Dr.
Mohammed Ammar
Department of Electric Power and Machines
Cairo University
Introduction
Basic Concepts of
Measurements Systems
Measurement is the act of assigning a
specific value to a physical variable
detected by a sensor.
A measurement system includes all the
components necessary for producing a
measurement.
A measurement system is basically an
extension of our sensory systems, but are
usually more quantitative.
Variables
Possible cause and effect relationships
If a change in one variable has no effect on
another variable, then these two variables are
considered to be independent of one another.
Independent Variable
A variable that can be changed independently
of other variables.
Dependent Variable
A variable that is affected by changes in one or
more other variables.
Control of Variables
Variables that can be held (controlled) at a constant
value. This is used to find the relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
Extraneous Variables
Are not or cannot be controlled during an
experiment. May affect the measured variable and
therefore confuse the relationship between cause and
effect (independent and dependent variables)
in the measurement.
Example: boiling point of water
Noise and Interference
Noise
Random variation of a value of a measured signal.
Due to variation of the extraneous variables.
Increases data scatter. Statistical methods can reduce
the effect of noise.
Interference
Undesired deterministic trend in measured value.
Example: AC power source superimposed on electrical
signal Interference is often obvious, but if period is
longer than measured signal, it will appear as a false
trend and this is harder to detect. More than one test
required
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False trends in each measurement are only seen after
several tests. Multiple tests increase scatter of results
(noise), but remember that the effect of noise can be
reduced by using statistics.
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Random Tests
Random Test
A measurement matrix (set of tests) that imposes a
random order on the changes of the value of the
independent variable. Trends that may be introduced by
the coupling of a relatively slow and uncontrolled
variation of an extraneous variable with a sequential
application of the independent variable will
be broken up.
Things to Randomize
Instruments used, test operators, testing conditions,
samples, etc.
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Replication and Repetition
Repetition
In general the estimated value of a measured variable improves
with the number of repeated measurements.
Repetition helps to quantify variation in a measured variable.
Repetitions are repeated measurements made during any single
test run or on a single batch of items.
Replication
Replication is an independent duplication of a set of
measurements using similar operating conditions.
Replication allows the quantification of the variation in a
measured variable as it occurs between different tests (each
having the same nominal operating conditions).
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Concomitant Methods
Concomitant Methods
Different methods for estimating the same result.
Can be compared to check for agreement.
May require additional variables to be measured.
May require analysis of measured data to calculate final value
desired.
Example: Measure volume of a solid cylindrical rod.
1. Measure length and diameter and calculate volume.
2. Measure weight and use known density of material to
calculate volume.
3. Submerge rod in water and measure volume of
displaced water.
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Calibration
Calibration: Establishing the relationship
between a known value of input and the
systems indicated output
Static calibration: The procedure above applied to
static signals
Dynamic calibration: Same, applied to timedependent signals. Many different approaches
possible
Sensitivity: The slope of the calibration curve
Standard: The known value used for calibration.
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Accuracy and Error
True Value exact value of a variable (never
known)
Measured Value value of variable as indicated
by measurement system
Accuracy closeness of agreement between the
measured value and the true value.
Error (e) difference between the measured value
and the true value of a variable.
e = measured value true value
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Relative Error, A estimate of error based on a
reference value used in place of a known true
value of a variable.
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Random Errors, Systematic
Errors and Uncertainty
Random Error a measure of the random variation
found during repeated measurements of a variable.
Repeatability the ability of a measurement system
to indicate the same value on repeated measurements for a
specific input value.
Systematic Error the portion of the absolute error
(bias error) that remains constant during repeated
measurements.
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Other Errors
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Overall Error, u combination of all known
errors
Example: an instrument with known hysteresis,
linearity, and sensitivity errors has the following
total instrument error.
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Standards, Dimensions and Units
A primary standard is a yardstick that
defines the value of the unit in a certain
jurisdiction. A standard must be stable and
usable.
A dimension defines a physical variable used
to describe some physical quantity.
A unit defines a quantitative measure of a
dimension.
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In the past, standards of length included the kings
foot, the emperor's forearm, etc. Standards for
time included a standard burning candle, a
sundial...
Primary standard of time:
1 s = duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of cesium
133 radiation... (essentially cesium clock is the
standard)
Primary standard of length:
1 m = path traveled by light in vacuum in
1/299,792,458 s
(i.e, speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s)
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There are many Standards
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