect
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an
experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.
Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them
into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked
to recall as many of the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered more
words. This study suggested that the organization of memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler,
2011).
Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to say words in a distinctive way,
e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read
them off a list.
Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and
some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because
they put more effort into them.
Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious African
nation. There were some short paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main
idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.
Methods to optimize memorization [edit]
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote
learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much
discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets.
The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is
spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorization
in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember
uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial
memory to memorize non-spatial information.
[72]
See also [edit]
Intermediate-term memory
Politics of memory
Method of loci
Mnemonic major system
Adaptive memory
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