Lover FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Index to Introduction to the Atmosphere

(a) Atmospheric Composition
(b). The Layered Atmosphere
(c). Physical Behavior of the Atmosphere and the as La!s
(d). Atmospheric Pressure
(e). The "#one Layer
(f). Atmospheric $ffects on Incomin% &olar 'adiation
(%). lobal Patterns of Insolation 'eceipts
(h). The reenhouse $ffect
(i). (et 'adiation and Planetary $ner%y Balance
()). lobal *eat Balance+ Introduction to *eat ,luxes
(-). The Concept of Temperature
(l). .aily and Annual Cycles of Temperature
(m). lobal &urface Temperature .istribution
(n). ,orces Actin% to Create /ind
(o). Local and 'e%ional /ind &ystems
(p). lobal &cale Circulation of the Atmosphere
(0). 1pper Air /inds and the 2et &treams
(r). Air 3asses and ,rontal Transitional 4ones
(s). The 3id5Latitude Cyclone
(t). Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
(u). Tropical /eather and *urricanes
(v). Climate Classification and Climatic 'e%ions of the /orld
(!). Introduction to Applied Climatolo%y
(x). $arth6s Climatic *istory
(y). Causes of Climate Chan%e
(#). $l (ino7 La (ina and the &outhern "scillation
Introduction to the Atmosphere
a).Atmospheric Composition
Table 8a59 lists the eleven most abundant %ases found in the $arth6s lo!er atmosphere by
volume. "f the %ases listed7 nitro%en7 oxy%en7 !ater vapor7 carbon dioxide7 methane7 nitrous
oxide7 and o#one are extremely important to the health of the $arth6s biosphere.
The table indicates that nitro%en and oxy%en are the main components of the atmosphere by
volume. To%ether these t!o %ases ma-e up approximately :: ; of the dry atmosphere. Both of
these %ases have very important associations !ith life. (itro%en is removed from the atmosphere
and deposited at the $arth6s surface mainly by speciali#ed nitro%en fixin% bacteria7 and by !ay of
li%htnin% throu%h precipitation.
(The addition of this nitro%en to the $arth6s surface soils and various !ater bodies supplies much
needed nutrition for plant %ro!th. (itro%en returns to the atmosphere primarily throu%h biomass
combustion and denitrification.
"xy%en is exchan%ed bet!een the atmosphere and life throu%h the processes of photosynthesis
and respiration. Photosynthesis produces oxy%en !hen carbon dioxide and !ater are chemically
converted into %lucose !ith the help of sunli%ht. 'espiration is a the opposite process of
photosynthesis. In respiration7 oxy%en is combined !ith %lucose to chemically release ener%y for
metabolism. The products of this reaction are !ater and carbon dioxide.
The next most abundant %as on the table is !ater vapor. /ater vapor varies in concentration in
the atmosphere both spatially and temporally. The hi%hest concentrations of !ater vapor are
found near the e0uator over the oceans and tropical rain forests. Cold polar areas and subtropical
continental deserts are locations !here the volume of !ater vapor can approach #ero percent.
/ater vapor has several very important functional roles on our planet+
It redistributes heat ener%y on the $arth throu%h latent heat ener%y exchan%e.
The condensation of !ater vapor creates precipitaion that falls to the $arth6s
surface providin% needed fresh !ater for plants and animals.
It helps !arm the $arth6s atmosphere throu%h the %reenhouse effect.
The fifth most abundant %as in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The volume of this %as has
increased by over <= ; in the last three hundred years (see ,i%ure 8a59). This increase is
primarily due to human induced burnin% for fossil fuels7 deforestation7 and other forms of land5
use chan%e. &ome scientists believe that this increase is causin% %lobal !armin% throu%h an
enhancement of the %reenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is also exchan%ed bet!een the
atmosphere and life throu%h the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
3ethane is a very stron% %reenhouse %as. &ince 98=>7 methane concentrations in the atmosphere
have increased by more than 9?> ;. The primary sources for the additional methane added to the
atmosphere (in order of importance) are+ rice cultivation@ domestic %ra#in% animals@ termites@
landfills@ coal minin%@ and7 oil and %as extraction.
Anaerobic conditions associated !ith rice paddy floodin% results in the formation of methane
%as. *o!ever7 an accurate estimate of ho! much methane is bein% produced from rice paddies
has been difficult to ascertain. 3ore than A> ; of all rice paddies are found in India and China
!here scientific data concernin% emission rates are unavailable. (evertheless7 scientists believe
that the contribution of rice paddies is lar%e because this form of crop production has more than
doubled since 9:=>. ra#in% animals release methane to the environment as a result of
herbaceous di%estion. &ome researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has
more than 0uadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane throu%h similar
processes. Land5use chan%e in the tropics7 due to deforestation7 ranchin%7 and farmin%7 may be
causin% termite numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct7 the contribution from these
insects may be important. 3ethane is also released from landfills7 coal mines7 and %as and oil
drillin%. Landfills produce methane as or%anic !astes decompose over time. Coal7 oil7 and
natural %as deposits release methane to the atmosphere !hen these deposits are excavated or
drilled.
The avera%e concentration of the %reenhouse %as nitrous oxide is no! increasin% at a rate of >.<
to >.B ; per year. Its part in the enhancement of the %reenhouse effect is minor relative to the
other %reenhouse %ases already mentioned. *o!ever7 it does have an important role in the
artificial fertili#ation of ecosystems. In extreme cases7 this fertili#ation can lead to the death of
forests7 eutrophication of a0uatic habitats7 and species exclusion. &ources for the increase of
nitrous oxide in the atmosphere include+ land5use conversion@ fossil fuel combustion@ biomass
burnin%@ and soil fertili#ation. 3ost of the nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere each year
comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest7 savanna and %rassland ecosystems into
a%ricultural fields and ran%eland. Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitro%en stored in
livin% ve%etation and soil throu%h the decomposition of or%anic matter. (itrous oxide is also
released into the atmosphere !hen fossil fuels and biomass are burned. *o!ever7 the combined
contribution to the increase of this %as in the atmosphere is thou%ht to be minor. The use of
nitrate and ammonium fertili#ers to enhance plant %ro!th is another source of nitrous oxide.
*o! much is released from this process has been difficult to 0uantify. $stimates su%%est that the
contribution from this source represents from => ; to >.< ; of nitrous oxide added to the
atmosphere annually.
"#one6s role in the enhancement of the %reenhouse effect has been difficult to determine.
Accurate measurements of past lon%5term (more than <= years in the past) levels of this %as in
the atmosphere are currently unavailable. 3oreover7 concentrations of o#one %as are found in
t!o different re%ions of the $arth6s atmosphere. The ma)ority of the o#one (about :8 ;) found in
the atmosphere is concentrated in the stratosphere at an altitude of 9= to == -ilometers above the
$arth6s surface. This stratospheric o#one provides an important service to life on the $arth as it
absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation. In recent years7 levels of stratospheric o#one have been
decreasin% due to the buildup of human created chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. &ince the
late 9:8>s7 scientists have noticed the development of severe holes in the o#one layer over
Antarctica. &atellite measurements have indicated that the #one from A=C (orth to A=C &outh
latitude has had a B ; decrease in stratospheric o#one since 9:8D.
"#one is also hi%hly concentrated at the $arth6s surface in and around cities. 3ost of this o#one
is created as a by product of human created photochemical smo%. This buildup of o#one is toxic
to or%anisms livin% at the $arth6s surface.
as (ame Chemical ,ormula Percent Eolume
(itro%en (< 8D.>D;
"xy%en "< <>.:=;
F/ater *<" > to ?;
Ar%on Ar >.:B;
FCarbon .ioxide C"< >.>BA>;
(eon (e >.>>9D;
*elium *e >.>>>=;
F3ethane C*? >.>>>98;
*ydro%en *< >.>>>>=;
F(itrous "xide (<" >.>>>>B;
F"#one "B >.>>>>>?;
Fvariable %ases.
Table 8a59+ Avera%e composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of <= -m.
(b). The Layered Atmosphere
The $arth6s atmosphere contains several different layers that can be defined accordin% to air
temperature7 Figure 7b-1 displays these layers in an avera%e atmosphere.
Figure 1b-1: Eertical chan%e in avera%e %lobal atmospheric temperature. Eariations in the !ay
temperature chan%es !ith hei%ht indicates the atmosphere is composed of a number of different
layers (labeled above). These variations are due to chan%es in the chemical and physical
characteristics of the atmosphere !ith altitude.
Accordin% to temperature7 the atmosphere contains four different layers (,i%ure 8b59). The first
layer is called the troposphere. The depth of this layer varies from about D to 9A -ilometers.
reatest depths occur at the tropics !here !arm temperatures causes vertical expansion of the
lo!er atmosphere. ,rom the tropics to the $arth6s polar re%ions the troposphere becomes
%radually thinner. The depth of this layer at the poles is rou%hly half as thic- !hen compared to
the tropics. Avera%e depth of the troposphere is approximately 99 -ilometers as displayed in
,i%ure 8b59.
About D> ; of the total mass of the atmosphere is contained in troposphere. It is also the layer
!here the ma)ority of our !eather occurs. 3aximum air temperature also occurs near the $arth6s
surface in this layer. /ith increasin% hei%ht7 air temperature drops uniformly !ith altitude at a
rate of approximately A.=C Celsius per 9>>> meters. This phenomenon is commonly called the
$nvironmental Lapse 'ate. At an avera%e temperature of 5=A.=C Celsius7 the top of the
troposphere is reached. At the upper ed%e of the troposphere is a narro! transition #one -no!n
as the tropopause.
Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. This layer extends from an avera%e altitude of 99 to =>
-ilometers above the $arth6s surface. This stratosphere contains about 9:.: ; of the total mass
found in the atmosphere. Eery little !eather occurs in the stratosphere. "ccasionally7 the top
portions of thunderstorms breach this layer. The lo!er portion of the stratosphere is also
infuenced by the polar )et stream and subtropical )et stream. In the first : -ilometers of the
stratosphere7 temperature remains constant !ith hei%ht. A #one !ith constant temperature in the
atmosphere is called an isothermal layer. ,rom an altitude of <> to => -ilometers7 temperature
increases !ith an increase in altitude. The hi%her temperatures found in this re%ion of the
stratosphere occurs because of a locali#ed concentration of o#one %as molecules. These
molecules absorb ultraviolet sunli%ht creatin% heat ener%y that !arms the stratosphere. "#one is
primarily found in the atmosphere at varyin% concentrations bet!een the altitudes of 9> to =>
-ilometers. This layer of o#one is also called the o#one layer . The o#one layer is important to
or%anisms at the $arth6s surface as it protects them from the harmful effects of the sun6s
ultraviolet radiation. /ithout the o#one layer life could not exist on the $arth6s surface.
&eparatin% the mesosphere from the stratosphere is transition #one called the stratopause. In the
mesosphere7 the atmosphere reaches its coldest temperatures (about 5:>C Celsius) at a hei%ht of
approximately D> -ilometers. At the top of the mesosphere is another transition #one -no!n as
the mesopause.
The last atmospheric layer7 as defined by vertical temperature chan%e7 has an altitude %reater than
D> -ilometers7 and is called the thermosphere. The thermosphere is the hottest layer in the
atmosphere. *eat is %enerated from the absorption of solar radiation by oxy%en molecules.
Temperatures in this layer can reach 9B>> to 9D>>C Celsius.
(c). Physical Behavior of the Atmosphere and the as La!s
In the previous topic7 !e learned the atmosphere is composed of a mixture of many different
%ases. This mixture behaves in many !ays as if it !ere a sin%le %as. As a result of this
phenomenon7 the follo!in% %enerali#ations describe important relationships bet!een
temperature7 pressure7 density and volume7 that relate to the $arth6s atmosphere.
(9) /hen temperature is held constant7 the density of a %as is proportional to pressure7 and
volume is inversely proportional to pressure. Accordin%ly7 an increase in pressure !ill cause an
increase in density of the %as and a decrease in its volume.
(<) If volume is -ept constant7 the pressure of a unit mass of %as is proportional to temperature. If
temperature increase so !ill pressure7 assumin% no chan%e in the volume of the %as.
(B) *oldin% pressure constant7 causes the temperature of a %as to be proportional to volume7 and
inversely proportional to density. Thus7 increasin% temperature of a unit mass of %as causes its
volume to expand and its density to decrease as lon% as there is no chan%e in pressure.
These relationships can also be described mathematically by the Ideal as La!. T!o e0uations
that are commonly used to describe this la! are+
Pressure x Eolume G Constant x Temperature and
Pressure G .ensity x Constant x Temperature
(d). Atmospheric Pressure
Introduction
Air is a tan%ible material substance and as a result has mass. Any ob)ect !ith mass is influenced
by the universal force -no!n as %ravity. (e!ton6s Law of Universal Gravitation states+ any t!o
ob)ects separated in space are attracted to each other by a force proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the s0uare of the distance bet!een them. "n the $arth7
%ravity can also be expressed as a force of acceleration of about :.D meters per second per
second. As a result of this force7 the speed of any ob)ect fallin% to!ards the surface of the $arth
accelerates (9st second 5 :.D meters per second7 <nd second 5 9:.A meters per second7 Brd second
5 <:.? meters per second7 and so on.) until terminal velocity is attained.
ravity shapes and influences all atmospheric processes. It causes the density and pressure of air
to decrease exponentially as one moves a!ay from the surface of the $arth. ,i%ure 8d59 belo!
models the avera%e chan%e in air pressure !ith hei%ht above the $arth6s surface. In this %raph7 air
pressure at the surface is illustrated as bein% approximately 9>9B millibars (mb) or 9 -ilo%ram
per s0uare centimeter of surface area.
,i%ure 9d59+ Chan%e in avera%e atmospheric pressure !ith altitude.
3easurin% Atmospheric Pressure
Any instrument that measures air pressure is called a barometer. The first measurement of
atmospheric pressure be%an !ith a simple experiment performed by Evangelista Torricelli in
9A?B. In his experiment7 Torricelli immersed a tube7 sealed at one end7 into a container of
mercury (see ,i%ure 9d5< belo!). Atmospheric pressure then forced the mercury up into the tube
to a level that !as considerably hi%her than the mercury in the container. Torricelli determined
from this experiment that the pressure of the atmosphere is approximately B> inches or 8A
centimeters (one centimeter of mercury is e0ual to 9B.B millibars). *e also noticed that hei%ht of
the mercury varied !ith chan%es in outside !eather conditions.
Torricelli6s Barometer

,i%ure 9d5<+ .ia%ram sho!in% ,i%ure 9d5B+ Aneroid barometer.
the construction of Torricelli6s
barometer.
The most common type barometer used in homes is the aneroid barometer (,i%ure 9d5B). Inside
this instrument is a small7 flexible metal capsule called an aneroid cell. In the construction of the
device7 a vacuum is created inside the capsule so that small chan%es in outside air pressure cause
the capsule to expand or contract. The si#e of the aneroid cell is then calibrated and any chan%e
in its volume is transmitted by sprin%s and levers to an indicatin% arm that points to the
correspondin% atmospheric pressure.
,or climatolo%ical and meteorolo%ical purposes7 standard sea5level pressure is said to be 8A.> cm
or <:.:< inches or 9>9B.< millibars. &cientists often use the -ilopascal (-Pa) as their preferred
unit for measurin% pressure. 9 -ilopascal is e0ual to 9> millibars.
Atmospheric Pressure at the $arth6s &urface
,i%ure 9d5? describes monthly avera%e sea5level pressure for the $arth6s surface. This animation
indicates that surface air pressure varies both spatially and temporally. .urin% the !inter months
(.ecember to ,ebruary)7 areas of hi%h pressure develop over central Asia (Siberian High)7 off
the coast California (Hawaiian High)7 central (orth America (Canadian High)7 over &pain and
north!est Africa extendin% into the subtropical (orth Atlantic (Azores High)7 and over the
oceans in the &outhern *emisphere at the subtropics. Areas of lo! pressure occur )ust south of
the Aleutian Islands (Aleutian Low)7 at the southern tip of reenland (Iceland Low)7 and latitudes
=> to D>C &outh.
.urin% the summer months (2une to Au%ust)7 a number of dominant !inter pressure systems
disappear. one are the Siberian High over central Asia and the dominant lo! pressure systems
near the Aleutian Islands and at the southern tip of reenland. The Hawaiian and Azores High
intensify and expand north!ard into their relative ocean basins. *i%h pressure systems over the
subtropical oceans in &outhern *emisphere also intensity and expand to the north. (e! areas of
dominant hi%h pressure develop over Australia and Antarctica (South Polar High). 'e%ions of
lo! pressure form over central Asia and south!est Asia (Asiatic Low). These pressure systems
are responsible for the summer monsoon rains of Asia.
/e !ill examine this %raphic a%ain in topic 8p !hen %lobal circulation is discussed.
Figure 1-!: 3onthly avera%e sea5level pressure and prevailin% !inds for the $arth6s surface7
9:=:59::8. Atmosphere pressure values are ad)usted for elevation and are described relative to
sea5level. The slider at the bottom of the ima%e allo!s you chan%e the time of month. Pressure
values are indicated by color shadin%. Blue shades indicate pressure lo!er than the %lobal
avera%e7 !hile yello! to oran%e shades are hi%her than avera%e measurements. (Sour"e: Cliate
Lab Section of the Environental Change !esearch Grou"# $e"artent of Geogra"h%#
Universit% of &regon 5 G#ob$# C#i%$&e A'i%$&io'().
(To vie! this animation your bro!ser must have Apple6s QuickTime plu%5in. The QuickTime
plu%5in is available for 3acintosh and /indo!s operatin% system computers and can be
do!nloaded ,'$$ from the /orld /ide /eb site )))*$++#e*"o%,-ui".&i%e)
(e). The "#one Layer
The o#one layer is a re%ion of concentration of the o#one ("B) molecule in the $arth6s
atmosphere. The layer sits at an altitude of about 9> to => -ilometers7 !ith a maximum
concentration in the stratosphere at an altitude of approximately <= -ilometers. In recent years7
scientists have measured a seasonal thinnin% of the o#one layer primarily at the &outh Pole. This
phenomenon is bein% called the o#one hole.
The o#one layer naturally shields $arth6s life from the harmful effects of the sun6s ultraviolet
(1E) radiation. A severe decrease in the concentration of o#one in the o#one layer could lead to
the follo!in% harmful effects+
An increase in the incidence of s-in cancer (ultraviolet radiation can destroy acids in .(A).
A lar%e increase in cataracts and sun burnin%.
&uppression of immune systems in or%anisms.
Adverse impact on crops and animals.
'eduction in the %ro!th of phytoplan-ton found in the $arth6s oceans.
Coolin% of the $arth6s stratosphere and possibly some surface climatic effect.
"#one is created naturally in the stratosphere by the combinin% of atomic oxygen (") !ith
molecular oxygen ("<). This process is activated by sunli%ht. "#one is destroyed naturally by
the absorption of ultraviolet radiation7
"B H 1E III "< H "7
and by the collision of o#one !ith other atmospheric atoms and molecules.
"BH"III<"<
"B H "B III B"<
&ince the late 9:8>s7 scientists have discovered that stratospheric o#one amounts over Antarctica
in sprin%time (September - November) have decreased by as much as A> ;. &atellite
measurements (NIMBUS 7 - Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) have indicated a B ;
decrease in o#one bet!een A=C (orth 5 A=C &outh since 9:8D. A reduction of about B ; per year
has been measured for Antarctica !here most of the o#one loss is occurrin% %lobally. .urin% the
late 9::>s7 lar%e losses of o#one !ere recorded above Antarctica year after year in the months of
&eptember and Au%ust. In some years7 sprin% levels of stratospheric o#one !ere more than => ;
lo!er than the levels recorded months prior to the seasonal development of the hole.
It appears that human activities are alterin% the amount of stratospheric "B. The main a%ent
responsible for this destruction !as human5made chlorofluorocarbons or C,Cs. ,irst produced
by General 'otors Cor"oration in 9:<D7 C,Cs !ere created as a replacement to the toxic
refri%erant ammonia. C,Cs have also been used as a propellant in spray cans7 cleaner for
electronics7 sterilant for hospital e0uipment7 and to produce the bubbles in styrofoam. C,Cs are
cheap to produce and are very stable compounds7 lastin% up to <>> years in the atmosphere. By
9:DD7 some B<>7>>> metric tons of C,Cs !ere used !orld!ide.
In 9:D87 a number of nations around the !orld met to be%in formulatin% a %lobal plan7 -no!n as
the 3ontreal Protocol7 to reduce and eliminate the use of C,Cs. &ince 9:D87 the plan has been
amended in 9::> and 9::< to 0uic-en the schedule of production and consumption reductions.
By 9::A7 9A9 countries !ere participatin% in the Protocol. The 3ontreal Protocol called for a
9>> ; reduction in the creation and use of C,Cs by 2anuary 97 9::A in the !orld6s more
developed countries. Less developed countries have until 2anuary 97 <>9> to stop their
production and consumption of these dan%erous chemicals.
C,Cs created at the $arth6s surface drift slo!ly up!ard to the stratosphere !here ultraviolet
radiation from the sun causes their decomposition and the release of clorine (Cl). Chlorine in
turn attac-s the molecules of o#one chemically convertin% them into oxy%en molecules.
Cl H "B III Cl" H "<
Cl" H " III Cl H "<
A sin%le chlorine atom removes about 9>>7>>> o#one molecules before it is ta-en out of
operation by other substances. Chlorine is removed from the stratosphere by t!o chemical
reactions+
Cl" H ("< III Cl"("<
C*? H Cl III *Cl H C*B
(ormally7 these t!o reactions !ould 0uic-ly neutrali#e the chlorine released into the
stratosphere. *o!ever7 the presence of polar stratospheric clouds7 rich in nitrogen7 and sunli%ht
facilitates a series of reactions !hich prolon%s the reactive life of chlorine in the atmosphere.
Interestin%ly7 these polar stratospheric clouds re0uire very cold air (approximately 5D=C Celsius)
for their formation. &tratospheric air of this temperature occurs normally every year above
Antarctica in the !inter and early sprin% months. .estruction of the o#one be%ins in Antarctica in
the sprin% as this re%ion moves from <? hours of ni%ht to <? hours of day. These clouds are less
fre0uent in the Arctic stratosphere because !inter coolin% of the air in the stratosphere is less
severe.
(A&A6s $arth Probe 5Total "#one 3appin% &pectrometer home pa%e has the latest ima%es
describin% the current status of %lobal stratosphere o#one levels in the atmosphere.
(f). Atmospheric $ffects on Incomin% &olar 'adiation
Three atmospheric processes modify the solar radiation passin% throu%h our atmosphere destined
to the $arth6s surface. These processes act on the radiation !hen it interacts !ith %ases and
suspended particles found in the atmosphere. The process of scatterin% occurs !hen small
particles and %as molecules diffuse part of the incomin% solar radiation in random directions
!ithout any alteration to the !avelen%th of the electroma%netic ener%y (Figure 1/-1).
Figure 1/-1: Atmospheric scatterin%. Figure 1/-0: Atmospheric absorption.
&catterin% does7 ho!ever7 reduce the amount of incomin% radiation reachin% the $arth6s surface.
A si%nificant proportion of scattered short!ave solar radiation is redirected bac- to space. The
amount of scatterin% that ta-es place is dependent on t!o factors+ !avelen%th of the incomin%
radiation and the si#e of the scatterin% particle or %as molecule. In the $arth6s atmosphere7 the
presence of a lar%e number of particles !ith a si#e of about >.= microns results in shorter
!avelen%ths bein% preferentially scattered. This factor also causes our s-y to loo- blue because
this color corresponds to those !avelen%ths that are best diffused. If scatterin% did not occur in
our atmosphere the dayli%ht s-y !ould be blac-.
If intercepted7 some %ases and particles in the atmosphere have the ability to absorb incomin%
insolation (Figure 1/-0). Absorption is defined as a process in !hich solar radiation is retained
by a substance and converted into heat ener%y. The creation of heat ener%y also causes the
substance to emit its o!n radiation. In %eneral7 the absorption of solar radiation by substances in
the $arth6s atmosphere results in temperatures that %et no hi%her than 9D>>C Celsius. Accordin%
to /ien6s La!7 bodies !ith temperatures at this level or lo!er !ould emit their radiation in the
lon%!ave band. ,urther7 this emission of radiation is in all directions so a si#able proportion of
this ener%y is lost to space.
Figure 1/-1: Atmospheric reflection
The final process in the atmosphere that modifies incomin% solar radiation is reflection (Figure
1/-1). 'eflection is a process !here sunli%ht is redirect by 9D>C after it stri-es an atmospheric
particle. This redirection causes a 9>> ; loss of the insolation. 3ost of the reflection in our
atmosphere occurs in clouds !hen li%ht is intercepted by particles of li0uid and fro#en !ater. The
reflectivity of a cloud can ran%e from ?> to :> ;.
&unli%ht reachin% the $arth6s surface unmodified by any of the above atmospheric processes is
termed direct solar radiation. &olar radiation that reaches the $arth6s surface after it !as altered
by the process of scatterin% is called diffused solar radiation. (ot all of the direct and diffused
radiation available at the $arth6s surface is used to do wor( (photosynthesis7 creation of sensible
heat7 evaporation7 etc.). As in the atmosphere7 some of the radiation received at the $arth6s
surface is redirected bac- to space by reflection. The follo!in% ima%e describes the spatial
pattern of surface reflectivity as measured for the year 9:D8.
Figure 7/-!: Annual (9:D8) reflectivity of the $arth6s surface.
(Ima%e produced by the CoEis reenhouse $ffect Eisuali#er).
The reflectivity or albedo of the $arth6s surface varies !ith the type of material that covers it. ,or
example7 fresh sno! can reflect up to := ; of the insolation that reaches it surface. &ome other
surface type reflectivities are+
.ry sand B= to ?= ;
Broadleaf deciduous forest = to 9> ;
(eedleleaf confierous forest 9> to <> ;
rass type ve%etation 9= to <= ;
'eflectivity of the surface is often described by the term surface albedo. The $arth6s avera%e
albedo7 reflectance from both the atmosphere and the surface7 is about B> ;.
,i%ure 8f5= describes the modification of solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes
for the !hole $arth over a period of one year. "f all the sunli%ht that passes throu%h the
atmosphere annually7 only =9 ; is available at the $arth6s surface to do !or-. This ener%y is used
to heat the $arth6s surface and lo!er atmosphere7 melt and evaporate !ater7 and run
photosynthesis in plants. "f the other ?: ;7 ? ; is reflected bac- to space by the $arth6s surface7
<A ; is scattered or reflected to space by clouds and atmospheric particles7 and 9: ; is absorbed
by atmospheric %ases7 particles7 and clouds.
Figure 7/-2: lobal modification of incomin% solar radiation by atmospheric and surface
processes.
(%). lobal Patterns of Insolation 'eceipts
The follo!in% ima%e describes the annual pattern of solar radiation absorption at the $arth6s
surface for the year 9:D8.
Figure 7g-1: Annual (9:D8) pattern of solar radiation absorbed at the $arth6s surface.
(I%$ge "re$&e b3 &4e Co5i( Gree'4ou(e E//e"& 5i(u$#i6er7*
The combined effect of $arth5sun relationships (an%le of incidence and day len%th variations)
and the modification of the solar beam as it passes throu%h the atmosphere produces specific
%lobal patterns of annual insolation receipt as seen on Figure 7g-1 above (and see the N!S!
""" link# belo!). After examinin% these patterns7 the follo!in% trends can be identified+
*i%hest values of insolation received occur in tropical latitudes. /ithin this #one there are
locali#ed maximums over the tropical oceans and deserts !here the atmosphere has virtually no
cloud development for most of the year. Insolation 0uantities at the e0uator over land durin% the
solstices are approximately the same as values found in the middle latitudes durin% their summer
(see N!S! """ link# belo!).
"utside the tropics7 annual receipts of solar radiation %enerally decrease !ith increasin% latitude.
3inimum values occur at the poles. This pattern is primarily the result of $arth5sun %eometric
relationships and its effect on the duration and intensity of solar radiation received
In middle and hi%h latitudes7 insolation values over the ocean7 as compared to those at the same
latitude over the land7 are %enerally hi%her (see N!S! ima%es). reater cloudiness over land
surfaces accounts for this variation.
)ASA*s &urface 'adiation Bud%et Pro)ect has used satellite data7 computer models7 and
meteorolo%ical data to determine short!ave surface radiation fluxes for the period 2uly 9:DB to
2une 9::9. The follo!in% lin-s display these fluxes for 2anuary and 2uly %lobally+
Avera%e Available &olar Insolation at the $arth6s &urface+ 2anuary 9:D?59::9 (J H -)
Avera%e Available &olar Insolation at the $arth6s &urface+ 2uly 9:DB59::> (J H -)
Avera%e Absorbed &olar Insolation at the $arth6s &urface+ 2anuary 9:D?59::9 K(J H -)(9 5 a)L
Avera%e Absorbed &olar Insolation at the $arth6s &urface+ 2uly 9:DB59::> K(J H -)(9 5 a)L
In the e0uations above7 the mathematical terms have the follo!in% definitions (see topic 8(i) for
more information on radiation balance e+uations)+
J G &hort!ave .irect 'adiation
- G &hort!ave Indirect 'adiation
a G 'eflectivity of the &urface or &urface Albedo
(h). The reenhouse $ffect
The %reenhouse effect is a naturally occurrin% process that aids in heatin% the $arth6s surface and
atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric %ases7 such as carbon dioxide7 water
va"or7 and methane7 are able to chan%e the ener%y balance of the planet by absorbin% lon%!ave
radiation emitted from the $arth6s surface. /ithout the %reenhouse effect life on this planet
!ould probably not exist as the avera%e temperature of the $arth !ould be a chilly 59DC Celsius7
rather than the present 9=C Celsius.
As ener%y from the sun passes throu%h the atmosphere a number of thin%s ta-e place (see ,i%ure
8h59). A portion of the ener%y (<A ; %lobally) is reflected or scattered bac- to space by clouds
and other atmospheric particles. About 9: ; of the ener%y available is absorbed by clouds7 %ases
(li-e o#one)7 and particles in the atmosphere. "f the remainin% == ; of the solar ener%y passin%
throu%h the $arth6s atmosphere7 ? ; is reflected from the surface bac- to space. "n avera%e7
about =9 ; of the sun6s radiation reaches the surface. This ener%y is then used in a number of
processes7 includin% the heatin% of the %round surface@ the meltin% of ice and sno! and the
evaporation of !ater@ and plant photosynthesis.
The heatin% of the %round by sunli%ht causes the $arth6s surface to become a radiator of ener%y
in the lon%!ave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This emission of ener%y is %enerally
directed to space (see ,i%ure 8h5<). *o!ever7 only a small portion of this ener%y actually ma-es
it bac- to space. The ma)ority of the out%oin% infrared radiation is absorbed by the %reenhouse
%ases (see Figure 74-1 belo!).
Figure 74-1: Annual (9:D8) 0uantity of out%oin% lon%!ave radiation absorbed in the
atmosphere.
(Ima%e created by the CoEis reenhouse $ffect Eisuali#er).
Absorption of lon%!ave radiation by the atmosphere causes additional heat ener%y to be added to
the $arth6s atmospheric system. The no! !armer atmospheric %reenhouse %as molecules be%in
radiatin% lon%!ave ener%y in all directions. "ver :> ; of this emission of lon%!ave ener%y is
directed bac- to the $arth6s surface !here it once a%ain is absorbed by the surface. The heatin% of
the %round by the lon%!ave radiation causes the %round surface to once a%ain radiate7 repeatin%
the cycle described above7 a%ain and a%ain7 until no more lon%!ave is available for absorption.
The amount of heat ener%y added to the atmosphere by the %reenhouse effect is controlled by the
concentration of %reenhouse %ases in the $arth6s atmosphere. All of the ma)or %reenhouse %ases
have increased in concentration since the be%innin% of the Industrial 'evolution (about 98>>
A.). As a result of these hi%her concentrations7 scientists predict that the %reenhouse effect !ill
be enhanced and the $arth6s climate !ill become !armer. Predictin% the amount of !armin% is
accomplished by computer modelin%. Computer models su%%est that a doublin% of the
concentration of the main %reenhouse %as7 carbon dioxide7 may raise the avera%e %lobal
temperature bet!een 9 and BC Celsius. *o!ever7 the numeric e0uations of computer models do
not accurately simulate the effects of a number of possible ne%ative feedbac-s.
,or example7 many of the models cannot properly simulate the ne%ative effects that increased
cloud cover !ould have on the radiation balance of a !armer $arth. Increasin% the $arth6s
temperature !ould cause the oceans to evaporate %reater amounts of !ater7 causin% the
atmosphere to become cloudier. These extra clouds !ould then reflect a %reater proportion of the
sun6s ener%y bac- to space reducin% the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the atmosphere
and the $arth6s surface. /ith less solar ener%y bein% absorbed at the surface7 the effects of an
enhanced %reenhouse effect may be counteracted.
A number of %ases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the %reenhouse effect (see
T$b#e 74-1 belo!). These %ases include+ carbon dioxide (C"<)@ methane (C*?)@ nitrous oxide
((<")@ chlorofluorocarbons (C,xClx)@ and tropospheric o#one ("B). "f these %ases7 the sin%le
most important %as is carbon dioxide !hich accounts for about == ; of the chan%e in the
intensity of the $arth6s %reenhouse effect. The contributions of the other %ases are <= ; for
chlorofluorocarbons7 9= ; for methane7 and = ; for nitrous oxide. "#one6s contribution to the
enhanceent of %reenhouse effect is still yet to be 0uantified.
Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are no! approachin% BA> parts per million
(see Figure 7$-1). Prior to 98>>7 levels of carbon dioxide !ere about <D> parts per million. This
increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is primarily due to the activities of humans.
Be%innin% in 98>>7 societal chan%es brou%ht about by the Industrial 'evolution increased the
amount of carbon dioxide enterin% the atmosphere. The ma)or sources of this %as include fossil
fuel combustion for industry7 transportation7 space heatin%7 electricity %eneration and coo-in%@
and ve%etation chan%es in natural prairie7 !oodland7 and forested ecosystems. $missions from
fossil fuel combustion account for about A= ; of the extra carbon dioxide no! found in our
atmosphere. The remainin% B= ; is derived from deforestation and the conversion of prairie7
!oodland7 and forested ecosystems primarily into a%ricultural systems. (atural ecosystems can
hold <> to 9>> times more carbon dioxide per unit area than a%ricultural systems.
Artificially created chlorofluorocarbons are the stron%est %reenhouse %as per molecule. *o!ever7
lo! concentrations in the atmosphere reduce their overall importance in the enhanceent of the
%reenhouse effect. Current measurements in the atmosphere indicate that the concentration of
these chemicals may soon be%in declinin% because of reduced emissions. 'eports of the
development of o#one holes over the (orth and &outh Poles and a %eneral decline in %lobal
stratospheric o#one levels over the last t!o decades has caused many nations to cutbac- on their
production and use of these chemicals. In 9:D87 the si%nin% of the 3ontreal Protocol a%reement
by forty5six nations established an immediate timetable for the %lobal reduction of
chlorofluorocarbons production and use.
&ince 98=>7 methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 9?> ;. The
primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are
rice cultivation7 domestic %ra#in% animals7 termites7 landfills7 coal minin%7 and oil and %as
extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated !ith rice paddy floodin% results in the formation of
methane %as. *o!ever7 an accurate estimate of ho! much methane is bein% produced from rice
paddies has been difficult to obtain. 3ore than A> ; of all rice paddies are found in India and
China !here scientific data concernin% emission rates are unavailable. (evertheless7 scientists
believe that the contribution of rice paddies is lar%e because this form of crop production has
more than doubled since 9:=>. ra#in% animals release methane to the environment as a result of
herbaceous di%estion. &ome researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has
more than 0uadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane throu%h similar
processes. Land5use chan%e in the tropics7 due to deforestation7 ranchin%7 and farmin%7 may be
causin% termite numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct7 the contribution from these
insects may be important. 3ethane is also released from landfills7 coal mines7 and %as and oil
drillin%. Landfills produce methane as or%anic !astes decompose over time. Coal7 oil7 and
natural %as deposits release methane to the atmosphere !hen these deposits are excavated or
drilled.
The avera%e concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is no! increasin% at a rate of >.< to
>.B ; per year. &ources for this increase include land5use conversion@ fossil fuel combustion@
biomass burnin%@ and soil fertili#ation. 3ost of the nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere each
year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest7 savanna and %rassland ecosystems
into a%ricultural fields and ran%eland. Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitro%en
stored in livin% ve%etation and soil throu%h the decomposition of or%anic matter. (itrous oxide is
also released into the atmosphere !hen fossil fuels and biomass are burned. *o!ever7 the
combined contribution of these sources to the increase of this %as in the atmosphere is thou%ht to
be minor. The use of nitrate and ammonium fertili#ers to enhance plant %ro!th is another source
of nitrous oxide. Accurate measurements of ho! much nitrous oxide is bein% released from
fertili#ation have been difficult to obtain. $stimates su%%est that the contribution from this source
may represent from => ; to >.< ; of nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.
"#one6s role in the enhancement of the %reenhouse effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past lon%5term (more than <= years in the past) levels of
this %as in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of o#one %as are found in
t!o different re%ions of the $arth6s atmosphere. The ma)ority of the o#one (about :8 ;) found in
the atmosphere is locali#ed in the stratosphere at an altitude of 9= to == -ilometers above the
$arth6s surface. In recent years7 the concentration of the stratospheric o#one has been decreasin%
because of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere (see Lecture 8e). &ince the late
9:8>s7 scientists have discovered that total column o#one amounts over Antarctica in the
sprin%time have decreased by as much as 8> ;. &atellite measurements have indicated that the
#one from A=C (orth to A=C &outh latitude has had a B ; decrease in stratospheric o#one since
9:8D. "#one is also hi%hly concentrated at the $arth6s surface. 3ost of this o#one is created as an
artificial by product of photochemical smo%.
In summary7 the greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to trap more heat ener%y at the $arth6s
surface and !ithin the atmosphere by absorbin% and re5emittin% lon%!ave ener%y. "f the
lon%!ave ener%y emitted bac- to space7 :> ; is intercepted and absorbed by %reenhouse %ases.
/ithout the %reenhouse effect the $arth6s avera%e %lobal temperature !ould be 59DC Celsius7
rather than the present 9=C Celsius. In the last fe! centuries7 the activities of humans have
directly or indirectly caused the concentration of the ma)or %reenhouse %ases to increase.
&cientists predict that this increase may enance the %reenhouse effect ma-in% the planet
!armer. &ome experts estimate that the $arth6s avera%e %lobal temperature has already increased
by >.B to >.AC Celsius7 since the be%innin% of this century7 because of this enhancement.
Predictions of future climates indicate that by the middle of the next century the $arth6s %lobal
temperature may be 9 to BC Celsius hi%her than today.
Gree'4ou(e G$(
Co'"e'&r$&io'
1728
Co'"e'&r$&io'
1992
Per"e'&
C4$'ge
N$&ur$# $'
A'&4ro+oge'i"
Sour"e(
C$rbo' Dio:ie <D> ppm BA> ppm <: ;
"r%anic decay@
,orest fires@
Eolcanoes@
Burnin% fossil
fuels@
.eforestation@
Land5use
chan%e
Me&4$'e >.8> ppm 9.8> ppm 9?B ;
/etlands@
"r%anic decay@
Termites@
(atural %as M
oil extraction@
Biomass
burnin%@ 'ice
cultivation@
Cattle@ 'efuse
landfills
Ni&rou( O:ie <D> ppb B9> ppb 99 ;
,orests@
rasslands@
"ceans@ &oils@
&oil cultivation@
,ertili#ers@
Biomass
burnin%@
Burnin% of
fossil fuels
C4#oro/#uoro"$rbo'(
;CFC(7
> :>> ppt
(ot
Applicable
'efri%erators@
Aerosol spray
propellants@
Cleanin%
solvents
O6o'e 1n-no!n Earies !ith
latitude and
altitude in the
atmosphere
lobal levels
have %enerally
decreased in
the
stratosphere
and increased
near the
$arth6s surface
Created
naturally by the
action of
sunli%ht on
molecular
oxy%en and
artificially
throu%h
photochemical
smo%
production
(-). The Concept of Temperature
Te%+er$&ure $' He$&
Temperature and heat are not the same phenomenon. Temperature is a measure of the intensity or
de%ree of hotness in a body. Technically7 it is determined by %ettin% the avera%e speed of a body6s
molecules. *eat is a measure of the 0uantity of heat ener%y present in a body. The spatial
distribution of temperature in a body determines heat flo!. *eat al!ays flo!s from !armer to
colder areas.
The heat held in a ob)ect depends not only on its temperature but also its mass. ,or example7 let
us compare the heatin% of t!o different masses of !ater (Table 8-59). In this example7 one mass
has a !ei%ht of = %rams7 !hile the other is <= %rams. If the temperature of both masses is raised
from <> to <=C Celsius7 the lar%er mass of !ater !ill re0uire five times more heat ener%y for this
increase in temperature. This lar%er mass !ould also contain contain = times more stored heat
ener%y.
T$b#e 7.-1: *eat ener%y re0uired to raise t!o different 0uantities of !ater =C Celsius.
M$(( o/ &4e
<$&er
S&$r&i'g
Te%+er$&ure
E'i'g
Te%+er$&ure
He$& Re-uire
= %rams <>C Celsius <=C Celsius
<= Calories of
*eat
<= %rams <>C Celsius <=C Celsius
9<= Calories of
*eat
Te%+er$&ure S"$#e(
A number of measurement scales have been invented to measure temperature. T$b#e 7.-0
describes important temperatures for the three dominant scales in use today.
T$b#e 7.-0+ Temperature of absolute #ero7 the ice point of !ater7 and the stream point of !ater
usin% various temperature measurement scales.
Me$(ure%e'&
S"$#e
S&e$% Poi'& o/
<$&er
I"e Poi'& o/
<$&er
Ab(o#u&e =ero
F$4re'4ei& 010 10 -!>8
Ce#(iu( 188 8 -071
?e#vi' 171 071 8
The most commonly used scale for measurin% temperature is the Celsius system. The Celsius
scale !as developed in 98?< by the &!edish astronomer Anders Celsius. In this system7 the
meltin% point of ice !as %iven a value of >7 the boilin% point of !ater is 9>>7 and absolute #ero is
5<8B. The ,ahrenheit system is a temperature scale that is used exclusively in the 1nited &tates.
This system !as created by erman physicist abriel ,ahrenheit in 989?. In this scale7 the
meltin% point of ice has a value of B<7 !ater boils at <9<7 and absolute #ero has a temperature of
5?A>. The Jelvin scale !as proposed by British physicist Lord Jelvin in 9D?D. This system is
often used by scientists because its temperature readin%s be%in at absolute #ero and due to the
fact that this scale is proportional to the amount of heat ener%y found in an ob)ect. The Jelvin
scale assi%ns a value of <8B for the meltin% temperature of ice7 !hile the boilin% point of !ater
occurs at B8B.
Me$(ure%e'& o/ Air Te%+er$&ure
A thermometer is a device that is used to measure temperature. Thermometers consist of a sealed
hollo! %lass tube filled !ith some type of li0uid. Thermometers measure temperature by the
chan%e in the volume of the li0uid as it responds to the addition or loss of heat ener%y from the
environment immediately outside its surface. /hen heat is added7 the li0uid inside the
thermometer expands. Coolin% cause the li0uid to contract. 3eteorolo%ical thermometers are
often filled !ith either alcohol or mercury. Alcohol thermometers are favored in very cold
environments because of this li0uid6s lo! free#in% point (599<C Celsius).
By international a%reement7 the nations of the !orld have decided to measure temperature in a
similar fashion. This standardi#ation is important for the accurate %eneration of !eather maps
and forecasts7 both of !hich depend on havin% data determined in a uniform !ay. /eather
stations !orld!ide try to determine minimum and maximum temperatures for each and every
day. By avera%in% these t!o values7 daily mean temperatures are also calculated. 3any stations
also ta-e temperature readin%s on the hour. Temperature measurements are determined by
thermometers desi%ned and approved by the /orld 3eteorolo%ical "r%ani#ation
(seehttp+NN!!!.!mo.ch). These instruments are housed in specially desi%ned instrument shelters
that allo! for the standardi#ation of measurements ta-en any!here on the $arth (Figure 7.-1
and Figure 7.-0).

Figure 7.-1: /ell ventilated instrument shelters are used to protect thermometers from
precipitation7 direct sun7 and other physical elements. Construction standardi#ation of these
shelters7 by international a%reement7 %uarantees that measurements are comparable in any of the
over 9=7>>> !eather stations found !orld!ide.
Figure 7.-0: Thermometers found inside the instrument shelter are mounted approximate 9.=
meters above the %round surface. The top thermometer contains alcohol and is used to determine
daily minimum temperatures. The lo!er thermometer uses mercury to determine the daily
maximum temperature
(l). .aily and Annual Cycles of Temperature
D$i#3 C3"#e( o/ Air Te%+er$&ure
At the $arth6s surface 0uantities of insolation and net radiation under%o daily cycles of chan%e
because the planet rotates on its polar axis once every <? hours. Insolation is usually the main
positive component ma-in% up net radiation. Eariations in net radiation are primarily responsible
for the particular patterns of risin% and fallin% air temperature over a <? hour period. The
follo!in% three %raphs sho! hypothetical avera%e curves of insolation7 net radiation7 and air
te"erature for a typical land based location at ?=C of latitude on the e0uinoxes and solstices
(Figure( 7#-17 7#-07 and 7#-1).
Insolation
Figure 7#-1: *ourly variations in insolation received for a location at ?=C (orth latitude over a
<? hour period.
In the above %raph7 short!ave radiation received from the sun is measured in /atts. ,or all
dates7 pea- reception occurs at solar noon !hen the sun attains its %reatest hei%ht above the
hori#on.
(et 'adiation
Figure 7#-0: *ourly variations in net radiation for a location at ?=C (orth latitude over a <? hour
period.
1nits in Figure 7#-0 are the same as the insolation %raph above. The net radiation %raph indicates
that there is a surplus of radiation durin% most of the day and a deficit throu%hout the ni%ht. The
deficit be%ins )ust before sunset !hen emitted lon%!ave radiation from the $arth6s surface
exceeds solar insolation and lon%!ave radiation from the atmosphere.
Temperature
Figure 7#-1: *ourly variations in surface temperature for a location at ?=C (orth latitude over a
<? hour period.
The relative placement of the temperature profiles for the various dates correlates to the amount
of 'e& r$i$&io' available for daily surface absorption and heat %eneration. The more ener%y
available7 the hi%her up the Y-$:i( the profile is on the gr$+4. Au&u%'$# e-ui'o: (&eptember
<9) is !armer than the ver'$# e-ui'o: (3arch <9) because of the heatin% that occurred in the
previous summer months. ,or all dates7 minimum temperature occurs at #unri#e. Temperature
drops throu%hout the ni%ht because of t!o processes. ,irst7 the $arth6s radiation balance at the
surface becomes ne%ative after #un#et. Thus7 the surface of the $arth stops heatin% up as solar
radiation is not bein% absorbed. &econdly7 "o'u"&io' and "o've"&io' transport heat ener%y up
into the atmosphere and the !arm air that !as at the surface is replaced by cooler air from above
because of atmospheric mixin%. Temperature be%ins risin% as soon as the net radiation bud%et of
the surface becomes positive. Temperature continues to rise from sunrise until sometime after
solar noon. After this time7 mixin% of the $arth6s surface by convection causes the surface to cool
despite the positive addition of radiation and 4e$& e'erg3.
A''u$# C3"#e o/ Air Te%+er$&ure
As the $arth revolves around the sun7 locations on the surface may under %o seasonal chan%es in
air temperature because of annual variations in the intensity of 'e& r$i$&io'. Eariations in net
radiation are primarily controlled by chan%es in the intensity and duration of received solar
insolation !hich are driven by variations in daylen%th and an%le of incidence. The discussion
belo! examines ho! chan%es in net radiation can effect mean montly temperature# for the
follo!in% five locations+
Manau#7 Bra#il7 BC &outh latitude (Figure 7#-!).
Figure 7#-!: 3onthly variations in net radiation and avera%e monthly temperature for 3anaus7
Bra#il.
At Manau#7 values of monthly net radiation avera%e about 9B= <$&&( per s0uare meter. 3onthly
variation in net radiation is only about B= <$&&( over the entire year (Figure 7#-!). T!o pea-s in
net radiation are visible on the %raph. Both of these pea-s occur durin% the e-ui'o:e( !hen the
hei%ht of the sun above the 4ori6o' is at its maximum (:>C above the hori#on). 3inimum values
of net radiation correspond to the time of the year !hen the sun reaches its minimum hei%ht of
only AA.=C above the hori#on at (o#$r 'oo'. Because of the consistent nature of net radiation7
mean monthly air temperature only varies by <C Celsius over the entire year.
Bula!ayo7 4imbab!e 5 <>C &outh7 <:C $ast
Figure 7#-2: 3onthly variations in net radiation and avera%e monthly temperature for Bula!ayo7
4imbab!e.
(et radiation at Bula$ayo has a sin%le pea- and trou%h over the one year period %raphed. This
pattern is primarily controlled by variations in the intensity and duration of incomin% solar
insolation (Figure 7#-2). .urin% the )i'&er (o#(&i"e the sun reaches its hi%hest altitude above the
hori#on and daylen%th is at a maximum (9B hours and 9< minutes). The lo!est values of net
radiation occur around the (u%%er (o#(&i"e !hen the sun reaches its lo!est altitude above the
hori#on and daylen%th is at a minimum (9> hours and ?D minutes) in the &outhern *emisphere.
3onthly temperature variations follo! the monthly chan%e in net radiation. (et radiation
represents ener%y available to do !or-. /hen received at the $arth6s surface much of this ener%y
is used to create (e'(ib#e 4e$&.
Albu0uer0ue7 1&A 5 B=C (orth7 9>8C /est
Figure 7#->: 3onthly variations in net radiation and avera%e monthly temperature for
Albu0uer0ue7 1&A.
At !lbu%uer%ue7 maximum net radiation occurs in 3ay. The timin% of this pea- rou%hly
coincides !ith the (u%%er (o#(&i"e !hen daylen%ths are at their lon%est and solar hei%hts are
their %reatest (Figure 7#->). *o!ever7 monthly temperature variations do not mirror the chan%es
in net radiation exactly. Pea- monthly temperatures occur about t!o months after the net
radiation maximum. This la% is probably caused by the delayed movement of stored heat ener%y
in the %round into the atmosphere. 3inimum monthly temperatures do coincide !ith the lo!est
values of net radiation !hich occur durin% the )i'&er (o#(&i"e.
London7 $n%land 5 =<C (orth7 9C $ast
Figure 7#-7: 3onthly variations in net radiation and avera%e monthly temperature for London7
$n%land.
The annual patterns of net radiation and mean monthly temperature for &on'on are 0uite similar
to those already described for Albu0uer0ue (Figure( 7#-> and 7#-7). London does7 ho!ever7
experience a %reater annual variation in net radiation. This %reater variation can be explained by
the effect increasin% latitude has on annual variations of insolation. .urin% the !inter months7
out%oin% #o'g)$ve r$i$&io' actually exceeds incomin% i'(o#$&io' producin% ne%ative net
radiation values. This !as not seen in Albu0uer0ue. The variation in monthly mean temperature
is also less extreme in London !hen compared to Albu0uer0ue. Intuitively7 one !ould expect
London to have a %reater annual chan%e in temperature because of the %reater variation in net
radiation over the year. *o!ever7 London6s climate is moderated by the fre0uent addition of
#$&e'& 4e$& ener%y from seasonal precipitation.
,airban-s7 1&A 5 A=C (orth7 9?DC /est
Figure 7#-@: 3onthly variations in net radiation and avera%e monthly temperature for ,airban-s7
1&A.
"f the five locations examined7 (airbank# has the %reatest variations in mean monthly
temperature. ,airban-s is also the coldest of the climates examined (Figure 7#-@). This is
primarily due to the fact that durin% six months of the year net radiation is ne%ative because
out%oin% #o'g)$ve r$i$&io' exceeds incomin% i'(o#$&io'. ,airban-s also receives the least
cumulative amount of net radiation over the entire year. 3ean month temperature is at its
maximum in 2uly !hich is one month ahead of the pea- in net radiation.
(m). lobal &urface Temperature .istribution
If the $arth !as a homo%eneous body !ithout the present landNocean distribution7 its temperature
distribution !ould be strictly latitudinal (Figure 7%-1). *o!ever7 the $arth is more complex
than this bein% composed of a mosaic of land and !ater. This mosaic causes latitudinal #onation
of temperature to be disrupted spatially.
Figure 7%-1: &imple latitudinal #onation of temperature.
The follo!in% t!o factors are important in influencin% the distribution of temperature on the
$arth6s surface+
The latitude of the location determines ho! much solar radiation is received. Latitude influences
the an%le of incidence and duration of daylen%th.
&urface properties 5 surfaces !ith hi%h $#beo absorb less incident radiation. In %eneral7 land
absorbs less insolation that !ater because of its li%hter color. Also7 even if t!o surfaces have the
same albedo7 a surface6s (+e"i/i" 4e$& determines the amount of heat ener%y re0uired for a
specific rise in temperature per unit mass. The specific heat of !ater is some five times %reater
than that of roc- and the land surface (see T$b#e 7%-1 belo!). As a result7 !ater re0uires the
input of lar%e amounts of ener%y to cause a rise in its temperature.
T$b#e 7%-1: &pecific *eat of Earious &ubstances.
Sub(&$'"e S+e"i/i" He$&
/ater 9.>>
Air >.<?
ranite >.9:
&and >.9:
Iron >.99
3ainly because of (+e"i/i" 4e$&7 land surfaces behave 0uite differently from !ater surfaces. In
%eneral7 the surface of any extensive deep body of !ater heats more slo!ly and cools more
slo!ly than the surface of a lar%e land body. "ther factors influencin% the !ay land and !ater
surfaces heat and cool include+
&olar radiation !arms an extensive layer in !ater7 on land )ust the immediate surface is heated.
/ater is easily mixed by the process of "o've"&io'.
Ev$+or$&io' of !ater removes ener%y from !ater6s surface.
The follo!in% ima%es illustrate the $arth6s temperature distribution patterns for an avera%e
2anuary and 2uly based on B: years of data (Figure( 7%-0 and 7%-1). (ote that the spatial
variations of temperature on these fi%ures is mostly latitudinal. *o!ever7 the hori#ontal bandin%
of i(o&4er%( is some!hat upset by the fact that !ater heats up more slo!ly in the summer and
cools do!n more slo!ly in the !inter !hen compared to land surfaces. .urin% 2anuary7 much of
the terrestrial areas of the (orthern *emisphere are belo! free#in% (Figure 7%-0). &ome notable
(orthern *emisphere cold5spots include the area around Baffin Island Canada7 reenland7
&iberia7 and the Plateau of Tibet. Temperatures over oceans tend to be hotter because of the
!ater6s ability to hold heat ener%y.
In the &outhern *emisphere7 temperatures over the ma)or landmasses are %enerally %reater than
<>C Celsius !ith locali#ed hot5spots in !est5central Australia7 the Jalahari .esert in Africa7 and
the plains of Bolivia7 Para%uay7 and Ar%entina (Figure 7%-0). &ubtropical oceans are often
!armer than landmass areas near the e0uator. At this latitude7 land areas receive less incomin%
solar radiation because of the daily "o've"&ive development of "u%u#u( and "u%u#o'i%bu(
clouds. In the mid5latitudes7 oceans are often cooler than landmass areas at similar latitudes.
Terrestrial areas are !armer because of the rapid heatin% of land surfaces under fre0uently clear
s-ies. Antarctica remains cold and belo! #ero de%rees Celsius due to the presence of permanent
%lacial ice !hich reflects much of the solar radiation received bac- to space.
Figure 7%-0: 3ean 2anuary air temperature for the $arth6s surface7 9:=:59::8. (Sour"e o/
Origi'$# Moi/ie I%$ge: Cliate Lab Section of the Environental Change !esearch Grou"#
$e"artent of Geogra"h%# Universit% of &regon 5 G#ob$# C#i%$&e A'i%$&io'().
In 2uly7 the (orthern *emisphere is experiencin% its summer season because the (orth Pole is
no! tilted to!ards the sun (Figure 7%-1). &ome conspicuous hot5spots include the south5central
1nited &tates7 Ari#ona and north!est 3exico7 northern Africa7 the 3iddle $ast7 India7 Pa-istan7
and Af%hanistan. Temperatures over oceans tend to be relatively cooler because of the land6s
ability to heat 0uic-ly. T!o terrestrial areas of cooler temperatures include reenland and the
Plateau of Tibet. In these re%ions7 most of the incomin% solar radiation is sent bac- to space
because of the presence of reflective ice and sno!.
In the &outhern *emisphere7 temperatures over the ma)or landmasses are %enerally cooler than
ocean surfaces at the same latitude (Figure 7%-1). Antarctica is bitterly cold because it is
experiencin% total dar-ness. (ote that Antarctica is much colder than the Arctic !as durin% its
!inter season (Figure( 7%-0 and 7%-1). The Arctic consists mainly of ocean. .urin% the
summer7 this surface is able to absorb considerable 0uantities of sunli%ht !hich is then converted
into heat ener%y. The heat stored in the ocean is carried over into the !inter season. Antarctica
has a surface composed primarily of sno! and ice. This surface absorbs only a small amount of
the solar radiation durin% the summer. &o it never really heats up. As a result7 the amount of heat
ener%y stored into the !inter season is minimal.
Figure 7%-1: 3ean 2uly air temperature for the $arth6s surface7 9:=:59::8. (Sour"e o/ Origi'$#
Moi/ie I%$ge: Cliate Lab Section of the Environental Change !esearch Grou"#
$e"artent of Geogra"h%# Universit% of &regon 5 G#ob$# C#i%$&e A'i%$&io'().
Figure 7%-! describes avera%e $''u$# g#ob$# &e%+er$&ure data for the $arth for the period
9:D<59::?. The patterns of temperature distribution on this fi%ure are once a%ain mostly
latitudinal. *o!ever7 the latitudinal bandin% is partially upset by the fact that !ater bodies are
%enerally !armer than land surfaces. The ima%e also sho!s the effect of altitude (e.%.7 *imalayas
and Andes mountains) and $#beo (reenland and Antarctica) on surface air temperature.
Aver$ge A''u$# G#ob$# Te%+er$&ure 19@0-199!
Te%+er$&ure S"$#e i' ?e#vi'
Figure 7%-!: Avera%e annual temperatures for the $arth6s surface (9:D<5:?).
(Ima%e %enerated by <or#<$&"4er soft!are).