Principles of Cooking

To cook foods successfully, you must understand the science and principles of
cooking.
Now, bear with me. Yes, this page is about the science and principles of gourmet cooking,
but please trust me, it is neither difficult to understand nor boring. It is merely the stating of
a few basic facts that we all need to know to better understand what is happening when
we apply heat to food.
Cooking is simply the transfer of energy from a heat source to a food. To cook foods
successfully, you must understand the ways in which heat is transferred: conduction,
convection and radiation.
Most important, specific to the principles of cooking, you must understand the methods
used to transfer heat: broiling, grilling, roasting and baking, sauteing, pan-frying, deepfrying, poaching, simmering, boiling, steaming, braising and stewing . . .
What are these methods? Why do some work better than others on certain foods?

Heat Transfer
According to the principles of cooking, heat is a type of energy. When a substance gets
hot, the molecules have absorbed energy, which causes the molecules to vibrate rapidly.
The molecules start to expand and bounce off one another. As the molecules move, they
collide with nearby molecules, causing a transfer of heat energy.
Heat transfer can be transferred to foods through conduction, convection, or
radiation. Heat travels through foods by conduction.

Conduction
Conduction, one of the most basic principles of cooking, is the movement of heat from
one item to another through direct contact. For example, when a flame touches the
bottom of a pan, heat is conducted to the pan.
Generally, metals are good conductors. Copper and aluminum are the best conductors,
while liquids and gases are poor conductors.
Conduction is a slow method of heat transfer because there must be physical contact from
one molecule to another.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through a fluid. The fluid may be in a liquid or gas
state. According to the principles of cooking, there are 2 types of convection: natural and
mechanical.
Natural convection causes a natural circulation of heat because warm liquids and gases
have a tendency to rise while cooler ones fall.

Mechanical convection causes heat to circulate more evenly and quickly through fans or
stirring. True or pure convection ovens, usually found in higher-end-ovens, have an
additional element that surrounds the fan and circulates heated air inside the oven. The fan
forces heated air horizontally through the oven racks around the food, cooking it evenly.
Oven position is realtively unimportant. Any rack in a true convection oven should yield the
same cooking results, with foods on the bottom rack getting no browner than others.
Virtually any food that you'd cook in a regular oven benefits from convection cooking.
Actually, your wallet might benefit, too. With convection cooking the oven heats faster and
cooks food 25 percent faster - and usually at 25 degrees lower then ordinary ovens. Poultry
skins are crispy because they render faster while meat stays juicy, roasted vegetables
caramelize more quickly, and baked goods brown evenly.

Radiation
Radiation is energy transferred by waves of heat or light striking the food. Two types
of radiant heat are infrared and microwave.
Infrared cooking is commonly used with toasters and broilers. These devices use an
electric or ceramic element heated to such a high temperature that it gives off waves of
radiant heat.
Microwave cooking relies on radiation generated by an oven to heat the food.

The Effects Of Heat

Proteins Coagulate
Coagulation is when proteins transform from a liquid state to a solid state. Examples: the
firming of meat fibers and egg whites changing from a clear liquid to a white solid when
heated.

Starches Gelatinize
When a mixture of starch and liquid is heated, starch granules swell. The liquid thickens
because the starch granules swell to occupy more space. Examples: The thickening of
sauces when starch is added.

Sugars Caramelize
As sugars cook, they turn brown and change flavor. Caramelized sugar is used in many
sugars, candies, and desserts. In fact, caramelization is used in most flavors we associate
with cooking.

Water Evaporates
All foods contain some water. The evaporation of water drys foods during cooking.

Fats Melt
Fats are a greasy, smooth substance that do not dissolve in water. Oils are fats that remain

liquid at room temperature. Fats melt when heated and then gradually liquefy. Fats will not
evaporate.

Dry Heat Cooking Methods

Dry heat cooking methods include broiling, grilling, roasting, baking, sauteing, pan-frying,
and deep-frying. Obviously, it would be very hard to be a gourmet cook and not be familiar
with all of these cooking methods.
Certain meats and vegetables thrive under the broiler, while others cry out for the roaster. It
all depends on the cuts and what you want to do with them.
Here's a quick run down of the major dry heat cooking methods to give you a basic
sense of what they're all about . . .

Broiling
Broiling, an often overlooked but wonderful dry heat cooking method, uses radiant heat
from an overhead source to cook foods.
Procedure for Broiling Foods
Heat the broiler.
Wipe the broiler grate clean with a lightly oiled towel. This will remove any particles and
help season it.
Prepare the food to be broiled. Rub, season, or marinate it, as desired.
Put food in the broiler, presentation side down. If the item is oblong, place at a 45degree angle to the bars on the grate. Cook long enough for the food to develop
lines. Pull out the sliding grate and turn food over at a 90-degree angle, working
from left to right.

Grilling
Grilling is a dry heat cooking method similar to broiling, except grilling uses a heat source
beneath the cooking surface.
Procedure for Grilling Foods
Heat the grill.
Use a wire brush to remove any burnt particles and then season with a lightly oiled
towel.
Prepare the food to be broiled. Rub, season, or marinate it, as desired.
Place food on the grill, presentation side down.
Turn the food to produce the crosshatch marks associated with grilling. If the item is

oblong, place it at a 45-degree angle. Rotate food 90-degrees and let it cook long
enough for the grates to char it. Turn the food over and finish cooking it. You don't
have to create crosshatch markings on the reverse side.
May I recommend a wonderful book on grilling. "The Big Book of Outdoor Cooking &
Entertaining" by Cheryl & Bill Jamison. I have met this couple and they are very
knowledgeable about charcoal and gas grilling. I personally have this book and have
made many great recipes from it!

Roasting and Baking

The roasting and baking dry heat cooking methods surround the food with dry, heated air in
a closed environment. Heat is transferred by convection to the food's surface, and then
penetrates the food by conduction. The surface dehydrates, and the food browns from
carmelization.
Procedure for Roasting or Baking Foods
Preheat the oven.
Prepare the food. Marinate or season as desired.
Place the food on a rack or in a roasting pan or baking dish.
Roast the food, uncovered. Baste as necessary. Baste - moisten foods during cooking.
Cook to desired internal temperature. Many foods will undergo "carryover cooking".
Carryover cooking occurs after a food is removed from a heat source. This happens by the
residual heat remaining in the food. (Always use a thermometer to check the internal
temperature of the item being roasted.)
I love All-Clad pots and pans as you will see throughout my website. Thus, I just
have to recommend this roasting pan. I use it for turkeys, roasts, chickens etc. I then
take the meat out, and make the sauce on the stove top in the pan with all the
wonderful drippings!

Sauteing
Sauteing is a dry heat cooking method that uses conduction to transfer heat from a hot
saute pan to food with the aid of a small amount of fat. Foods are usually cut into small
pieces and high temperatures are used in sauteing.
Stir-frying is a variation of sauteing. A wok is used instead of a saute pan.
Procedure for Sauteing Foods
Prepare the food to be sauteed. Season and cover in flour, if desired.
Heat the saute pan and add enough fat (oil or clarified butter) to just cover the pan's
bottom. Heat the fat to the point where it just begins to smoke.
Add food to the pan, presentation side down. The food should be as dry as possible. A

pan that is too large may cause the fat to burn.

The food should be turned to acheive the proper color. The heat should be high enough
to complete the cooking process before the food begins to stew in its own juices.
Doneness is determined by timing or touch.

Pan-Frying
Pan-Frying is similar to sauteing and deep-frying. It is a dry heat cooking method in which
heat is transferred by conduction from the pan to the food, using a moderate amount of fat.
Foods to be pan-fryed are usually breaded.
Procedure For Pan-Frying Foods
Prepare the food. Batter or flour as desired.
Heat enough fat or oil to cover the item one-third to halfway up its sides. The oil should
not be as hot as used in sauteing, but should crackle. If the temperature of the oil is
too low, the food will absorb excess amounts of fat. If the temperature of the oil is
too high, the food will burn on the outside before the inside is done.
Add food to the pan. Always turn the food away from you to prevent being burned by
the oil. Use tongs to do this and do not pierce the food.
Fry the food until brown on both sides.
Remove the food and drain on a paper towel.
My most used pan of all is the 12" Frying Pan. If I were to choose what piece of AllClad to get, it would have to be this pan.

Deep-Frying
Deep-Frying is a dry heat cooking method that uses conduction and convection to transfer
heat to food submerged in hot fat. Deep-Frying sounds similar to boiling, but boiling is a
moist-heat method containing water and deep-frying is a dry heat cooking method, since
the food is submerged in fat that does not contain water.
The boiling point, 212 degrees, is the hottest temperature at which foods can be cooked in
water. With the deep-frying dry heat cooking method, temperatures of up to 400 degrees
are used.
Procedure for Deep-Frying Foods
Prepare the food. Bread or batter as desired.
Heat the oil or fat to the desired temperature.
Carefully, place the food in the hot fat.

Doneness is determined by timing, surface color, or sampling.

Transfer food to a pan lined with papertowels.

Moist Heat Cooking Methods

There are four basic moist heat cooking methods. Moist heat refers to applying heat to
food by submerging it into a hot liquid or by exposing it to steam. All four procedures
are integral to a professional chef's cooking repertoire, and I recommend to you as well.

Poaching
Poaching is a basic moist heat cooking method. It uses convection to transfer heat from a
liquid to a food. It usually applies to eggs, fruit, or fish. These foods do not require lengthy
cooking times.
The food is placed in a liquid at temperatures between 160 degrees and 180 degrees. The
surface of the liquid should show slight movement, but no bubbles.
The two methods of poaching are: submersion poaching and shallow poaching.
Submersion poaching means the food is completely covered with the liquid.
Shallow poaching means the food is placed in just enough liquid to come halfway up the
sides. Shallow poaching combines aspects of poaching and steaming.
Procedure for Poaching Foods
Prepare the food.
Bring the liquid to the desired temperature.
For submersion poaching, the liquid should completely cover the food.
For shallow poaching, the liquid should come halfway up the side of the food. If shallow
poaching, cover the pan with a lid or a piece of buttered parchment paper.
Doneness is determined by timing, internal temperature, or tenderness.
The cooking liquid can be used for a sauce or reserved for use in other dishes.
I use this pan a lot for poaching because it is deep and has a lid.

Simmering
Simmering is one of the most widely used moist heat cooking methods. It uses convection
to transfer heat from a liquid to a food. Properly simmered foods should be very moist and
tender. The liquid temperature should be from 185 degrees to 205 degrees.

Procedure for Simmering Foods

Prepare the food.
Bring the liquid to the proper temperature. The food should be covered in the liquid
completely.
Add the food to the simmering pot.
Doneness is determined through timing or tenderness.

Boiling
Boiling is probably the most widely used of the moist heat cooking methods. It uses the
process of convection to transfer heat from a liquid to a food. Boiling uses large amounts of
rapidly bubbling liquid to cook foods. Most "boiled" meats and "hard-boiled" eggs are really
only simmered. Pastas and potatoes are the only types of foods that are truly boiled.
Procedure for Boiling Foods
Bring liquid to a boil. Add oil or seasonings, if desired.
Add the food.
Doneness is determined by timing or texture.
Serve the food immediately. Some boiled foods can be refreshed in cold water and held
for later use.

Steaming
Steaming is a moist heat method that uses the process of convection to transfer heat from
the steam to the food being cooked. Fish and vegetables are most associated with
steaming. Steaming tends to enhance a food's natural flavor and helps retain its nutrients.
This moist heat cooking method is becoming more and more popular, due to our growing
appreciation of its nutritional advantages.
Procedure for Steaming Foods
Prepare the food.
Prepare a steaming liquid and bring it to a boil in a covered pan or double boiler.
Disregard this if using a convection steamer.
Place the food on a rack, basket, or perforated pan. Place it over the boiling water.
Alternatively, place the food in a shallow pool of the cooking liquid.
Cover and cook to desired doneness.

Combination Cooking Methods

My favorite two types of combination cooking methods are braising and stewing. I
don't know why, but some would-be cooks seem to shy away from these two methods of
cooking. Maybe it's because they are referred to as "combination" methods of cooking, and
therefore must be more complicated or difficult then "regular" cooking.
But it's not true! Braising and stewing are actually quite simple and straightforward
approaches to cooking, and, in my opinion, both should be part of your basic cooking
repertoire.

Braising
Braised foods are the first type of combination cooking methods I will explain. It involves
both dry and moist heat cooking methods. Foods to be braised are usually large pieces
such as meats. Cheaper cuts commonly used for braising usually yield more flavor than the
more expensive ones. Some meats types are beef short ribs, chuck or shoulder roast,
brisket, oxtail, pork boneless butt or Boston butt, and veal or lamb shanks. Braising
enhances and intensifies that flavor via an exchange of flavors in the braising liquid and the
steam it creates. The juices of the food being braised combine with the liquid, which is also
infused into the meat along with the flavors of the other ingredients added to the pot.
Many cruisines have a traditional mixture of finely chopped aromatics that form a flavor
base. In France, mirepoix; in Italy, soffritto or battuto; in Spain and other Hispanic cuisines,
sofrito. These can be onions, garlic, shallots, celery, carrots, peppers, spices, and herbs,
among other flavorings. Chopped reconstituted dried mushrooms provide another powerful
flavor addition to beef or game braises (reserve the soaking liquid to add to the braising
liquid).
Procedure for Braising Foods
Prepare the foods to be braised. Dredge it in flour, if desired.
Heat a small amount of fat in a heavy pan.
Sear the food on all sides.
Add any other ingredients and saute.
Add flour or roux, if desired.
Add the cooking liquid. You can use just water, but your braise will have much more
depth and complexity if you use stock or broth. A rounder, more balanced flavor can
be achieved by adding an acidic liquid, such as red or white wine, beer, cider,
orange juice, a little vinegar or a small amount of tomato paste. The liquid should
partially cover the food.
Add seasonings.
Cover the pan and bring the liquid to a simmer. Baste and turn the food when needed.

Prepare a sauce from the braising liquid if desired. At the end of cooking, the liquid in
the pot may already be thick enough and intensely flavored enough for a luxurious
sauce without further steps, but most sauces will benefit from reducing. Transfer the
braised food to a warm platter and tent it with foil.
Taste the sauce, if it seems thinner or paler in flavor than you want, set the pot on a
burner and bring the liquid to a brisk simmer. Stir to scrape up any bits sticking to
the bottom of the pan, and simmer the liquid, tasting periodically, until it reaches the
desired consistency. The liquid will thicken as water evaporates from it - it's called
reducing. Don't season the sauce before it's reduced; taste it at the end and then
add salt or pepper if it's needed.

Stewing
Stewing is also made up of a combination of dry and moist heat cooking methods. Stewing
usually uses smaller pieces of food, which are first cooked either by browning in fat or
oil. Cooking is finished in a liquid or sauce.
Procedure for Stewing Foods
Cut food into small pieces. Dredge the pieces in flour, if desired.
Heat a small amount of fat in a pan. Sear the food on all sides developing color.
Add any other ingredients and saute.
Add flour or roux.
Gradually add the cooking liquid, stirring to prevent lumps. The liquid should completely
cover the food.
Cover and simmer until tender.