DIVERSITY

| Rio de Janeiro | CEPESC | 2012 |

Latin American Research on Sexuality, Culture and Society in Translation

Latin American Center on Sexuality and Human Rights - CLAM
Institute of Social Medicine, State University of Rio de Janeiro - IMS/UERJ
Center for Study and Research in Collective Health - CEPESC

Chairs
Maria Luiza Heilborn & Srgio Carrara

Editorial Committee
Anna Paula Uziel
Jane Russo
Maria Luiza Heilborn
Srgio Carrara

Editor
Horacio Svori

Co-Editor
Bruno Zilli

This volume
Original in Portuguese
Gnero e Diversidade na Escola. Click here for full credits.

Translation
Alex Formam
Ana Catarina Lopes
Erica Lorraine Williams

Revised and abridged version prepared by:

Peter Aggleton & Felicity Thomas
National Centre in HIV Social Research, The University of New South Wales, Australia

Technical Supervision
Horacio Svori & Bruno Zilli | CLAM

Design
Nitadesign | Anna Amendola

Copyright Centro Latino-Americano

em Sexualidade e Direitos Humanos - IMS/UERJ
D618
Diversity in school. Rio de Janeiro : CEPESC,
2012.
72 p
ISBN 978-85-89737-76-0
1. Gender. 2. Race. 3. Sexuality. 4. Education.

5. Training.

Catalogao Sandra Infurna CRB-7 - 4607

Support:

Diversity in School
Diversity in School offers training on gender, sexuality, and ethnic (race) relations for
teaching professionals. The resource, originally delivered in Brazil, was the result of a
partnership between the Brazilian Governments Special Secretariat for Policies on
Women, the Special Secretariat for the Promotion of Policies on Racial Equality (SEPPIR/
PR), the Brazilian Ministry of Education, the British Council and the Latin American Centre
on Sexuality and Human Rights.
Diversity in School was successfully piloted in six cities in Brazil in 2006, involving
1,200 teachers. Since 2008, its contents have revised and expanded so as to make
the programme available in a distance learning format throughout the country and more
widely.
Reducing discrimination by improving understanding of gender, sexual, ethnic and racial
diversity is of central importance to the creation of a positive school learning environment.
Because of successful experience in Brazil, we feel that this translated resource has
potential value to teachers and teacher trainers/educators in many parts of the Englishspeaking world.
The course contents are offered here as an open-access online resource designed for
educators, teacher trainers and all those interested in addressing issues of Diversity in
School.

Introduction

Education, Difference,
Diversity, and Inequality
Across the globe, many people experience forms of discrimination and inequality as a
result of physical or social characteristics, or identities that are deemed to differ from
dominant societal norms. Very often, such prejudice is related to a persons gender, their
race, ethnicity and/or their sexuality. However, it is increasingly recognized that markers
of gender, race and sexuality are social constructions around which certain societal
values and expectations are organised. As such, there can be no universal agreement
or truth regarding what it means to be normal or to be different rather, such notions
result from norms and behaviours that differ from place to place.
In many countries, academic debate, policy-making and rights-focused activism have
tended to treat gender, sexuality, ethnicity and race as separate and distinct issues.
Diversity in School seeks to recognize not only the ways that these issues have evolved
over time, but also the ways in which they can intersect. One well recognized historical
illustration this relates to is Nazi Germany: while official discriminatory discourse related
largely to Jewish people, gypsies, homosexuals and others deemed racially or socially
inferior, it also had indirect implications for other social groups. The promotion of the
Aryan race for example, resulted in many women being excluded from public life as they
were expected to stay at home to raise racially pure children.
This synergy between racist, sexist, and homophobic attitudes and discourses is not
confined to such extremes but continues operating in our everyday lives. One, perhaps
banal, example is as follows: if in school a male student manifests signs of being gay,
it is likely that someone will call him girly or sissy. However, few people ask why
being called a woman should be offensive, or in what sense femininity is a negative
attribute. Such an example demonstrates how misogyny and homophobia reinforce one
another as discrimination towards women or femininity is fostered via discrimination
toward those who are attracted to people of the same sex. Similarly, racist discourse
frequently uses characteristics attributed to women to describe minority ethnic groups.
In such descriptions, individuals and indeed whole communities are seen as more
impressionable, short-sighted, out of control and impulsive and, being deemed closer
to nature, more in need of tutelage. Such discourse can result in people being treated
as dependents requiring protection and in people being unable to fully exercise their
political and human rights.
Diversity in School aims to increase understanding, recognition, respect and value of
peoples differences, enabling them to realise their full potential through the promotion
of a culture of inclussion for staff and students within schools and in the wider society.
If this programme contributes, even a little, to the education of a generation (or even a
small part of a generation) that understands the vital character of social difference, it will
have accomplished a significant amount of its objectives.
6

Introduction

Contents
This English language abridged version includes four modules. Topics addressed include
cultural diversity and ethnocentrism; gender diversity; sexuality and sexual orientation;
and ethnic inequality. The first introductory module familiarizes the reader with diversity
as a core concept. Each of the following modules is divided into three sections. The
first section introduces a general concept; the second one addresses that concept in
the school environment, and the third section provides classroom activities to share
Diversity in School with students.

A note on bibliographic references

Diversity in School contents were originally developed based on Brazilian sources.
Therefore, many bibliographic references are only available in Portuguese. Despite this
barrier, Diversity in School also aims to offer a glimpse of the rich Brazilian intellectual
tradition in the fields of gender, sexuality, ethnic relations, diversity and education. Original
sources are cited followed by a working translation of each title.

Table of contents

Diversity in School 05
Education, Difference, Diversity, and Inequality
Module

06

Section 1: Understanding diversity 10

Different - but equal 10
Understanding culture 10
Ethnocentrism, stereotypes, stigma and discrimination 12
Diversity in schools: facing discrimination and promoting equality
13

References 16
Activities to encourage an understanding of diversity

17

Acknowledging discrimination in school 17

Discrimination: If you dont speak out, who will? 18
Stories of resistance 19
Building networks 19
Module

Section 1: Gender and diversity 20

Introduction 20
The social construction of gender 20
Gender socialization and inequality 23
Space and the gendered division of labour 24
Education 26
Science and health 26
Political participation 27
Gender-based violence 27

Section 2: Gender and diversity within schools

30

Teaching materials, interaction and play 30

Sexual relationships 33
Bullying and violence 34

References 36
Activities to encourage a better understanding of gender

37

There are families -and there are families 37

Challenging gender norms 38
Gender and relationships 39
Pandoras box 40
Gender and the media 41
Teenage pregnancy 42

Table of contents

Module

Section 1: Sexuality and sexual orientation 43

Introduction 43
Social constructions of sexuality 43
Sexual orientation 45
Sexuality, surveillance and control 46

Section 2: Sexuality in school 49

Discrimination at school 49
Tackling sexuality-related discrimination in schools 51
Mainstreaming work on sexuality 52

References

53

Activities to encourage a better understanding of sexuality

54

Lets talk about sex 54

HIV and AIDS
55
Sexuality-related discrimination 56
Module

Section 1: Ethnic inequality 57

Introduction 57
Ethnocentrism, racism and prejudice

57
Race and inequality 59
Racial inequality in Brazil 60

Section 2: Ethnic inequality in schools 62

A school without colour 62
Stereotypes and prejudice at school 63
The promotion of ethnic-racial equality 64

References 65
Activities to encourage a
better understanding of race and ethnicity 66
Ourselves and others 66
Racism is it history? 67
Role-reversal 67
Ethnic and racial stereotyping 68

Glossary 69

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

Understanding diversity
Different - but equal
In recent decades, many countries have promoted themselves as nations of diversity.
However, while diversity within nations is often celebrated, it is not always viewed as
beneficial by all within a given society. In many cases, differences amongst people
become synonymous with perceived defects in relation to the dominant standards, or
parameters of normalcy which underpin culture and society. Thus, seemingly positive
discussions or statements relating to difference are very often counterbalanced or offset
by more negative statements.

And what did she expect would happen, walking

around the streets at night in a miniskirt?
For example, a young gay person, harassed for walking hand-in-hand with his or her
partner, might hear, even from people who find violence reprehensible, phrases such
as: Its okay to be gay, but do you need to hold hands or kiss in public?! Similarly, a
female rape victim, upon leaving a party, might hear: And what did she expect would
happen, walking around the streets at night in a miniskirt? The buts and the ands
here not only tell us something about the dominant expectations and types of behaviour
considered acceptable within the society concerned; they suggest that those who are
discriminated against are to blame for the disadvantages they face and are somehow
guilty for perpetuating their plight.
This programme addresses such prejudices and encourages teachers and teacher
trainers to challenge discrimination both within society, and more particularly, within the
school environment.

Understanding culture
Throughout history, people across the world have formed communities in which dominant
ideas emerge to shape the social values, norms and expectations which underpin their
lives. However, culture is neither static nor homogenous, but manifests itself and evolves
in different ways over time and space. For example, the status of young people and
in particular, women, has significantly changed and in many areas has improved over
time. Similarly, the values and processes underpinning marriage have in many places
altered. Although once based primarily upon reciprocal obligations and ties between
families, individual choice and the desires of the couple have, in many places, now taken
precedence over more traditional values.
10

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

As cultures evolve, they also vary

from place to place and what seems
normal in one society may seem
strange or aberrant in others. Thus
the birth of a child or a marriage
may be celebrated in different ways
and hold different meanings not
only across different countries and
regions but also within them.

he diversity of the Brazilian

population is highlighted by
200 categories of indigenous peoples speaking 180
different languages. While individual
populations may share some characteristics, rituals and norms, they are
also distinguished from one another
by the practices and beliefs inherent
in each respective culture

Even in countries and regions

where communities speak the same
language, vocabulary and accents
vary from one place to another. While
this difference may be considered
to be a positive attribute, it may also
lead to difficulties in communication
which, in turn, can fuel feelings of
dissimilarity and otherness. A person raised in a rural environment, for example, may
speak very differently from a person raised in a city. Such differences are often most
likely to collide when people from different backgrounds share the same space. Thus
a rural migrant to an urban area may feel out of place or may experience discrimination
because of the way that she or he speaks.
Notions of space and time can also vary between urban and rural environments. In
areas where peoples livelihoods are reliant upon natural resources, for example, time is
measured less by conventional day to day activities and interactions, but by the changing
seasons. Periods for planting crops
or breeding livestock, the success
of the harvest and the time for rest
fro-Brazilian music has
and relaxation can be defined by the
evolved as people have
droughts and rains that come times of
started to import new high
the year. Recognition of dimensions
tech instruments which
such as these enables a more holistic
they combine with traditional instruunderstanding of the diverse ways
ments to create a unique sound.
in which people experience and live
their lives.

In all societies there exists a nucleus of conservative resistance against any kind of
change. However, the idea of tradition, like that of progress, should be interpreted within
the context in which it is produced: it is a value of a particular culture. Across the world,
processes of globalization have meant that traditions, values and norms are constantly
reinvented and redefined as they interact and blend with other cultures. Globalization is,
11

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

for some people, seen as synonymous with Westernisation. However, many examples
demonstrate that as societies become more deeply inter-linked, the situation is more
complex than a simple, unidirectional flow of ideas, products and cultures from the
Global North to the Global South.
This complexity is evident in the capacity for resistance demonstrated by indigenous
groups. Rather than passively accept the elements and values imposed upon them,
people adapt and appropriate those elements of Western society that they consider to
have meaning and value whilst at the same time, rejecting others.

Ethnocentrism, stereotypes,
stigma and discrimination
Ethnocentrism involves judging another culture relative to the values and standards of
ones own expectations and norms. In so doing, ones own culture is normalized and
considered superior over others. Ethnocentrism is therefore closely intertwined with
stereotyping and prejudice. One example of ethnocentrism relates to the appearance
that is deemed normal and acceptable within society. Many indigenous people adorn
themselves with body painting, piercing and ornamentation. Yet because they do not
wear garments and clothing that are considered conventional, representations of these
people - particularly within the Western media - tend to portray them as naked, and in
turn, to either romanticize them as being at one with nature, or portray them as lacking
in moral decency.
Ethnocentrism depends on judgment. What is right and what is wrong, ugly or pretty,
normal or abnormal, is based in ones own cultural standards and behaviour. Generalizing
and attributing (usually negative) values to the characteristics of other groups of people
can also lead to stereotyping and, in turn, can play a role in defining power relations and
influencing prejudice and discrimination.
Stereotyping can relate to a wide range of physical and behavioural characteristics
and can have significant and far reaching influences on peoples everyday lives. Such
influences were particularly evident during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
where the process of naturalizing and biologizing differences of ethnicity, race, gender,
or sexual orientation, proved a central influence over the rights accorded to, and the
restrictions placed upon, women, non-whites and non-heterosexuals. Anthropometric
techniques for example, were developed during European colonial expansion, with the
aim of categorizing non-white people as socially and physically inferior. Similarly, in many
countries, one justification used for delaying the right to vote to women was the idea
that their brains were smaller and less developed than those of men. Homosexuality,
12

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

in turn, was seen as an anomaly of nature that in many places required punishment and
correction.
The concept of stigma was defined by the North-American sociologist Erving Goffman
(1990) as a negative social attribute associated with deviance from the norm. This
social attribute is incorporated by people and groups who are discriminated against, for
different reasons, including sexual ones. Besides homosexuality, other forms of stigma
are associated with poverty, dark skin colour, certain medical conditions (mental illness,
for example), old age and so-called physical disability. The production of stigma can
only be understood within wider relations of power and dominance (Parker & Aggleton,
2003). Stigmatized identities lead to differences being transformed into inequalities
based on class, age, race or ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation and physical capacity.
Many countries have laws and regulations to promote social equality and to punish
discriminatory practices. While such measures constitute a positive step towards
respecting diversity and upholding human rights, implementing such legislation is often
complicated. It is crucial therefore that society itself undergoes a process of transformation
to embody diversity. Communities across the world must move beyond dealing with
different people and cultures as a gesture of goodness, patience, acceptance and
tolerance of the others purported inferiority. It is of extreme importance that the right to
ones beliefs, the right to ones physical differences, behaviours, and values be respected,
without threat to human dignity.

Diversity in schools:
facing discrimination and promoting equality
In all societies, a range of institutions play a role in establishing and upholding societal
norms. Schools are one type of institution in which societal norms are reproduced,
with staff and students often encouraged to adapt to dominant notions of normalcy
regardless of their backgrounds and identities. Thus, for example, boys and men may
be encouraged to be macho, while girls and women may be praised for their femininity.
Within the classroom, the repetition of images, languages, stories, and antipathy towards
abnormal behaviours or identities (such as being left-handed or, in the case of boys,
being effeminate, for instance) have in many cases, been used to uphold and reinforce
societal norms, whilst antagonizing and punishing difference (often considered as
defects).
Although many teachers recognize the existence of discrimination within and beyond
the school walls, some believe that it is better to remain silent, fearing that to speak
out may result in reprisal and ultimately, further increase prejudice and discrimination.
13

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

Until schools offer concrete possibilities for legitimizing diversity - in speech, in text
books, in the images distributed in classroom activities, etc. - students are often left with
little choice but to repress important aspects of their selves in an attempt to adapt to
norms and expectations, or to rebel against them, and in turn, risk being categorized as
disruptive and deviant, with likely adverse consequences for their educational success.
Importantly, however, schools are also uniquely positioned to challenge the status quo,
and, in so doing, seek to confront and even overturn various forms of prejudice and
discrimination. In fulfilling their responsibility to educate citizens, schools are ideally
placed to offer mechanisms that enable students and staff to recognize, understand,
respect, value and promote cultural diversity. According to Mary Garcia Castro, a
UNESCO researcher,
teachers must be motivated to be alert, to teach citizenship and diversity
in every encounter, whether inside or outside the classroom, in a vigilant
anti-racist, anti-sexist, [anti-homophobic] manner and to respect childrens
and adolescents rights as they are and as they are becoming; not allowing
stigmatizing jokes or pejorative treatment to take place (). The racism, sexism,
[homophobia] and adultism in us operates in subtle ways; not necessarily
intentional or noticed. But it hurts nevertheless, and the recipients suffer these
violent acts, which mark their victims in an indelible way. The victims are all of
us in some ways, but always some more than others, women, black people,
the youngest and the poorest (Castro, 2005)
Education is a key determinant of chances and opportunities. And creating an inclusive
learning environment, which values and respects diversity and equality, is central to an
individuals progression and success. That is why the Diversity in School programme
promotes mainstreaming diversity within the school environment. Rather than considering
it an individual issue requiring sporadic attention, this means the promotion of diversity as
a central feature of all educational activities, including curriculum design, development
and delivery.
Mainstreaming diversity is, therefore, an interdisciplinary task, for which all educators
are responsible - every area of knowledge can and should contribute to unveiling the
realities of discrimination, whether through the re-reading of history, through statistical
analysis, or through the critical review of literature and the inclusion of authors often
excluded because of their identity or point of view. A central part of mainstreaming
involves developing pedagogic approaches that enable staff and students to: a) learn to
listen and to respect other people; b) learn to evaluate arguments and situations; c) learn
to communicate different perspectives; d) learn to work in a team.
The modules which comprise the Diversity in School programme are intended to
encourage teachers to reflect upon the forms of gender, sexual, ethnic and racial
14

Section 1 Module 1
Understanding diversity

prejudice and discrimination present within their school environment. Module 2 examines
gender stereotyping and critically reflects on the ways that social constructions of
gender can influence and be influenced by the school learning environment. Focusing
on concepts of sexuality, sexual orientation, and homophobia, Module 3 examines
the ways in which hetero-normative understandings and ideas can be challenged and
the implications of these issues for teachers and students. Module 4 focuses on the
concept of ethnocentrism and, using Brazilian examples, demonstrates how ethnic and
racial discrimination can be challenged within and beyond the school environment.
All modules aim to help teachers to identify how the school itself may contribute to
upholding and reproducing inequality through, for example, the teaching materials used,
the images displayed, as well as the kinds of attitudes and norms promoted by teachers
and school authorities. Importantly, the programme also provides suggestions not only
on how teachers can challenge discrimination, but also on how they can be actively
involved in the promotion of diversity and inclusion within their school.

15

Module 1
References

References
CASTRO, M.G. (2005). Gnero e Raa: desafios escola. [Gender and Race:
Challenges to the School System] In: Santana, M.O. (Ed.) Lei 10.639/03 - Educao
das relaes tnico-raciais e para o ensino da histria e cultura afro-brasileira e
africana na educao fundamental. Pasta de Texto da Professora e do Professor.
[Teaching ethno-racial relations for the study of African and Afro-Brazilian history
and culture in basic education. Teacher Guides]. Salvador: Prefeitura Municipal de
Salvador.
GOFFMAN, E. (1990 [1963]). Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
PARKER, R. & AGGLETON, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination:
a conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science & Medicine,
Volume 57, Issue 1, Pages 1324.

16

Activities Module 1
to encourage an understanding of diversity

Activities to encourage an
understanding of diversity
Acknowledging
1 discrimination in school

Activity

Give each student a piece of paper. Ask them to write down

whether they feel that discrimination exists in their school. Then ask them to
write about a situation that backs up their statement. When all have finished,
ask them to fold their pieces of paper and put them into a box. Type up the
responses to ensure that they remain anonymous.
ACTIVITY:

Working with the students, categorise any examples of discrimination described,

e.g., on the basis of gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and the way in which the
discrimination manifested itself, e.g., via insults, jokes, physical aggression, etc.
Ensure that the information given here does not identify any individuals.
Take the opportunity to discuss existing cases of discrimination and what can
be done about it. Discuss whether the school is succeeding in providing a
positive, inclusive environment. Use some of the statements collected to do this.

17

Activities Module 1
to encourage an understanding of diversity

Discrimination:
2 If you dont speak out, who will?

Activity

ACTIVITY: Ask students to work individually and remember situations in which

they felt or witnessed prejudice and discrimination. Talk about the feelings and
reactions that these situations triggered (students do not have to describe
the situation itself).
Ask students to work in groups to choose one non-governmental organisation
or campaigning group that provides support to victims of gender, ethnic or
sexual discrimination. Encourage students to collect as much information on
the organisation as possible. The research can be done using the internet
but, where possible, you can also suggest that students visit some of the
organisations or projects.
Encourage groups to design a poster detailing the
work of their chosen organisation or network. This information can then be
displayed for the whole school to see and could become part of a schoolwide campaign against discrimination.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:

18

Activities Module 1
to encourage an understanding of diversity

Stories
3 of resistance

Activity

Select people who have been key players in the history of

resistance to discrimination.
PREPARATION:

Highlight the importance of remembering these people, as their

actions show that change is possible and the individuals concerned can
inspire new generations. Ask students to form groups and research the
biography of some of these people. They should focus on their contributions
to the fight against discrimination and the promotion of equality. Information
can be presented in groups or on posters.
ACTIVITY:

Building
4 networks

Activity

Encourage students to think about the diversity that exists

among people in their own town or city. While many schools follow similar
curricula and have similar learning goals, students in different neighbourhoods
may come from very different backgrounds. Encourage students to establish
links and communicate with another group of students in a school that is
significantly different from their own.
PREPARATION:

Contact the school management or a teacher of another school

in order to begin an exchange between your respective students. You can
seek to do this via official channels (education authorities), through civil
society links or your own networks. You and your counterpart teacher could
suggest that students start by writing each other a letter or email introducing
themselves (they can talk about their family, neighbourhood, etc.). They can
attach photos, postcards, drawings, etc. When they receive a letter from
the other school, encourage them to respond with further questions and
to research the living conditions and experiences of the other students via
newspapers and books.
ACTIVITY:

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES: At the end of the term or school year, students should

have enough materials to organise an exhibition focusing on the geographical

areas and characteristics of each others pen friends. They can also highlight
the similarities and differences between the two groups, using photos and
objects. This activity will contribute towards the creation of a network that
can promote understanding between different groups.
19

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

Gender and diversity

Introduction
The term gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and
attributes that a particular society considers appropriate for men and for women. These
roles and characteristics may influence the status and value accorded to men and to
women, and can in turn lead to various forms of gender inequality.
This module begins by examining the concept of gender, and explores the processes
that can lead to and reinforce gender inequalities. Particular focus is placed on the ways
that gender relations are reproduced through education, in science, health and politics,
and at work. With a focus on teaching materials, communication and interaction, and
bullying and violence, the second half of the module explores how gender inequalities
may be reproduced within the school environment.
Classroom activities are included at the end of this module to encourage teachers to
reflect on gender relations within their own school, and to help facilitate the promotion
of gender equality.

Throughout the module, try to consider the following questions:

Why is gender so important in defining who we are and how we are
treated by others?
In what ways does gender influence the way that we behave and the
expectations that people have of us? What power relations are at play
here?
How are gendered expectations and norms reproduced in the school
environment? What role can schools play in challenging unequal gender
relations?

The social construction of gender

The search for biological or psychological factors to explain differences between men
and women has long taken place in the biological sciences and it is not uncommon to find
explanations of gender differences based on the functioning of the brain or hormones.
However, social scientists have argued that the role that biology plays in determining
20

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

social behaviour is relatively weak. Instead, they argue, it is culture rather than biology
that makes our species human.
In her book, The Second Sex, the philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir argues
that women have long been defined as other in relation to the male norm, and that this
assertion of difference has led to, and helped to fuel, patriarchal gender relations. Stating
that one is not born a woman, one becomes a woman, de Beauvoir challenged any
natural determination of feminine behaviour. Instead she argued, the way in which men
and women behave in society is the result of socio-cultural conditioning that teaches us
to act according to gender specific prescriptions. There are strong social expectations
regarding how men and women
should behave when walking,
speaking, dancing, making love
and caring for others, as well as
how they should think and interact.
merican anthropologist MarDespite this work, it is still often
believed that there is a type of
personality or behaviour pattern
that is inherently associated with
each sex. In Western culture, for
example, it is generally supposed
that the men are more aggressive
than women.
The latter are
assumed to be more caring and
compassionate. Commonly, the
reproductive role played by women
has led to them being considered
closer to nature than men, and has
linked them with the private sphere
of the home. Men on the other
hand, are usually thought to be
more closely associated with the
outside public world.
Cultures therefore create norms
and expectations that are strongly
associated with male and female
bodies. However, it is important
to recognise that not everyone is
the same. Having a female body,
for example, does not in itself
mean that a woman wishes to be

garet Mead (1901-1978)

sought to examine the link
between sex and culture in
different societies. Using findings from
her 1930s work in New Guinea, she argued that sexual roles (what we now
call gender roles) were determined by
social expectations and norms. She
also found that within different cultures, different attributes and roles
were accorded different levels of value
amongst men and women. Among the
Arapesh people of New Guinea, for example, she found that docility was considered a valued personal trait for both
men and women. In contrast, aggression was highly valued for both sexes
within Mundugumor culture. Among a
third people, the Tchambuli, men were
valued for their kindness and compassion, whilst women were expected to
be brave and strong, findings which
contrast sharply with Western gender
norms.

21

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

a mother. Similarly, bodies designated as male may express gestures seen as feminine
in certain social contexts. They can also have sexual relations with other male bodies
signalling a type of sexuality that goes against expectations that relations between men
and women should be the norm.
Sexuality and gender are different dimensions that contribute to the personal identity
of each individual. Both originate, are affected by, and change according to the social
values in force at a certain point in time. Thus, they are part of culture, helping to organise
peoples individual and collective lives. In short, it is culture that constructs gender,
branding some activities as masculine and others as feminine.

TWO fundamental characteristics are

implicit in the notion of gender:

Cultural arbitrariness, that is, the fact that gender can only be
understood in relation to a specific culture, because it can have a
different meaning according to the socio-cultural context in which it
manifests itself.

The relational character of gender categories, that is, it is only possible

to think about or understand the feminine in relation to the masculine,
and vice versa.

Individuals are not defined by gender alone, but by a range of other factors including
race, ethnicity, sexuality, age and social class. Together, these interact to influence the
mode and degree of inequality and discrimination that an individual may experience.
In many places, for example, a black working-class man will be judged differently (possibly
disadvantageously) in relation to a white middle class woman. At the same time, a white
middle class woman may be treated differently to a white middle class man. Thus the
relative disadvantage of gender is likely to be influenced by co-existing factors such as
race and class, and to worsen when gender is combined with ethnic, racial or sexual
discrimination.
As work within the social sciences has highlighted in recent decades, social constructions
of sexual or gendered behaviour considered normal, correct or superior over others
exist in all societies. Prejudice, inequality and discrimination may be experienced by
22

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

those who do not adhere to such norms. Understanding gender therefore helps us look
deeper at the processes underpinning the value differences that generate inequalities
between men and women.
Throughout the rest of the module, try to reflect on the norms and expectations that are
placed upon men and upon women in your own society. Think about how these norms
may lead to unequal power relations and gender inequalities. Then think about how these
inequalities are reinforced through our daily activities, our attitudes and our actions.

Gender socialization and inequality

Culturally accepted notions of masculinity and femininity affect the way that a person is
socialised right from the moment they are born. How a childs room is decorated, the
clothes that they are given to wear, the toys they are given to play with and the activities
they are encouraged to engage in are all influenced by, and in turn help to reinforce,
culturally accepted ideas regarding what it means to be a boy or a girl. In places where
scanning technology exists to determine the sex of an unborn baby, such ideas and
actions can begin to exert their influence even before the child is born!
To give boys swords, weapons, cars, and electronic games that incite violence may result
in them being raised to feel that aggression is a desirable quality for men, while giving
them items such as balls, bicycles and skateboards, may indicate to them that boys and
men belong in and have precedence over public space. Similarly, giving girls toy kitchens
or an iron may influence their understandings of womens role as being confined to the
domestic sphere. Indeed, research in several different countries has found that such
socialization processes can influence the amount of domestic work that it is assigned to
girls and boys. Table 1 for example, indicates how domestic work is strongly gendered,
with girls taking on considerably more work within the house than boys.

Table 1: Time spent on household chores

by girls and boys in Brazil. (Soares & Saboia, 2007)
Schooling years

Proportion of people age 10 years or

over who perform domestic tasks

Average hours spent on

domestic tasks per week

TOTAL

MEN

WOMEN

TOTAL

MEN

WOMEN

4 years or less

67.9

47

89

21.8

10.6

27.8

5-8 years

72.1

51.3

92.3

20.1

9.7

25.8

9-11 years

73.3

52.5

92.8

19.8

9.9

25.1

12 years +

73

54

88.7

18.1

9.2

22.6

23

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

The same research found that the allocation of domestic chores is not restricted to a
particular class or group, but takes place across people from all social and educational
backgrounds. For a great many women across the world, housework is an extra duty that
is rarely given much recognition, only noted in its absence when chores are not done.
Such an example demonstrates how cultural and social norms and expectations can fuel,
and be fuelled by, relations of power. While men and boys can and do face disadvantage,
experiences from across the world demonstrate that inequalities are more predominantly
experienced amongst women and girls. Even within households, it is often reported that
it is men who are accorded the highest status, whilst women are considered lower in the
social hierarchy.
It is important to ask ourselves why this situation has arisen, and to examine the social
constructions of gender that continue to uphold such power relations.

Space and the gendered division of labour

In all societies, certain ideas and norms exist regarding the use of different spaces
by men and women. At the same time, the way in which different spaces support and
sustain gender divisions and gender relations can shape mens and womens unequal
experiences. Very often, spaces are differentiated as being either private or public, and
are associated with distinctly gendered norms and expectations.
An example of the division of public and private space is evident when someone insults a
woman. Calling her a name associated with a public space, for instance, street walker,
or a tramp, may imply that a woman has acted inappropriately and immorally. Names
associated with private spaces, such as housewife, family girl, and home maker follow
the same logic. The street versus home opposition illuminates the way in which men
have become associated with the public world of production, while women are linked
with the private world of reproduction.
Until the middle of the twentieth century, the reproductive role of women restricted
their opportunities to pursue a professional career. Because of this, women were
often not considered to be a part of the economically active population. However, the
development of the contraceptive pill in the second half of the twentieth century proved
vital in helping enable women to exercise some level of control over their sexual and
reproductive lives, and in turn, increased their ability to participate in the labour force.
It is however, important to recognise that such technologies are still not accessible
to many women living in poverty or in strongly patriarchal societies. At the same time,
while such technologies have expanded womens reproductive and sexual choices, and
therefore, their opportunities to engage in paid employment outside the home, women
24

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

in many parts of the world now face a double day of labour as they struggle to combine
paid and domestic duties.
Changes in attitudes and processes of globalisation have meant that the presence of
women in the global labour market is now significant. However, women continue to
suffer many forms of discrimination compared to men. The historical exclusion of women
from the public sphere has in many places left a legacy in which sharp divisions of labour
and associated inequalities persist.

Reports that compare the position of men and women in the labour
market often point to the following inequalities:
A large portion of top management is occupied by men (including
within the education sector).
Men tend to earn significantly more than women.
Greater concentrations of men in areas such as engineering and IT,
while women tend to work in lower paid activities such as education
and care.

While it may seem that choices or modes of access to the labour market mirror what are
perceived as natural preferences and variations in aptitudes and skills between men and
women, their distribution in the labour market and the resulting inequalities associated
with this can in large part be attributed to socially constructed expectations and norms
regarding what it means to be a man or a woman.
In many societies, for example, it is expected that boys with low levels of educational
attainment will work in construction, transport, or agriculture, or follow a career in the
military. In general, girls in the same educational situation are expected to work as
secretaries, caterers, receptionists or telemarketing operators, or to undertake domestic
or caring roles. Even among young people who manage to get a university degree,
it is very often the case that women enter careers linked to the social sciences and
humanities (education, language and literature, history and the arts), as well as caring
professions (nursing, occupational therapy, speech therapy, nutrition).
While in most countries an increasing number of women can nowadays be found
studying courses such as law, engineering and architecture, such subjects still tend to be
dominated by, and generally perceived as the realm of men. Even in contexts where there
is a strong presence of both men and women, gendered norms often continue to dictate
the roles that each will play. In a bank or supermarket for example, male employees can
25

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

often be found in managerial and security roles, whilst women are usually more likely to
work in catering and routine administrative roles.

Education
Education is another important area in which gender inequalities are evident. Prioritising
the education of boys over girls was and in cases remains, a commonly accepted norm
within many cultures. In countries such as the UK and Brazil, for example, it was only
at the end of the nineteenth century that the government opened up higher education
to women. In other cultures, the education of boys continues to be prioritised as men
are considered to have the greatest future potential as household breadwinners. In
some contexts, changing attitudes and attempts to meet universal targets such as the
Millennium Development Goals1 have led to a recent surge in the educational enrolment
of girls.

Science and health

Science often claims to offer an objective, neutral standpoint. However, a range of
examples demonstrate that science has not always provided a totally impartial picture,
and that the information produced by scientists is influenced by social and cultural values
and norms. In biology and medicine, for example, understandings of womens bodies
and womens health has been heavily influenced by dominant ideas regarding what is
deemed to be acceptable behaviour. From Aristotle to Darwin, woman was considered
an incomplete or lower version of man, a deviation, a monstrosity or an error of nature.
Such notions became the foundation of Western perspectives on gender differences.
While intellectual and physical strength is exalted in men, reproduction and maternity is
exalted in women.
The entry of women into scientific and health-related professions is fairly recent. In
England during the second half of the 19th century, feminists campaigning for voting
rights, saw the entry of women into medicine as necessary for two reasons. The first
was the belief that women doctors would bring more comfort and security to female
patients, freeing them from the abuses perpetrated by male doctors. The second reason
was the hope that female doctors would help challenge and reconstruct existing notions
of femininity and masculinity which undermined the physical and intellectual capabilities
of women. Such actions could in turn help redefine womens identity and justify their
inclusion in political decision making.
1. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/

26

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

It was only from the 1960s that feminism began to analyze the construction of womens
place in society and to challenge the notion that womens primary role was to reproduce.
Translated in the motto our bodies, our business, the feminist movement has since
attempted to ensure that women are able to access contraception and abortion, and
thus assert some level of control over their sexual and reproductive lives.

Political participation
Although women represent over half of the global population, in all countries of the
world they are under-represented in positions of government and policy making. A 2006
report by the Inter-parliamentary Union found that Rwanda had the highest level of female
participation in government with 48% of parliament members being women. The Nordic
countries, known for their gender equality are also positioned near the top of the ranking:
Sweden (45.3%) in second place; Norway (37.9%) in third place; Finland (37.5%) in
fourth; and Denmark (36.9%) in fifth. Other countries that have relatively high female
participation in government include Holland (36.7%). Cuba (36%), Spain (36%), Costa
Rica (35.1%), Argentina (35%) and Mozambique (34.8%).
Elsewhere however, the picture is not so positive. The USA is below the world average
of 16.6% at 15.2%, while in Brazil the figure is only 8.8%, and in some countries in
the Middle East the figure is less than 7%. The Inter-parliamentary Union reports some
improvement in countries minimum quotas for female candidates have been introduced,
as has been the case in Argentina, Bolivia and Venezuela (Abdela & Boman, 2010).
Credit has also been given to countries such as Afghanistan, Burundi, Iraq and Liberia
where progress in female participation has been made despite recent and large scale
conflict. There has also been an overall increase in female participation in government,
and in 20 parliaments around the world, women already occupy 30% of the seats.
However, the same report emphasises that the aim of achieving a minimum of 30% of
women legislators worldwide a target originally set at the UN Womens Conference in
1995 still remains distant.

Gender-based violence
Gender-based violence is caused by prejudice and inequality between and amongst
men and women. Research has found that boys and men tend to be most exposed to
violence in the public sphere, while girls and women tend to suffer more violence within
the household.

27

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

Very often, violence amongst men and

boys is gang-related and takes place in
urban areas. This violence also tends
to be influenced by race and class,
with most of those involved being
poor and from minority ethnic groups.
At the same time, the Map of Young
People and Violence developed by
UNESCO, shows that in many places,
boys and young men from middle class
backgrounds are particularly vulnerable
to alcohol-related traffic accidents. In
all cases, the actions of boys and young
men are influenced by the dominant
ideas and expectations of what it means
to be a man.
Violence against women often takes
place when masculine stereotypes
encourage men to be aggressive
and domineering and women to be
submissive. Violence can take a range
of forms including threats, physical
aggression, sexual abuse, rape and
sexual harassment. Incidents of
domestic violence may be associated
with the use of alcohol and/or other
drugs, marital or neighbourhood
conflicts, and situations of extreme
material poverty. However, it is important
to recognise that this violence is not
always poverty-driven, but can take
place across all social classes.
Because much gender-based violence
takes place behind closed doors, it is
often perpetrated by men who are well
known to the woman involved. This
includes husbands, fathers, uncles and
brothers. A key factor influencing such
violence is the subordinate position
that many women occupy in relation
to men. This is particularly apparent in

espite the many disadvantages and inequalities that they face, it is

important to acknowledge that women are not passive
victims, but have agency to challenge and resist dominant patriarchal norms. Over the past century,
global and national feminist movements have been influential in challenging the subordinate position of
women and in fighting for gender
equality. One example of such action can be seen through the suffragettes, who fought at the beginning of the twentieth century for
women to have the same voting
rights awarded to them as men.
Social analysts see the feminist
movement as responsible for great
changes that took place during the
second half of the twentieth century. This movement showed society
that women suffered discrimination
- from subjection to male authority
in the domestic sphere to wars in
which women are vulnerable to mutilation, rape and other abuse. By
bringing into discussion the inferior and less valued positions that
women occupied, activists and
policy makers have sought to tackle gender inequalities in a range of
settings including the labour market, political, judicial and scientific
sectors, and in school, health services, unions and churches.
28

Section 1 Module 2
Gender and diversity

situations where women have little independence and have to rely on men for finances
and key resources such as land. In cases, women e.g. mothers-in-law, are themselves
implicated in this violence either through their participation in it, or through their tacit
acceptance of the ongoing violence that is perpetrated.
Many countries have policies to protect women from violence and to persecute offenders.
However, in practice, a range of factors make these policies difficult to enforce. For many
women, reporting such violence means not only risking the loss of their family, their
husband, their home and/or their assets but also the public shame and humiliation that
they may have to endure where health, legal and police services question their claims or
provide ineffective support.
Challenging forms of gender-based violence has long formed a central axis in progressive
politics. Understanding the social mores which uphold domestic and familial violence
against women is an important starting point for tackling such discrimination and
inequality.

29

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

Gender and diversity within schools

The first section of this module emphasised that gender is a socially constructed concept,
and examined the ways in which such constructions have resulted in a wide range of
gender inequalities. We will now examine how social constructions of gender can be
both reproduced and challenged in a school environment.

Teaching materials, interaction and play

Although gender socialisation processes start within the family, it is important for
teachers to be aware that the school environment can also play a role in reinforcing and
exacerbating gendered expectations, norms and subsequent inequalities. One way in
which this occurs is through the use of teaching materials which promote stereotypical
gender roles and inequalities. Globally, research analysing school books from a gender
perspective has consistently reported that women, girls and non-white people remain
under-represented in publications used within the classroom.2
At the same time, the perspectives in many school books tend to reinforce social
inequalities through the use of unequal and hierarchical images. Materials which, for
example, show women working as nurses or carers, and men as doctors and managers
may influence career choices amongst young people, and stifle aspirations which do not
fit with gendered expectations and norms.
Use the template below to evaluate books and educational material in your classroom.
Think about the ways in which gender inequalities may be reinforced by these materials.
1. Title:
2. Topic or discipline:
3. Publisher and publication date:
4. Author(s) name:
5. Author(s) gender:
Female [ ] Male [ ]
6. Number of activities/occupations mentioning:
girls [ ]
boys [ ] women [ ]
2. Template by Auad (2006), based on Andre Michels works.

men [ ]
30

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

7. Number of illustrations featuring:

girls [ ]
boys [ ] women [ ]

men [ ]

8. Number of times the text mentions:

girls [ ]
boys [ ] women [ ]

men [ ]

9. Adjectives used to describe:

Girls:
Boys:
Women:
Men:
10. Describe the language used in the text to refer to men and boys and women
and girls.

11. Do the men and women featured in the text contribute significantly? How?

12. What role models are presented for girls, boys, women and men?

13. Is the text written in a contemporary and realistic style?

14. Are there specific sections that deal solely with women or particular ethnicities?
If so, how are social minorities approached?

15. How can this text influence the aspirations of girls and boys in relation to
education and profession?

16. Write a one page summary of the book or material under analysis. Discuss
whether or not it should be adopted and why.

31

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

Gendered assumptions may also be made by teachers with respect to the behaviour and
aspirations of students. Such assumptions can in turn influence the way that girls and
boys are treated, and the opportunities that are made available to them. The following
table illustrates some of the characteristics commonly associated with girls and boys in
the classroom.

Table 3: Characteristics associated with boys and girls

(Belotti, 1985)
Boys

Girls

Dynamic, noisy and aggressive

Quiet and passive

Undisciplined and disobedient

Disciplined, obedient and

conscientious

Untidy and sometimes dirty

Tidy and clean

Independent, with little need for

teachers affection or approval

Dependent, with need for teachers

affection and approval

Self-assured

Emotional and lacking in selfconfidence

A strong sense of friendship and

loyalty to other boys

Volatile friendships and loyalty to

other girls

One example which demonstrates such gendered assumptions can be seen in the way
that teachers particularly in junior schools may organise students in their classroom.
Where teachers assume that boys are rowdier than girls, for example, they may alternate
the seating of boys and girls to encourage good behaviour. Alternatively, they may
divide students into groups based on gender. These kinds of assumptions influence
student performance, with girls feeling that they are expected to remain quiet and not
ask questions and boys feeling pressured to be rowdy and disruptive. Girls may also be
asked to carry out organisational and care-based tasks within the classroom, and this
again can reinforce gender stereotypes.
Language can be a shrewd and effective way of creating and upholding differences and
unequal power relations. Because of this, it is important that teachers pay attention to
language use within the classroom between themselves and students, within learning
materials used, and amongst students themselves. That way, it may be possible to
challenge the sexism, racism and ethnocentrism with which language is often imbued.
It is also important to consider whose voices are dominant within the classroom and
how this may also influence relationships between students. In classrooms where boys
voices dominate, some girls may feel too intimidated to contribute to learning activities.
32

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

At the same time, teachers may find that they interact and give disproportionate attention
to the more outspoken students, whilst giving less attention to those who are quiet and
do not speak out.
Gender inequalities in schools are evident not only in the pedagogical approaches
employed within the classroom, but also in more informal play and leisure activities. At
first sight, it may seem that the playground offers a gender neutral environment since
boys and girls are usually able to mix more freely and independently than when being
taught inside the classroom. However, a closer look will often reveal that spaces of play
and leisure are also gendered in line with dominant notions of masculinity and femininity.
In most school playgrounds, some activities are undertaken by both boys and girls. In
games such as hide and seek, the activity may not be particularly gendered. But in other
activities such as those based on gender-divided team games, gender differences may
be reinforced. Other activities are very strongly inclined towards either boys or girls. For
example, while girls may spend time walking around chatting in pairs or groups, boys
may be more likely to be involved in activities like football or sport. When girls and boys
want to play in ways typical of the opposite sex, such behaviours may be considered
as unnatural by teachers and other students, and may in turn lead to name-calling,
exclusion and other forms of discrimination.

Sexual relationships
While masculine and feminine norms and expectations are embedded during childhood,
their influence is particularly evident when young people initiate sexual relationships.
Such experiences are mediated by gendered expectations regarding the way that young
women and young men should behave. Common expectations in this respect are:
Girls and young women

Boys and young men

Need to be careful and delay sexual initiation

Can engage in their first sexual experience at

an early age

Should have a more limited amount of sexual

experience than men

Should take pleasure in multiple sexual

experiences, sometimes simultaneously

Should not be the initiator of a relationship

Should initiate numerous relationships to prove

their virility and masculinity

Should aspire to marriage and motherhood

Should demonstrate a certain disdain for

attachment and emotional involvement

These models of sexual behaviour can have adverse effects when boys and girls do
not fit the gender stereotypes. Any deviation in conduct risks being severely criticized,
33

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

with girls being labelled as whores and wanton if they are perceived to have an active
sexual life. At the same time, however, girls who do attempt to meet gendered norms may
be labelled as frigid, butch or nuns, particularly by their male peers.
Despite these gendered expectations, research in many places has found that girls tend
to engage in sexual activity at an earlier age than boys. Where teachers consider that this
goes against societal norms of acceptability, girls may be considered as reckless and
immoral. In such cases, they are likely to be blamed for risking detrimental consequences
to their studies by pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections. As well as verbal abuse
from fellow students and teachers, in some countries young women may be forced out
of school once their pregnancy is known about, with few options made available to
continue their education. Such attitudes not only discriminate against girls and young
women, they also fail to recognise the value that pregnancy may hold for them. Research
has found, for example, that for many young women, particularly those from relatively
poor socio-economic backgrounds, pregnancy and motherhood hold deep symbolic
value, and can provide young women with status, respect and the possibility of marriage
and security that they would not otherwise have. (Heilborn et al., 2006)

Bullying and violence

At school, discrimination against groups seen as different is exercised through namecalling, persecution and physical aggression. While such bullying is often quite open,
more subtle forms of harassment and discrimination can take place through forms
of exclusion. Additionally, gender-based bullying may intersect with prejudice and
discrimination on the grounds of sexuality, ethnicity and race.
Although bullying takes place between students, teachers may also be involved. A recent
study in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais documented the case of a teacher attempting
to normalize the behaviour of a gay student trying to cure him of his homosexuality.
The teachers treatment, which took place during class time in the presence of the rest
of the students, consisted of asking the boy questions and ordering him to answer them
in a mans voice and manner. Every time the student walked to the front of the class,
the teacher told him to walk like a man (Ferrari, 2003). Such examples of bullying both
uphold and reinforce gender discrimination, and are likely to negatively impact on the
educational experience and success of the student(s) involved.
It is also important to recognise that forms of violence that take place outside the
school can adversely impact on the wellbeing and educational attainment of students.
For example, although domestic violence is usually directed against women, it also
has negative repercussions on children. Children may be frightened of other people,
particularly those in roles of authority (such as teachers), and may, as a result, perform
34

Section 2 Module 2
Gender and diversity within schools

poorly in school. Alternatively, children may copy the violent gestures they have seen at
home within their peer groups. By being aware of these issues, teachers are well placed
to provide pastoral and academic support, and to act to prevent forms of bullying and
violence which may result from them.

35

Module 2
References

References
ABDELA, L. AND BOMAN, A. (2010). Review of Inter Parliamentary Unions gender
programme Gender Equality in Politics InDevelop IMP.
AUAD, D. (2006) Educar meninas e meninos. Relaes de gnero na escola. [Educating
Boys and Girls: gender relations in school]. So Paulo: Editora Contexto.
BEAUVOIR, S. (2011) The Second Sex. New York: Random House, Vintage Series.
BELOTTI, E.G. (1985). Educar para a submisso. [Educating for submission]. Petrpolis:
Vozes.
FERRARI, A. (2003). Esses alunos desumanos: a construo das identidades
homossexuais na escola. [Inhuman students: the construction of homosexual
identities in school]. Educao e Realidade, Porto Alegre, v.1, n.28, p.87-111, jan./
jul..
HEILBORN et al. (ed.) (2006). O aprendizado da sexualidade: reproduo e trajetrias
sociais de jovens brasileiros. [Bringing up sexuality: reproduction and social
trajectories among young Brazilians]. Rio de Janeiro: Garamond e Fiocurz.
MEAD, M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: W.
Morrow & Co.
SOARES, C. & SABOIA A.L. (2007). Tempo, trabalho e afazeres domsticos: um
estudo com base na Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domiclios de 2001 a
2005. [Time, work and domestic tasks: a study based on the National Research
by Household Sample from 2001 to 2005]. Coordenao de Populao e
Indicadores Sociais, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica (IBGE). Rio de
Janeiro: IBGE.

36

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Activities to encourage a better

understanding of gender
There are families 1 and there are families

Activity

This activity aims to encourage students to reflect on gender relations within

families.
ACTIVITY: Ask students to work in pairs. Get them to introduce themselves to

each other and to ask the following questions:

Who do you live with?
What kinds of work does each person in the family do? Does this
differ between men and women?
Who spends most time at home? Why do you think this is?
How is housework divided up at home? Does this differ between boys
and girls and men and women?
Who contributes the most to paying the bills?
Who makes most of the decisions? Why do you think this is?
Encourage students to introduce their partner to the rest of the class,
summarising the information gathered during the interview. For example: This
is who lives with At home, she shares tasks equally with her brother and
sisters.
Observe and make note of the comments, laughter, and body language of the
class as students hear about their classmates. These contain important clues
to understand how students perceive these issues. Take the opportunity to
critically discuss issues that may arise. Remember, the aim is to help students
to reflect upon stereotypes and prejudice.
1) Ask students to write a short report summarising
the data gathered through the interviews. 2) Ask them to look at the ways
that gender relations within families are portrayed in television programmes
and adverts and in magazines. Encourage students to bring some examples
of these to class for discussion. The discussion could focus around the
composition of families, the kinds of lifestyles they lead and the types of
work that men and women are doing. Try to ensure that a range of different
family situations are discussed e.g. single parent families, gay couples with
children.
FOLLOW UP ACTIVITIES:

37

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Challenging
2 gender norms

Activity

Watch the film Billy Elliot3; although it is a U classified film,

make sure it is appropriate to the students in your class. Make notes on the
characters and scenes you want to highlight in the class discussion.
PREPARATION:

show the students the film, or selected clips from it. Ask them to
consider the following:
ACTIVITY:

What concerns are raised about the boys behaviour? Who is

concerned? Why?
What kinds of activities are deemed normal for boys in this community?
Why do you think this is? How do you feel about this?
How do the family respond to Billys career as a ballet dancer?
1) Ask students to think about the toys and clothes
that they were/are given. Get them to compare and reflect on the differences
between genders. 2) Talk about activities and professions that are associated
with men and boys, and with girls and women. Think about why these
activities are gendered and how this may impact on their own aspirations.
Use examples which demonstrate how gendered activities can change over
time to encourage discussion on ways of changing societal norms.
FOLLOW UP ACTIVITIES:

3. Billy Elliot (UK, 2000, 111min).

38

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Gender
3 and relationships

Activity

The aim of this activity is to encourage students to reflect on the ways gender
can influence social expectations and norms regarding sexual relationships.
ACTIVITY:

Ask students to reflect upon the following scenarios:

A female student went out with three different classmates during one term
and was heavily criticised by fellow students. One day, as she walked to
school, she saw her name together with an insult graffitied on the wall. At
around the same time, other girls started avoiding her, laughing at her and
whispering when she was around.
A male student of the same school also dated three classmates in one term,
but he was not criticised. Instead, his classmates considered him a hero, and
nicknamed him Tiger as a compliment. He also noticed that girls started to
look at him in admiration.
Ask students to discuss the following:
What do you think about these two situations?
Why do you think that the boy and the girl were treated in different
ways?
How do you think that each person felt about this treatment? How do
you think this might influence their attitudes towards future relationships
and their self respect?

39

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Pandoras
4 box

Activity

PREPARATION :

Bring a box in which you can put phrases, excerpts of song

lyrics and/or poems, sayings, jokes, newspaper/magazine headlines, photos,
etc. which can be used to stimulate a discussion about gender and sexuality.
Put each item inside an envelope and put all the envelopes inside the box.
Some examples of phrases and words that you could use are as follows:
Boys cant take care of babies. Girls can do it naturally
Boys are more into sex than girls
Condoms reduce mens pleasure
Men are not good at housework
Women cant drive
Women make better nurses. Men are better engineers.
Your friends are homosexual you must be gay or lesbian
ACTIVITY:

Get each student to take it in turns to take an envelope from the

box, read its contents and express his or her opinion on the issue. The rest of
the group will also have the opportunity to comment.
While the discussion is taking place, note down issues that are hotly debated,
as well as issues that raise questions. This is a good opportunity for you to
learn about the beliefs of your students and for them to critically reflect upon
their own attitudes and values.

40

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Gender
5 and the media

Activity

PREPARATION : Ask the class to select adverts from television and magazines

that sell products using the body and sexuality. Get them to bring examples
to the class.
ACTIVITY: Get students to work in groups or pairs. Distribute the adverts and

ask groups to identify the ways that women and men are portrayed in them.
Ask them to discuss the following:
Why did you choose this advert?
What products are being sold and who is the target audience?
How are women and men portrayed in the advert? What kinds of
images and language are being used?
Is there a sexual/erotic element? If so, why do you think this element
was chosen?
What links are established between the product and the target
gender? Can you identify discrimination or gender stereotyping?
Reflect on the ways that advertising sells ideas, and can reinforce gender
stereotypes.

41

Activities Module 2
to encourage a better understanding of gender

Teenage
6 pregnancy

Activity

ACTIVITY:

Ask students to identify the causes and consequences of teenage

motherhood and fatherhood. Try to ascertain students perception of the
issues. Watch the film Juno4 or any other film dealing with teenage pregnancy
and parenthood make sure the film is suitable for your students age group.
Make notes of any characters or scenes that should be highlighted in the
discussion.
After watching the film, facilitate a discussion about the issues covered. You
can use the following questions to initiate the discussion:
How do people respond to teenagers who become pregnant? Why
do you think this is?
How do teenage girls and boys deal with motherhood and fatherhood?
What impact can it have on their social status, and on the opportunities
available to them?
Are representations of motherhood and fatherhood influenced by
factors such as class and ethnicity?

4. Juno (Canada, United States, 2007, 96min).

42

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

Sexuality and sexual orientation

Introduction
This Module will examine some of the different situations in which prejudice and
discrimination are experienced by men and women because of their gender identity and
sexual orientation. It does this by bringing together the categories of gender and sexual
orientation and reflecting upon sexuality-related rights. The module then examines how
forms of prejudice and discrimination related to sexuality can be challenged within schools.

Throughout the module, try to consider the following questions:

Why is sexuality so important in defining who we are and how we are
treated by others? Is our sexuality static or can it change during our
lives?
Why are some manifestations of sexuality considered normal and others not?
How does sexuality relate to the makeup of the family? Why are some
manifestations of sexuality seen as legitimate in the family and others
not? How might this affect the development of children and young
people in education?
What is the role of school in the promotion of sexual rights? How can
school become a freer, safer environment that builds citizenship and
promotes the inclusion of all expressions of sexuality?

Social constructions of sexuality

A working definition of sexuality which is used by the World Health Organization is as follows:
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex,
gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and
reproduction.
Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs,
attitudes, values, behaviours, practices, roles and relationships.
While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always
experienced or expressed.
Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic,
political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical, religious and spiritual factors.

43

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

Despite this holistic approach, there remains a common belief that the body and by
extension, sexuality is the most natural and primal expression of our being, as gendered
people. Nowadays, it is also recognized that desire and the search for pleasure, as well
as the need to share intimacy and affection, are intrinsic to all human beings. However,
while these needs relate to the privacy and wellbeing of each individual, their expression
is constantly subjected to public scrutiny, as social norms influence the kinds of sexuality
that are perceived as normal and those that are not.
In most societies, the union of a man and a woman is considered the sexual norm. Yet
while heterosexual relationships are often considered to be right and normal, bodies,
desires, feelings and behaviours are not convergent and do not necessarily correspond
to these expectations. For example, a man may be masculine and still feel sexual desire
for another man. A woman may feel feminine and yet be attracted to other woman.
Someone who is born with masculine bodily attributes and is raised to act as a man may
feel feminine (or vice-versa), to the extent that he wants to change his body to become
as womanly (or as manly) as those who had that gender attributed to them at birth.
Sexuality, contrary to what many people think, is not a question of instincts dominated
by nature, impulses, genes or hormones. Neither is it limited to the bodily possibilities
of experiencing pleasure and affection. Whilst the importance of the bodys physiology
has some influence on what is possible in terms of sexuality, biological preconditions
do not in themselves produce sexual behaviours, gender identity or sexual orientation.
They make up a set of potentialities that only acquire meaning through socialization and
learning of cultural rules.
Sexuality, like gender, is therefore, above all, a social construct. Understanding our
sexuality involves a continuous and non-linear process of learning and reflecting, through
which we develop a perception of who we are. This is a process that unfolds in specific
historical, social and cultural conditions, and is influenced by factors such as class,
ethnicity/race, gender, and age. Peoples experiences of, and attitudes regarding
sexuality are also moulded alongside other experiences, including the social groups
that they identify with, where they live and the kind of community that they are a part of.
That is why expressions of human sexuality are so diverse and manifest themselves in
different ways throughout ones life.
There are also opportunities and challenges that are specific to each era. As we saw
earlier, the discovery of the contraceptive pill, for example, had a great impact on the
society of the day. In recent decades, the repercussions of HIV and AIDS and the
emergence of assisted reproductive technologies (artificial insemination, etc.) have
influenced the affective and sexual behaviour and attitudes of todays young people. These
events have changed sexual and romantic relationships, with values and experiences
differing between men and women and between people of different sexual orientations.

44

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

some
termi
nology

Sexual
orientation

Sexual orientation refers to the sex of the persons who we view as objects of desire and
affection. Three major types of sexual orientation are generally recognized: heterosexuality
(emotional, sexual and erotic attraction by persons of the opposite sex); homosexuality
(emotional, sexual and erotic attraction by persons of the same sex) and bisexuality
(emotional, sexual and erotic attraction both to persons of the same and the opposite sex).
In many cases, a persons sexual orientation becomes fixed at a certain point in their
life. However, for others sexual orientation may be more fluid and may change over time
and space. Many people for example, come to realize they are gay/lesbian only as
mature or elderly persons. Often, social pressures suffered at the start of their emotional
life lead them to establish heterosexual relations during their youth. After achieving a
certain degree of stability and independence, they recognise their gay/lesbian identity.
Today, there is a consensus among scientists that sexual orientation is made up of
at least three dimensions: desire, behaviour and identity. When we talk about sexual
identity, we refer to two different things:
1. The way a person perceives themselves in terms of sexual orientation; and
2. The way a person makes public (or does not) that perception of themselves in
certain environments and situations.
Importantly, sexual desire, behaviour and identity do not necessarily take the same
form or follow the same direction. Thus, there is no direct connection between the
desire a person feels, their sexual behaviour and the way they perceive themselves. For
example, it is possible for someone to have sex with someone of the same sex without
that person perceiving themselves to be gay/lesbian or bisexual. It is also possible to
have same-sex desires without participating in same-sex sexual relations.5
For example, there are men who have sex with other men, sometimes for money or
other kinds of rewards who, independently of the sexual role they play, see themselves
as simply men, not as homosexuals or gays. In certain environments, to go out with a
person of the same sex does not necessarily imply the commitment to a fixed sexual
identity (such as gay, lesbian or bisexual). Even between men and women who experience
homosexuality as a crucial and distinctive aspect of their lives, there is a great diversity of
denominations, representations and identities regarding lifestyles, aesthetic preferences,
body image, age and generation, class, religion, ethnicity/race and gender.

5. The US biologist Alfred Kinsey argued that there was a continuous gradation of human sexuality, from exclusive
heterosexuality to exclusive homosexuality, with a wide range of variations. To learn more about this, follow the link.
Film suggestion: Kinsey, about the life of Alfred Kinsey and the impact of his research on sexual behaviour of NorthAmerican men and women.

45

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

Sexuality, surveillance and control

Social, civil and political rights relevant to sexual and reproductive health have been
recognized since the early 1990s. They were asserted by the International Conference
on Population and Development, which took place in Cairo in 1994, and by the 4th
Womens World Conference in Beijing, in 1995. However, while there have been
significant advances in the recognition of reproductive rights, in many countries the
concept of sexual rights has been harder to establish or has tended to remain restricted
to issues related to health. Through political and social activism, the feminist, gay and
lesbian, and transgender-transsexual movements have sought to enable freedom of
sexual expression and to widen the notion of sexual rights.
As we have seen, sexuality is the term
used to refer to a variety of capacities
associated with sex. But what does
the word sex mean? In fact it can
mean several things at once. The
word may designate a practice
to have sex or to maintain sexual
relations with someone. But it can
also indicate a set of physiological
attributes, reproductive organs and
capacities that allow us to define
different categories of people as
belonging to the same sex, or the
opposite sex according to specific
characteristics of their bodies and/
or attributed to their attitudes and
behaviours.

Miriam Ventura, a Brazilian law scholar, classifies sexual and reproductive

rights as follows:

1.

The right to decide over

reproduction without suffering discrimination, coercion, violence, or restriction on numbers of
children or time between births;

2.

The right to access information and the means to enjoy

healthy and safe Reproduction and
sexuality;

3.
4.

The right to control over

In general terms, two approaches

ones body; and
to understanding sex coexist in
modern society: a positive approach,
The right to live according to
relating to the pleasure of the body
ones sexual orientation free
and the senses; and a negative,
from discrimination or violence.
repressive approach which promotes
discipline and social control over the
(Ventura, 2002:20)
expression of desire(s). Thus, on the
one hand, there is the idea that sex
is an energy that derives from our
body, a fundamental physical impulse that demands satisfaction. On the other hand,
families, schools, religious institutions and governments have invented rules to keep sex
under control. This has involved the development of detailed surveillance mechanisms
46

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

and social control, and the promotion

of feelings of fear by associating some
experiences of sexuality with disease
and danger.
The effort to map abnormalities and to
establish personal identity categories
linked to sexual orientation has in
most places, led to the imposition
of heterosexuality as the natural,
healthy, normal sexual orientation,
provided it is practised among adults,
legitimated by marriage and associated
with reproduction.

any Western societies assume as norm

the white, heterosexual man whose background is urban, Christian and
middle-class. This subject has historically become the reference that
no longer needs to be named. Other social subjects become marked,
and are thus defined and named in
relation to that norm as main reference. Thus, women are represented as the second sex, and gays
and lesbians are described as deviant from the heterosexual norm.

This heteronormativity lies at the

root of the social order within which
boys and girls are brought up, and is
the origins of the control all people are

(Louro, 1999, p.15-16)
subjected to when it comes to their
identification as man or woman. While
dispositions that are consistent with
what is expected of the male or female
gender are celebrated in children
and adolescents, expressions that diverge from that pattern as well as evidence of
affection or attraction to persons of the same sex are corrected. This order triggers
violence against young people identified as gay, lesbian, transvestite, transsexual and
transgender, who are constantly warned that society will not respect their choice of
sexual identity.
One such example can be seen in the way that homosexuality has been widely
understood as an abnormal and deviant identity. Indeed, it was only in 1990 that the
World Health Organizations General Assembly removed homosexuality from its list of
mental illnesses. The term homophobia, coined during the 1960s in the field of psychiatry,
is often used to describe the psychosocial root of anti-homosexual stigma and prejudice
(Herek, 2004). Homophobia generates and is present in insults and caricatures relating
to gender roles (for example, of effeminate men and masculine women), as well as in
physical violence lethal, in certain cases that is suffered by gays and lesbians, and
transsexual and transgender people.
Existing data show that in some places, sexuality-related violence is commonplace.
Across Latin-America, such violence has been found to be particularly marked against
transgender and transsexual people.
47

Section 1 Module 3
Sexuality and sexual orientation

Respecting sexual diversity is

fundamental to promoting human
rights. However, those who have
same sex desires and behaviours
are often forced to refrain from
demonstrating them in public, or
risk being ostracised, insulted or
attacked. Many religions condemn
and persecute sexual minorities.
Same sex couples in most countries
are denied the right to marriage, a
family and raising children. Bisexuals
are often considered indecisive and/
or may be thought to pose some kind
of danger public health. Transgender
and transsexual people are insulted
and may be attacked on the basis of
their appearance and behaviour. Their
gender identity may be systematically
denied (for example, in identity
papers); they may be discriminated
against in public places and excluded
from the formal labour market, the
school environment and daily life.

hile in Brazil 20.3%

of gay men polled in
a recent survey reported experiencing
sexuality related violence, almost
50% of transgender and transsexual people reported having suffered physical violence as a result
of their gender and sexual identity.
Threats and verbal abuse were reported by 71.2% of trans people
interviewed, while sexual abuse
had been experienced by 22.5%.

(Carrara & Vianna, 2006)

Sexuality-based discrimination is also linked closely to other hierarchies such as gender,

ethnicity/race, age and social origin. In such combinations, some behaviours are more
tolerated than others. For example, being gay but having a masculine identity is often
more tolerated than being an effeminate gay; being effeminate and rich is tolerated
more than being gay and poor; being gay, poor and white is more tolerated than being
gay, poor and black; being gay and black is more tolerated than being lesbian and black.
Many transgender people suffer multiple forms of discrimination and violence not only
for being seen as gay/lesbian, but also because they are often poor and because they
assume a gender identity that challenges the normal male/female dichotomy.
In recent years, rising levels of divorce, re-marriage, cohabitation and the use of
reproductive technologies have challenged traditional family models centred around the
traditional heterosexual norm. Despite such changes, in most countries, people who do
not fit this norm continue to be discriminated against when it comes to the raising of a
family, even though gay, lesbian, bisexual and trans people have the same capacities to
love, establish close emotional relations and raise children, as heterosexual people.

48

Section 2 Module 3
Sexuality in school

Sexuality in school
HIV and teenage pregnancy have put sexuality on the agenda of educational policy and
curriculum reform in many countries. Recognition of the importance of sexuality has also
given rise to discussion of a number of more personal matters such as self-esteem and
respect, solidarity, and respect for diversity and difference. At the same time, however,
the models of behaviour promoted and transmitted through schools also embody many
of the prejudices and inequalities prevalent within society, and confer legitimacy on them
through institutional weight and collective sanction.
Even where education about sexuality and relationships is not part of the school
curriculum, sexuality is present in a variety of forms in school life: in presuppositions
about family constitution and the roles of men and women; in school books and in
pedagogic practices; in toilet and desk graffiti; in insinuating looks; in love notes and
malicious messages; in games, jokes and nicknames that stigmatize delicate boys and
the forward girls, etc. This section therefore encourages teachers to adopt a critical
view of the ways in which sexuality is approached in their school. In so doing, teachers
are encouraged to consider the prejudices and the inequalities that may exist and to
develop initiatives to challenge such discrimination.

Discrimination at school
For many young people, adolescence is a time to establish romantic and sexual
relationships. In most schools, however, messages which promote a heterosexual norm
are upheld, whilst other forms of sexuality are given little attention, or are represented
as being abnormal and problematic. Such attitudes can have adverse impacts upon the
wellbeing and freedom of expression of students who do not fit in with the heterosexual
norm. For example, while young people who identify as heterosexual may feel able to
express their sexual orientation at ease, same sex attracted young people may feel
that they have to keep their sexual orientation hidden so that they are not discriminated
against.
Homophobia is widespread in many school environments. As indicated earlier, many
young people report being marginalized by teachers and other students because of their
sexuality. Teachers may also be the victims of this type of discrimination. It is important
to recognize that homophobia does not impact only on those whose gender expression
is different from the expected norm but on all children and young people who fear the
consequences of being labeled lesbian or gay.

49

Section 2 Module 3
Sexuality in school

Homophobia establishes a regime

of control over sexual behaviour in
the pursuit of conformity to dominant
gender patterns. It influences the types
of physical contact that are allowed and
in which contexts, the bodily and verbal
language that are acceptable, as well
as the emotions one should express
or avoid. Homophobia also regulates
anything considered to be a deviation
from masculine and feminine norms and
in so doing, plays a part in upholding
patriarchal gender relations.
Transphobia is one of the most violent
and harmful forms of sexual prejudicebased violence. While some gay men
and women are able to hide their sexual
orientation, transgender people (and, to
a certain degree, transexuals) find this
much more difficult. The prejudice and
discrimination which results from this is
often marked by the student dropping out
of school. Rejected by family and society,
and with few educational qualifications,
many are left with little choice but to turn
to sex work or prostitution.

esearch carried out at

Brazilian LGBT parades
shows that 34.4%
of trans people interviewed reported having had suffered discrimination and abuse at
school. Thus it is not surprising
that trans people often have the
lowest level of formal education
compared to other sexual minorities. In Brazil, 17.8% of gay interviewees had not completed secondary schooling, while among
trans people the percentage goes
up to 42.4%. Similarly, while almost half (46.2%) of lesbian interviewees had obtained a university degree, only 21.4% of trans
people had attended university.
(Carrara, Ramos & Caetano, 2003)

Expulsion from school due to sexual orientation has also been reported. In such cases,
the individual concerned may be viewed as a risk that might contaminate other people.
Such cases demonstrate how those who are discriminated against are often seen
as being responsible for their own circumstances, and are expected to change their
behaviour in order to solve the problem.
Homophobia is not only reported amongst students but also amongst some teachers.
It may also constitute the prevailing ethos of a school. Sometimes schools are anxious
that sexuality education may lead young people into behaviours that are condemned and
contrary to healthy development. Teachers and parents may feel that children and young
people should not be taught about sexual diversity and sexual and reproductive rights.
However, denying students education about sexuality and refusing to engage with these
issues can contribute significantly to the perpetuation of prejudice, discrimination and
inequality.

50

Section 2 Module 3
Sexuality in school

Tackling sexuality-related
discrimination in schools
In order to understand how homophobia may be reinforced at school,
more of the following activities :

try one or

1. Young people learn about sexuality from a range of sources , including

popular culture .
What are the dominant images of sexuality offered to young people
by television and the mass media. How can such representations be
challenged within a school environment?
2. Sexual identity is fluid and dynamic .
How was homosexuality seen during your own adolescence? How is it
seen today? How many lesbians and gay men were out then compared
with now? What implications does this have for how young people can
build a positive identity, and what barriers are still in place?
3. Sexual

identity should be understood in relation to the concept of

heteronormativity.
How is heteronormativity upheld within your school? Which sexualities
may be legitimately talked about and practiced? Which ones may not,
and why this is?
4. Research

clearly shows that discussion of homosexuality does not

encourage homosexual practice and identification .

Why do some people believe that it does?

5. Some

people believe that young people are not old enough to identify

themselves as gay, lesbian or transgender .

Why might this be? What kind of power relations are at play in such
assumptions?
6. Think

about students at your school who have suffered ongoing

hostility because they are considered sexually abnormal.

Has this experience had consequences for their education attainment

and their lives more generally?
(adapted from Briztman, 1996)

51

Section 2 Module 3
Sexuality in school

Mainstreaming work on sexuality

In many schools, education about sexuality and relationships is either absent or, at
best, remains limited to health and reproduction. In some schools, this occurs because
teachers feel that sexuality is an inappropriate topic for discussion, or because dominant
religious and social values dictate that unequal gender and sexual relations are upheld.

However, for many young people, school may be the only place where they feel able to
openly discuss sexuality-related concerns. Because of this, it is important that teachers
seek to establish a dialogue with students that goes beyond restrictive and moralizing
approaches to reproductive health issues. Key areas for discussion include sexual
diversity, pleasure, emotional involvement, expectations, fears, entertainment, questions,
and respect for sexual diversity. In order to be effective, this dialogue should be nonjudgmental and should promote reflexivity in order to empower young people as individuals
capable of making their own decisions, and who are aware of their possibilities in life,
their rights and responsibilities, and social change.
For maximum effectiveness, it is also important that sexual education is not confined
to biology and science lessons, but is introduced or mainstreamed across a variety of
subject areas. History teachers, for example, can encourage students to examine sexual
behaviour as influenced by political, cultural and economic factors in different eras. Art
teachers could stimulate enquiry into the ways in which sexuality and sexual diversity
have been, and are, represented through different forms of artistic expression.
There are also more subtle ways in which a school may seek to encourage students to
engage with issues of sexuality. The type of teaching and learning materials used for
example, can send messages to students which may uphold or challenge dominant
norms. In most schools, text books reinforce conventional images of sexuality, while not
even acknowledging other forms of sexual orientation or gender identity. Teachers may
therefore seek to find or develop alternative materials which engage positively with sexual
diversity. While such materials may prove controversial amongst parents and students, the
possibility of some negative reactions should not justify inertia or omission. If teachers do
not use their skills and experience to engage creatively and constructively with sexuality,
they will contribute to the continuing legitimization of prejudice, discrimination, gender
hierarchy and homophobic violence in school.
It is important for teachers to feel supported in their work and for relevant training and
ongoing encouragement to be provided. Good quality education about sexuality will
have repercussions not only for young people but also for colleagues, parents and
community and religious leaders. Because of this, it is recommended that schools seek
to build a local support network for this type of work, which includes representatives
from civil society, government bodies and religious institutions who can help add weight
and legitimacy to the task.

52

Module 3
References

References
BRIZTMAN, D. (1996). O que essa coisa chamada amor: identidade homossexual,
educao e currculo. Educao e Realidade. [What is this thing called love:
homosexual identity, education and curriculum. Education and Reality]. Porto
Alegre, v. 21, n. 1, Jan./July.
CARRARA, S. & VIANNA, A. (2006). T l o corpo estendido no cho...: a violncia
letal contra travestis no municpio do Rio de Janeiro. [There is the body lying on
the ground: lethal violence against travestis in the Rio de Janeiro municipality]. In:
PHYSIS: Rev. Sade Coletiva, Rio de Janeiro, v.16, n. 2, 2006. p.233-249.).
CARRARA,S., RAMOS, S. & CAETANO, M. (2003) Pesquisa Poltica, Direito, Violncia
e Homossexualidade. Pesquisa realizada nas Paradas do Orgulho LGBT de Rio
de Janeiro, So Paulo, Porto Alegre e Recife. Rio de Janeiro: Pallas. [Research
on Politics, Rights, Violence and Homosexuality. Survey conducted at LGBT Pride
Parades in Rio de Janeiro, So Paulo, Porto Alegre and Recife]. Available at: http://
www.ucamcesec.com.br/arquivos/publicacoes/publirelatorio.pdf (Accessed on:
13 jun. 2012).
HEREK, G.M. (2004). Beyond Homophobia: Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and
Stigma in the Twenty-First Century. In: Sexuality Research and Social Policy,
Volume 1, Number 2, Pages 6-24.
LOURO, G.L. (1999). Pedagogia da Sexualidade [Pedagogies of Sexuality]. In: Louro,
G.L. (ed.). O corpo educado: pedagogias da sexualidade. [The educated body:
pedagogies of sexuality]. Belo Horizonte; Autntica.
VENTURA, M. (2002). Direitos reprodutivos no Brasil. [Reproductive Rights in Brazil]
So Paulo: Fundao MacArthur. Availabe at: http://www.unfpa.org.br/Arquivos/
direitos_reprodutivos.pdf (Accessed on: 13 jun. 2012).

53

Activities Module 3
to encourage a better understanding of sexuality

Activities to encourage a better

understanding of sexuality
Lets talk
1 about sex

Activity

This exercise is designed to initiate discussion about sex and sexuality.

ACTIVITY:

Hand out paper to the students. Ask boys to write the letter M
(male/masculine) and girls to write the letter F (female/feminine) at the top
of the page. Then ask them to write down the first word or feeling that they
have when they hear the word sexuality. Ask students to fold their paper and
collect this in.
Request the help of one or more students to write on the board the key words
emerging from the activity, separating them by male and female responses.
Highlight any differences or similarities between the genders.
In order to make the discussion livelier, you could raise the following questions:
Who do you feel comfortable talking about sex and sexuality with?
Why?
Do you think your friends know everything about sex and sexuality?
Why do you think this?
Who knows more about sex and sexuality boys or girls? Why do you
think this?
If you think your students felt comfortable in the discussion, ask them to share
some of their initial reactions. You can also suggest that students make a
collective poster with the words and phrases identified during the exercise.
Give the poster a title and exhibit it in the classroom.

54

Activities Module 3
to encourage a better understanding of sexuality

HIV
2 and AIDS

Activity

PREPARATION :

Give students some background information on HIV and

AIDS. Suggest that the class splits into groups with each researching
a different aspect of HIV. Topics may include: national epidemiological
statistics; HIV transmission and prevention; the achievements of HIV positive
peoples movements; HIV- and AIDS-related prejudice and stigma; gender
relations, etc. Ask groups to bring the data to the next class.
ACTIVITY:

Get each group to present their findings. Take the opportunity to

discuss relevant issues and stimulate a debate around topics such as the
following;
Who is vulnerable to HIV infection and why?
Why might condom use be difficult or problematic for some people?
Why is HIV often thought to be linked with homosexuality?
Why isnt treatment available to everyone who needs it?
Look out for language that discriminates (either overtly or implicitly) against
HIV positive people, and discuss such instances in order to eliminate
prejudice. It may be useful to ask the class to design a poster which displays
the information they have found.

55

Activities Module 3
to encourage a better understanding of sexuality

Sexuality-related
3 discrimination

Activity

PREPARATION :

Find some examples in the media which demonstrate cases

of discrimination and/or violence against lesbians, gays, transgender people
or transsexuals. Using examples from different parts of the world will help
to demonstrate the diversity of ways in which sexuality is understood and
responded to in various contexts. Make some copies of the International
Declaration of Human Rights.
ACTIVITY:

Ask students to work in groups or pairs. Each group should be

given an example from the media and a copy of the International Declaration
of Human Rights. Encourage the groups to analyse the example and write a
brief assessment of the situation. Students can then identify which articles
of the Declaration were violated in each case. As a class, ask students to
identify which rights tend to be upheld and which are more commonly violated
in different parts of the world. Also ask them to think about any instances of
homophobia that they have witnessed in their own community.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:

1) Ask students to write a news piece about human

rights and equality for lesbians, gays, transgender people and transsexuals,
based on the International Declaration of Human Rights. After the texts have
been presented, suggest that the students make a poster portraying their
texts and the Declaration articles that inspired them. Exhibit the posters in
school. 2) If possible, consider inviting speakers from local or national LGBT
groups to discuss their work and the fight against sexual discrimination.

56

Section 1 Module 4
Ethnic inequality

Ethnic inequality
Introduction
This module begins by examining the concept of ethnocentrism, and explores how it
has influenced ideas about race and ethnicity. Taking Brazil as a case study, the module
then examines how racial and ethnic prejudice and discrimination can result in a range of
social and economic inequalities. The second part of the module focuses on the role that
schools can play in combating racial and ethnic discrimination, and promoting diversity.
Throughout the module, try to consider the following questions:

Are ethnicity and racial identity important in defining who we are?

If so, in what ways?
How have interactions between people from different cultures
changed over time? How have these interactions influenced ethnic
relations and what kinds of power relations are involved?
What is the role of the school in the promotion of ethnic and racial
equality? Whose voices are included in educational materials,
and whose are not? How can the school promote the inclusion of
people from all ethnic backgrounds?

Ethnocentrism, racism and prejudice

In all societies, it is common for people to assert that their way of life is better, more
correct, or at least more interesting that that of other groups of people. Such attitudes
come about when people are socialised to favour particular things over others, and when
cultural norms give value to certain aspects of living, while expressing disapproval of
others. We call this tendency ethnocentrism or a way of seeing the world in which one
particular (ethnic) group becomes, in its geographic and moral standing, the benchmark
against which other groups are measured and evaluated.
Encounters between people of different cultures have long taken place. In the past, they
were commonly underpinned by relationships of commerce and/or conflict. While these
occasionally led to closer interaction and the merging of different cultures, different social
groups often remained distinct from one another. However, in our increasingly globalised
world, improved communications, new technology and cheaper transport have made it
easier for people to migrate to, and settle in, other places, resulting in a more diverse
range of interconnections.
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Section 1 Module 4
Ethnic inequality

Despite this increase in circulation of people and ideas, the tendency to naturalize
differences across societies has not disappeared; on the contrary, it has assumed other
forms. Furthermore it has served to control not only the relationship with those who are
distant, but also relations inside the same society. One of these forms, perhaps the most
perverse of them, is racism.
Racism is a doctrine which claims that inherent differences amongst various races
determine individual or collective achievement. Racism usually involves a belief that
ones own race is superior and dominant over others. This, in turn, can lead to forms of
discrimination against those deemed to be inferior. At times throughout history, attempts
have been made to use scientific explanations to prove the existence of racial disparities.
While these assertions have thrived off claims of scientific objectivity, ideas about race
are maintained largely through repetition, ignorance and prejudice.
One example which illustrates the way that racism has had profound impacts upon
different cultures and societies can be seen in the programme of European colonial
expansion which took place between the 19th and 20th Centuries. Until the beginning of
the 19th Century, the term race was rarely used. Instead, the concept of lineage was
used to describe the way that European nations were derived from ancient tribes, such
as the Saxons, the Bretons, the Latvians
etc.. At the same time, forms of colonialism
were predominantly mercantile, with other
cultures often considered as equal trading
partners, or as noble savages to be
harles Darwin (1809
respected.
Throughout the 19th Century, however,
ideas about race and, in particular, racial
difference, came to the forefront. In
large part, these ideas were influenced
by emerging biological and evolutionary
theories, created to explain the differences
between animals and humans. Importantly,
however, dividing and categorising people
into racial types also helped to legitimise
increasing colonial ambitions for territorial
and resource acquisition. By claiming that
human beings in other places were of a
different, less evolved racial type than their
own, the colonisers were able to justify
their actions in seeking to assert control

-1882) was a British naturalist who

achieved fame upon
convincing the scientific community that species evolve by a
process of natural selection. This
theory became a central paradigm to explain diverse biological phenomenon. His work also
influenced the later notion of Social Darwinism - a term used to
describe perceived hierarchies
amongst human beings.6

6. See Paul (2003).

58

Section 1 Module 4
Ethnic inequality

over them. In the same way that biological differences were believed to render women
inferior to men and to deny them rights to suffrage, for example, colonised populations
were deemed incapable of self-governance.
By creating such categories, and promoting them through popular imagery and
discourse, many Europeans came to believe that their lineages were racially distinct
from, and superior to, those of African, Asian, and American peoples. Such ideas in
turn, influenced the development of other discriminatory theories, one of which was
eugenics. Emerging in the late 19th Century, eugenics used evolutionary theory to
justify the ultimate goal of improving the human species. At the heart of this process was
the aim of controlling human reproduction through prohibiting inter-racial marriage, and
eliminating groups of people supposedly responsible for the transmission of undesirable
characteristics. The implementation of a eugenics policy was seen in the 1930s, when
the Nazi run German state set out to purify the Aryan race. This involved separating
out and eliminating people seen to have characteristics deemed to be deviant, such as
minority ethnic groups, people with mental and physical disabilities, and homosexuals.
While scientific arguments which distinguish between different races are generally
no longer given credence, it is vital to recognize the continuing existence of racism as
an attitude. It is also important to acknowledge that while historically, many forms of
racism were directed by the West, racism exists within and between all societies, with
implications for discrimination against many groups of people deemed to be racially and
ethnically inferior.

Race and inequality

As we saw earlier, ideas regarding the extent to which particular people and their
attributes are valued within a society are determined by cultural norms. In some cases,
the status of people may change. However, in others, social mobility and status are far
less flexible. In mediaeval Europe for example, status as a peasant was fixed by rigid rules
with very restricted opportunities for upward progression. Likewise, the caste system in
India, which, until relatively recently, fixed a persons social status from birth, enabled few
prospects for social mobility.
The passing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 19487 was an important
event which challenged the existence of such rigid social hierarchies. Asserting that
all people are free and equal by right, the declaration stated that independent of social
origin, individuals should all have the same chances to rise to better social positions
and enjoy the same rights and freedoms as one another. The Universal Declaration also
reinforced a principal of non-discrimination on the basis of race; a pledge that was later
7. See http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

59

Section 1 Module 4
Ethnic inequality

expanded upon in the International Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Racial
Discrimination8 which dealt with protection against discrimination based on colour, on
descent and on ethnic or national origin.
Despite such positive developments, evidence suggests that discrimination on
the grounds of race and ethnicity still exists and, in turn, influences the inequalities
experienced by many people throughout the world. Using Brazil as a case study, it is
possible to see how these ongoing inequalities affect peoples daily lives.

Racial inequality in Brazil

At the turn of the 21st Century, black men and women represented 45% of the Brazilian
population, but 64% of the poor population and 69% of the population living in conditions
of extreme poverty (Henriques, 2003). Using the Human Development Index (HDI) 9 as
his basis for measuring development, the Brazilian economist Marcelo Paixo found
significant differences in the quality of life experienced by black and white people of
Brazil. While Brazil ranked 79th overall in the HDI, a hypothetical nation comprised only of
Brazils black population was ranked 108th place for HDI. At the same time, a hypothetical
nation comprised only of Brazils white population was ranked in 49th place.10
The reasons for such disparities are strongly influenced by the socio-economic
circumstances in which people live. Households headed by a white person, for example,
have an average income twice that of households headed by those categorised as
black or mixed11. The composition of the household has also been found to be an
important factor. Households headed by white people tend to have fewer dependents,
while households headed by non-whites contain relatively more people under the age
of fifteen. The differences are exacerbated when factors such as gender are involved.
Among households headed by a black person, for example, 63.4% are headed by a
woman. Given that black women in Brazil have been found to earn on average only 45%
of the income of white women, and up to 70% less than white men, such households
are clearly disadvantaged relative to others. Indeed, figures suggest that a combination
of disadvantages means that black women are much less likely to reach the age of 75
than their white counterparts12.
8. See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm
9. The Human Development Index attempts to measure a countrys level of development using measures of life expectancy, mean
and expected years of schooling and income sufficiency. See http://www.undp.org/.
10. See Nascimento (2007).
11. The IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) classifies the country population in four ethnic-racial broad
categories: white, black, pardo (roughly equivalent to brown, of mixed color), and indio(indigenous populations).
12. IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) databases are available in English.

60

Section 1 Module 4
Ethnic inequality

While racial inequalities in rates of literacy and educational attainment in Brazil have
decreased in recent years, significant differences still remain. Black and mixed-colour
students, for example, receive an average of five years of schooling compared to seven
years for white students. Between the ages of 15-17 years, 60% of young people who
are white are studying at secondary level compared to only 32% of young people who
are black or mixed. Similarly, while 21.5% of white people aged 18-19 go on to higher
education, the figures are only 4.4% for black people, and 3.2% for mixed-colour people.
For those aged between 20-24 years, 53.6% of white people are in higher education
compared to only 15.8% of non-whites.
These inequalities are also influenced by the educational attainment of parents,
suggesting that disadvantages are reproduced across the generations. In addition,
regional disparities in educational provision and attainment exist along racial lines.
In Brazil, the white population is concentrated in the most economically advantaged
regions of the country (South and Southeast), while the presence of black and mixedcolour groups is much greater in the Northeast.
The type of employment that is available to people in Brazil is also influenced by ethnicity.
Women categorised as black or mixed-coloured for example, are much more likely than
white women to be found working in domestic service. While this may be due in part
to levels of educational attainment, it is also important to consider the role of prejudice
and stereotyping in perpetuating racial inequalities. Stereotyping involves simplifying
conceptions of people based on a set of prior assumptions made about them. This in
turn, can influence the way that people and their abilities are perceived, as well as the
opportunities that are then made available. The expression, to put someone in their
place thus not only presumes that there are places, but also that each person knows
which place is his or hers. In Brazil, stereotypes which place black people in subservient
positions are common, with acceptable paths for upward social mobility generally limited
to success in music or sport.

61

Section 2 Module 4
Ethnic inequality in schools

Ethnic inequality in schools

The first section of this module emphasised how perceptions of race and ethnicity can
result in a wide range of inequalities. We will now examine the ways in which racism can
exist within a school environment and to how it can be challenged.

A school without colour

Schools form an integral part of society and are often influenced by the same existing
ideologies and norms of their wider context. As with many other institutions, schools
play a key role in reproducing ideas regarding ethnocentrism, race and ethnicity, and
in reproducing racial and ethnic inequalities. At the same time, however, schools are
uniquely placed to challenge discrimination and to promote more inclusive approaches
to learning.
In most societies, relatively few schools could be accused of being purposefully and
explicitly prejudiced along racial or ethnic lines. However, it is important to recognise
that inequalities are upheld as much by what remains silenced or overlooked, as by what
is openly said and done. Schools that try to be colour blind or neutral in order not to
discriminate, for example, often inadvertently downplay the inequalities that black and
minority ethnic students face, and thus negate their experiences and everyday realities.
Racial and ethnic discrimination are also often considered to be historical rather than
contemporary and ongoing issues. Common representations of black and indigenous
people as victims of the colonial era also homogenise these groups and overlook the
wide variety of experiences that individuals have had.
At the opposite extreme, schools may give a disproportionate amount of attention to
particular cultural events or celebrations and, in so doing, place too much emphasis on
what is deemed diverse and different in relation to what is considered to be the expected
norm. Striking a balance is therefore essential. Likewise in discussing discrimination it
is essential to ensure that it is not treated as a problem created by the one who is
discriminated against, rather than the one who discriminates. Thus ethnic-racial issues
end up being discussed as a black or indigenous concerns rather than a discussion of
the relations between people of differing ethnicities.

62

Section 2 Module 4
Ethnic inequality in schools

Stereotypes and prejudice at school

While schools may unconsciously reinforce racism through the negation or celebration
of difference, the content of school materials can also be a contributory factor.
Although many publishers have taken positive steps to ensure that people from different
backgrounds are included in teaching and learning materials, the following issues still
apply in many places:

Black and indigenous people still remain relatively invisible in books,

posters, and other teaching materials. Where they are present, they tend to
be presented as a minority, and rarely play a central role.
Except in chapters specifically relating to slavery, there tends to be an
omission of race in history books. Where black or indigenous people are
present, they are often praised for their white characteristics. In some
cases, illustrators have even tried to lighten their skin colour.
Where black characters appear in childrens literature, it is not uncommon
for their identity to remain obscure. Black characters are often known only
by their first or nicknames, with little or no attention being given to their family
background, or their life beyond that which relates to the white characters.
Black people tend to remain strongly associated with manual labour and
subservient positions. In book illustrations, cooks, nannies, maids, and
domestic workers are often represented as black women, even when these
texts do not make mention of colour or race. Similarly, there are materials
which represent black women as objects of sexual desire or which stereotype
black people as singers, football players etc.
In some teaching and learning materials, black people are given brutalized
or animal-like features.
Indigenous groups are often made to seem the same, and appear as naive
and backward. Yet at the same time, when indigenous people are seen in
urban, academic or political contexts, or present themselves articulately,
they are accused of having abandoned their heritage and ancestry.

Unless teachers critique such materials and stereotypes, they may find themselves
implicit in upholding racism. Racism may also be reinforced when teachers do not act to
tackle discriminatory remarks or behaviours. Racist jokes and nicknames, for example,
may be treated as funny or disregarded as problems that need to be dealt with outside
of the school environment.

63

Section 2 Module 4
Ethnic inequality in schools

The promotion of ethnic-racial equality

Schools and educators have a responsibility not only to challenge ethnic and racial
discrimination, but also to actively promote and endorse diversity and equality. In so
doing, teachers may find it helpful to:

Recognise the right of all students to learn about their own culture and
background.
Recognise the ethnic and racial voices that are missing, distorted or
stereotyped in teaching and learning materials. Address these missing
perspectives, particularly in work on history and culture.
Include ethnic and racial issues in all aspects of teaching and learning,
and initiate actions to combat racism and discrimination.
Examine the impact of racism in the school curriculum, and the ways in
which it frequently coexists alongside other forms of discrimination
Combat prejudiced and discriminatory attitudes within and beyond the
school environment.
Discuss race and ethnic inequality with other educators, and with civil
society and minority ethnic organizations.
Take affirmative action to guarantee access to and the involvement of groups
that are under-represented in higher education and university settings.

64

Module 4
References

References
HENRIQUE, R. (2003) Raa e gnero no sistema de ensino. Os limites das polticas
universalistas na educao. [Race and gender in the education system. The limits of
universalist education policies.] Brasilia: UNESCO Brasilia/UNDP.
NASCIMENTO, E.L. (2007) The Sorcery of Color: Identity, Race, and Gender in Brazil.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
PAUL, D. B. (2003). Darwin, Social Darwinism and Eugenics. In: Hodge, J. & Radick,
G. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Darwin. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

65

Activities Module 4
to encourage a better understanding of race and ethnicity

Activities to encourage a better

understanding of race and ethnicity
Ourselves
1 and others

Activity

ACTIVITY:

Start by providing a definition of ethnocentrism and stress that

it can occur in all places across the globe. Then get students to brainstorm
groups of people often considered as very different, e.g. men-women, blackwhite, homosexual-heterosexual, old-young. Divide the class into groups
based on these dichotomous categories and then sub-divide the groups into
two. One half of the group should seek to interview at least three people
from their category about the population that they are generally thought to
contrast with.
For example, if the group is going to investigate the old/young dichotomy
and there are six people in the group, three students could interview
elderly people and another three students could interview young people.
The interviews should elicit how each group feels about the other.
Each student sub-group can then organise their interview responses to
present to class. Students can then produce a large poster using the collective
research to highlight oppositional views and common stereotypes, reflecting
upon ethnocentrism and looking for historical and social explanations for
such views. Take the opportunity to help students think about whether these
views change according to gender or ethnicity.

66

Activities Module 4
to encourage a better understanding of race and ethnicity

Racism
2 is it history?

Activity

ACTIVITY:

Present students with a definition of racism. Then ask them to

look in newspapers and on television for cases of ethnic-racial discrimination.
It may be more interesting to split the students into themes, for example,
racism in sport; racism at work, racism in television, etc. Highlight how various
forms of racism may affect men and women differently. Encourage students
to summarise the case, including information about the person who suffered
discrimination (ethnicity, gender, age, job, qualifications, country of origin,
etc.), the person who perpetrated the discrimination, the type of discrimination
(what was said or done, reasons behind it) and the development of the case.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:

Get students to debate whether there is racism in the

areas in which they live. Encourage them to consider what forms of racism
and inequality exist, and why. Get students to work in groups to identify
strategies to combat racism in their area.

Activity

Role-reversal
PREPARATION :

Choose a film that uses role-reversal as a way of reflecting

upon racial discrimination, such as the American comedy Watermelon Man,
by Melvin Van Peebles (1970, 97 min). The film tells the story of a racist white
man who one day wakes up to discover he has become black, and has to
face the racial prejudice and discrimination of those around him.
Before class, watch the film and select specific points to be discussed.
ACTIVITY:

Watch the film (or extracts from it) with your students and ask
them to consider the following:
What kinds of discriminatory attitudes are evident?
What language is used to describe black and white people?
What stereotypes are evident, and how does this influence the way
that people are treated?

67

Activities Module 4
to encourage a better understanding of race and ethnicity

Ethnic and
4 racial stereotyping

Activity

PREPARATION :

Ask students to identify television programmes in which

racial and ethnic stereotypes are evident. Ask them to make a note of the
programme, when it was produced, the main features of the character and
the context of the action.
ACTIVITY:

Collectively analyse the features found and the stereotypes

present in television characters. Highlight any examples that suggest that
non-white characters have a secondary role, a low social status, or are semicriminal, lazy, etc. Talk to the class about the ways in which such images can
reproduce stereotypes and prejudice.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:

Ask students to collect excerpts from novels that

describe characters of different ethnic backgrounds and skin colours. Get
the students to analyse them, and identify stereotyped characteristics.

68

Glossary

Glossary
Bisexuality: Feelings or behaviours of romantic and/or sexual attraction towards persons
of the same and the opposite sex.
Culture: A uniquely human phenomenon that reflects the capacity of human beings to
give meaning to their actions and to the world that surrounds them. A culture is shared
by members of a social group, and does not refer to exclusively individual phenomena.
Every human grouping, from different eras and diverse geographical areas, attributes
unique significance to apparently similar objects and passages in life. Culture, therefore,
is more than just a system of customs, it is an object of human intervention, which makes
life an inventive enterprise a readable, assessable, and interpretable experience.
Ethnic/ethnicity: Refers to a group of people whose members identify with each other,
through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture
and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry.
Ethnocentrism: A term used to describe the generic feeling of people who prefer the
lifestyle and norms of their own social or cultural group over that of others. The term,
in principle, does not necessarily prescribe a negative attitude towards others, but a
worldview centering on the core values of the group to which the individual belongs.
However, evaluating all other group or cultural attitudes from this perspective can
generate positions or actions of intolerance.
Eugenics: A science that gained particular attention during the late 19th and early
20th centuries and intended to regulate the transmission of hereditary characteristics
within different social strata. This was to be achieved through the control of human
reproduction, the prohibition of inter-racial marriage and the elimination of groups that
were supposedly responsible for the transmission of undesirable characteristics.
Feminist movement: A social and political movement that fights for equal rights for
women and men, both in terms of legislation and public policy. Feminist organizations
often offer support services and social programmes for women.
Gender: The term gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities
and attributes that a particular society considers appropriate for men and for women. In
recent decades, the concept of gender has had a profound influence on thinking about
equality.
Gender inequality: The unequal value and treatment accorded to women and to men.

69

Glossary

Heteronormativity: A viewpoint which asserts that heterosexuality is the normal and

most acceptable sexual orientation, and that sexual and marital relations should be
between a man and a woman. Thus, any variation or departure from the heterosexual male/
female model either through manifestations linked to homosexuality or transgender is
marginalized or persecuted as being dangerous to the social order.
Heterosexuality: Feelings or behaviours of romantic and/or sexual attraction for people
of the opposite sex.
Homophobia: A term used to refer to hatred and contempt for people with a sexual
orientation that is other than heterosexual, most generally expressed in the form of hostility
and disapproval towards people who do not fit social expectations of gender roles. Such
censorship common among children and adolescents and rarely challenged by adults
ranges from jokes and verbal abuse to acts of violence, sometimes lethal.
Homosexuality: Feeling or behaviours of romantic and/or sexual attraction by people of
the same sex.
Race: From a scientific point of view, human races do not exist; there is only one human
race. However, from a socio-political perspective, it is possible (and necessary) to
acknowledge the existence of racist attitudes. Therefore, it only makes sense to use the
term race in a racialized society one marked by racism.
Racism: A doctrine that attests not only to the existence of races, but also to the natural
and hereditary superiority of one race over another. A racist attitude attributes qualities
to individuals and groups based on their alleged biological association to one of these
races, and thus, their supposed native and hereditary qualities or defects. Thus, racism
is not only a reaction to the other, but a way of subordinating the other.
Sexism: the prejudiced attitude that prescribes different roles and behaviors for men
and women, subordinating female to male.
Sexuality: Sexuality is central to human life and encompasses sex, gender identities and
roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality can
be experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values,
behaviours, practices, roles and relationships. These are shaped in different ways in
different social contexts and historical periods. Sexuality is a dynamic concept that is
used in a myriad of ways, has multiple and contradictory interpretations, and is at the
heart of many debates and political disputes.
Sexual orientation: An enduring pattern of emotional and/or sexual attraction. Generally,
three types of sexual orientation are recognised: heterosexuality (physical and emotional
attraction for the opposite sex); homosexuality (physical and emotional attraction for
the same sex; and bisexuality (physical and emotional attraction both by same sex and
opposite sex persons).
70

Glossary

Sexual rights: Rights that grant individuals freedom and autonomy in sexual choices,
such as the right to practise a sexual orientation without suffering discrimination or
violence, and a womans right to determine if and when to have children.
Transgender: Person who has a gender identity that is different from the sex designated
at birth. Transgender men and women may manifest the will to undergo hormonal therapies
and/or surgical interventions in order to adapt their physical attributes (including genitals)
to their own gender identity.
Transsexual: Person who identifies with a gender that is inconsistent with their assigned
sex.

71

Credits for the original project

Gnero e Diversidade na Escola (GDE) is a training program for education professionals,
bringing an intersectional approach in gender, sexual orientation and racial/ethnic relations.
The project was conceived of the Brazilian Government Secretary for Womens Policies (SPM/
PR) and the British Council, in partnership with the Ministry of Education (MEC), the Secretary
for the Promotion of Racial Equality Policies (SEPPIR/PR) and the Latin American Center on
Sexuality and Human Rights (CLAM/IMS/UERJ).
Team responsible for the development of GDE:
Brazilian Government: Maria Elisabete Pereira (project idea), Dirce Margareth Grsz e
Mrcia dos Santos Leporace (SPM/PR), Rosila Roldi Wille, Maria Elisa Brandt, Jeane Silva,
Eliane Cavalleiro e Rogrio Junqueira, Alexandre Pedro e Leila Medeiros (MEC), Graa Ohana
(SEPPIR/PR) e Roberta Kacowicz (British Council).
CLAM/IMS/UERJ: Fabola Rohden, Maria Luiza Heilborn, Srgio Carrara, Leila Arajo, Andreia
Barreto (Management) e Elizabeth Rondelli, Karla Vaz Cavalcanti, Laura Coutinho e Maria Lucia
Cardoso (E-learning).
Original GDE sources in Portuguese
Gnero e diversidade na escola: formao de professoras/es em Gnero, Orientao Sexual
e Relaes tnico-Raciais. Livro de contedo. Rio de Janeiro: CEPESC; Braslia: SPM, 2009.
266 p.
Gnero e diversidade na escola: formao de professoras/es em Gnero, Orientao Sexual
e Relaes tnico-Raciais. Caderno de Atividades. Rio de Janeiro: CEPESC; Braslia: SPM,
2009. 226 p.