Fundamentals of Wind Energy
E. Ian Baring-Gould
Senior Engineer
National Wind Technology Center
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
[email protected]
TOPICS
Introduction
Energy and Power
Wind Characteristics
Wind Power Potential
Basic Wind Turbine Theory
Types of Wind Turbines
Basic Wind Turbine Calculations
Further Information
1400-1800 years go,
in the Middle East
What is Wind Power
800-900 years ago,
in Europe
140 years ago,
water-pumping
wind mills
70 years ago,
electric power
The ability to
harness the power
available in the
wind and put it to
useful work.
ENERGY AND POWER
ENERGY: The Ability to do work
ENERGY = FORCE * DISTANCE
Electrical energy is reported in kWh and may
be used to describe a potential, such as in
stored energy
POWER: Force without time
POWER = ENERGY / TIME
Generator Size or an instantaneous load
which is measured in kW
Power in the Wind
P = 0.5
3
v
P: power, Watt
: density of air, kg/m3
V: wind speed, m/s
We call this the Wind Power Density (W/m2)
If we include the area through which the
wind flows (m2), we get the collectable power
in Watts.
Power from the Wind
P = 0.5
3
v
Cp AS
Cp = Coefficient of
Performance (an
efficiency term)
AS = The swept area of the
wind turbine blades
Multiplied by time give you
Energy
Critical Aspects of Wind Energy
P = 0.5 Cp v3 AS
V3: Doubling of the wind speed results in
an 8 fold increase in power
: High density air results in more power
(altitude and temperature)
As: A slight increase in blade length,
increases the area greatly
Cp: Different types of wind turbines have
different maximum theoretical
efficiencies (Betz limit 0.593) but
usually between .4 and .5
Velocity The Impact on Increasing
Wind Turbine Productivity
Wind Speed
Marlec Rutland Furlmatic 910-3
Annual Energy, MW h
A small
increase in
wind speed
can increase
the power
greatly
0.5
50%
Annual Energy Output
0.4
40%
Capacity Factor (%)
0.3
30%
0.2
20%
0.1
10%
0.0
0%
3
5
6
7
Average Wind Speed, m/s
10,000
9,000
7,000
Air Density Changes with
Elevation
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
70
75
80
85
90
95
Density Change Compared to Sea Level, %
Changes with
Temperature
Temperature, F
Elevation, ft
8,000
100
Air Density Change with Temperature
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
90
95
100
105
110
115
Density Change Compared to 59 F, %
120
125
Swept
Area
500 kW
2
1257 m
1000 kW
2400 m2
300 kW
415 m
2
2
25 kW 78 m
10 kW 38 m
1 kW 6 m
(p D2 )
4
Wind Characteristics and
Resources
Understanding the wind resource at your
location is critical to understanding the
potential for using wind energy
Wind Speed
Wind Profile
Wind classes
Collection and reporting
Wind Direction
Wind speed change with height
Wind Speed
Measured in m/s or mph
Varies by the second,
hourly, daily, seasonally
and year to year
Usually has patterns
Diurnal - it always blows in
the morning
Seasonal The winter
winds are stronger
Characteristics Winds
from the sea are always
stronger and are storm
driven.
So, which is better
1. A location where the wind that blows only
50% of the time at 10 m/s but is calm the
rest of the time
2. A location where the wind that blows all of
the time at 5 m/s
P = 0.5 Cp
3
v
AS
Both have exactly the same annual average
wind speed
Wind Maps and Class
Careful:
Wind class is defined
at a specific height
Wind Speed Data Collection and
Reporting
1600
1400
Time (Hours)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Wind Speed (m/s)
Collection
Measured every 1
or 2 seconds
Averaged every 10
or 15 minutes
Reported as hour
averages
Turbulence Intensity
Wind Speed
Frequency of
Occurrence
Histogram based
on hour average
data for a year
Wind Direction
Wind Rose
Wind Speed Rose
CONTINENTAL
TRADE WINDS
Can also have a wind
direction change intensity
similar to turbulence
Impacts on Wind Speed
Many things impact the
speed and direction of the
wind at any specific
location, making local
measurements important
Wind Speed Increases with Height
140
12:10
12:20
12:30
12:40
12:50
Pow er Law
Log Law
120
100
Height, m
Because of friction
with the earth, air
closer to the surface
moves more slowly
The farther we get
away from the earth
(increase in altitude)
the higher the wind
speed gets until it is
no longer effected by
the earths surface
80
60
40
20
0
0
4
6
Wind Speed, m/s
10
Wind Shear
Height
Wind Speed, m/s
m
50
12.6
40
30
12.2
11.7
11
20
10
5
0
10
8.8
SURFACE
The type of
surface
(grass,
trees)
impacts the
wind shear
Real vs.
apparent
height
h
VN VO N
hO
Factoring in Measurement Height
The Power Law
hN
VN VO
hO
Terrain
Water or ice
Low grass or steppe
Rural with obstacles
Suburb and woodlands
VN: Wind speed at new height,
VO: Wind speed at original height,
hN: New height,
hO: Original height,
N: Power law exponent.
Power Law Exponent
0.1
0.14
0.2
0.25
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Source: Paul Gipe, Wind Energy Comes of Age, John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1995, pp 536.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Height Impacts on Power
Effect of Tower Height
Increase Compared to 30 ft
3.50
Wind Speed Increase
Wind Power Increase
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0
50
100
150
Tower Height, ft
200
250
Micro-Siting Example:
Obstruction of the Wind by a Small Building
Prevailing wind
H
2H
Region
of highly
disturbed
flow
2H
20H
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Basic Wind Turbine Theory
Lift and Drag The different types of
wind turbines
Aerodynamics How turbines work
Power Curves The performance of
wind turbines
Power Availability - Power your can
get from the wind
Different types of lift turbines
Aerodynamic Drag
PANEMONE TURBINE
CUP
FLAP PLATE
shield
rotation
WIND
Classic Drag Devices
Some Modified Drag Devices
Aerodynamic Lift
Lift Wind Turbines
Wind Turbine Power (kW)
WTG Power Curve
18
16
14
Rated
wind speed
12
10
8
6
Cut out
wind speed
Cut in
wind speed
4
2
0
0
10
15
Wind Speed (m/s)
20
25
30
Important Terms
Cut in wind speed: The wind speed that the turbine
starts producing power (may be different than the
speed at which the turbine starts spinning)
Rated Wind Speed: The wind speed at which the
turbine is producing rated power though rated
power is defined by the manufacture
Cut out wind speed: The wind speed at which the
turbine stops producing power
Shut down wind speed: The wind speed at which the
turbine stops to prevent damage
Survival wind speed: Wind speed that the turbine is
designed to withstand without falling over
Wind Turbine Power Curve
Bergey 1500 (manufacturers data)
1.8
1.6
1.4
Power (kW)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 23 24 25
Wind Speed (m/s)
2
2
Wind Speed Frequency of Occurrence
Average Wind Speed: 5 m/s (11 mph)
1600
1400
Time (Hours)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Wind Speed (m/s)
Annual Energy Production: 2643 kWh/year
Bergey 1500 @ 5 m/s (11 mph) average wind speed
450
400
Energy (kWh)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
10 11
12 13
14 15 16
17
18 19 20
Wind Speed (m/s)
All available energy may not be captured
21 22
23 24 25
Types of Lift Turbines
HAWT
VAWT
Basic Properties of HAWT
Basics of a horizontal axis wind turbine
Types of turbines
Small distributed turbines
Large grid connected turbines
Parts of a Wind Turbine
Rotor
Basic Motion of a Wind Turbine
Pitch
Rotation
Yaw
Different Types of Wind Turbines
Utility-Scale Wind Power
600 - 5,000 kW wind turbines
1,500 kW
Installed on wind farms, 10 300 MW
Professional maintenance crews
Classes 5 and 6 (> 6 m/s average)
Distributed Wind Power
300 W - 600 kW wind turbines
Installed at individual homes, farms,
businesses, schools, etc.
On the customer side of the meter
High reliability, low maintenance
Classes 2 and 3 (5 m/s average)
10 kW
Sizes and Applications
Small (10 kW)
Homes
Farms
Remote Applications
(e.g. water
pumping, telecom
sites, icemaking)
Intermediate
(10-250 kW)
Village Power
Hybrid
Systems
Distributed
Power
Large (250 kW 2+
MW)
Central Station Wind
Farms
Distributed Power
Turbine Blade
Alternator
(Permanent Magnet)
Permanent
Magnet WTG
Nacelle
Tail Boom
Tail Vane
Nose Cone
Tower Adapter
(contains slip rings)
Tower
Permanent magnet
alternator
Generates wild AC
(variable voltage
and frequency)
power that must be
treated.
Can provide AC or
DC power
Passively
controlled
Overspeed Protection of Small WTG
During High Winds
Furling: The
rotor turns up
or too one side
under high
winds
Used to control
rotor speed
and power
output
Dynamic
activity
Small Wind Turbine Towers
Guyed lattice and tube
towers are the least
expensive and
most commonly used towers
for small wind turbines
Adequate space is needed
for the guy wires and their
anchors
Free-standing towers are
used where space is limited
Tilt-Up Towers
Turbine installation in
remote areas can be a
problem.
To solve this problem:
Tilt-up versions of guyed
towers are available for
easier installation and
maintenance.
Self erecting technology
also used wisely
The Wind Turbine Controller
Battery-Charging
Converts AC power to DC for battery-charging
Regulates the battery voltage to prevent overcharging
When the battery is fully charged:
Power is diverted to another load, or
The rotor is unloaded and allowed to
freewheel
Grid Interconnection
Inverter, converts the power to
constant frequency 60 Hz AC
Water Pumping
Direct connection to the pump
Small Wind Turbine
Maintenance and Lifetime
Low maintenance not no maintenance
Inspection and maintenance every year: tightening bolts
and electrical connections, inspecting slip ring brushes,
checking for corrosion, etc.
Between 2 and 4 years: blade leading edge tape may
need replacement
Beyond 5-10 years: blade or bearing replacement may
be needed
Lifetimes of 10 to 20 years are possible
Some Jacobs wind turbines have been operating for
more than 60 years with periodic maintenance!
Hot Tips on Small Wind Energy
Buy Reliability
Based on experience, I side with the school of heavy
metal, those who believe that beefiness of
components is directly related to the longevity of the
equipment. M. Sagrillo, small wind turbine expert
Taller is Better
Taller towers give better performance due to smoother
wind and higher wind speeds
Micro-Siting
For best performance, locate wind turbines above and
away from obstructions to the wind
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AC WTG
Induction or
variable
speed
generator
Create AC
power
supplied to
the grid
Actively
controlled
Control of Large WTG
Fixed Pitch (Stall regulated): The shape of the blade
varies over its length so that as wind speed increase
parts of the blade stop producing lift and limit power.
Variable Pitch: The rotation (pitch) of each blade is
individually controlled to control lift
Yaw: Motors control yaw behavior based on a wind
direction vain, used to shut down wind turbine in high
winds but can also be a source of problems.
Brake: All wind turbines are required to have two of
them but there are several types:
Aerodynamic: Flaps on the blades that cause drag.
Mechanical: Disks or calipers, like your car.
Electrical: using the generator to cause electrical resistance.
Characteristics of Large WTG
Power Types
Induction (Constant speed)
Variable Speed (uses power electronics)
Power System Efficiencies
Aerodynamic
Rotor
Drive train / gear box
Generator
Power Conversion (if applicable)
1MW WTG Nacelle
A 27 m Blade
Rotor Area = 2460 m2 for a 1MW wind turbine
1.5 MW turbine is now standard
5 MW Turbines in prototype
Other Large (and Small) Turbines
Considerations
Policy
Siting
Transmission
External Conditions
Intermittency
Policy
Encourage economic
development and use
of local resources
facilitate green
markets
Federal, state and
local incentives such
as the Production Tax
Credit (PTC) and
Renewable Portfolio
Standards (RPS)
Siting
Avian and other
wildlife
Noise
Visual Impact
Land Ownership
External Conditions
Transmission
Grid Access
System studies
Allocation of available
capacity
Scheduling and costs
for usage (firm and
non-firm)
Intermittency
Operational Impacts
(ancillary services)
voltage/VAR control,
load following, etc.
10-20% of system
capacity is reasonable
Lightening
Extreme Winds
Corrosion
Extreme temperatures
Remote Systems
Amount of energy
from wind
Control of system
voltage and frequency
Use of excess wind
energy
Other General Wind Terms
Availability: The amount of time that the wind
turbine is available to produce power (Maintenance
parameter)
Capacity Factor: The annual energy production of
a wind turbine divided by the theoretical production if
it ran at full rated power all of the time (Resource
parameter)
The stronger the resource the higher the Capacity Factor
Usually reported monthly or yearly
25-40% is typical, up to 60% has been reported
Reason for the only works 1/3 of the time quote.
Basic WTG Calculations
Back of the envelope calculations for wind
turbine sizing
1. Turbine size or energy production
2. Cost of energy
3. Turbine capital cost
Note: Designing a power system that includes
wind turbines is not a simple issue and
should not be taken lightly.
Determining Turbine Size
There is a direct tradeoff between the size of the
generator and the amount of power that it will
produce. If you know one, you can get the other.
AKWH = CF * AV * GS * 8760
AKWH
Annual energy production, kWh/yr
CF Capacity Factor (20 to 50%)
AV Turbine Availability (~95 to 98%)
GS Generator Size (rated power), kW
8760# of hours in a year
Example What Sized Turbine?
Your community/home/building/business uses
11,250 kWh / year and you want ~ 25% of that
to come from wind.
AEP = CF * GS * AV * 8760
CF
AV
AEP
8760
30% = 0.30 (~ 6 mps annual average)
97% = .97
11,250 kWh
# of hours in a year
GS = 11250 / ( 0.30 * .97 * 8760 )
GS = 4.5 kW
Of course there are many other factors
Quick calculation of Annual Energy
Production using density
AKWH = CF * Ar * WM * 8.76
AKWH
CF
Ar
WM
8.76
Annual energy production, kWh/yr
Capacity factor (efficiency factor)
Rotor Area, m2
Wind Map Power, W/m2
1000 hours in a year
converts W to kW
Levelized Cost of Energy
COE = (FCR * ICC) + LRC + AOM
AEP
COE = LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY, $/kWh
LRC = LEVELIZED REPLACEMENT COST, $/yr
(major repairs)
ICC = INITIAL CAPITAL COST, $
FCR = FIXED CHARGE RATE, per year
AEP = ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION, kWh
A0M = ANNUAL OPERATION & MAINTENANCE, $/kWh
Turbine Capital Cost
Hardware Cost
turbine
$550/kW
tower
$120/kW
Installation Cost
foundation, erection, interconnection
Shipping
Other
ROUND NUMBER
$670/kW
$100/kW
$70/kW
$100/kW
$1000/kW
Costs however are impacted by the market. In 2005
the cost of installed wind turbines has increased
to between $1300 and $1400 per kW due to high
steel prices and demand caused by the
Production Tax Incentive
COE Example
1 MW TURBINE
FCR =
ICC =
LRC =
AOM =
AEP =
COE =
10% = 0.10
$1000/kW = $1,000,000
$5,500
$0.01/kWh
availability elevation
2,600,000
98%
1000 m
(0.1 * 1,000,000) + 10,000 + 0.01
2,700,000
COE = $0.051 / kWh
So, which is better
1. A location where the wind that blows
only 50% of the time at 10 m/s but is
calm the rest of the time
2. A location where the wind that blows
all of the time at 5 m/s
Bergey 1500 (manufacturers data)
1.8
1.6
1.4
Power (kW)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 23 24 25
Wind Speed (m/s)
2
2
Make the calculation
AEP = expected power * availability * time
Case 1: 10 m/s 50% of the time
AEP = 1.15 kW * 0.97 * (8760 *0.5)
= 4,886 kWh / year
Case 2: 5 m/s all of the time
AEP = 0.15 kW * 0.97 * (8760 * 1.0)
= 1,275 kWh / year
Further Information / References
Web Based:
American Wind Energy Association http://www.awea.org/
Wind Powering America
http://www.eere.energy.gov/windpoweringamerica/
Danish Wind Industry Association guided tour and information.
http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/
Publications:
Ackermann, T. (Eds), Wind Power in Power Systems, John Wiley and
Sons, west Sussex, England, p299-330 (2005).
Hunter, R., Elliot, G. (Eds), Wind-Diesel Systems. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Wind Energy Explained, J. F. Manwell, J. G. McGowan, A. L. Rogers
John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2002.
Paul Gipe, Wind Energy Basics: A Guide to Small and Micro Wind
Systems, Real Goods Solar Living Book.
AWS Scientific Inc. Wind Resource Assessment Handbook produced
by for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Subcontract number
TAT-5-15283-01, 1997
Thanks to:
Ken Starcher, Alternative Energy Institute, West Texas A&M University
