Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Chapter 1
Computer Abstractions
and Technology
Progress in computer technology
n
Makes novel applications feasible
n
n
n
n
n
Underpinned by Moores Law
1.1 Introduction
The Computer Revolution
Computers in automobiles
Cell phones
Human genome project
World Wide Web
Search Engines
Computers are pervasive
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 2
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Classes of Computers
n
Desktop computers
n
n
Server computers
n
n
n
General purpose, variety of software
Subject to cost/performance tradeoff
Network based
High capacity, performance, reliability
Range from small servers to building sized
Embedded computers
n
n
Hidden as components of systems
Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 3
The Processor Market
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 4
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
What You Will Learn
n
How programs are translated into the
machine language
n
n
n
The hardware/software interface
What determines program performance
n
And how the hardware executes them
And how it can be improved
How hardware designers improve
performance
What is parallel processing
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 5
Understanding Performance
n
Algorithm
n
Programming language, compiler, architecture
n
Determine number of machine instructions executed
per operation
Processor and memory system
n
Determines number of operations executed
Determine how fast instructions are executed
I/O system (including OS)
n
Determines how fast I/O operations are executed
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 6
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Application software
n
Written in high-level language
System software
n
Compiler: translates HLL code to
machine code
Operating System: service code
n
n
n
1.2 Below Your Program
Below Your Program
Handling input/output
Managing memory and storage
Scheduling tasks & sharing resources
Hardware
n
Processor, memory, I/O controllers
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 7
Levels of Program Code
n
High-level language
n
Assembly language
n
Level of abstraction closer
to problem domain
Provides for productivity
and portability
Textual representation of
instructions
Hardware representation
n
n
Binary digits (bits)
Encoded instructions and
data
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 8
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
The BIG Picture
Same components for
all kinds of computer
n
Desktop, server,
embedded
1.3 Under the Covers
Components of a Computer
Input/output includes
n
User-interface devices
n
Storage devices
n
Display, keyboard, mouse
Hard disk, CD/DVD, flash
Network adapters
n
For communicating with
other computers
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 9
Anatomy of a Computer
Output
device
Network
cable
Input
device
Input
device
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 10
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Anatomy of a Mouse
n
Optical mouse
n
n
n
LED illuminates
desktop
Small low-res camera
Basic image processor
n
Looks for x, y
movement
Buttons & wheel
Supersedes roller-ball
mechanical mouse
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 11
Through the Looking Glass
n
LCD screen: picture elements (pixels)
n
Mirrors content of frame buffer memory
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 12
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Opening the Box
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 13
Inside the Processor (CPU)
n
n
n
Datapath: performs operations on data
Control: sequences datapath, memory, ...
Cache memory
n
Small fast SRAM memory for immediate
access to data
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 14
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Inside the Processor
n
AMD Barcelona: 4 processor cores
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 15
Abstractions
The BIG Picture
n
Abstraction helps us deal with complexity
n
Instruction set architecture (ISA)
n
The hardware/software interface
Application binary interface
n
Hide lower-level detail
The ISA plus system software interface
Implementation
n
The details underlying and interface
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 16
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
A Safe Place for Data
n
Volatile main memory
n
Loses instructions and data when power off
Non-volatile secondary memory
n
n
n
Magnetic disk
Flash memory
Optical disk (CDROM, DVD)
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 17
Networks
n
n
Communication and resource sharing
Local area network (LAN): Ethernet
n
n
n
Within a building
Wide area network (WAN: the Internet
Wireless network: WiFi, Bluetooth
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 18
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Technology Trends
n
Electronics
technology
continues to evolve
n
Increased capacity
and performance
Reduced cost
Year
Technology
1951
Vacuum tube
1965
Transistor
1975
Integrated circuit (IC)
1995
Very large scale IC (VLSI)
2005
Ultra large scale IC
DRAM capacity
Relative performance/cost
1
35
900
2,400,000
6,200,000,000
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 19
Which airplane has the best performance?
Boeing 777
Boeing 777
Boeing 747
Boeing 747
BAC/Sud
Concorde
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Douglas
DC-8-50
Douglas DC8-50
0
100
200
300
400
500
Boeing 777
Boeing 777
Boeing 747
Boeing 747
BAC/Sud
Concorde
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Douglas
DC-8-50
Douglas DC8-50
500
1000
4000
6000
8000 10000
Cruising Range (miles)
Passenger Capacity
2000
1.4 Performance
Defining Performance
1500
Cruising Speed (mph)
100000 200000 300000 400000
Passengers x mph
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 20
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
10
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Response Time and Throughput
n
Response time
n
How long it takes to do a task
Throughput
n
Total work done per unit time
n
How are response time and throughput affected
by
n
n
e.g., tasks/transactions/ per hour
Replacing the processor with a faster version?
Adding more processors?
Well focus on response time for now
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 21
Relative Performance
n
n
Define Performance = 1/Execution Time
X is n time faster than Y
Performanc e X Performanc e Y
= Execution time Y Execution time X = n
Example: time taken to run a program
10s on A, 15s on B
n Execution TimeB / Execution TimeA
= 15s / 10s = 1.5
n So A is 1.5 times faster than B
n
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 22
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
11
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Measuring Execution Time
n
Elapsed time
n
Total response time, including all aspects
n
Processing, I/O, OS overhead, idle time
Determines system performance
CPU time
n
Time spent processing a given job
n
Discounts I/O time, other jobs shares
Comprises user CPU time and system CPU
time
n Different programs are affected differently by
CPU and system performance
n
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 23
CPU Clocking
n
Operation of digital hardware governed by a
constant-rate clock
Clock period
Clock (cycles)
Data transfer
and computation
Update state
Clock period: duration of a clock cycle
n
e.g., 250ps = 0.25ns = 2501012s
Clock frequency (rate): cycles per second
n
e.g., 4.0GHz = 4000MHz = 4.0109Hz
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 24
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
12
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
CPU Time
CPU Time = CPU Clock Cycles Clock Cycle Time
=
n
CPU Clock Cycles
Clock Rate
Performance improved by
Reducing number of clock cycles
n Increasing clock rate
n Hardware designer must often trade off clock
rate against cycle count
n
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 25
CPU Time Example
n
n
Computer A: 2GHz clock, 10s CPU time
Designing Computer B
n
n
Aim for 6s CPU time
Can do faster clock, but causes 1.2 clock cycles
How fast must Computer B clock be?
Clock RateB =
Clock CyclesB 1.2 Clock CyclesA
=
CPU TimeB
6s
Clock CyclesA = CPU Time A Clock Rate A
= 10s 2GHz = 20 10 9
Clock RateB =
1.2 20 10 9 24 10 9
=
= 4GHz
6s
6s
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 26
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
13
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Instruction Count and CPI
Clock Cycles = Instruction Count Cycles per Instruction
CPU Time = Instruction Count CPI Clock Cycle Time
=
n
Instruction Count for a program
n
Instruction Count CPI
Clock Rate
Determined by program, ISA and compiler
Average cycles per instruction
n
n
Determined by CPU hardware
If different instructions have different CPI
n
Average CPI affected by instruction mix
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 27
CPI Example
n
n
n
n
Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0
Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
Same ISA
Which is faster, and by how much?
CPU Time
= Instruction Count CPI Cycle Time
A
A
= I 2.0 250ps = I 500ps
A is faster
CPU Time = Instruction Count CPI Cycle Time
B
B
B
= I 1.2 500ps = I 600ps
CPU Time
B = I 600ps = 1.2
CPU Time
I 500ps
A
by this much
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 28
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
14
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
CPI in More Detail
n
If different instruction classes take different
numbers of cycles
n
Clock Cycles = (CPIi Instruction Count i )
i=1
CPI =
Weighted average CPI
n
Clock Cycles
Instructio n Count i
= CPIi
Instructio n Count i=1
Instructio n Count
Relative frequency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 29
CPI Example
n
Alternative compiled code sequences using
instructions in classes A, B, C
Class
CPI for class
IC in sequence 1
IC in sequence 2
Sequence 1: IC = 5
n
Clock Cycles
= 21 + 12 + 23
= 10
Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0
Sequence 2: IC = 6
n
Clock Cycles
= 41 + 12 + 13
=9
Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 30
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
15
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Performance Summary
The BIG Picture
CPU Time =
n
Instructions Clock cycles Seconds
Program
Instruction Clock cycle
Performance depends on
n
n
n
n
Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI
Programming language: affects IC, CPI
Compiler: affects IC, CPI
Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI, Tc
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 31
1.5 The Power Wall
Power Trends
In CMOS IC technology
Power = Capacitive load Voltage 2 Frequency
30
5V 1V
1000
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 32
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
16
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Reducing Power
n
Suppose a new CPU has
n
n
85% of capacitive load of old CPU
15% voltage and 15% frequency reduction
Pnew Cold 0.85 (Vold 0.85) 2 Fold 0.85
=
= 0.85 4 = 0.52
2
Pold
Cold Vold Fold
n
The power wall
n
n
We cant reduce voltage further
We cant remove more heat
How else can we improve performance?
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 33
1.6 The Sea Change: The Switch to Multiprocessors
Uniprocessor Performance
Constrained by power, instruction-level parallelism,
memory latency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 34
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Multiprocessors
n
Multicore microprocessors
n
More than one processor per chip
Requires explicitly parallel programming
n
Compare with instruction level parallelism
n
n
Hardware executes multiple instructions at once
Hidden from the programmer
Hard to do
n
n
n
Programming for performance
Load balancing
Optimizing communication and synchronization
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 35
1.7 Real Stuff: The AMD Opteron X4
Manufacturing ICs
Yield: proportion of working dies per wafer
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 36
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
18
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
AMD Opteron X2 Wafer
n
n
X2: 300mm wafer, 117 chips, 90nm technology
X4: 45nm technology
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 37
Integrated Circuit Cost
Cost per die =
Cost per wafer
Dies per wafer Yield
Dies per wafer Wafer area Die area
Yield =
n
1
(1+ (Defects per area Die area/2))2
Nonlinear relation to area and defect rate
n
n
n
Wafer cost and area are fixed
Defect rate determined by manufacturing process
Die area determined by architecture and circuit design
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 38
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
SPEC CPU Benchmark
n
Programs used to measure performance
n
Standard Performance Evaluation Corp (SPEC)
n
Supposedly typical of actual workload
Develops benchmarks for CPU, I/O, Web,
SPEC CPU2006
n
Elapsed time to execute a selection of programs
n
n
n
Negligible I/O, so focuses on CPU performance
Normalize relative to reference machine
Summarize as geometric mean of performance ratios
n
CINT2006 (integer) and CFP2006 (floating-point)
n
Execution time ratio
i=1
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 39
CINT2006 for Opteron X4 2356
Name
Description
IC109
CPI
Tc (ns)
Exec time
Ref time
SPECratio
perl
Interpreted string processing
2,118
0.75
0.40
637
9,777
15.3
bzip2
Block-sorting compression
2,389
0.85
0.40
817
9,650
11.8
gcc
GNU C Compiler
1,050
1.72
0.47
24
8,050
11.1
mcf
Combinatorial optimization
336
10.00
0.40
1,345
9,120
6.8
go
Go game (AI)
1,658
1.09
0.40
721
10,490
14.6
hmmer
Search gene sequence
2,783
0.80
0.40
890
9,330
10.5
sjeng
Chess game (AI)
2,176
0.96
0.48
37
12,100
14.5
libquantum
Quantum computer simulation
1,623
1.61
0.40
1,047
20,720
19.8
h264avc
Video compression
3,102
0.80
0.40
993
22,130
22.3
omnetpp
Discrete event simulation
587
2.94
0.40
690
6,250
9.1
astar
Games/path finding
1,082
1.79
0.40
773
7,020
9.1
xalancbmk
XML parsing
1,058
2.70
0.40
1,143
6,900
Geometric mean
6.0
11.7
High cache miss rates
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 40
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
20
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
SPEC Power Benchmark
n
Power consumption of server at different
workload levels
n
n
Performance: ssj_ops/sec
Power: Watts (Joules/sec)
10
10
Overall ssj_ops per Watt = ssj_ops i poweri
i=0
i=0
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 41
SPECpower_ssj2008 for X4
Target Load %
Performance (ssj_ops/sec)
Average Power (Watts)
100%
231,867
295
90%
211,282
286
80%
185,803
275
70%
163,427
265
60%
140,160
256
50%
118,324
246
40%
920,35
233
30%
70,500
222
20%
47,126
206
10%
23,066
180
0%
Overall sum
141
1,283,590
2,605
ssj_ops/ power
493
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 42
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
21
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Improving an aspect of a computer and
expecting a proportional improvement in
overall performance
Timproved =
Example: multiply accounts for 80s/100s
n
Taffected
+ Tunaffected
improvemen t factor
1.8 Fallacies and Pitfalls
Pitfall: Amdahls Law
How much improvement in multiply performance to
get 5 overall?
80
n Cant be done!
20 =
+ 20
n
Corollary: make the common case fast
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 43
Fallacy: Low Power at Idle
n
Look back at X4 power benchmark
n
n
n
Google data center
n
n
At 100% load: 295W
At 50% load: 246W (83%)
At 10% load: 180W (61%)
Mostly operates at 10% 50% load
At 100% load less than 1% of the time
Consider designing processors to make
power proportional to load
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 44
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
22
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
October 24, 2012
Pitfall: MIPS as a Performance Metric
n
MIPS: Millions of Instructions Per Second
n
Doesnt account for
n
n
Differences in ISAs between computers
Differences in complexity between instructions
MIPS =
=
Instructio n count
Execution time 10 6
Instructio n count
Clock rate
=
Instructio n count CPI
CPI 10 6
10 6
Clock rate
CPI varies between programs on a given CPU
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 45
Cost/performance is improving
n
Hierarchical layers of abstraction
n
In both hardware and software
Instruction set architecture
n
Due to underlying technology development
1.9 Concluding Remarks
Concluding Remarks
The hardware/software interface
Execution time: the best performance
measure
Power is a limiting factor
n
Use parallelism to improve performance
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 46
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
23
