INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEERING:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINEERING:
SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
Edited by
John H. Weaving
Technical Director, ERA Limited,
London Road, Dunstable, UK
ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE
LONDON and NEW YORK
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
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WITH 24 TABLES AND 518 ILLUSTRATIONS
1990 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
1990 D. WINTERBONE, chapters 12 and 13
1990 UK ATOMIC ENERGY AUTHORITY, chapter 16, pp. 832-848
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1990
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Internal combustion engineering.
1. Internal combustion engines
I. Weaving, John
621.43
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-6822-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-0749-2
001: 10.1007/978-94-009-0749-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Internal combustion engineering: science & technology/edited by
John H. Weaving.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Internal combustion engines-Design and construction.
I. Weaving, John H.
TJ785.149 1990
621.43--dc20 89-16991
CIP
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Foreword
Sir Diarmuid Downs, CBE, FEng, FRS
Engineering is about designing and making marketable artefacts. The
element of design is what principally distinguishes engineering from
science. The engineer is a creator. He brings together knowledge and
experience from a variety of sources to serve his ends, producing
goods of value to the individual and to the community. An important
source of information on which the engineer draws is the work of the
scientist or the scientifically minded engineer. The pure scientist is
concerned with knowledge for its own sake and receives his greatest
satisfaction if his experimental observations fit into an aesthetically
satisfying theory. The applied scientist or engineer is also concerned
with theory, but as a means to an end. He tries to devise a theory
which will encompass the known experimental facts, both because an
all embracing theory somehow serves as an extra validation of the facts
and because the theory provides us with new leads to further fruitful
experimental investigation.
I have laboured these perhaps rather obvious points because they
are well exemplified in this present book. The first internal combustion
engines, produced just over one hundred years ago, were very simple,
the design being based on very limited experimental information. The
current engines are extremely complex and, while the basic design of
cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft has changed but little,
the overall performance in respect of specific power, fuel economy,
pollution, noise and cost has been absolutely transformed. Incentives
to improvement in all these areas have been provided by market forces
and latterly by regulatory pressures from Government. The informa-
tion on which these performance improvements have been based has
v
vi Foreword
been provided by the kind of detailed experimental and theoretical
studies described in the various chapters of this book. To provide the
necessary depth of study the subject is commonly divided, as this book
has been divided, into a number of specialities, and engineers have
frequently devoted their whole professional careers to the detailed
investigation of such subjects as combustion, noise, pollution and the
dynamic behaviour of engines. By such means is progress made. But,
at the end of the process, the manufacturer has to sell and the
customer wishes to buy, not just a high specific output device or a low
fuel consuming device, let alone a low polluting or quiet device, but an
engine which gives a performance in all these respects which will
satisfy the marketplace. At the end of the process we need an
engineer-a designer-who will put together the complete package,
making use of the information provided by his specialist colleagues.
This book is addressed to specialists, but the chapters are also
designed so that one specialist can understand the work of another
specialist, and relate it to his own work and to the complete engine
they both aim to produce. All are written by experts, most known to
me personally. Between them they provide a guide to the present state
of our knowledge of the various important aspects of the internal
combustion engine design and performance. One difference which it is
interesting to observe, as compared with a similar book which might
have been compiled some 20 years ago, is the greater use of
mathematical theory which has been made possible by the availability
of powerful computers. A general trend in engineering is to calculate
more, for our designs to become more quantitative, with less being left
to inspired guesswork, or merely based on past experience. Addition-
ally, the creation of mathematical models, trust in which will increase
as they are more fully validated by experiment, not only enables more
of the engine design to be calculated quantitatively, but also enables
variables to be explored within the mathematical model rather than on
the test bench, thus reducing the time and cost required to produce a
new engine. In the ultimate, it may be possible to look forward to the
time when experimental work will be a thing of the past: all will be
subject to exact calculation. This, however, is far into the future, and
this book wisely gives a balanced picture of experimental work and of
calculation, mutually dependent and interrelated. I have no doubt that
the picture it presents and the information it contains will be of great
value to all engineers and scientists working in the internal combustion
engine field for many years to come.
Preface
After so many years of development of the internal combustion (IC)
engine since the days of Otto's first four-stroke engine (1876) it might
have been thought that the IC engine would have been perfected. The
contrary is the case, as every decade seems to throw up new
challenges. The most recent challenge has been the bogey of air
pollution, which started from the intolerable conditions often ex-
perienced in Los Angeles, where the climatology, combined with vast
numbers of vehicles, produces the worst conditions of smog. Attention
being called to this situation invited the monitoring of pollution
worldwide and few cities were found to be free from pollutants. The
results of these findings were severe regulations restricting the
emission of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons and
lead. Are these regulations too severe or not severe enough?
What is the designer of a new vehicle to do to meet this challenge?
Here a time factor intervenes: What can he do to meet legislation that
is already promulgated or just round the corner and secondly, given
time, can he design a clean economic and socially acceptable engine?
It is hoped that this book will help on both counts.
For the immediate future the designer still has several alternatives.
First he may take the easy way out, to accept that IC engines are
polluters and decide to clean the exhaust gases with a catalyst, but
there are disadvantages. Secondly he may say, 'Is a diesel engine to be
preferred?' The answer is in the affirmative for commercial vehicles,
and many think the same for private cars. Again, 'Can the high-
compression lean-burn engine meet the challenge?' Looking to the
future, 'Has the two-stroke engine advantages?' and 'What about the
stratified charge type of engine?'
vii
viii Preface
It will be seen that the designer has many difficulties in reaching a
decision. It would be nice to say we will layout the required
specifications, build each of these types of engines and choose the
best. Unfortunately it is not as easy as this because the conventional
petrol and diesel engines have undergone decades of development,
while others have been largely neglected. A more fundamental
approach is necessary, and it is the object of this book to examine in
depth the position of each type and its potential to meet the
requirements of pollution, economy and power.
The major challenge for the passenger vehicle as indicated above is
between the diesel engine and the spark-ignition engine.
The situation at present, as is well known, is that the diesel engine
has proved itself for the commercial vehicle due to its reliability,
economy and comparatively low pollution, but although it has made
inroads into the passenger car field it is still only the choice of a
minority. The reasons for this are apparent. The diesel, as a slower,
heavier, noisier and more costly power unit has its major appeal to
those who do high mileages, because of its economy; this includes
most taxis. However, careful refinements and noise insulation have
made it acceptable to a wider market. With the use of a turbo-blower
the weight disadvantages may be ameliorated.
The reasons for the improved fuel consumption of the diesel engine
compared with the spark-ignition (SI) engine are well known; namely,
the higher compression ratio and the ability-in fact, desirability-to
run unthrottled. Designers and research workers are endeavouring to
reduce this gap by designing lean-burn running SI engines.
Two approaches present themselves, the stratified-charge engine
and the so-called high-compression lean-burn (HCLB) engine. Both
these engines can potentially reduce the gap but both need further
research; however, the potential is good because the reward should be
a lighter engine with lower pollutants and, one hopes, a less expensive
solution than the diesel.
The success of the HCLB engine is related to the octane number of
the fuel available for, as most researchers will be aware, the octane
number reduces the propensity of the fuel to knock or detonate, and
this limits the compression ratio achievable. The higher the number
the greater the resistance to knock; there are two ratings which are
determined in a standardized variable-compression single cylinder
CFR (Co-operative Fuel Research) engine I-the research method
Preface ix
(RON), the value quoted at the pump (present 1989 four star fuel), is
a minimum of 97. The second method is the motor method (MON),
which is rated on the same CFR engine except that tests are conducted
with a high inlet temperature and high speed; this rating gives some
guidance to 'high speed knock'. The MON is usually some 10 numbers
lower than the RON. The difference (RON - MON) is called the
sensitivity. Neither of these tests correlate accurately with the perfor-
mance of a multi-cylinder engine on the road. An approximate road
octane number may be taken as (RON + MON)/2.
Tetra-ethyl lead and tetra-methyl lead are the best known anti-
knock additives; they are being largely reduced or eliminated as they
are air pollutants and also poison catalysts.
For the reasons outlined above, it will be seen that the internal
combustion engine is still an exciting subject due to the need for
personal door-to-door transport. Cars are made in the millions and
success or failure is multiplied by a large factor.
The various chapters of this book address all these areas. Interna-
tionally well known and competent experts in each field have been
chosen to give the clearest pictures of a most complex science.
As will be immediately apparent, this book is not another textbook
on internal .combustion engines per se; several such exist.
2
-4 It is
intended to put before the reader the position of the most advanced
research and technology in the field of IC engines so that the reader, if
an industrial designer or researcher, will himself be able to incorporate
some of this work to improve his product or advance his research. It
will give him the status of the work being performed in the universities
and other research establishments.
For the academic graduate, if just starting on his studies for a higher
degree, the book will give him the up-to-date state of the art. The
undergraduate wishing to examine an area in depth for a project will
find much that is useful.
The lecturer will find that each subject, treated by some of the
leading experts in the field, will give a basis for lectures and tools and
methodology for future research.
Finally, it is with much trepidation that the editor outlines the
research and development requirements that will enable a detailed
specification for a clean engine for the 21st century. Clearly, as is
normal practice, the performance requirements of the vehicle are
specified and this decides the power of the engine. Let us assume that
x Preface
it will be a spark-ignition (SI) piston engine. The questions that then
have to be answered are:
(1) What size of engine and speed limitations are appropriate?
(2) Will it be blown or normally aspirated?
(3) What combustion chamber and valve layout is to be preferred?
(4) What compression ratio is optimum for the fuel available?
(5) How will it meet the pollution legislation?
To answer these questions a very detailed knowledge of the combus-
tion process is required, and it is considered that in order to obtain the
largest amount of information in the shortest time that computation
and experiment need to go hand in hand.
If the engine concept is a new one where fundamental knowledge is
lacking, an initial computation by mathematical model of the gas flow
and fuel distribution will be most helpful, both in saving time in
comparison with trial and error experiments and in giving a target for
an achievement and a final specification. This will not eliminate
experiments, as assumptions still have to be made of the physical and
chemical processes, which are inordinately complex, but nevertheless
it will give a clear concept of what is happening so that instruments
may be positioned to give the maximum information. This information
in turn can be used to refine the model. Again, computation gives an
orderly discipline to a full research or development investigation,
throwing up questions that need to be answered. This combination of
mathematical modelling has been found to be very useful in diesel
engine research and design, so the tracing of the air path and fuel
spray is vital to a good engine. It has proved equally valuable in the SI
field and with stratified charge engines.
The editor wishes to acknowledge and sincerely thank all the
contributors to this book. The personal effort and time spent, both in
writing the chapters and in the research that lies behind them, is
gratefully appreciated. A not-inconsiderable proportion of this re-
search work has been provided by grants from the Science and
Engineering Research Council (SERe), under a Specially Promoted
Programme on Research in Combustion Engines.
REFERENCES
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM-D2699 and ASTM-
D2700. ASTM, Philadelphia, USA.
Preface xi
2. Benson, R. S. & Whitehouse, N. D., Internal Combustion Engines.
Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1979.
3. Heywood, J. B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill,
1988.
4. Lilly, L. C. R. (ed.)., Diesel Engine Reference Book. Butterworth, 1984.
John H. Weaving
Contents
Foreword v
Preface .
vii
List of Contributors . xv
1 Combustion in Spark-ignition Engines . 1
M. T. Overington
2 Applied Research into Combustion in Small Diesel
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
H. K. Oetting
3 The Two-Stroke Engine: Crankcase Compression Type 65
G. P. Blair
4 The Two-Stroke Engine: The Blowdown and Uniflow
Scavenge Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
F. J. Wallace
5 Stratified Charge Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
J. H. Weaving
6 Mixture Preparation for Spark-ignition Engines. . . . . 173
C. J. E. Nightingale
xiii
xiv Contents
7 Diesel Engine Fuel Injection Processes and Spray
Diagnostic Methods ................. 213
A. A. Hamidi & J. Swithenbank
8 Turbulent Flows in Reciprocating Internal Combustion
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
R. J. Tabaczynski
9 Combustion in Gasoline Engines . . . . . . . . . . . 287
D. Bradley
10 Combustion in the Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . 333
S. Matsuoka
11 Computer Simulation of Fluid Flow and Combustion in
Reciprocating Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
D. B. Spalding
12 The Theory of Wave Action Approaches Applied to
Reciprocating Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
D. E. Winterbone
13 The Application of Wave Action Techniques to
Reciprocating Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
D. E. Winterbone
14 The Turbocharger .................. 615
B. E. Walsham & D. E. Winterbone
15 Atmospheric Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
J. H. Weaving & J-P. Pouille
16 Instrumentation for Engine Flows ........... 795
C. Arcoumanis, M. Yianneskis,
D. R. Williams, C. A. Baker & D. A. Greenhalgh
Index .......................... 857
List of Contributors
c. Arcoumanis
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College of
Science, Technology and Medicine, Exhibition Road, London
SW7 2BX, UK
c. A. Baker
Harwell Laboratory, UK Atomic Energy Authority, Chemical
Physics Group B551 Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11
ORA, UK
G. P. Blair
The Queen's University of Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast,
Northern Ireland BT9 5AH, UK
D. Bradley
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds,
Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
D. A. Greenhalgh
Harwell Laboratory, UK Atomic Energy Authority, Chemical
Physics Group B551 Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11
ORA, UK
A. A. Hamidi
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
xv
xvi List of Contributors
S. Matsuoka
The Science University of Tokyo, 7-6-12 Seijo Setagaya-KU,
Tokyo,Japan
C. J. E. Nightingale
University College London, Torrington Place, London WC1E
7JE, UK
H. K. Oetting
Volkswagen AG, Postbox 3180, Wolfsburg 1, FRG
M. T. Overington
Ricardo Consultants, Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd, Bridge
Works, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex BN4 5FG, UK
J-P. Pouille
Renault, 67 Rue des Bons-Raisins, 92508 Rueil Malmaison
Cedex, France
D. B. Spalding
CHAM Ltd, Bakery House, 40 High Street, Wimbledon, London
SW19 5AU, UK
J. Swithenbank
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
R. J. Tabaczynski
Ford Motor Co., PO Box 2053, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053,
USA
F. J. Wallace
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Claver-
ton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
B. E. Walsham
Holset Engineering Co. Ltd, PO Box AS, Turnbridge, Hud-
dersfield HD1 6RD, UK
List of Contributors xvii
J. H. Weaving
ERA ltd, London Road, Ounstable, Bedfordshire, LU6 3UR, UK
and 150 Chessetts Wood Road, Lapworth, Solihull, B94, 6EN,
UK
D. R. Williams
Harwell Laboratory, UK Atomic Energy Authority, Chemical
Physics Group B551 Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire OX11
ORA, UK
D. E. Winterbone
UMIST, PO Box 68, Manchester Road, Manchester M60 100,
UK
M. Yianneskis
School of Engineering, King's College London, University of
London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK