Network science

Network science is an interdisciplinary academic

eld which studies complex networks such as
telecommunication networks, computer networks,
biological networks, cognitive and semantic networks,
and social networks. The eld draws on theories and
methods including graph theory from mathematics,
statistical mechanics from physics, data mining and
information visualization from computer science,
inferential modeling from statistics, and social structure
from sociology. The United States National Research
Council denes network science as the study of
network representations of physical, biological, and
social phenomena leading to predictive models of these
phenomena.[1]

space of a tie occurring in a social network. An alternate

approach to network probability structures is the network
probability matrix, which models the probability of edges
occurring in a network, based on the historic presence or
absence of the edge in a sample of networks.
In 1998, David Krackhardt and Kathleen Carley introduced the idea of a meta-network with the PCANS
Model. They suggest that all organizations are structured along these three domains, Individuals, Tasks, and
Resources. Their paper introduced the concept that
networks occur across multiple domains and that they
are interrelated. This eld has grown into another subdiscipline of network science called dynamic network
analysis.
More recently other network science eorts have focused on mathematically describing dierent network
topologies. Duncan Watts reconciled empirical data on
networks with mathematical representation, describing
the small-world network. Albert-Lszl Barabsi and
Reka Albert developed the scale-free network which is
a loosely dened network topology that contains hub vertices with many connections, that grow in a way to maintain a constant ratio in the number of the connections versus all other nodes. Although many networks, such as the
internet, appear to maintain this aspect, other networks
have long tailed distributions of nodes that only approximate scale free ratios.

Background and history

The study of networks has emerged in diverse disciplines

as a means of analyzing complex relational data. The earliest known paper in this eld is the famous Seven Bridges
of Knigsberg written by Leonhard Euler in 1736. Eulers mathematical description of vertices and edges was
the foundation of graph theory, a branch of mathematics
that studies the properties of pairwise relations in a network structure. The eld of graph theory continued to
develop and found applications in chemistry (Sylvester,
1878).
In the 1930s Jacob Moreno, a psychologist in the Gestalt
tradition, arrived in the United States. He developed the
sociogram and presented it to the public in April 1933 at
a convention of medical scholars. Moreno claimed that
before the advent of sociometry no one knew what the
interpersonal structure of a group 'precisely' looked like
(Moreno, 1953). The sociogram was a representation of
the social structure of a group of elementary school students. The boys were friends of boys and the girls were
friends of girls with the exception of one boy who said
he liked a single girl. The feeling was not reciprocated.
This network representation of social structure was found
so intriguing that it was printed in The New York Times
(April 3, 1933, page 17). The sociogram has found many
applications and has grown into the eld of social network
analysis.

1.1 Department of Defense Initiatives

The U.S. military rst became interested in networkcentric warfare as an operational concept based on network science in 1996. John A. Parmentola, the U.S.
Army Director for Research and Laboratory Management, proposed to the Armys Board on Science and
Technology (BAST) on December 1, 2003 that Network
Science become a new Army research area. The BAST,
the Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences for
the National Research Council (NRC) of the National
Academies, serves as a convening authority for the discussion of science and technology issues of importance to
the Army and oversees independent Army-related studies
conducted by the National Academies. The BAST conducted a study to nd out whether identifying and funding a new eld of investigation in basic research, Network
Science, could help close the gap between what is needed
to realize Network-Centric Operations and the current
primitive state of fundamental knowledge of networks.

Probabilistic theory in network science developed as an

o-shoot of graph theory with Paul Erds and Alfrd
Rnyi's eight famous papers on random graphs. For social
networks the exponential random graph model or p* is
a notational framework used to represent the probability
1

As a result, the BAST issued the NRC study in 2005 titled Network Science (referenced above) that dened a
new eld of basic research in Network Science for the
Army. Based on the ndings and recommendations of
that study and the subsequent 2007 NRC report titled
Strategy for an Army Center for Network Science, Technology, and Experimentation, Army basic research resources were redirected to initiate a new basic research
program in Network Science. To build a new theoretical foundation for complex networks, some of the key
Network Science research eorts now ongoing in Army
laboratories address:

NETWORK PROPERTIES

2 Network properties
Often, networks have certain attributes that can be calculated to analyze the properties & characteristics of the
network. These network properties often dene network
models and can be used to analyze how certain models
contrast to each other. Many of the denitions for other
terms used in network science can be found in Glossary
of graph theory.

2.1 Density

Mathematical models of network behavior to predict The density D of a network is dened as a ratio of the
given
performance with network size, complexity, and en- number of edges E to the number
( ) of possible edges,2E
by the binomial coecient N2 , giving D = N (N
vironment
1) .
T
Another possible equation is D = N (N 1) . , whereas the
Optimized human performance required for ties T are unidirectional (Wasserman & Faust 1994).[2]
network-enabled warfare
This gives a better overview over the network density, because unidirectional relationships can be measured.
Networking within ecosystems and at the molecular
level in cells.
As initiated in 2004 by Frederick I. Moxley with support he solicited from David S. Alberts, the Department
of Defense helped to establish the rst Network Science
Center in conjunction with the U.S. Army at the United
States Military Academy (USMA). Under the tutelage of
Dr. Moxley and the faculty of the USMA, the rst interdisciplinary undergraduate courses in Network Science
were taught to cadets at West Point. In order to better instill the tenets of network science among its cadre of future leaders, the USMA has also instituted a ve-course
undergraduate minor in Network Science.

2.2 Size
The size of a network can refer to the number of nodes
N or, less commonly, the number of edges E which can
range from N 1 (a tree) to Emax (a complete graph).

2.3 Average degree

The degree k of a node is the number of edges connected

to it. Closely related to the density of a network is the
average degree, < k >= 2E
N . In the ER random graph
model, we can compute < k >= p(N 1) where p is
In 2006, the U.S. Army and the United Kingdom the probability of two nodes being connected.
(UK) formed the Network and Information Science
International Technology Alliance, a collaborative partnership among the Army Research Laboratory, UK Min2.4 Average path length
istry of Defense and a consortium of industries and universities in the U.S. and UK. The goal of the alliance is
Average path length is calculated by nding the shortest
to perform basic research in support of Network- Centric
path between all pairs of nodes, adding them up, and then
Operations across the needs of both nations.
dividing by the total number of pairs. This shows us,
In 2009, the U.S. Army formed the Network Science on average, the number of steps it takes to get from one
CTA, a collaborative research alliance among the Army member of the network to another.
Research Laboratory, CERDEC, and a consortium of
about 30 industrial R&D labs and universities in the U.S.
The goal of the alliance is to develop a deep understand- 2.5 Diameter of a network
ing of the underlying commonalities among intertwined
social/cognitive, information, and communications net- As another means of measuring network graphs, we can
works, and as a result improve our ability to analyze, pre- dene the diameter of a network as the longest of all the
dict, design, and inuence complex systems interweaving calculated shortest paths in a network. In other words,
many kinds of networks.
once the shortest path length from every node to all other
Subsequently, as a result of these eorts, the U.S. De- nodes is calculated, the diameter is the longest of all the
partment of Defense has sponsored numerous research calculated path lengths. The diameter is representative of
the linear size of a network.
projects that support Network Science.

2.6

Clustering coecient

example, considers a node highly important if it form

bridges between many other nodes. The eigenvalue cenThe clustering coecient is a measure of an all-my- trality, in contrast, considers a node highly important if
friends-know-each-other property. This is sometimes many other highly important nodes link to it. Hundreds
described as the friends of my friends are my friends. of such measures have been proposed in the literature.
More precisely, the clustering coecient of a node is
It is important to remember that centrality indices are
the ratio of existing links connecting a nodes neighbors
only accurate for identifying the most central nodes. The
to each other to the maximum possible number of such
measures are seldom, if ever, meaningful for the remainlinks. The clustering coecient for the entire network is
der of network nodes.[3] [4] Also, their indications are only
the average of the clustering coecients of all the nodes.
accurate within their assumed context for importance,
A high clustering coecient for a network is another inand tend to get it wrong for other contexts.[5] For examdication of a small world.
ple, imagine two separate communities whose only link is
The clustering coecient of the i 'th node is
an edge between the most junior member of each community. Since any transfer from one community to the
other must go over this link, the two junior members will
2ei
have high betweenness centrality. But, since they are juCi =
,
nior, (presumably) they have few connections to the imki (ki 1)
portant nodes in their community, meaning their eigenwhere ki is the number of neighbours of the i 'th node, value centrality would be quite low.
and ei is the number of connections between these neighbours. The maximum possible number of connections
between neighbors is, of course,

3 Network models

( )
k
k(k 1)
=
.
2
2

2.7

Connectedness

Network models serve as a foundation to understanding

interactions within empirical complex networks. Various
random graph generation models produce network structures that may be used in comparison to real-world complex networks.

The way in which a network is connected plays a large

part into how networks are analyzed and interpreted. Net- 3.1
works are classied in four dierent categories:

ErdsRnyi Random Graph model

Clique/Complete Graph: a completely connected

network, where all nodes are connected to every
other node. These networks are symmetric in that
all nodes have in-links and out-links from all others.
Giant Component: A single connected component This ErdsRnyi model is generated with N = 4 nodes. For each
edge in the complete graph formed by all N nodes, a random
which contains most of the nodes in the network.
number is generated and compared to a given probability. If the

Weakly Connected Component: A collection of random number is greater than p, an edge is formed on the model.
nodes in which there exists a path from any node
to any other, ignoring directionality of the edges.
The ErdsRnyi model, named for Paul Erds and
Alfrd Rnyi, is used for generating random graphs in
Strongly Connected Component: A collection of which edges are set between nodes with equal probabilinodes in which there exists a directed path from any ties. It can be used in the probabilistic method to prove
node to any other.
the existence of graphs satisfying various properties, or
to provide a rigorous denition of what it means for a
property to hold for almost all graphs.

2.8

Node centrality

To generate an ErdsRnyi model two parameters must

be specied: the number of nodes in the graph generated
as N and the probability that a link should be formed beCentrality indices produce rankings which seek to iden- tween any two nodes as p. A constant k may derived
tify the most important nodes in a network model. Dif- from these two components with the formula k = 2 E /
ferent centrality indices encode dierent contexts for N = p (N 1), where E is the expected number of edges.
the word importance. The betweenness centrality, for The ErdsRnyi model has several interesting characMain article: Centrality (graph theory)

teristics in comparison to other graphs. Because the

model is generated without bias to particular nodes, the
degree distribution is binomial in nature with regards to
the formula:

NETWORK ANALYSIS

attach to nodes with higher degrees. The network begins

with an initial network of m0 nodes. m0 2 and the degree of each node in the initial network should be at least
1, otherwise it will always remain disconnected from the
rest of the network.

(
)
n1 k
p (1 p)n1k
k

In the BA model, new nodes are added to the network

one at a time. Each new node is connected to m existing
nodes with a probability that is proportional to the number
Also as a result of this characteristic, the clustering co- of links that the existing nodes already have. Formally,
ecient tends to 0. The model tends to form a giant the probability pi that the new node is connected to node
component in situations where k > 1 in a process called i is[6]
percolation. The average path length is relatively short in
this model and tends to log N.
ki
pi =
,
j kj
P (deg(v) = k) =

3.2

Watts-Strogatz Small World model

where ki is the degree of node i. Heavily linked nodes

(hubs) tend to quickly accumulate even more links,
while nodes with only a few links are unlikely to be chosen as the destination for a new link. The new nodes have
a preference to attach themselves to the already heavily
linked nodes.
The Watts and Strogatz model uses the concept of rewiring to
achieve its structure. The model generator will iterate through
each edge in the original lattice structure. An edge may changed
its connected vertices according to a given rewiring probability.
< k >= 4 in this example.

The Watts and Strogatz model is a random graph generation model that produces graphs with small-world properties.
An initial lattice structure is used to generate a WattsStrogatz model. Each node in the network is initially
linked to its < k > closest neighbors. Another parameter
is specied as the rewiring probability. Each edge has a
probability p that it will be rewired to the graph as a ranThe degree distribution of the BA Model, which follows a power
dom edge. The expected number of rewired links in the law. In loglog scale the power law function is a straight line.[7]
model is pE = pN < k > /2 .
As the Watts-Strogatz model begins as non-random lattice structure, it has a very high clustering coecient
along with high average path length. Each rewire is likely
to create a shortcut between highly connected clusters.
As the rewiring probability increases, the clustering coecient decreases slower than the average path length.
In eect, this allows the average path length of the network to decrease signicantly with only slightly decreases
in clustering coecient. Higher values of p force more
rewired edges, which in eect makes the Watts-Strogatz
model a random network.

3.3

The degree distribution resulting from the BA model is

scale free, in particular, it is a power law of the form:
P (k) k 3

Hubs exhibit high betweenness centrality which allows

short paths to exist between nodes. As a result the BA
model tends to have very short average path lengths. The
clustering coecient of this model also tends to 0. While
the diameter, D, of many models including the Erds
Rnyi random graph model and several small world networks is proportional to log N, the BA model exhibits
BarabsiAlbert (BA) Preferential At- D~loglogN (ultr-small word).[8] Note that the average
path length scales with N as the diameter.
tachment model

The BarabsiAlbert model is a random network model

used to demonstrate a preferential attachment or a richget-richer eect. In this model, an edge is most likely to

4 Network analysis

4.4

4.1

Link analysis

Social network analysis

5
in the interactome.[13]

Social network analysis examines the structure of relationships between social entities.[9] These entities are of- 4.4 Link analysis
ten persons, but may also be groups, organizations, nation
Link analysis is a subset of network analysis, exploring
states, web sites, scholarly publications.
associations between objects. An example may be examSince the 1970s, the empirical study of networks has
ining the addresses of suspects and victims, the telephone
played a central role in social science, and many of the
numbers they have dialed and nancial transactions that
mathematical and statistical tools used for studying netthey have partaken in during a given timeframe, and the
[10]
works have been rst developed in sociology. Amongst
familial relationships between these subjects as a part of
many other applications, social network analysis has been
police investigation. Link analysis here provides the cruused to understand the diusion of innovations, news and
cial relationships and associations between very many obrumors. Similarly, it has been used to examine the spread
jects of dierent types that are not apparent from isolated
of both diseases and health-related behaviors. It has also
pieces of information. Computer-assisted or fully autobeen applied to the study of markets, where it has been
matic computer-based link analysis is increasingly emused to examine the role of trust in exchange relationployed by banks and insurance agencies in fraud detecships and of social mechanisms in setting prices. Simition, by telecommunication operators in telecommunicalarly, it has been used to study recruitment into political
tion network analysis, by medical sector in epidemiology
movements and social organizations. It has also been used
and pharmacology, in law enforcement investigations, by
to conceptualize scientic disagreements as well as acasearch engines for relevance rating (and conversely by
demic prestige. More recently, network analysis (and its
the spammers for spamdexing and by business owners for
close cousin trac analysis) has gained a signicant use in
search engine optimization), and everywhere else where
military intelligence, for uncovering insurgent networks
relationships between many objects have to be analyzed.
of both hierarchical and leaderless nature.[11][12]

4.2

Dynamic network analysis

Dynamic Network Analysis examines the shifting structure of relationships among dierent classes of entities in
complex socio-technical systems eects, and reects social stability and changes such as the emergence of new
groups, topics, and leaders. Dynamic Network Analysis
focuses on meta-networks composed of multiple types of
nodes (entities) and multiple types of links. These entities can be highly varied. Examples include people, organizations, topics, resources, tasks, events, locations, and
beliefs.

4.4.1 Network robustness

The structural robustness of networks[14] is studied using percolation theory. When a critical fraction of nodes
is removed the network becomes fragmented into small
clusters. This phenomenon is called percolation[15] and it
represents an order-disorder type of phase transition with
critical exponents.
4.4.2 Pandemic Analysis

The SIR Model is one of the most well known algorithms

Dynamic network techniques are particularly useful for on predicting the spread of global pandemics within an
assessing trends and changes in networks over time, iden- infectious population.
tication of emergent leaders, and examining the coevolution of people and ideas.
Susceptible to Infected S = (1/N )

4.3

Biological network analysis

With the recent explosion of publicly available high

throughput biological data, the analysis of molecular
networks has gained signicant interest. The type of
analysis in this content are closely related to social network analysis, but often focusing on local patterns in the
network. For example network motifs are small subgraphs that are over-represented in the network. Activity
motifs are similar over-represented patterns in the attributes of nodes and edges in the network that are over
represented given the network structure. The analysis
of biological networks has led to the development of
network medicine, which looks at the eect of diseases

The formula above describes the force of infection for

each susceptible unit in an infectious population, where
is equivalent to the transmission rate of said disease.
To track the change of those susceptible in an infectious
population:
S = S N1 t
Infected to Recovered I = It
Over time, the number of those infected uctuates by:
the specied rate of recovery, represented by but deducted to one over the average infectious period 1 , the
numbered of infecious individuals, I , and the change in
time, t .

SPREAD OF CONTENT IN NETWORKS

Infectious Period Whether a population will be overcome by a pandemic, with regards to the SIR model, is
dependent on the value of R0 or the average people infected by an infected individual.

ity measures are essential when a network analysis has

to answer questions such as: Which nodes in the network should be targeted to ensure that a message or information spreads to all or most nodes in the network?"
or conversely, Which nodes should be targeted to curtail

R0 = =
the spread of a disease?". Formally established measures
of centrality are degree centrality, closeness centrality,
betweenness centrality, eigenvector centrality, and katz
4.4.3 Web Link Analysis
centrality. The objective of network analysis generally
Several Web search ranking algorithms use link-based determines the type of centrality measure(s) to be used.
centrality metrics, including (in order of appearance)
Marchiori's Hyper Search, Google's PageRank, Klein Degree centrality of a node in a network is the
bergs HITS algorithm, the CheiRank and TrustRank alnumber of links (vertices) incident on the node.
gorithms. Link analysis is also conducted in information
Closeness centrality determines how close a
science and communication science in order to undernode is to other nodes in a network by measuring
stand and extract information from the structure of colthe sum of the shortest distances (geodesic paths)
lections of web pages. For example the analysis might be
between that node and all other nodes in the netof the interlinking between politicians web sites or blogs.
work.
PageRank PageRank works by randomly picking
nodes or websites and then with a certain probability,
randomly jumping to other nodes. By randomly jumping to these other nodes, it helps PageRank completely
traverse the network as some webpages exist on the periphery and would not as readily be assessed.

Betweenness centrality determines the relative importance of a node by measuring the amount of trafc owing through that node to other nodes in the
network. This is done by measuring the fraction of
paths connecting all pairs of nodes and containing
the node of interest.

Each node, xi , has a PageRank as dened by the sum of

pages j that link to i times one over the outlinks or outdegree of j times the importance or PageRank of j
.

(k)
xi = ji N1j xj

Eigenvector centrality is a more sophisticated version of degree centrality where the centrality of a
node not only depends on the number of links incident on the node but also the quality of those links.
This quality factor is determined by the eigenvectors
of the adjacency matrix of the network.

Random Jumping As explained above, PageRank enlists random jumps in attempts to assign PageRank to every website on the internet. These random jumps nd
websites that might not be found during the normal search
methodologies such as Breadth-First Search and DepthFirst Search.

Katz centrality of a node is measured by summing the geodesic paths between that node and all
(reachable) nodes in the network. These paths are
weighted, paths connecting the node with its immediate neighbors carry higher weights than those
which connect with nodes farther away from the immediate neighbors.

In an improvement over the aforementioned formula for

determining PageRank includes adding these random
jump components. Without the random jumps, some
pages would receive a PageRank of 0 which would not
be good.

5 Spread of content in networks

Content in a complex network can spread via two major

The rst is , or the probability that a random jump will methods: conserved spread and non-conserved spread.[16]
occur. Contrasting is the damping factor, or 1 .
In conserved spread, the total amount of content that

1 (k)
enters a complex network remains constant as it passes
R(p) = N + (1 ) ji Nj xj
through. The model of conserved spread can best be repAnother way of looking at it:
resented by a pitcher containing a xed amount of water

RB
Rn
being poured into a series of funnels connected by tubes
R(A) =
+
...
+
B(outlinks)
n(outlinks)
. Here, the pitcher represents the original source and the
water is the content being spread. The funnels and connecting tubing represent the nodes and the connections
4.5 Centrality measures
between nodes, respectively. As the water passes from
Information about the relative importance of nodes and one funnel into another, the water disappears instantly
edges in a graph can be obtained through centrality mea- from the funnel that was previously exposed to the water.
sures, widely used in disciplines like sociology. Central- In non-conserved spread, the amount of content changes

7
as it enters and passes through a complex network. The
model of non-conserved spread can best be represented
by a continuously running faucet running through a series
of funnels connected by tubes . Here, the amount of water
from the original source is innite Also, any funnels that
have been exposed to the water continue to experience
the water even as it passes into successive funnels. The
non-conserved model is the most suitable for explaining
the transmission of most infectious diseases.

5.1

The SIR Model

In 1927, W. O. Kermack and A. G. McKendrick created

a model in which they considered a xed population with
only three compartments, susceptible: S(t) , infected,
I(t) , and recovered, R(t) . The compartments used for
this model consist of three classes:

a susceptible is S/N . The number of new infections in

unit time per infective then is N (S/N ) , giving the rate
of new infections (or those leaving the susceptible category) as N (S/N )I = SI (Brauer & Castillo-Chavez,
2001). For the second and third equations, consider the
population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the
number entering the infected class. However, a number
equal to the fraction ( which represents the mean recovery rate, or 1/ the mean infective period) of infectives
are leaving this class per unit time to enter the removed
class. These processes which occur simultaneously are
referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted
idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups
concerned (Daley & Gani, 2005). Finally, it is assumed
that the rate of infection and recovery is much faster than
the time scale of births and deaths and therefore, these
factors are ignored in this model.

More can be read on this model on the Epidemic model

S(t) is used to represent the number of individuals
page.
not yet infected with the disease at time t, or those
susceptible to the disease
I(t) denotes the number of individuals who have 6 Interdependent networks
been infected with the disease and are capable of
spreading the disease to those in the susceptible cat- Main article: Interdependent networks
egory
R(t) is the compartment used for those individuals
who have been infected and then recovered from the
disease. Those in this category are not able to be
infected again or to transmit the infection to others.
The ow of this model may be considered as follows:

SIR
Using a xed population, N = S(t) + I(t) + R(t)
, Kermack and McKendrick derived the following
equations:

dS
= SI
dt
dI
= SI I
dt
dR
= I
dt
Several assumptions were made in the formulation of
these equations: First, an individual in the population
must be considered as having an equal probability as every other individual of contracting the disease with a rate
of , which is considered the contact or infection rate of
the disease. Therefore, an infected individual makes contact and is able to transmit the disease with N others per
unit time and the fraction of contacts by an infected with

An interdependent network is a system of coupled networks where nodes of one or more networks depend on
nodes in other networks. Such dependencies are enhanced by the developments in modern technology. Dependencies may lead to cascading failures between the
networks and a relatively small failure can lead to a catastrophic breakdown of the system. Blackouts are a fascinating demonstration of the important role played by the
dependencies between networks. A recent study developed a framework to study the cascading failures in an
interdependent networks system.[17][18]

7 Network optimization
Network problems that involve nding an optimal
way of doing something are studied under the name
of combinatorial optimization.
Examples include
network ow, shortest path problem, transport problem, transshipment problem, location problem, matching
problem, assignment problem, packing problem, routing
problem, Critical Path Analysis and PERT (Program
Evaluation & Review Technique).

8 Network science research centers

Duke Network Analysis Center[19]
IBMs Network
(NSRC)[20]

Science

Research

Center

11 FURTHER READING
Network Science Collaborative Technology Alliance (US Army Research Laboratory)[21]
Network Science and Technology (NEST) Center
(Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute)[22]
CEU Center for Network Science (Central European University , founded in 2009)
Center for Networks and Relational Analysis (University of California-Irvine)[23]
Interdisciplinary Center for Network Science
and Applications (iCeNSA) (University of Notre
Dame[24]
Technology Center for Networks & Pathways (Johns
Hopkins University[25]

Glossary of graph theory

Higher category theory
Immune network theory
Irregular warfare
Polytely
Systems theory
Service network
ErdsRnyi model
Random networks
Constructal law[29]

Yale Institute of Network Science (YINS)[26]

Percolation

Social Cognitive Networks Academic Research

Center at RPI (SNARC)[27]

Network theory in risk assessment

Network analysis and visualization tools

Network topology
Network analyzer
Network formation
Small-world networks

Graph-tool and NetworkX, free and ecient Python

modules for manipulation and statistical analysis of
networks.

Scale-free networks

igraph, an open source C library for the analysis of

large-scale complex networks, with interfaces to R,
Python and Ruby.

Sequential dynamical system

Orange, a free data mining software suite, module

orngNetwork

Structural cut-o

Pajek, program for (large) network analysis and visualization.

Tulip, a free data mining and visualization software
dedicated to the analysis and visualization of relational data.
SEMOSS, an RDF-based open source contextaware analytics tool written in Java leveraging the
SPARQL query language.
ORA, a tool for Dynamic Network Analysis and network visualization.[28]

10

See also

Collaborative innovation network

Communicative ecology
Complex network
Quantum complex network

Network dynamics

Climate as complex networks

11 Further reading
Network Science Center, http://www.dodccrp.
org/files/Network_Science_Center.asf
Connected:
The Power of Six Degrees,
http://ivl.slis.indiana.edu/km/movies/
2008-talas-connected.mov
Cohen, R.; Erez, K.; Havlin, S. (2000). Resilience
of the Internet to random breakdown. Phys. Rev.
Lett 85: 4626. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.85.4626.
Pu, Cun-Lai; Wen-; Pei, Jiang; Michaelson, Andrew (2012). Robustness analysis of network
controllability (PDF). Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 391 (18): 44204425.
doi:10.1016/j.physa.2012.04.019.
The Burgeoning Field of Network Science,
http://themilitaryengineer.com/index.
php/tme-articles/tme-past-articles/item/
160-leader-profile-the-burgeoning-field-of-network-science

9
S.N. Dorogovtsev and J.F.F. Mendes, Evolution of
Networks: From biological networks to the Internet
and WWW, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN
0-19-851590-1
Linked: The New Science of Networks, A.-L.
Barabsi (Perseus Publishing, Cambridge
Network Science, Committee on Network Science
for Future Army Applications, National Research
Council. 2005. The National Academies Press
(2005)ISBN 0-309-10026-7
Network Science Bulletin, USMA (2007) ISBN 9781-934808-00-9
The Structure and Dynamics of Networks Mark
Newman, Albert-Lszl Barabsi, & Duncan J.
Watts (The Princeton Press, 2006) ISBN 0-69111357-2
Dynamical processes on complex networks, Alain
Barrat, Marc Barthelemy, Alessandro Vespignani
(Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0521-87950-7
Network Science: Theory and Applications, Ted
G. Lewis (Wiley, March 11, 2009) ISBN 0-47033188-7
Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Theory of Networks, Mark Buchanan (W. W. Norton &
Company, June 2003) ISBN 0-393-32442-7
Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age, Duncan J. Watts (W. W. Norton & Company, February
17, 2004) ISBN 0-393-32542-3
netwiki Scientic wiki dedicated to network theory
New Network Theory International Conference on
'New Network Theory'
Network Workbench: A Large-Scale Network
Analysis, Modeling and Visualization Toolkit
Network analysis of computer networks
Network analysis of organizational networks
Network analysis of terrorist networks
Network analysis of a disease outbreak
Link Analysis: An Information Science Approach
(book)
Connected: The Power of Six Degrees (documentary)
Inuential Spreaders in Networks, M. Kitsak, L. K.
Gallos, S. Havlin, F. Liljeros, L. Muchnik, H. E.
Stanley, H.A. Makse, Nature Physics 6, 888 (2010)
A short course on complex networks
A course on complex network analysis by AlbertLszl Barabsi

12 External links
Network Science Center at the U.S. Military
Academy at West Point, NY
http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8114.html
http://www.cra.org/ccc/NSE.ppt.pdf
http://www.ifr.ac.uk/netsci08/
GNET Group of Complex Systems & Random
Networks
http://www.netsci09.net/
Cyberinfrastructure
Prof. Nicholas A Christakis introduction to network science in Prospect magazine
Video Lectures on complex networks by Prof.
Shlomo Havlin

13 Notes
[1] Committee on Network Science for Future Army Applications (2006). Network Science. National Research
Council. ISBN 0309653886.
[2] http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/prs/9/4/172/
[3] Lawyer, Glenn (2014). Understanding the spreading
power of all nodes in a network: a continuous-time perspective. arXiv. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
[4] Sikic, Mile; Lancic, Alen; Antulov-Fantulin, Nino; Stefancic, Hrvoje (October 2013). Epidemic centrality -is there an underestimated epidemic impact of network
peripheral nodes?". The European Physical Journal B 86
(10): 113. doi:10.1140/epjb/e2013-31025-5.
[5] Borgatti, Stephen P. (2005). Centrality and Network Flow. Social Networks (Elsevier) 27: 5571.
doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2004.11.008.
[6] R. Albert; A.-L. Barabsi (2002).
Statistical
mechanics of complex networks.
Reviews
of Modern Physics 74:
4797.
arXiv:condBibcode:2002RvMP...74...47A.
mat/0106096.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.47.
[7] Albert-Lszl Barabsi & Rka Albert (October
Emergence of scaling in random net1999).
works. Science 286 (5439): 509512. arXiv:condmat/9910332.
Bibcode:1999Sci...286..509B.
doi:10.1126/science.286.5439.509. PMID 10521342.
[8] R. Cohen, S. Havlin (2003). Scale-free networks
are ultrasmall. Phys. Rev. Lett 90 (5): 058701.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.058701. PMID 12633404.
|rst2= missing |last2= in Authors list (help)
[9] Wasserman, Stanley and Katherine Faust. 1994. Social
Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

10

[10] Newman, M.E.J. Networks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2010, ISBN 978-0199206650
[11] Toward a Complex Adaptive Intelligence Community
The Wiki and the Blog. D. Calvin Andrus. cia.gov. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
[12] Network analysis of terrorist networks
[13] Barabsi, A. L., Gulbahce, N., & Loscalzo, J. (2011).
Network medicine: a network-based approach to human
disease. Nature Reviews Genetics, 12(1), 56-68.
[14] R. Cohen, S. Havlin (2010). Complex Networks: Structure,
Robustness and Function. Cambridge University Press.
[15] A. Bunde, S. Havlin (1996). Fractals and Disordered Systems. Springer.
[16] Newman, M., Barabsi, A.-L., Watts, D.J. [eds.] (2006)
The Structure and Dynamics of Networks. Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press.
[17] S. V. Buldyrev, R. Parshani, G. Paul, H. E. Stanley,
S. Havlin (2010). Catastrophic cascade of failures in
interdependent networks. Nature 464 (7291): 1025
28. arXiv:0907.1182. Bibcode:2010Natur.464.1025B.
doi:10.1038/nature08932. PMID 20393559.
[18] Jianxi Gao, Sergey V. Buldyrev3, Shlomo Havlin4, and
H. Eugene Stanley (2011). Robustness of a Network
of Networks. Phys. Rev. Lett 107 (19): 195701.
arXiv:1010.5829.
Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107s5701G.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.195701.
PMID
22181627.
|rst2= missing |last2= in Authors list
(help); |rst3= missing |last3= in Authors list (help);
|rst4= missing |last4= in Authors list (help)
[19] https://dnac.ssri.duke.edu/about.php
[20] http://www-304.ibm.com/industries/publicsector/us/en/
rep/!!/xmlid=229952
[21] http://www.ns-cta.org/ns-cta-blog/
[22] http://www.nest.rpi.edu/
[23] http://lakshmi.calit2.uci.edu/cnra/
[24] http://www.icensa.com/
[25] http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/institute_basic_
biomedical_sciences/research_centers/high_
throughput_biology_hit/technology_center_networks_
pathways/
[26] http://yins.yale.edu/
[27] http://scnarc.rpi.edu/
[28] Kathleen M. Carley, 2014, ORA: A Toolkit for Dynamic
Network Analysis and Visualization, In Reda Alhajj and
Jon Rokne (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining, Springer.
[29] Bejan A., Lorente S., The Constructal Law of Design
and Evolution in Nature. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B, Biological Science, Vol. 365, 2010,
pp. 1335-1347.

13 NOTES

11

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Network science Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20science?oldid=639927918 Contributors: Edward, Michael Hardy,

Kku, IceKarma, RayBirks, D6, Giraedata, Mdd, Jrme, Oleg Alexandrov, Imersion, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Madcoverboy, SmackBot,
BullRangifer, Kvng, Mdanziger, Quaeler, Twas Now, Connection, CmdrObot, Sprhodes, Labongo, Douglas R. White, R'n'B, AgarwalSumeet, Skullers, Yecril, JohnDoe0007, Anna Lincoln, Iamthedeus, Jojalozzo, Antonio Lopez, ClueBot, Antipopxx, Sun Creator, Arjayay,
Addbot, JBsupreme, Skynet1, Download, Chicagoian, Smoke73, Netzwerkerin, NYNetwork, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2themoon, Jean.julius,
AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Materialscientist, GaborPete, Citation bot, Aquacool91, Quebec99, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Anna Frodesiak,
Crzer07, FrescoBot, Mentatseb, Sidna, Plan92bsure, Asaalt, Beteltreuse, Worldcontrol, Brentd25, John of Reading, Karayang, Mambonove, Djdjdjdjb, Traxs7, Sharkface1, Anselrill, Akseli.palen, Zdorovo, Pribs, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Gavin.perch, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Bibcode Bot, Whatsamattau, Jmcatania, BG19bot, Bereziny, 507WVS, Alchames, Ettypaldos, Admatkin2, Sharkbite3, 1hipster, Nrifel,
Carloseu, Mhbeals, LieutenantLatvia, Snoodlebug, Monkbot, Srijankedia, Sidharth10, Pcurley, Thebucketmanfromhades, GlennLawyer,
What4uknow, BenjaminDHorne, Shikang Liu, Edric Dayne, Puccio.b, Bhatia.u, Nicholasbarry, Datzr, BrunoCoutinho, BrunoGCoutinho
and Anonymous: 54

14.2

Images

File:Barabasi-albert_model_degree_distribution.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Barabasi-albert_

model_degree_distribution.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Created by the NetworkX module of the Python Original artist: Arpad Horvath
File:ER_model.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/ER_model.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jmcatania
File:Internet_map_1024.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg License: CC BY
2.5 Contributors: Originally from the English Wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: The Opte Project
File:Watts-Strogatz-rewire.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Watts-Strogatz-rewire.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jmcatania

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0