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CHAPTER 13 - INF

Chapter 12
Curriculum Development
1. INTRODUCTION
Cur r i cul um may be equated wi th the gr ound whi ch i s cov er ed by
the student and teacher together to r each educati onal goal s.
Popul ar l y , i t i s known as the sy l l abus or the cour se of the
taught i n a school , col l ege or uni v er si ty . It i s the total i ty of the
l ear ni ng ex per i ences a student gets dur i ng an educati onal
pr ogr amme or i n other wor ds i t i ncl udes al l the teachi ng- l ear ni ng
acti v i ti es pl anned by a teachi ng i nsti tuti on to achi ev e desi r ed
goal s of an educati onal pr ogr amme.
2. MEANING AND DEFINITION
Cur r i cul um wor d i s der i v ed f r om the Lati n l anguage whi ch means a
cour se of deeds and ex per i ences thr ough whi ch chi l dr en gr ow to
become matur e adul ts. Oliva (1997) has ex pl ai ned the meani ng of
cur r i cul um as the f ol l owi ng:
It i s a cour se of study or a set of subjects or set of
per f or mance objecti v es or a pr ogr am of studi es.
It i s ev er y thi ng that goes on wi thi n the school , i ncl udi ng
ex tr a-cl ass acti v i ti es, gui dance, and i nter per sonal
r el ati onshi ps.
It i s ev er y thi ng that i s pl anned by the school per sonnel .
It i s a ser i es of ex per i ences under gone by l ear ner s i n a
school .
Cunningrow def i ned cur r i cul um as a tool i n the hands of the
ar ti st (teacher s) to moul d hi s mater i al (the pupi l ) i n accor dance
wi th hi s i deal s (ai ms and objecti v es) i n hi s studi o (school ).
Grundy (1987 ) def i ned cur r i cul um as a pr ogr amme of acti v i ti es
car r i ed out by the teacher s and pupi l s so that pupi l s wi l l attai n
cer tai n educati onal and other school i ng ends or objecti v es.
Stenhouse (1975) mai ntai ned that cur r i cul um i s an attempt to
communi cate the essenti al pr i nci pl es and f eatur es of an
educati onal pr oposal i n such a f or m that i t i s open to cr i ti cal
scr uti ny and capabl e of ef f ecti v e tr ansl ati on i nto pr acti ce.
Kerr (1968) ar gued that cur r i cul um has al l the l ear ni ng
acti v i ti es whi ch ar e pl anned and gui ded by the school , whether
they ar e car r i ed out i n gr oups or i ndi v i dual l y , i nsi de or outsi de the
school .
Jeffs and Smith (1999) ar gued that the cur r i cul um i s the centr al
di v i di ng l i ne between f or mal and i nf or mal educati on. Cur r i cul um
onl y makes sense when consi der ed al ongsi de noti ons l i ke cl ass,
teacher , cour se, l esson and so on. It i s not a concept that stands on i ts
own.
Cur r i cul um i s a sy stemati cal l y ar r anged pl an of l ear ni ng
ex per i ences, teachi ng str ategi es, ev al uati on or ex ami nati on
cr i ter i a and other ex tr acur r i cul ar acti v i ti es dev el oped by a
school f or a def i ned gr oup of students to attai n the ai ms of a
par ti cul ar educati onal pr ogr amme.
In many educati onal ci r cl es cur r i cul um i s sti l l equated wi th a
sy l l abus. Cur zon (1985) and Bl enki n (1992) ar gued that an appr oach
to cur r i cul um theor y and pr acti ce whi ch f ocuses on sy l l abus i s
onl y r eal l y concer ned wi th content. Ther ef or e, cur r i cul um i s a
body of knowl edge-content and/or subjects. Educati on i n thi s
per specti v e i s the pr ocess by whi ch these ar e tr ansmi tted or
del i v er ed to students by the most ef f ecti v e methods that can be
dev i sed (Bl enki n et al 1992).
3. PURPOSES OF CURRICULUM
Cur r i cul um i s an essenti al tool i n the hands of educator s to gui de a
cour se of study that ser v es some di sti nct pur poses whi ch ar e as

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f ol l ows:
It communi cates to the students i n adv ance what they ar e
ex pected to l ear n i n the speci f i ed ti me dur ati on to
accompl i sh thei r educati onal goal s.
It i ntr oduces the cr i ter i a of ex ami nati on or ev al uati on to
the students so that they can pr epar e f or ex ams
accor di ngl y .
It descr i bes to the teacher s the cour se, uni t and l esson
objecti v es as wel l as r equi r ed teachi ng l ear ni ng methods,
whi ch assi sts the teacher s to pl an thei r l esson accor di ngl y .
It communi cates to the pol i cy maker s about the
competenci es and ex per ti se of a par ti cul ar gr oup of
students the posi ti ons and r ol es they can per f or m.
It pr epar es the pupi l f or ci ti zenshi p i n a democr ati c
soci ety .
It meets the needs of students wi th a wi de r ange of abi l i ty ,
apti tudes and i nter ests.
It r el ates and sy stemati cal l y or gani zes the v ar i ous l ear ni ng
ex per i ences so as to pr oduce the max i mum cumul ati v e
ef f ect i n attai ni ng the objecti v es of the school .
4. TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Al though, ther e i s no uni v er sal l y acceptabl e cl assi f i cati on of
cur r i cul um, educati oni sts howev er hav e cl assi f i ed i t on v ar i ous
basi s. The av ai l abl e l i ter atur e suggested the f ol l owi ng
cl assi f i cati on of cur r i cul um:
4.1. CoreCurriculum
Cor e cur r i cul um i s a cour se of study , whi ch i s consi der ed centr al
and usual l y made mandator y f or al l students of a col l ege or
uni v er si ty . It i s al so r ef er r ed to key aspects of a di sci pl i ne f or
study i n depth by al l the students. For i nstance, i n MSc Nur si ng
cour se the adv ance nur si ng pr acti ce, r esear ch and stati sti cs,
nur si ng admi ni str ati on or management i s par t of the cor e
cur r i cul um whi ch i s consi der ed mandator y f or al l MSc Nur si ng
students i r r especti v e of thei r speci al ty ar ea.
4.2. Open Curriculum
Open cur r i cul um i s a ty pe of cur r i cul um whi ch a student
v ol unteer s to choose accor di ng to hi s aspi r ati on and moti v ati on.
For ex ampl e, Car di ol ogi cal and CTVS nur si ng, Oncol ogy nur si ng
and Psy chi atr i c nur si ng ar e open cur r i cul um f or MSc nur si ng
cour se because a postgr aduate aspi r ant choose these cour ses as per
thei r moti v ati on. Open cur r i cul um appr oach r espect col l ege
students the r i ght to choose what cour ses they want to opt f or as
per thei r i nter est.
4.3. Explicit (Expressed) or Overt or Written or Official Curriculum
Ex pl i ci t cur r i cul um i s one whi ch i s ex pr essed or wr i tten i n
cur r i cul um document as wel l as teacher s pl ans, whi ch i s wel l
i nf or med to both teacher s and students. It i s usual l y conf i ned to
those wr i tten under standi ngs and di r ecti ons whi ch ar e f or mal l y
chosen and r ev i ewed by the cur r i cul um commi ttee and teacher s.
4.4. Implicit (Or Hidden) Or Covert Curriculum
Impl i ci t cur r i cul um as opposed to ex pl i ci t cur r i cul um i s not
ex pr essed or appear s i n of f i ci al documents and teacher 's pl an as
wel l as i t i s not i nf or med to the students. It r ef er s to the ki nds of
l ear ni ng, student der i v e f r om the natur e and or gani zati onal desi gn
of the school or col l ege of nur si ng, as wel l as f r om the behav i or s
and atti tudes of teacher s and admi ni str ator s (Modified from the
Longstreet and Shane, 1993)
Accor di ng to Vic Kelly (1988) hi dden cur r i cul um i ncl udes those
whi ch students l ear n, because of the way i n whi ch the wor k of the
school i s pl anned and or gani zed but those whi ch ar e not i n
themsel v es ov er tl y i ncl uded i n the pl anni ng or ev en i n the
consci ousness of those r esponsi bl e f or the school pr ov i si ons.
4.5. Null Curriculum
The nul l cur r i cul um i s somethi ng whi ch i s not taught i n the school
or col l ege, thus gi v i ng students the message that these el ements ar e
not i mpor tant i n thei r educati onal ex per i ences or i n the soci ety .
Not teachi ng some par ti cul ar sets of i deas may be due to mandates
f r om hi gher author i ti es, or to deepl y i ngr ai n assumpti ons and
bi ases.
Eisner (1994) ex pr essed hi s v i ews on nul l cur r i cul um that what
school s do not teach may be as i mpor tant as what they do teach. I
ar gue thi s posi ti on because i gnor ance i s not si mpl y a neutr al v oi d;
i t has i mpor tant ef f ects on the ki nds of opti ons one i s abl e to
consi der , the al ter nati v es that one can ex ami ne, and the
per specti v es f r om whi ch one can v i ew a si tuati on or pr obl ems.
4.6. Societal Curriculum
Cortes (1981) def i nes soci etal cur r i cul um as the massi v e, ongoi ng,
i nf or mal cur r i cul um of f ami l y , peer gr oups, nei ghbor hoods,
chur ches or gani zati ons, occupati ons, mass, medi a and other
soci al i zi ng f or ces that educate al l of us thr oughout our l i v es. It i s
pl anned by soci al gr oups outsi de of an educati onal i nsti tuti on and
i s mor e concer ned wi th the gener al char acter i sti cs of cur r i cul um
content.
4.7. Institutional Curriculum
Insti tuti onal cur r i cul um i s pl anned by the nur si ng f acul ty at
col l ege l ev el f or a cl ear l y i denti f i ed gr oup of nur si ng students who
wi l l spend a speci f i ed ti me per i od i n that nur si ng i nsti tuti on.
4.8. Instructional Curriculum
It consi sts of the content pl anned f or r outi ne i nstr ucti ons i n
theor y cl asses as wel l as i n cl i ni cal and communi ty ar ea by the
teacher f or a speci f i ed gr oup of students to achi ev e the desi r ed
behav i or al changes i n the student.
4.9. Integrated Curriculum
The i ntegr ated or f used cur r i cul um i s the cur r i cul um i n whi ch the
concepts, phenomena, and pr ocesses etc. f r om di f f er ent subjects ar e
bl ended together . For ex ampl e, Medi cal Sur gi cal Nur si ng i s an
i ntegr ated subject/cur r i cul um r epr esenti ng pathol ogy ,
mi cr obi ol ogy , medi ci ne, sur ger y etc.


Figure 12.1 Ty pes of Cur r i cul um
5. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM
Fol l owi ng ar e the pr i nci pl es of cur r i cul um desi gn f or gener al as
wel l as pr of essi onal educati on.
5.1. Principleof Utility
It emphasi zes that cur r i cul um shoul d equi p a student wi th
knowl edge and ski l l s so that he can sol v e pr obl ems and f ace
si tuati ons conf i dentl y i n r eal l i f e. It shoul d hel p the i ndi v i dual to
av ai l hi s r i ghts as a consumer &get the standar d qual i ty of ser v i ce
at the r i ght pr i ce.
5.2. Principleof Flexibility
Thi s pr i nci pl e takes i nto consi der ati on the uni queness of ev er y
i ndi v i dual student. It emphasi zes that cur r i cul um shoul d be
f l ex i bl e enough to accommodate the changes i n the student's
di v er se i nter est, i ncl i nati ons &accor dance wi th soci al
r equi r ements.
5.3. Principleof Community-Centeredness
The needs and pr obl ems of the communi ty shoul d be gi v en pr i or i ty
i n the cur r i cul um dev el opment. A good cur r i cul um shoul d cater to
the communi ty needs at l ocal as wel l as nati onal l ev el , so that;
students can be pr epar ed to tackl e these communi ty pr obl ems.
5.4. Principleof Activity-Centeredness
Lear ni ng thr ough pur posef ul acti v i ty and actual l i f e ex per i ences
makes l ear ni ng pr ocess i nter esti ng l ong l asti ng and enjoy abl e.
Ther ef or e, cur r i cul um dev el opment shoul d f ocus on those
ex per i ences whi ch l ead to acti v e l ear ni ng among students.
5.5. Principlefor theUseof Leisure
The cur r i cul um shoul d teach the student how to use l ei sur e ti me
wi sel y because the use of l ei sur e ti me i n an appr opr i ate manner
dev el ops cr eati v i ty , aestheti c sense and v ocati onal ski l l s among
students.
5.6. Principleof Development of Cultureand Civilization
The pupi l shoul d hav e the knowl edge of thei r cul tur e and
ci v i l i zati on, ther ef or e; cur r i cul um shoul d i ncl ude these aspects
whi ch ar e necessar y to be a good ci ti zen.
5.7. Principleof Need Based Activity
It cater s to the needs of soci ety &pr ov i des the manpower f or soci al
and economi c dev el opment of the Nati on.
5.8. Principleof Value-Orientedness
For the i ncul cati on of v al ues l i ke soci al justi ce, equal i ty of
oppor tuni ty , equal i ty of sex es, soci al and democr ati c v al ues among
the l ear ner s cur r i cul um shoul d be v al ue or i ented.
5.9. ConservativePrinciples
Conser v ati ons of cul tur al her i tage, monuments, natur al r esour ces,
wi l dl i f e shoul d be i ncul cated i n a student to make hi m a
r esponsi bl e ci ti zen of the nati on.
5.10. Principleof Harmony
For mal &Inf or mal educati on, i ndi v i dual and soci al ai ms shoul d be
i nter wov en i nto a har moni ous whol e pav i ng the way f or the
ov er al l dev el opment of the i ndi v i dual &soci al up-l i f tment.
6. FORCES &ISSUES INFLUENCING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
For ces &i ssues that i nf l uence nur si ng sci ence cur r i cul um ar e
compl ex and ev er changi ng. In the new mi l l enni um, ther e ar e
r api d changes wi thi n the heal th car e sy stem whi ch puts f or th
chal l enges bef or e nur se educator s to dev i ce r el ev ant cur r i cul um
f or nur si ng educati on to keep pace wi th these changes. Cur r i cul um
i s nev er dev el oped i n a v acuum, but i n contex tual r epr esentati on
of gl obal tr ends, nati onal v i tal and heal th stati sti cs, nati onal
heal th pol i cy , nati onal popul ati on pol i cy , pr of essi onal pr i or i ti es
&f acul ty v al ues. The f ol l owi ng ar e the deter mi nants of the
cur r i cul um i n nur si ng sci ences:
6.1. Societal Determinants
6.1.1. Demographic Revolution
Wor l d popul ati on i s gr owi ng at an unpr ecedented r ate and has
ex ceeded 6 bi l l i on. Ther e wi l l be mor e heal th pr obl ems associ ated
wi th the el der l y , as a r esul t of the agei ng popul ati on i n the nex t
2030 y ear s. Demogr aphi c changes ar e al so pr ompti ng mass
ur bani zati on, i mmi gr ati on to r i ch countr i es, shi f t to the age
str uctur e towar ds el der l y and pauci ty of r esour ces due to
i ncr easi ng popul ati on.
Curriculum I mplications: These demogr aphi c changes hav e
emphasi zed pr omoti on of heal th and pr ev enti on of di seases,
di sabi l i ti es as wel l as chr oni c i l l nesses. Ther e i s a di r e need of
i ncr eased number of nur ses due to the gr owi ng popul ati on
ther ef or e; mor e nur si ng educati onal pr ogr ammes shoul d be made
av ai l abl e thr ough di stance educati on, cur r i cul um shoul d i ncl ude
components of ger i atr i c nur si ng.
6.1.2. Major Health Problems
Ther e i s a shi f t of major heal th pr obl ems towar ds chr oni c
di sabi l i ti es, psy chi atr i c or psy chol ogi cal pr obl ems, swi ne f l u, bi r d
f l u whi ch shoul d be gi v en due consi der ati on i n the nur si ng
cur r i cul a.
6.1.3. Advancement in Medical Technology
Medi cal technol ogy has become mor e compl ex and sophi sti cated
wi th the techni cal adv ancement i n basi c sci ences ther ef or e; i t i s
mor e r el ev ant to dev i ce mor e conti nui ng educati onal pr ogr ammes
f or nur ses to keep pace wi th the f ast gr owi ng medi cal technol ogy .
6.1.4. Change in Health Care Delivery System
Mor e emphasi s i s on pr ev enti v e aspects of the car e, pr i mar y
heal th, communi ty heal th, and ambul ator y car e whi ch demands f or
adequate r epr esentati on i n cur r i cul um.
6.1.5. Cultural Diffusion &Family Disintegration
Nucl ear f ami l y and cul tur al di f f usi on has gi v en r i se to numer ous
pr obl ems l i ke dr ug addi cti on, al cohol i sm, pr e-mar i tal sex and
emer gence of AIDS whi ch necessi tates modi f i cati ons of cur r i cul um
to take i n to consi der ati on these emer gi ng heal th pr obl ems i n
soci ety .
6.1.6. Changes in Patient's Expectations
Incr eased cost of heal th car e has hei ghtened the ex pectati ons of
pati ents i n ter ms of qual i ty of car e and sati sf acti on. Pati ent's bi l l
of r i ghts has i ncr eased the accountabi l i ty of nur ses i n al l the
heal th car e setti ngs. These changes i n pati ent ex pectati ons hav e
i mpl i cati ons f or ev i dence based teachi ng and i ntr oducti on of
qual i ty assur ance model , pr acti ce standar ds and code of ethi cs i nto
the nur si ng cur r i cul a.
6.2. Educational Determinants
6.2.1. New Educational Strategies
Var i eti es of educati onal str ategi es whi ch ar e appr opr i ate f or adul t
l ear ni ng hav e come i nto bei ng. Computer as an ai d to teachi ng i s
usel ess wi thout sof twar e desi gn to suppor t l ear ni ng i n the nur si ng
pr of essi on. Pr ogr ammed i nstr ucti ons, objecti v e based educati on,
competency based cur r i cul um, pr obl em based educati on, computer
assi sted i nstr ucti on ar e some of the i nnov ati ons i n nur si ng
educati on whi ch r equi r e a r adi cal tr ansf or mati on of the
cur r i cul um, f ur ther mor e, the content mater i al s need to be
dev el oped by the nur si ng ex per ts to justi f y the cur r i cul um
tr ansf or mati on. These f actor s al so hav e cur r i cul um i mpl i cati ons
i n ter ms of sel f di r ected l ear ni ng, dev el opment of sel f
i nstr ucti onal modul e etc.
6.2.2. New Methods of Assessment
Objecti v e str uctur ed cl i ni cal ev al uati on (OSCE) and Objecti v e
str uctur ed pr acti cal ex ami nati ons (OSPE) ar e the i nnov ati v e
ev al uati on str ategi es whi ch hav e i mpl i cati ons f or newer desi gn of
nur si ng cur r i cul um.
6.3. Economical Determinants
It i nv ol v es cost benef i ts anal y si s to deter mi ne the sui tabi l i ty of a
nur si ng pr ogr amme. Cur r i cul um commi ttee shoul d anal y ze
whether the pr ogr amme i s cost ef f ecti v e or not?
6.4. Philosophical Determinants
The school of phi l osophy i n whi ch the pr of essi on or soci ety or
nati ons bel i ev es, i nf l uence the contents of the cur r i cul um as wel l
as the i nstr ucti onal str ategi es empl oy ed to achi ev e objecti v es of
the educati on.
7. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Print (1993) def i nes cur r i cul um dev el opment as, the pr ocess of
pl anni ng, i mpl ementi ng and ev al uati ng l ear ni ng oppor tuni ti es
i ntended to pr oduce desi r ed changes i n l ear ner s. A cur r i cul um
dev el opment model i s used to study the components of a cur r i cul um
and the r el ati onshi ps between these components. It i s a sy mbol i c
r epr esentati on of the r el ati onshi ps between speci f i ed cur r i cul um
dev el opment phases, steps and tasks that consti tute a cur r i cul um
dev el opment pr ocess.
Cur r i cul um dev el opment shoul d i nv ol v e deci si on maki ng about
the f oundati ons and str uctur e of a cur r i cul um whi ch r ef er s to the
v ar i ous components of a cur r i cul um (ai ms/goal s/objecti v es,
content, l ear ni ng acti v i ti es and ev al uati on). Cur r i cul um
dev el opment i s a l ogi cal l y sequenti al and or der l y pr ocess whi ch
i ncl udes cer tai n steps i nto a pr edeter mi ned sequence. These steps
ar e as f ol l ows:
Consti tuti on of a cur r i cul um commi ttee
Inv esti gati on &anal y si s of the ex i sti ng heal th needs of the
r egi on &nati on (For e.g. Nati onal Heal th Pol i cy , 2005)
Inv esti gati on of cur r i cul um needs f or nur si ng educati on
For mul ati on of the phi l osophy of nur si ng educati on
Establ i shment of educati onal
objecti v es/outcomes/competenci es
Sel ecti on of l ear ni ng ex per i ences
Sel ecti on of i nstr ucti onal str ategi es
Or gani zati on of l ear ni ng ex per i ences
Dev el opment of Ev al uati on sy stems
The cur r i cul um commi ttee establ i shed by the Indi an nur si ng
counci l or any uni v er si ty or i nsti tuti on deter mi nes the heal th
needs of the r egi on as wel l as the nati on, by anal y zi ng the nati onal
heal th stati sti cs, nati onal heal th pol i cy document, nati onal
popul ati on pol i cy document and other r el ated documents whi ch
ar e of i nter est. In the l i ght of the r esul ts of the anal y si s the
cur r i cul um commi ttee deter mi nes the need of a par ti cul ar nur si ng
educati onal pr ogr amme. Whi l e dev el opi ng cur r i cul um f or any
nur si ng educati on pr ogr amme the commi ttee f ol l ows cer tai n steps
whi ch ar e as f ol l ows:
7.1. Formulation of Philosophy of Nursing Education Programme
Phi l osophy means l ov e of wi sdom. It i s the most i nf l uenti al
deter mi nant of the cur r i cul um dev el opment whi ch pr ov i des
di r ecti ons to the enti r e pr ocess of cur r i cul um dev el opment. The
phi l osophi cal bases of a cur r i cul um r ef er to the under l y i ng v al ues
and bel i ef s that i nf l uence the cur r i cul um str uctur e and i ts
substance. Any deci si on that educator s make about a cur r i cul um i s
i nf l uenced by thei r phi l osophi cal assumpti ons about the
epi stemol ogy (the natur e of knowl edge), soci ety /cul tur e, the
i ndi v i dual (speci f i cal l y the l ear ner ) and l ear ni ng (how a per son
l ear ns and what l ear ni ng theor i es the cur r i cul um shoul d be based
upon).

TABLE 12.1 Di f f er ences between Phi l osophy and Educati on
Philosophy Education
Phi l osophy sets the goal s
It pr ov i des means to
achi ev e them
Phi l osophy i s the wi sdom
It tr ansmi ts thi s wi sdom to
the students
Ideal s, v al ues, pr i nci pl es
ar e der i v ed f r om the
phi l osophy
Educati on wor ks out these
i deal s, pr i nci pl es and
v al ues f or the students
Phi l osophy deter mi nes
contents of cur r i cul um
Cur r i cul um contents ar e
cov er ed i n a cour se thr ough
educati on
Ai ms of educati on
deter mi ned by Phi l osophy
Ai ms of Educati on ar e
achi ev ed thr ough teachi ng
and l ear ni ng acti v i ti es
Gi v en bel ow ar e the Phi l osophi cal assumpti ons whi ch af f ect the
pr ocess of cur r i cul um dev el opment
Philosophical Statement

Example 1: We bel i ev e that the Post Gr aduate cour se i n
nur si ng shoul d pr epar e nur ses f or l ead-er shi p l ev el
posi ti ons i n nur si ng both i n the hospi tal and the communi ty
setti ngs.
Curriculum I mplications:
1. The cur r i cul um shoul d pr ov i de f or ex per i ence i n al l
major cl i ni cal ar eas of nur si ng sci ences i n the hospi tal
as wel l as i n the communi ty .
2. The cur r i cul um shoul d emphasi ze dev el opment of
l eader shi p qual i ti es among postgr aduate nur si ng
students.
3. Faci l i ti es shoul d be pr ov i ded to put these pr i nci pl es
i nto pr acti ce.
Example 2: We r ecogni ze that nur si ng i s a pr of essi on,
whi ch i s i nf l uenced by adv ances i n sci ence and medi cal
technol ogy .
Curriculum I mplications
1. Ther e shoul d be per i odi c ev al uati on of the total
cur r i cul um and conti nuous ev al uati on of i ts di f f er ent
par ts.
2. Need based conti nui ng educati on pr ogr ammes shoul d
be dev el oped at v ar i ous l ev el and al so cur r i cul um
shoul d f ocus on the concept of conti nui ng educati on, i n-
ser v i ce educati on and staf f dev el opment.
For the f or mul ati on of phi l osophy of an educati onal pr ogr amme
the cur r i cul um commi ttee shoul d hol d di scussi ons and i denti f y
ar eas to make statements on the pol i ti cal , soci al , economi c and
other gr ounds f or the dev el opment of cur r i cul um.
7.2Education Objectives
Phi l osophi cal assumpti ons di r ect the dev el opment of educati onal
objecti v es. In the tr adi ti onal appr oach of cur r i cul um
dev el opment, content i s der i v ed f i r st and ther eaf ter objecti v es ar e
deter mi ned, on the contr ar y , i n objecti v es based educati on whi ch
r ecentl y has gai ned much popul ar i ty i n nur si ng sci ences,
educati onal objecti v es ar e deter mi ned bef or e the dev el opment of a
cour se content.


Figure 12.2 Cur r i cul um Dev el opment Pr ocess

Educati on objecti v es ar e the statements of those desi r ed changes
i n a student's behav i or r esul ti ng f r om the speci f i c teachi ng
l ear ni ng acti v i ty . It deter mi nes the f i nal outcomes of an
educati onal pr ogr amme. Educati onal objecti v es shoul d be r el ev ant,
unequi v ocal , l ogi cal , achi ev abl e, f easi bl e and measur abl e.
7.2.1. Determinants of Educational Objectives
Statemnoent of School 's Phi l osophy
Soci al &Heal th needs of the soci ety
Ty pes of ser v i ces pr ov i ded to the pati ent (pr ev enti v e,
pr omoti v e and cur ati v e)
Lev el of the pr of essi onal competence to be attai ned
Student's backgr ound, l ev el of educati on bef or e enter i ng
i nto a tr ai ni ng pr ogr amme
Statutor y mi ni mum r equi r ements
The teachi ng, phy si cal and cl i ni cal r esour ces av ai l abl e
Futur e demands on nur si ng pr of essi on i n r el ati on to
adv ancements i n technol ogy
Ex pected job r esponsi bi l i ti es of di f f er ent nur si ng posi ti ons
7.2.2. Importance of Educational Objectives in Curriculum
Development
Ser v es as a gui de i n sel ecti on of i mpor tant and desi r abl e
subject content
Descr i bes behav i or i n ter ms of student per f or mance
Indi cates di r ecti on towar ds whi ch the behav i or of the
student i s to be gear ed
Ser v es as a basi s f or ev al uati on (to what ex tent the
objecti v es hav e been achi ev ed)
Pr ov i des di r ecti on to the students towar ds i n depth study
Hel ps i n ev al uati on of the cour se and gi v es f eed back to
pl anner s, admi ni str ator s and other s concer ned about the
ef f i cacy of the educati onal pr ogr amme.
In many educati onal ci r cl es of nur si ng sci ences ther e i s a mov e
f r om objecti v e based educati on to outcome based educati on. In
outcome based educati on ther e i s a mov e f r om the How and
When to the What and Whether of educati on. An outcome i s
somethi ng that f ol l ows as a r esul t of consequence. In thi s appr oach
of cur r i cul um dev el opment ter mi nal objecti v es ar e r e-ti tl ed as
outcomes.
Characteristics of outcomes based Education
Outcomes ar e cl ear l y i denti f i ed
Achi ev ement deter mi nes pr ogr ess
Mul ti pl e i nstr ucti onal str ategi es and authenti c assessment
tool s ar e used
Students ar e gi v en ti me and assi stance to r each thei r
potenti al
Outcomes ar e gener al statements that r ef er to char acter i sti c
gr aduates must acqui r e by the end of the pr ogr amme or outcomes
may be v i ewed as cor e char acter i sti cs or those qual i ti es whi ch
f acul ty want gr aduates to di spl ay .
Key Components of outcome based objectives
Exit outcome
The student wi l l be abl e to di agnose and manage pati ents
wi th acute cor onar y sy ndr ome
I ntermediate outcome
The student wi l l be abl e to take car di ac hi stor y of a pati ent
The student wi l l be abl e to per f or m car di ac phy si cal
ex ami nati on of the pati ent
I ntroductory Outcome
Student wi l l be abl e to descr i be ov er v i ew of phy si ol ogy
wi th r ef er ence to r el ev ant anatomy of the car di ov ascul ar
sy stem.
8. FOUR KEY COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
The f our key components of educati onal objecti v es ar e: Act,
Content, Condi ti on and Cr i ter i a.
For i nstance, l i st anatomi cal pathway r el ated to nor mal
conducti on of i mpul se i n hear t as stated i n Wood's car di ac nur si ng.
The f our key components i n thi s ex ampl e ar e as f ol l owi ng:

The Act - To l i st
The Content -
The anatomi cal pathway s r el ated to
hear t i mpul se conducti on
The Condi ti on - Nor mal conducti on
The Cr i ter i a - As stated i n Wood's Car di ac Nur si ng

Limitation of Educational Objectives
May l ead to sur f ace l ear ni ng
Students hav e l i ttl e under standi ng of why they hav e to
l ear n the mater i al other than to pass the ex ami nati on.


Figure 12.3 Key Components of Educati onal Objecti v es

TABLE 12.2 Compar i son of Ski l l Beck (1987 ) and Qui nn
(1997 ) Cur r i cul um Dev el opment Model s
Si tuati onal
anal y si s model
of cur r i cul um
dev el opment
(Ski l l Beck,
1984)
Qui nn's (1997 )
stages of
cur r i cul um
dev el opment
Task i ncl uded i n
the stages
Si tuati onal
anal y si s
Ex pl or ator y
stage
Anal y si s of the
ex i sti ng si tuati ons
and the cul tur e
Goal setti ng Desi gn stage
Ai ms and
Objecti v es
(Lear ni ng
Outcomes)
Pr ogr amme
bui l di ng
Cour se content,
Lear ni ng r esour ces
Teachi ng l ear ni ng
methods/str ategi es
Assessment
(summati v e and
f or mati v e)
Inter pr etati on
and
i mpl ementati on
Impl ementati on
Impl ementati on of
the cour se of study
Moni tor i ng,
f eedback,
assessment,
r econstr ucti on
Moni tor i ng and
r ev i ew
Ev al uati on of the
pr ogr amme
9. SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Lear ni ng ex per i ences r ef er s to del i ber atel y pl anned ex per i ences
i n sel ected si tuati ons wher e students acti v el y par ti ci pate,
i nter act whi ch r esul ts i n desi r abl e changes i n behav i our of
students (l ear ni ng). It r ef er s to the i nter acti on between l ear ner
and the ex ter nal condi ti ons i n the env i r onment whi ch r esul ts i n
modi f i cati on i n behav i our of the l ear ner .
Sel ecti on of l ear ni ng ex per i ence i s concer ned wi th deci si on
about the content of theor eti cal subject matter , cl i ni cal ,
communi ty and l abor ator y pr acti ces. Both di r ect and i ndi r ect
l ear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be pl anned as per the r equi r ement
and the av ai l abl e r esour ces on hand.
9.1. Criteria for theSelection of Learning Experience
Lear ni ng ex per i ences sel ected shoul d be consi stent wi th
and l ead to the achi ev ement of ter mi nal goal s.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be v ar i ed and f l ex i bl e.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d pr ov i de oppor tuni ty to
pr acti ce and dev el op ski l l s.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be adapted accor di ng to the
needs of students so that they can attai n l ear ni ng
sati sf acti on.
Sel ected l ear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be gi v en appr opr i ate
wei ghtage as per the need of the cour se. (Ref er f i g 12.1)
9.2. Principles for Selecting Learning Experiences
Cl ear l y r el ate to the desi r ed objecti v es/competenci es,
l ear ni ng domai n and domai n l ev el . Lear ni ng ex per i ences
shoul d be pur posef ul , pl anned and or gani zed.
Shoul d be appr opr i ate f or the cogni ti v e, af f ecti v e or
psy chomotor dev el opment of the students.
Be suf f i ci entl y chal l engi ng so that they mov e students to
hi gher l ev el s of cogni ti v e and af f ecti v e dev el opment.
Be emoti onal l y sati sf y i ng f or students.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be a means f or acqui r i ng the
ex pected ov er al l pr of essi onal dev el opment of the students.
Shoul d be r epr esentati v e of the ty pe of acti v i ty i n whi ch
pr of essi onal nur ses engage.
They shoul d be suf f i ci entl y v ar i ed to pr ev ent bor edom,
al l ow f or and ex pl oi t the potenti al f or i ndi v i dual student
di f f er ences.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d al so enabl e students to
par ti ci pate i n some tr ans-cul tur al ex per i ence.
Ar ti cul ate and al l ow appl i cati on of some pr ev i ous l ear ni ng
ex per i ences wi thi n the same cour se as wel l as ex per i ences
f r om pr ev i ous and concur r ent cour ses.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d pr ov i de a f oundati on
necessar y f or subsequent l ear ni ng.
Per mi t f acul ty to gui de and moni tor the students pr acti ce
when appr opr i ate.
9.3. Organization of Learning Experiences
It i s the sy stemati c ar r angement of l ear ni ng ex per i ences, so as, to
i ncr ease the cumul ati v e i mpact of many i ndi v i dual l ear ni ng
ex per i ences. The cumul ati v e ex per i ences pr ov i de f or gr eater
depth i n l ear ni ng. They hel p the students to i ntegr ate l ear ni ng
meani ngf ul l y as wel l as pr ev ent assi mi l ati on of knowl edge i n a
def r agmented or di sjoi nted manner .


Figure 12.4 Per centage Di str i buti on of Lear ni ng Ex per i ences i n
Cur r i cul um
9.4. Principles of Organization of Learning Experience
The or gani zati on of l ear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be based on some
pr i nci pl es whi ch ar e as f ol l ows:
Pr i nci pl e of conti nui ty
Pr i nci pl e of sequence: Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be
pl aced i n an or der that l eads to gr adual pr ogr ess. The
f ol l owi ng cr i ter i a can be used to pl ace them i n or der
Si mpl e to compl ex
Concr ete to abstr act
Nor mal to abnor mal
9.5. Integration and Co-ordination
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be i ntegr ated and coor di nated i n such
a way so as to cr eate a state of whol eness, har mony and r el atedness.
Types of I ntegration
Vertical I ntegration: Co-or di nati on between di sci pl i nes
tr adi ti onal l y taught and di f f er ent str uctur e and f uncti ons of a
sy stem (e.g. ci r cul ati on) and sy stem mal f uncti on (my ocar di al
i nf ar cti on).
Horizontal integration (parallel discipline): It means two or mor e
depar tment teachi ng concur r entl y mer ge thei r educati onal
i denti ti es and or gani ze thei r teachi ng pr ogr amme e.g. cel l coul d be
taught i n a much better f or mat i f i ntegr ated hor i zontal l y .
When the l ear ni ng ex per i ences ar e or gani zed and pl aced under
the subject headi ngs then a pl an i s deci ded to di str i bute these
subjects i n the contex t of ov er al l cur r i cul um, the pr i nci pl es of
sequence and i ntegr ati on ar e to be obser v ed agai n i n thi s stage. For
i nstance, psy chol ogy i s pl aced i n B Sc nur si ng 1st y ear f ol l owed by
psy chi atr i c nur si ng i n the 2nd y ear .
9.6. Organization of Clinical Learning Experiences
Cl i ni cal l ear ni ng ex per i ences ar e or gani zed thr ough the r otati on
pl ans.
9.6.1. Rotation Plan
Rotati on r ef er s to r egul ar successi v e r ecur r ent posti ng of v ar i ous
gr oups of students bel ongi ng to di f f er ent l ev el s of l ear ni ng
(di f f er ent cl asses) i n cl i ni cal Fi el d.
Master r otati on pl an i s an ov er al l pl an of r otati on of al l the
students i n a par ti cul ar educati on i nsti tuti on showi ng the
pl acement of the student bel ongi ng to v ar i ous gr oups/cl asses i n
cl i ni cal nur si ng as wel l as communi ty nur si ng f i el d denoti ng the
dur ati on of such pl acement together wi th the pl acement of
theor eti cal teachi ng bl ocks/per i ods.
9.6.2. Factors Related to Planning Clinical Rotation
Objecti v e of the cour se can be used as gui del i ne f or
pl anni ng.
Number of students i n each cl ass.
Number of cl i ni cal ar eas as wel l as the si ze of the
depar tment.
Pr esence of students of the other pr ogr ammes on the same
f i el d.
The agency 's author i ti es concer ns and consi der ati ons.
Dur ati on of ex per i ence i n each ar ea.
Number of per sons av ai l abl e f or super v i si on.
Indi an Nur si ng Counci l r equi r ements.
9.6.3. Basic Principles in Planning Clinical Rotation
Cl i ni cal r otati on pl an must be i n accor dance wi th the total
cur r i cul um pl an. Theor eti cal i nstr ucti on shoul d pr ecede
cl i ni cal ex per i ence.
Cl i ni cal i nstr uctor to student r ati o shoul d be 1:4
Sel ecti on of ar ea f r om si mpl e to compl ex
B Sc or GNM1st y ear student get max i mum super v i si on
Each student to be pr ov i ded wi th ex per i ence i n each bl ock.
No bl ock shoul d be mi ssed.
Ov er cr owdi ng wi th di f f er ent gr oups of students shoul d be
av oi ded.
When outsi de agenci es ar e sel ected f or cl i ni cal ex per i ence,
conti nui ty of ser v i ce must be mai ntai ned.
Rotati on pl an must be pr epar ed i n adv ance.
The commonl y used methods of or gani zi ng cl i ni cal l ear ni ng
ex per i ences thr ough r otati on pl an ar e:
Teaching block: These ar e f ul l ti me teachi ng sessi ons
dur i ng whi ch students ar e engaged i n theor eti cal
i nstr ucti ons. Posti ng f or f ul l ti me cl i ni cal ex per i ence i s
made af ter the teachi ng bl ock i s ov er . Usual l y ther e ar e 46
weeks teachi ng bl ock bef or e posti ng to cl i ni cal ar ea,
ther eaf ter , students may be wi thdr awn f r om cl i ni cal at
r egul ar i nter v al s f or second and thi r d teachi ng bl ock as per
pl an.
Partial block system: It i ncl udes no f ul l ti me cl i ni cal as
wel l as theor y cl asses. Usual l y students ar e posted i n
cl i ni cal ar ea i n the mor ni ng shi f t to l unch ti me, ther eaf ter
they hav e theor y cl asses.
Study day system: One or two day s i n a week ar e pl anned
f or f ul l ti me cl asses and f or r est of the day s ther e woul d be
f ul l ti me cl i ni cal .
10. EVALUATION OF THE CURRICULUM OR LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Ev al uati on i s a sy stemati c pr ocess of deter mi ni ng the ex tent to
whi ch educati onal objecti v es l ai d down i n a cur r i cul um hav e been
achi ev ed.
Purpose of Evaluation
To f i nd out to what ex tent objecti v es of the pr ogr amme
hav e been attai ned.
For cer ti f i cati on pur pose.
To pr ov i de gui del i nes f or deci si ons about a cur r i cul um,
r ev i si on modi f i cati on and shi f t of emphasi s.
Desi gned to pr otect the soci ety to pr ev ent i ncompetent
per sonnel f r om pr acti ci ng nur si ng.
10.1. Types of Assessments
Formative Assessment: It i s an ongoi ng ev al uati on to
measur e the pr ogr ess made by the students. The pur pose i s
to pr ov i de f eedback to students &teacher s at r egul ar
i nter v al s. Its r esul ts may f or m a par t of the i nter nal
assessment.
Summative Assessment: It i s the f i nal Ev al uati on of the
student done at the end of the cour se. Par t of the summati v e
assessment may be based on f or mati v e assessment.
11. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS
In the past, cur r i cul um dev el opment i n nur si ng has been
i nf l uenced by v ar i ous cl assi cal cur r i cul um dev el opment model s
that r ef l ect di f f er ent cur r i cul um dev el opment par adi gms. These
model s contr i buted towar ds pr ogr ess i n nur si ng educati on.
11.1. Linear, PrescriptiveModel/Product Model/Behavioral
ObjectiveModel (Tyler 1945, Bloom 1965)
Li near , pr escr i pti v e cur r i cul um dev el opment model s ar e
consi der ed as nor mati v e model s as they pr ov i de a sequence of steps
that shoul d be f ol l owed i n any cur r i cul um dev el opment i ni ti ati v e.
In thi s er a of technol ogy ex pl osi on cur r i cul um i s descr i bed as a
pr oduct and educati on i s most of ten seen as a techni cal ex er ci se
whi ch i ncl udes setti ng objecti v es, dr awi ng up a pl an,
i mpl ementi ng the pl an and measur i ng the outcomes or pr oducts. It
i s a way of thi nki ng about educati on that has gr own i n i nf l uence
si nce the l ate 197 0s wi th the r i se of v ocati onal i sm and the concer n
wi th competenci es.
The concept of cur r i cul um as a pr oduct was i nf l uenced by the
dev el opment of management thi nki ng and pr acti ce. The theor y of
Sci enti f i c Management pr oposed by F W Tay l or adv ocated
di v i si on of l abor to si mpl i f y job tasks, ex tensi on of manager i al
contr ol ov er al l el ements of the wor kpl ace and cost accounti ng
based on sy stemati c ti me-and-moti on study . Al l these thr ee
el ements ar e i nv ol v ed i n the pr oduct model of the cur r i cul um. One
of the i mpor tant f eatur es of thi s model i s that i t pay s attenti on i n
detai l to what peopl e need to know i n or der to wor k, l i v e thei r
l i v es and so on. Tasks or jobs ar e anal y zed and br oken down i nto
thei r component el ements and then l i sts of competenci es ar e dr awn
up to be i ncl uded i n cur r i cul um. Ther ef or e, the cur r i cul um as a
pr oduct cannot be the r esul t of ar mchai r specul ati on but i t i s the
pr oduct of a sy stemati c study of the jobs. The Pr ogr essi v e
mov ement l ost much of i ts momentum i n the l ate 1940s i n the
Uni ted States and f r om that per i od the wor k of Ral ph W. Ty l er has
made a l asti ng i mpr essi on on cur r i cul um theor y and pr acti ce.
Ty l er mai ntai ned that the r eal pur pose of educati on i s not to
hav e the i nstr uctor per f or m cer tai n acti v i ti es but to br i ng about
si gni f i cant changes i n the students patter n of behav i or . Ther ef or e,
i t becomes i mpor tant to r ecogni ze that any statement of objecti v es
of the school shoul d be a statement of changes to take pl ace i n the
students. (Ty l er 1949)
Ty l er 's cur r i cul um dev el opment model i s an ex ampl e of l i near ,
pr escr i pti v e cur r i cul um dev el opment model s. Thi s model
r epr esents techni cal , objecti v es dr i v en appr oach wher eby
educator s speci f y the desi r ed pr oduct of an educati onal pr ogr amme
and use thi s as a poi nt f or cur r i cul um dev el opment (Lov at &Smi th,
1995). The dev el opment of the pr oduct model of the cur r i cul um i s
based on the answer s of the f ol l owi ng questi ons:
What ar e the ai ms and objecti v es of a cur r i cul um?
Whi ch of the l ear ni ng ex per i ences meet these ai ms and
objecti v es?
How can the ex tent to whi ch these ai ms and objecti v es hav e
been met and ev al uated?
How can these l ear ni ng ex per i ences be or gani sed? (Adapted
f r om Ty l er 1949)
Advantages of Product Model
Av oi dance of v ague gener al statements of i ntent
Makes assessment mor e pr eci se
Hel ps to sel ect and str uctur e content
Makes teacher s awar e of di f f er ent ty pes and l ev el s of
l ear ni ng be i nv ol v ed i n some par ti cul ar subjects
Gui dance f or teacher s and l ear ner s about ski l l s to be
master ed
Criticism of Product Model
At l ower l ev el s, behav i our al objecti v es may be tr i te and
unnecessar y
It i s di f f i cul t to wr i te sati sf actor y behav i our al objecti v es
f or hi gher l ev el s of l ear ni ng
Speci f i c behav i our s may not be appr opr i ate f or the
af f ecti v e domai n
It di scour ages cr eati v i ty f or l ear ner and teacher
It enshr i nes psy chol ogy and phi l osophy of behav i our i sm
Cur r i cul um becomes too subject and ex am bound
Pl an or pr ogr amme assumes gr eater i mpor tance as
compar ed to l ear ner . Students ar e tol d what they must l ear n
and how they shoul d do i t.
Educator s ar e judged onl y by the pr oducts of thei r acti ons;
ther ef or e, i t tur ns educator s i nto techni ci ans.
It entai l s that behav i or can be objecti v el y and
mechani sti cal l y measur ed. In or der to measur e, thi ngs hav e
to be br oken down i nto smal l er and smal l er uni ts. Thi s can
l ead to shi f t of f ocus on the par ts r ather than the whol e.
It can l ead to an appr oach of educati on and assessment
whi ch r esembl es a shoppi ng l i st. When al l the i tems i n the
l i st ar e ti cked of f , the per son has passed the cour se or has
ei ther l ear nt somethi ng or not.
It i s a model of cur r i cul um theor y and pr acti ce l ar gel y
i mpor ted f r om technol ogi cal and i ndustr i al setti ngs. The
di f f i cul ti es that educator s ex per i ence wi th objecti v es i n
the cl assr oom may poi nt to somethi ng i nher entl y wr ong
wi th the appr oach, that i t i s not gr ounded i n the study of
educati onal ex changes.
Educator s and l ear ner s can ov er l ook l ear ni ng that i s occur s
as a r esul t of thei r i nter acti ons, but that whi ch i s not l i sted
as an objecti v e.
Si mpl i ci ty and r ati onal i ty of pr oduct model has been power f ul
f actor s i n i ts success. A f ur ther appeal has been the abi l i ty of
academi ci ans to use the pr oduct model to attack teacher s to use the
objecti v es model as a sti ck wi th whi ch to beat teacher s. What ar e
y our objecti v es? i s mor e of ten asked i n a tone of chal l enge than one
of i nter ested and cooper ati v e i nqui r y . (Stenhouse 197 4)
11.2. Process Model of Curriculum (Key Thinker Stenhouse(1975))
The pr oponents of pr ocess model of cur r i cul um ar gued that
cur r i cul um i s not a phy si cal thi ng; r ather , i t i s the i nter acti on of
teacher s, students and knowl edge. In other wor ds, cur r i cul um i s
what actual l y happens i n the cl assr oom and what peopl e do to
pr epar e and ev al uate.
Lawr ence Stenhouse (197 5) ex pl or ed pr ocess model of
cur r i cul um. He def i ned cur r i cul um as an attempt to communi cate
the essenti al pr i nci pl es and f eatur es of an educati onal pr oposal i n
such a f or m that i t i s open to cr i ti cal scr uti ny and capabl e of
ef f ecti v e tr ansl ati on i nto pr acti ce. He suggested that a
cur r i cul um i s r ather l i ke a r eci pe i n cooker y , a r eci pe can v ar y
accor di ng to taste, so can a cur r i cul um. (Stenhouse 197 5: 4-5)
Stenhouse str ongl y ar gued that cur r i cul um i s not a package of
mater i al s or a sy l l abus of gr ound to be cov er ed r ather i t i s a way of
tr ansl ati ng any educati onal i dea i nto a hy pothesi s testabl e i n
pr acti ce. It i nv i tes cr i ti cal testi ng r ather than acceptance.
The l ear ner s i n thi s model ar e not objects to be acted upon. They
hav e a cl ear v oi ce i n the way that the sessi ons ev ol v e. Ther ef or e,
attenti on shi f ts f r om teachi ng to l ear ni ng wher eas, the pr oduct
model by hav i ng a pr e-speci f i ed pl an or pr ogr amme tends to di r ect
attenti on to teachi ng r ather than l ear ni ng.
Cur r i cul um shoul d pr ov i de a basi s f or pl anni ng a cour se,
study i ng i t empi r i cal l y and consi der i ng the gr ounds of i ts
justi f i cati on. It shoul d of f er : (Stenhouse 197 5)
Pr i nci pl e f or the sel ecti on of content - what i s to be l ear ned
and taught
Pr i nci pl es f or the dev el opment of a teachi ng str ategy - how
i t i s to be l ear ned and taught.
Pr i nci pl es f or the maki ng of deci si ons about sequence.
Pr i nci pl es on whi ch to di agnose the str engths and
weaknesses of i ndi v i dual students and di f f er enti ate the
gener al pr i nci pl es l i sted abov e to meet i ndi v i dual cases.
Pr i nci pl es on whi ch to study and ev al uate the pr ogr ess of
students.
Gui dance as to the f easi bi l i ty of i mpl ementi ng the
cur r i cul um i n v ar y i ng school contex ts, pupi l contex ts,
env i r onments and peer -gr oup si tuati ons.
A f or mul ati on of the i ntenti on or ai m of the cur r i cul um
whi ch i s accessi bl e to cr i ti cal scr uti ny .
Process Model Focuses on
Student and l ear ner acti v i ti es (per haps most i mpor tant
f eatur e)
Condi ti ons i n whi ch l ear ni ng takes pl ace
Emphasi s on means r ather than ends
Lear ner shoul d hav e par t i n deci di ng natur e of l ear ni ng
acti v i ti es
Mor e i ndi v i dual i sed atmospher e
Assumpti on that l ear ner makes uni que r esponse to l ear ni ng
ex per i ences
Advantages
Emphasi s on acti v e r ol es of teacher s and l ear ner s
Emphasi s on l ear ni ng ski l l s
Emphasi s on cer tai n acti v i ti es as i mpor tant i n themsel v es
and f or l i f e
Problems of Process Model of Curriculum
Negl ect of consi der ati ons of appr opr i ate content
Di f f i cul ty i n appl y i ng appr oach i n some ar eas
The pr ocess model of cur r i cul um pl aces meani ng-maki ng
and thi nki ng at i ts cor e and tr eats l ear ner s as subjects
r ather than objects, ther ef or e, i t can l ead to v er y di f f er ent
means bei ng empl oy ed i n cl assr ooms and a hi gh degr ee of
v ar i ety i n content.
It may not pay enough attenti on to the contex t i n whi ch
l ear ni ng takes pl ace.
The major weakness (or str ength) of the pr ocess model i s
that i t r ests upon the qual i ty of teacher s. The appr oach i s
dependent upon the cul ti v ati on of wi sdom and meani ng-
maki ng i n the cl assr oom whi ch r equi r es qual i ty of
teacher s.
11.3. Competency Based Curriculum Model
The f ocus i n competency based cur r i cul um i s on the competency i n
tasks that a nur si ng student needs to do l ater as a competent
pr of essi onal . A competency based model f or nur si ng educati on was
dev el oped by Ken Cox i n the y ear 1991.
Concept of Competency
The concept of pr of essi onal competence i s def i ned by
Inter nati onal Labor Or gani zati on as the apti tude to car r y out a
task or job posi ti on ef f ecti v el y , on account of possessi ng the
qual i f i cati ons r equi r ed f or such. In thi s case, the concepts of
competence and qual i f i cati on ar e ti ghtl y associ ated, seei ng as how
qual i f i cati ons ar e consi der ed the acqui r ed capabi l i ty to f ul f i l l
duti es or car r y out a job posi ti on.
Competency i s the abi l i ty of a nur si ng student enabl i ng hi m to
successf ul l y car r y out pr of essi onal acti v i ti es, at the same ti me i t i s
not a pr obabi l i ty of success i n the ex ecuti on of one's job; i t i s a r eal
and demonstr ated capabi l i ty . It consi sts of components that ar e
tr ai nabl e (knowl edge, ski l l s and atti tude).
Competency ther ef or e, r ef er s to an i ntegr ated set of ski l l s,
knowl edge, and atti tudes that enabl es one to ef f ecti v el y per f or m
the acti v i ti es of a gi v en occupati on or f uncti on to standar ds
ex pected i n empl oy ment.
Competenci es ar e aspects of the per son as a whol e, compr i si ng:
Apti tude (v er bal , numer i cal )
Ski l l s and abi l i ti es (manager i al , communi cati on,
l eader shi p)
Knowl edge (gener al , pr of essi onal , and job speci f i c)
Per sonal i ty (soci al or i entati on)
I mportant Characteristics of Competency Based Curriculum
Competenci es ar e car ef ul l y i denti f i ed, v er i f i ed and of
publ i c knowl edge
Instr ucti ons ar e ai med at the dev el opment of each
competency . Instr ucti ons ar e as i ndi v i dual i zed as possi bl e.
The ev al uati on f ocuses on knowl edge, atti tude and
per f or mance as the mai n sour ce of ev i dence.
The pr ogr ess of the students wi thi n the pr ogr amme goes as
per the r hy thm of each per son.
The l ear ni ng ex per i ences ar e gui ded by per manent
f eedback
Dimension of CBC Curriculum Development
Identi f i cati on of competenci es
Standar di zati on of competenci es
Competency based tr ai ni ng
Cer ti f i cati on of competence
Uni v er si ti es, boar ds and other or gani zati ons i n the techni cal and
v ocati onal or pr of essi onal educati on i n the wor l d f i nd competency
based cur r i cul um dev el opment a way of pr epar i ng gr aduates to
f uncti on i n a f ast changi ng contex t.
Steps of Developing Competency Based Curriculum
Def i ne competenci es : Def i ni ti on of pr of essi onal
r equi r ements i n ter ms of KAP (competenci es). At the
begi ni ng of the cour se students ar e i nf or med about
competenci es to be demonstr ated at the end.
For mul ate l ear ni ng objecti v es : Deter mi nati on of
pr of essi onal r equi r ements and l ear ni ng objecti v es.
Pl an l ear ni ng ex per i ences : Tr ansl ati on of l ear ni ng
objecti v es and attai nment tar gets i nto l ear ni ng pl an
descr i bi ng topi cs to be taught, teachi ng appr oaches and
assessment tar gets.
Pl anni ng and i mpl ementi ng the teachi ng-l ear ni ng
str ategi es i n competency based cur r i cul um.
Pl anni ng and i mpl ementi ng the ev al uati on str ategi es f or
competency based cur r i cul um.
Stepwise I nvestigations of Competencies
Consi der the l ev el (gr aduate, star ti ng posi ti on or
postgr aduate hi gher posi ti on)
Consi der the r ol e (task, pr ocess, peopl e or i ented)
Consi der the other r el ev ant contex tual v ar i abl es
(pr oducti on, or gani zati onal , soci etal di mensi on)
Identi f y r el ev ant competency categor i es and competency
cl uster (i nter per sonal , task or i ented, i ntr aper sonal )
Cr eate behav i or al i ndi cator s (concr ete behav i or al ter ms
that makes the competenci es Obser v abl e and measur abl e)
Establ i sh the r el ati v e i mpor tance and l ev el of master y of
each competency (f r equency of use, di f f i cul ty or
cr i ti cal i ty and consequences of er r or etc)
Teaching-Learning Strategies in CBC
Teacher s pr ov i de the l ear ner s an oppor tuni ty to i nter act
wi th r eal l i f e si tuati on and use thei r per sonal r esour ces
(gener al knowl edge, pr ocedur al knowl edge, cogni ti v e ski l l s
and r el ati onal knowl edge) i n combi nati on to acqui r e a
competency .
Teacher s need to sel ect the teachi ng methods and si tuati ons
that l ead to acti v i ti es that f aci l i tate the acqui si ti on of
competenci es gi v en the l ear ner s pr i or knowl edge.
In or der f or a l ear ner to be abl e to act competentl y ,
r equi r es the l ear ner to be abl e to combi ne and mobi l i ze a
ser i es of per sonal r esour ces that i nv ol v e:
Gener al , conceptual and di sci pl i nar y knowl edge.
Oper ati v e, pr ocedur al knowl edge. For ex ampl e:
oper ati ng a machi ne such as ECG machi ne or
car r y i ng out the nur si ng pr ocedur e.
Knowl edge to car r y on i ntel l ectual oper ati ons: For
ex ampl e: r easoni ng, i nducti v e gener al i zati on,
anal y si s of stati sti cal data and sy nthesi s.
Knowl edge f or soci al r el ati ons: For ex ampl e:
Wor ki ng i n gr oup, communi cati ng ef f ecti v el y .


Figure 12.5 Lev el s of Competency

It i s i mpor tant f or the teacher :
to pay attenti on to what per sonal r esour ces l ear ner s hav e;
to hav e i nf or mati on i n r el ati on to pr ev i ous knowl edge
l ear ner s al r eady possess;
to i denti f y whi ch str ategi es, methods and l ear ni ng
techni ques to be pr i or i ti sed i n or der to f aci l i tate r esour ce
combi nati on to acqui r e the competenci es.
Evaluation Strategies in CBC
It i s the pr ocess by whi ch teacher s and l ear ner s check the
l ear ni ng. Resul ts i ndi cates what has been l ear ned and to what
ex tent the competenci es hav e been achi ev ed f or the set standar d.
Whi l e ev al uati ng competenci es, i t i s i mpor tant to deter mi ne
whi ch ev al uati on cr i ter i a wi l l be desi gned to ev al uate
competency acqui si ti on. Students ar e ex pected to demonstr ate the
r equi r ed outcomes and they ar e assessed whether they can
demonstr ate those outcomes. It i s r ecommended to ev al uate student
l ear ni ng outcomes wi thi n a competency -based outcomes
cur r i cul um at 3 l ev el s:
Ev al uate knowl edge or abi l i ty (r esul ts i n tests)
Ev al uate r esul ts f or tasks per f or med (degr ee of compl eti on
of tasks or acti v i ti es)
Ev al uate know-how-to-be (degr ee of contr i buti on i n wor k
tasks, thei r atti tude, v al ues, etc).


Figure 12.6 Tr adi ti onal Educati onal Pr ogr amme


Figure 12.7 Competency Based Educati onal Pr ogr amme

It i s i mpor tant to use combi nati on of assessment techni ques to
cov er al l thr ee l ev el s of ev al uati on:
Sel f assessment
Par ti ci pati on i n cl ass/gr oup acti v i ti es
Obser v ati ons whi l e per f or mi ng par ti cul ar r pr ocedur e.
Assi gnments (i ndi v i dual s/gr oup)
Keepi ng Jour nal s
Inv esti gati ons/sur v ey s (i ndi v i dual or gr oup)
Tests
Ex ams etc.
Student Competency Record (SCR)
It i s an i nv al uabl e tool towar d r eal ar ti cul ati on and accur ate
r ecor d keepi ng of student pr ogr essi on and success i n competenci es
and cour ses. It i s r equi r ed i f the pr ogr am i s usi ng competency -
based schedul i ng.
11.4. ObjectiveBased Curriculum
Objecti v e based cur r i cul um i s a method of cur r i cul um desi gn and
teachi ng that f ocuses on what students can actual l y do af ter they
ar e taught. It takes i n to consi der ati on the f i nal outcomes of an
educati on pr ogr am on pr i or i ty basi s as compar ed to l ear ni ng
objecti v es i n the tr adi ti onal educati onal sy stem.
The tr adi ti onal educati onal model i n nur si ng f ocus on the
l ear ni ng objecti v es f i r st whi ch ar e taught by the teacher s i n the
hope that at the end of the cour se or tr ai ni ng student nur ses wi l l
conv er t i nto pr of essi onal l y competent nur ses hav i ng adequate
knowl edge of di seases, di agnosti c tests, i nter per sonal ski l l s,
communi cati on ski l l s, basi c nur si ng pr ocedur es, adv ance nur si ng
pr ocedur e, manager i al ski l l s and so on. Wher eas, objecti v e based
educati on takes i nto consi der ati on as a f i r st step of educati on
pr ocess these f i nal outcomes of a tr adi ti onal educati onal sy stem so
that i t can be ensur ed that the f i nal pr oduct (pr of essi onal or
r egi ster ed nur se) wi l l def i ni tel y hav e these desi r ed ex pectati ons
that may not be possi bl e wi th tr adi ti onal educati on model .
Questi ons addr essed by objecti v e based cur r i cul um:
What do y ou want the students to l ear n?
Why do y ou want them to l ear n i t?
How can y ou best hel p students l ear n i t?
How wi l l y ou know what they hav e l ear nt?
Need of Objective Based Curriculum
Objecti v e based educati on i s suf f i ci entl y equi pped to assess
what the students ar e capabl e of doi ng whi ch the
tr adi ti onal educati on sy stem of nur si ng of ten f ai l s to do.
Si nce nur si ng i s a pr of essi on whi ch pl ay s wi th l i f e and
death i ssues, they r equi r e hi ghl y competent pr of essi onal
nur ses.
If the educati on sy stem of nur si ng i s not sound enough to
ev al uate what the students ar e capabl e of doi ng i t i s unf ai r
to the soci ety .
It r equi r es the students to under stand the contents by
ex tendi ng the meani ng of competence f ar bey ond that of
nar r ow ski l l s and the abi l i ty to ex ecute str uctur ed tasks i n
a par ti cul ar subject ar ea. (Spady , 1995).
Objecti v e based educati on put demand on the student that
he or she has to demonstr ate nur si ng ski l l s thr ough mor e
chal l engi ng tasks l i ke wr i ti ng pr oject pr oposal s and
compl eti ng the pr ojects, case pr esentati ons i n cl i ni cal
ar eas and anal y si ng case studi es etc. Such chal l engi ng tasks
r equi r e nur si ng students to thi nk cr i ti cal l y , make
deci si ons and gi v e pr esentati ons.
Characteristics of Objective Based Curriculum
Ther e i s a cl ear f ocus on l ear ni ng outcomes.
It r ecogni ses that al l students can succeed.
It pr ov i des wi th oppor tuni ti es to students f or sel f -
assessment
It v al ues the di f f er ent backgr ounds, i nter ests, pr i or
ex per i ences and l ear ni ng sty l es of students.
Students ar e pr ov i ded wi th oppor tuni ti es to pr ogr ess and
demonstr ate l ear ni ng outcomes i n mor e than one contex t.
Ther e i s suf f i ci ent f l ex i bi l i ty i n the cur r i cul um to cater
di f f er ent char acter i sti cs and l ear ni ng needs of students.
Pl anni ng of ex per i ences whi ch pr omote l ear ni ng as wel l as
assessment occur s at the same ti me.
Principles of Objective Based Education
Cl ar i ty of f ocus about outcomes: The f ocus of objecti v e
based educati on i s on outcomes whi ch i nf l uences the al l
steps of educati onal pr ocess.
Backwar d appr oach to desi gni ng cur r i cul um: Cur r i cul um
i s desi gned by backwar d appr oach as compar ed to
tr adi ti onal educati onal model by sel ecti ng outcomes f i r st,
than deci di ng on teachi ng mater i al and methods, assessment
str ategi es etc.
Consi stent, hi gh ex pectati ons of success: Ex pect students to
succeed by pr ov i di ng them encour agement to engage deepl y
wi th the i ssues they ar e l ear ni ng and to achi ev e hi ghl y
chal l engi ng standar d (Spady , 1995).
Ex panded oppor tuni ty : Ther e i s scope f or ev er y l ear ner to
l ear n at hi s/her own pace.


Figure 12.8 Steps i n Dev el opment of Objecti v e Based Educati on

Objecti v e based educati on sati sf i es i ndi v i dual student needs and
di f f er ences thr ough the ex pansi on of av ai l abl e ti me and r esour ces
so that; al l students can succeed to r each the ex i t outcomes.
Process of Objective Based Curriculum
The pr ocess i n objecti v e based cur r i cul um i s r ev er se of
that associ ated wi th tr adi ti onal educati onal pr ocess.
The desi r ed outcome i s sel ected f i r st and the cur r i cul um,
teachi ng mater i al s and assessments or ev al uati on ar e
pl anned to obtai n the i ntended outcome (Spady 1988).
Al l cur r i cul um and teachi ng deci si ons ar e made based on
how best to f aci l i tate the desi r ed f i nal outcome.
Towers (1996) l i sted f our poi nts to the OBE sy stem that ar e
necessar y to make i t wor k:
What the student i s to l ear n must be cl ear l y i denti f i ed.
The student's pr ogr ess i s based on demonstr ated
achi ev ement.
Mul ti pl e i nstr ucti onal and assessment str ategi es need to be
av ai l abl e to meet the needs of each student.
Adequate ti me and assi stance need to be pr ov i ded so that
each student can r each the max i mum potenti al .
12. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND ACTION RESEARCH
Acti on r esear ch i s a stepwi se appr oach whi ch i ncl udes pr obl em
i denti f i cati on, acti on pl anni ng, i mpl ementati on, ev al uati on, and
r ef l ecti on. The i nsi ghts gai ned f r om the i ni ti al cy cl e ar e f ed i nto
pl anni ng of the second cy cl e, f or whi ch the acti on pl an i s modi f i ed
and the r esear ch pr ocess i s r epeated.
Acti on r esear ch methodol ogy of f er s a sy stemati c appr oach to
i ntr oduce i nnov ati ons i n teachi ng and l ear ni ng. It seeks to do thi s
by putti ng the teacher i n the dual r ol e of pr oducer of educati onal
theor y as wel l as the user of that theor y . Thi s i s both a way of
pr oduci ng knowl edge about hi gher educati on l ear ni ng and
teachi ng as wel l as a power f ul way of i mpr ov i ng l ear ni ng and
teachi ng pr acti ce. No separ ati on need be made between the desi gn
and del i v er y of teachi ng, and the pr ocess of r esear chi ng these
acti v i ti es, ther eby br i ngi ng theor y and pr acti ce cl oser together .
Thr ough sy stemati c, contr ol l ed acti on r esear ch, hi gher
educati on teacher s can become mor e pr of essi onal , mor e i nter ested
i n pedagogi cal aspects of hi gher educati on and mor e moti v ated to
i ntegr ate thei r r esear ch and teachi ng i nter ests i n a hol i sti c way .
Thi s l eads to better academi c pr ogr ammes and i mpr ov ement of
student l ear ni ng. (Zuber Skerritt, 1982)
Nur si ng educati on i s i n a tr ansi ti on phase and ther e i s a shi f t to
competency based educati on and objecti v e based educati on because
the tr adi ti onal cur r i cul um has been unsuccessf ul to pr oduce the
nur ses who ar e competent enough to pr ov i de qual i ty pati ent car e.
Competency based or objecti v e based educati on can be usef ul i n
thi s er a of qual i ty assur ance.
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Cur r i cul um i s r ef er r ed as the total i ty of the l ear ni ng
ex per i ences a student gets dur i ng an educati onal pr ogr am.
The ter m cur r i cul um i s der i v ed f r om a Lati n wor d
cur r er e whi ch means to r un; a cour se; r acechar i ot.
The ty pes of cur r i cul um ar e: cor e cur r i cul um, open
cur r i cul um, ex pl i ci t (ex pr essed) or ov er t or wr i tten or
of f i ci al cur r i cul um, i mpl i ci t (or hi dden) or cov er t
cur r i cul um, nul l cur r i cul um, soci etal cur r i cul um,
i nsti tuti onal cur r i cul um, i nstr ucti onal cur r i cul um and
i ntegr ated cur r i cul um.
Cur r i cul um dev el opment i s based on some soci al ,
psy chol ogi cal and sci enti f i c pr i nci pl es whi ch ar e
i mpor tant consi der ati on whi l e dev el opi ng cur r i cul um.
Cur r i cul um i s both a pr ocess and pr oduct
Cur r i cul um as a pr ocess i s not a phy si cal thi ng; r ather , i t i s
the i nter acti on of teacher s, students and knowl edge.
Lawr ence Stenhouse (197 5) ex pl or ed pr ocess model of
cur r i cul um.
Cur r i cul um dev el opment i s the pr ocess of pl anni ng,
i mpl ementi ng and ev al uati ng l ear ni ng oppor tuni ti es
i ntended to pr oduce desi r ed changes i n l ear ner s.
Phi l osophy i s the wi sdom and educati on tr ansmi ts thi s
wi sdom.
Phi l osophi cal assumpti ons di r ect the dev el opment of
educati onal objecti v es.
The act, content, condi ti on and cr i ter i a ar e the key
components of educati onal objecti v es.
In tr adi ti onal appr oach of cur r i cul um dev el opment
content i s der i v ed f i r st and then objecti v es ar e deter mi ned
whi l e, i n objecti v es based educati on, educati onal objecti v es
ar e deter mi ned f i r st and on the basi s of l ai d down objecti v es
cour se content i s dev el oped.
In outcome based educati on ther e i s a mov e f r om the How
and When to the What and Whether of educati on. An
outcome i s somethi ng that f ol l ows as a r esul t of
consequence. In thi s appr oach of cur r i cul um dev el opment
ter mi nal objecti v es ar e r e-ti tl ed as outcomes
Lear ni ng ex per i ences r ef er s to del i ber atel y pl anned
ex per i ences i n sel ected si tuati ons wher e students acti v el y
par ti ci pate, i nter act and whi ch r esul t i n desi r abl e change
of behav i or of students (l ear ni ng).
Lear ni ng ex per i ences shoul d be suf f i ci entl y v ar i ed to
pr ev ent bor edom, al l ow f or and ex pl oi t the potenti al f or
i ndi v i dual student di f f er ences. It shoul d al so enabl e
par ti ci pati on i n some tr anscul tur al ex per i ences.
Lear ni ng ex per i ences ar e sy stemati cal l y ar r anged to
i ncr ease the cumul ati v e i mpact of many i ndi v i dual
l ear ni ng ex per i ences.
Ther e ar e two ty pes of i ntegr ati on of l ear ni ng ex per i ences:
v er ti cal i ntegr ati on and hor i zontal i ntegr ati on.
Master r otati on pl an i s an ov er al l pl an of r otati on of al l the
students i n a par ti cul ar educati on i nsti tuti on showi ng the
pl acement of students bel ongi ng to v ar i ous gr oups/cl asses
i n cl i ni cal nur si ng as wel l as communi ty nur si ng f i el d
denoti ng the dur ati on of such pl acement together wi th the
pl acement of theor eti cal teachi ng bl ocks/per i ods.
Li near , pr escr i pti v e model /pr oduct model /behav i or al
objecti v e model (Ty l er , 1945 Bl oom 1965) pr ov i de a sequence
of steps that shoul d be used i n any cur r i cul um dev el opment
i ni ti ati v e.
Pr ocess model (Stenhouse, 197 5) f ocuses on teacher
acti v i ti es and teacher 's r ol e, student and l ear ner acti v i ti es,
condi ti ons i n whi ch l ear ni ng takes pl ace, and emphasi ses
on means r ather than ends.
A competency based model f or nur si ng educati on was
dev el oped by Ken Cox i n the y ear 1991. It seeks to dev el op i n
l ear ner s the abi l i ty to know, to do and to be i n or der to deal
wi th new and changi ng ci r cumstances.
Di mensi on of competency based model cur r i cul um
dev el opment i ncl udes i denti f i cati on of competenci es,
standar di zati on of competenci es, competency based
tr ai ni ng and cer ti f i cati on of competence
Objecti v e based cur r i cul um i s a method of cur r i cul um
desi gn and teachi ng that f ocuses on what students can
actual l y do af ter they ar e taught. It takes i n to
consi der ati on the f i nal outcomes of an educati on pr ogr am
on pr i or i ty basi s as compar ed to l ear ni ng objecti v es i n
tr adi ti onal educati onal sy stem.
EVALUATE YOURSELF

Q 1: Wr i te a shor t note on cl i ni cal r otati on pl an i n B Sc nur si ng III
y ear ? (RGUHS 2007 )
Q 2: Def i ne cur r i cul um? Ex pl ai n the steps and v ar i ous l ev el s of
cur r i cul um wi th ex ampl e? (NIMS, 2010 RGUHS 2010)
Q 3: Ex pl ai n the f actor s i nf l uenci ng cur r i cul um dev el opment i n
nur si ng? (NIMS 2009)
Q 4: Ex pl ai n the sel ecti on and or gani zati on of l ear ni ng
ex per i ences? (NTRUHS 2009)
Q 5: Enumer ate the pr i nci pl es of cur r i cul um dev el opment (RGUHS
2009)
Q 6: What ar e the f actor s whi ch i nf l uence dev el opment of cl i ni cal
r otati on pl an (RGUHS 2010)
Q 7 : Ex pl ai n any one ty pe of cur r i cul um (MGR 2007 )
Q 8: Ex pl ai n the f actor s to be consi der ed when sel ecti ng and
or gani zi ng l ear ni ng ex per i ences f or students (RGUHS 2008)
Q 9: Wr i te a shor t note on Master r otati on pl an and i ts i mpor tance
i n basi c B Sc nur si ng pr ogr amme? (RGUHS 2008)
Q 10: Cr i ti cal l y ev al uate the B Sc nur si ng cur r i cul um pr escr i bed
by INC (NIMS 2009)
Q 11: Wr i te shor t notes on:
Competency based cur r i cul um model
Objecti v e based cur r i cul um model
Ev al uati on of cur r i cul um
Steps i n cur r i cul um dev el opment
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1. Kel l y , A. V. (1983; 1999) The Cur r i cul um. Theor y and pr acti ce 4e,
London: Paul Chapman.
2. Ty l er , R. W. (1949) Basi c Pr i nci pl es of Cur r i cul um and
Instr ucti on, Chi cago: Uni v er si ty of Chi cago Pr ess.
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3. Stenhouse, L. (197 5) An i ntr oducti on to Cur r i cul um Resear ch and
Dev el opment, London: Hei neman.
4. Ei sner , E.W. (1994) The educati onal i magi nati on: On desi gn and
ev al uati on of school pr ogr ams. (3r d. ed) New Yor k: Macmi l l an.
5. Longstr eet, W.S. and Shane, H.G. (1993) Cur r i cul um f or a new
mi l l enni um. Boston: Al l y n and Bacon.
6. Ol i v a, P. (1997 ) The cur r i cul um: Theor eti cal di mensi ons. New
Yor k: Longman.
7 . Young, M. &Leney , T. (1997 ) Fr om A-l ev el s to an Adv anced Lev el
Cur r i cul um of the Futur e i n Hodgson, A. &Spour s, K. (eds) (1997 )
Dear i ng and Bey ond. London: Kogan Page
8. Mar sh, C.J. (1997 ) Per specti v es: Key concepts f or under standi ng
cur r i cul um 1. London: Fal mer Pr ess
9. Bates I, Bl oomer M, Hodki nson P &Yeomans D (1998)
Pr ogr essi v i sm and the GNVQ: contex t i deol ogy and pr acti ce
Jour nal of Educati on and Wor k, 11, 22, 10925)
10. Pi nar , W.F., Rey nol ds, W.M., Sl atter y , P., &Taubman, P.M. (1995).
Under standi ng cur r i cul um. New Yor k: Peter Lang.
11. Bel l ack, A.A., &Kl i ebar d, H.M. (197 7 ). Cur r i cul um and
ev al uati on. Ber kel ey : McCutchan.
12. Hass, G. (Ed.) (1987 ). Cur r i cul um pl anni ng: A new appr oach.
Fi f th edi ti on. Boston: Al l y n and Bacon.

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