TRAINING COURSE ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY TESTING AND SAFETY - (RT-1) (VOLUME - 1) Compiled by GURSHARAN SINGH Isotope Division, BARC AND M.J. SUBRAMANYA Radiological Physics and Advisory Division, BARC RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS AND ADVISORY DIVISION BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE MUMBAI 400 085 1997poep yp > CONTENTS . Non-Destructive Testing Methods . Properties of Materials . Defects in Materials ). Material Defects and Failures in Service . X-ray Technology . Radiation Sources . Gamma Radiography Equipment . Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording . Lead and Fluorescent Screens . Work Parameters and Conditions . Evaluation of Radiographic Quality Defectology Selection of Radiography Techniques Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test Methods Advances in Radiography1A, NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS 1: INTRODUCTION "Non-destructive testing (NDT)' is testing materials without destroying them. The materials after inspection do not change in their size, shape, physical or chemical properties. There are six major NDT methods viz., visual and optical aids, radiography testing, ultrasonic testing, eddy current testing, magnetic particle testing and dye penetrant testing. These are regularly used by industry. Each of these methods, has its own flaw detection capability and therefore no method can replace other methods. These methods are discussed in brief. 2: TYPES OF NDT METHODS Commonly employed NDT methods can be broadly divided into two groups : i) Methods for detection of internal defects ii) Methods for inspection of surface/sub-surface defects 3: METHODS FOR INTERNAL FLAWS 3.1 : Radiographic Method Basic principle of radiographic testing is shown in figure 1.1. The radiation transmitted through a material, is recorded on an X-ray film. In this method, different types of radiations and films are used, depending upon the type of information required g Source vransmitted intensity ‘hrough the object cea trend of Fig. 1.1 : Principle of Radiography Testing.3.1.1: X and Gamma Radiography Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and assemblies. ‘The image of a material produced on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object. Industrial X-ray machines in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of metal thicknesses upto 7.5 cm steel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are used for higher thicknesses... Artificially produced radioisotopes, emitting gamma radiations, such as iridium-192 and cobalt-60 have many advantages over X-ray machines, Equipment used for gamma radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of steel equivalents. 3.2 : Ultrasonic Method Ultrasound waves are generated by piezo electric transducers which convert electrical energy to mechanical vibrations and vice-versa. ‘These waves are made to fall on the material to be tested. As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected, refracted, scattered or transmitted depending upon the structure of the material. Longitudinal waves Shear waves a. Pulsecho Method b, Transmission Method Fig. 1.2 : Ultrasonic Methods Most commonly used frequency range for industrial inspection is 0.5 - 25 mega hertz. Three important methods of ultrasonic testing are pulse-echo, transmission and resonance techniques. 3.2.1 ; Pulse-Echo Method ln this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted into the material to be tested. Ina homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back surface. In case of a defect, the original pulse reflects back from the defect location and returns to the transducer before the return of back surface echo pulse as shown in figure 1.2a. A single transducer can serve both as transmitter and receiver.3.2.2 : Transmission Method In this method, two separate transducers are used on either side of the material, one as transmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.2b) Variation in intensity across the transmitted beam indicates the soundness of the material. Attenuation of the sound beam is indicative of coarse grain structure of the material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size of the medium, scattering process predominates. Transmission method is less sensitive. 3.2.3 : Resonance Method ‘This method is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates or sheets and also in case of bonded materials. In this method, ultrasonic wave of continuously varying frequency is fed into the material. The frequency is varied till a standing wave is set up within the material, causing it to resonate at the fundamental frequency or multiples of it at a greater amplitude as shown in figure 1.3. ‘The resonance is sensed by an instrument. Change in resonant frequency is an indication of discontinuity. | KE] "4 Litt Fig. 1.3 : Principle of Resonance method. 4: METHODS FOR SURFACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS 4.1: Visual and Dye Penetrant Testing Methods Examination of cracks and other irregularities on the surface under visible light is the cheapest, simplest and quickest NDT method. However, all defects cannot be seen, by unaided eyes. ‘Therefore, techniques to increase the contrast of the discontinuity to make it visible, are used. Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to seep into the surface cracks to provide contrast against the background.4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing Rayleigh waves are ultrasonic shear waves propagated near the surface of a material. Waves of frequencies in the range of 1-10 MHz are used for detection of surface cracks and other defects. The technique is used, where access is limited. 4.3 : Magnetic Particle Testing This method is applicable only to materials which can be magnetised. The object is magnetised by applying high alternate or direct currents (A.C or D.C) and flow of magnetic powders is observed either in dry or wet process. Surface discontinuity, such as grinding cracks, forging laps and seams, etc. can be easily detected. In some cases, sub-surface defects about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed. COL Fig. 1.4 : Principle of Eddy Current Testing 4.4: Eddy Current Testing ‘The method employs alternating currents in the range (50-5000 kHz), and is useful for detection of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When a coil carrying alternating current is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in figure 1.4, eddy currents are induced on the surface layer, Strength of these eddy currents depends on a large number of surface variables.Depth of inspection depends upon type of material and frequency of the alternating current and it is about 1-10 mm. 5: LEAK TESTING Leak testing method is used to check fabricated components and systems, for nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, electronic valves, vacuum equipment, gas containers, etc, A leak is passage of 2 gas from one side of the wall of the container (o the other side, under pressure or concentration difference. It is measured as ec/sec. Depending upon the range of leak detection capability, a number of test methods are available. Some examples are; pressure drop/rise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia sensitised paper, with detection capabilities upto 10% cc/sec. Halogen diode sniffer, Helium mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities in the range 107 - 10" ce/see,1B. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION Selection of a material for a given job depends upon its physical and mechanical properties, Most structural materials are subject to external forces, which generate internal mechanical stresses. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its continued functioning. Hence, itis important for the NDT personnel to know the normal material properties, as well as effect of discontinuity upon the material serviceabil 2: TYPES OF PROPERTIES The application for which a material is used, determines which property is most important. 2.4: Chemical Properties Chemical properties (reaction with other materials) are of interest, mainly because of the need for resistance to corrosion 2.2 : Physical Properties Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures - eg., density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting point, ete. 2.3 : Mechanical Properties Mechanical properties of materials like strength, hardness, are most important in manufacturing processes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying loads. 2.3.1 : Tensile Strength A stress strain diagram is used to describe many of the mechanical properties important in the strength of a material. It shows the stress-strain behaviour of the material under gradually applied and increasing tensile stress. It indicates three regions : a. Elastic Region at Low Stresses - indicates that the longitudinal strain produced by stresses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress. Plastic Region at Medium Stresses : indicates that at a certain stress level an abrupt increase in strain occurs and the material is said to yield. c. Necking Region at High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate strength is reached, the material starts to neck into larger strains, until the material ruptures and breaks into two parts, Strains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic strain to rupture are referred to as “ductile”. Those which undergo little or no plastic strain, prior to rupture,are referred to as "brittle" 2.3.2 : Toughness and Notch-Toughness The toughness of a material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth round bar) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness of a material, is defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy in the presence of a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact load. 2.3.3 : Creep Creep is the flow of material over a period of time, when under a load too small to produce any measurable plastic deformation at the time of application. The simplest type of creep test is made by just hanging a weight on the test specimen and observing its elongation, as a function of time by using a microscope or other sensitive detector of strain. 2.3. : Fatigue Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material to withstand repeated applications of stress which in itself is too small to produce appreciable plastic deformation. Fatigue, usually is a more critical design criterion than any other, for the structural safety and reliability of machinery or structural components. 2.3: : Hardness ‘The hardness of a material is measured by hardness tester. ‘Three types of hardness test are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick and rough indication of the mechanical properties of a metal. ArH1C. DEFECTS IN MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION A discontinuity can occur any time in the history of a piece of metal. If it is introduced during the initial production from the molten state, it is termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused during further processing, fabrication or finishing, it is called processing discontinuity. Finally, if it arises during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or both, it is called service discontinuity. 2: CASTING DEFECTS Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. ‘The discontinuity that can occur during casting process are given below ; a. Non-metallic inclusions : Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, are caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-metallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape, b. Porosity : It is spherical or nearly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas in the molten material, c. Pipe : The moiten metal, after being poured into a mold, starts to cool and it solidifies, The solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot. On solidification, the molten metal contracts. Since the centre of the ingot is the last to cool and solidify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the centre. This results in a cavity called "PIPE". It may extend from the top towards the interior of the ingot along the axis. 4. Cold-shut : Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, it hits the mold too hard and spatters small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal reaches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures. ©. Hot tear (shrink crack) : Hot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having light and heavy sections, the light sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as they are hotter and do not shrink as fast. £, Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage of the solidifying metal, just as a "PIPE" is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in the cast product, unlike the “pipe” in the ingot, which always occurs oiily at the top portion of the ingot.8. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also occur in the casting at the mold gate, ie., at the entrance to the mold through which the molten metal is poured. Shrinkage occurs, if metal at the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath is still molten. Shrinkage which occurs at the gate appear as a number of small holes called “micro shrinkage". Micro shrinkage can also occur deeper within the metal, if the mold is improperly designed. h. Blow holes : Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mold itself. 3: FORGING DEFECTS Forging is the process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing, Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be cold forged. The defects that can occur during forging are given below: a. Forging lap : A forging lap is discontinuity caused by folding of metal into a thin plate on the surface of the forged material. It is due to the mismatching of the mating surfaces of the two forging dies in “closed-die forging” or abrupt changes in grain direction. It is always open to the surface. b. Forging bursts or cracks : It is a rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Forging a metal at too low a temperature can cause this defect. They may be internal or may occur at the surface. 4: WELDING DEFECTS Welding is the process of joining metals, Two basic types of welding are used, fusion welding and pressure welding, 4.1: Fusion welding I is essentially a casting process, in which a metal is melted and cast in the joint and is made to fuse with the parts to be.joined. The metal is supplied by filler rods, which are generally of composition similar to the metal being welded. There are cases in which no filler rod is used - for example, in thin sheet, where part of the sheets are melted to produce the filler metal. 4.2 ; Pressure welding In this process, pressure and heat are applied to the pieces to be welded. The pressure produces plastic deformations, the heat then produces recrystallization across the boundary, resulting in the formation of new crystals which are an integral part of both pieces and thus the welding takes place. All critical welds require NDT for assurance of quality or as a means to enable repairs.‘The possible defects (Fig. 1.5) that can occur in fusion weldments are listed below: 1 453 1. Overlap 2. Lack of Fusion 3. Undercut 4, Porosity 5. Crack 6. Slag Inclusion Fig. 1.5 : Typical Weld Defects 2. Overlaps : A fin of surplus metal on the end of a billet may be caught and folded into the surface during subsequent rolling. The bent-over metal, while forced tightly against the main stock, will not bond to it. ‘The resulting lap is a possible initiation point for a fatigue crack b. Crater cracks : Crater cracks are caused in the weld bead by improper use of heat source, ither when a weld is started or stopped. A crater crack can also occur at the temporary stop of the weld. Crater cracks are primarily of three types - transverse, longitudinal and multiple star-shaped. c. Stress cracks : These are cracking of weld metal and base metal in or near the weld zone and they are usually caused by high stresses set up by localised dimensional changes. Stress cracks are most likely to occur when weldments are of heavy sections. These cracks usually occur transverse to the weld in a single pass weld and longitudinal in a multiple pass weld. 4. Porosity : Porosity is the term for the gas pockets or voids free of any solid material that are frequently found in weld metals. Porosity can come from gases released by the cooling weld metal and from gases formed by chemical reactians in the weld metal. Porosity may be scattered uniformly throughout the entire weld, isolated in small areas or concentrated at the root. Gas pores are usually spherical in shape, although they may also occur as non-spherical pockets along grain boundaries. Most welds contain some amount of porosity which may be micro or macro in size. e. Slag inclusions : This term is used to describe the oxides and other non-metallic solid materials that are entrapped in the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. Slag inclusions may be caused by contamination of the weld metal by the atmosphere, but in most cases, they are generally derived from electrode covering materials or fluxes, employed in are welding operations. In multilayered welding operations, failure to remove the slag between passes will result in slag inclusions in these zones. Slag inclusions, are generally linear and may occur either as short particles or long bands, f. Tungsten inclusions : in the gas tungsten arc-welding process, the occasional touching of the electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal, particularly in manual operation, or excessive currents during arc welding may transfer particles of the tungsten into the weld 1.10metal. ‘These are calied ‘tungsten inclusions’ 8. Lack of fusion : Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion, as it is frequently termed, describes the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or interweld passes to fuse together completely. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at side wall or in the interpass region. Lack of fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either rounded or sharp edges depending on how it is formed. h, Lack of penetration : Lack of penetration is due to failure of weld metal to extend into the root of the joint. The most frequent cause for this type of defect is the unsuitable groove design for the selected welding process. i, Undereut : During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the weld preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant, at the edge of the weld bead. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation, etc.'D, MATERIAL DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN SERVICE 1: INTRODUCTION The response of metals to various stages of manufacture, construction or service life can vary widely depending upon chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical working, surface conditions, presence of discontinuity and other material characteristics 2: CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE Products and structures may be subjected to a number of service conditions, as mentioned below, which may result in discontinuity. . stationary load, dynamic load, unidirectional or multidirectional, multi-directional - more serious, high temperature, pressure creating stress above a material's elastic limit corrosive environment, vibrations, excess loading, . improper maintenance and ageing. rem mgaoge 3: TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE There are two generally accepted types of material failure in service: one is the easily recognized "FRACTURE! or separation into two or more parts; the second is the less easily recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION" or change of shape and/or position. 4: SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES 4.1; Corrosion Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding or contacting medium which may be liquid, gas or some combination of the two. This deterioration can be either uniform or localized. To some degree, corrosion can influence all metals, but the effect varies widely depending upon the combination of the metal and the corrosive agent. 4.2 : Fatigue Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called "FATIGUE FAILURES" Most service failures occur as a result of tensile stress.4.3; Wear Wear is probably the most important factor in the deterioration of machinery with moving components, often limiting both the life and the performance of such equipment. Wear is the Joss of material from the surface. Wear is affected by a variety of conditions, such as the type of lubrication, loading, speed, temperature, materials, surface finish and hardness. 4.4 : Overstress It may happen when a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its design load. When this happens, the component may undergo plastic deformation or fracture, to relieve the high stress within the part.2A, X-RAY TECHNOLOGY 1: INTRODUCTION X-rays were discovered by a German scientist, Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. Some of the properties of X-rays are given below. . X-rays are electromagnetic radiations, similar to visible light, with higher energy. ‘They can pass through matter and get absorbed/scattered in the process. . They can affect X-ray/photographic films. . They can excite and ionize atoms of the medium, through which they pass. . They can cause injury to biological systems. 2: X AND GAMMA RAYS X and gamma rays have similar properties. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus, whereas X-rays are generated outside the nucleus when high speed electrons interact with atoms, Gamma rays have definite, discrete energies, whereas, X-rays have continuous energies. The maximum energy of X-rays depends on the incident electron energy (Fig. 2.1) Characteristic H-rays i’ of Tungsten Applied Voltage = 200 KV ™~S o 30 100 150 200) Fhoton Energy (keV) Fig. 2.1 : Typical X-ray Spectra . 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of X-ray Equipment for Radiography a. Advantages 1. X-ray machines have higher radiation output (about 45 R/min at $0 om from a 200 kV, 1SmA X-ray unit, compared to 40 R/h at 50 cm from a 20 Ci iridium-192 source), enabling larger turnover of workload. 2. They have small focal spot size, which helps to obtain sharper images.3. Use of X-rays results in better image contrast, as X-rays have continuous spectrum. 4, X-ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when they are switched 'OFI b. Disadvantages 1, X-ray units are bulky, for use at intricate & inaccessible locations. 2. They require electric power for operation, 3. They require high capital investment. 3 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS X-rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material (target). ‘omic number of the target atom and with ran X-ray machine, less than one per cent of the ys and the remaining power appears as heat. If material may melt, X-ray produ increase in the incident electron ener electrical power supplied is converted this heat is not removed efficiently, ch ion Although X-ray intensity is different for di target maierial, the distribution of X-ray energies for all targets is similar, the maximum energy being the energy of the incident electrons. In an X-ray machine, if the potential difference between the filament and the target or the applied kilovoltage is 200 kV, then the energy of the electrons hitting the target is 200 keV and the maximum energy of the X-rays would be 200 keV. A typical X-ray spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.1. ‘The continuous X-ray spectrum will also contain one or more sharp peaks. ‘These peaks are of definite energies, dependent on the target element, hence are called characteristic X-rays. The quality of an X-ray beam can be described by its Half Value Thickness (HVT). The HVT is a function of the effective energy of the X-ray beam, which is approximately 1/3rd of the applied kilovoltage, It also depends upon the nature of the power supply and the added filtration. . Fig. 2.2 : Hooded Anode X-ray Tube.‘The essential requirements for the production of X-rays are a a source of electrons (heated tungsten filament), ». high voltage supply to accelerate the electrons, c. a target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to X-rays ‘The cross-section of a typical X-ray unit is shown in Fig, 2.2. The target is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm. When the electrons hit the target, much of the energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly removed. Copper, is used for the purpose of heat removal. Certain anodes are hollow in construction, so that primary coolants can be circulated through the same to remove the generated heat. Mineral oil is also sometimes used around the X-ray unit, to remove heat and serve as electrical insulator. ‘The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage, whereas, the intensity is decided by the current flowing through the filament (millamperage). Selection of the target material is based on the following properties: 1, The target material should have a high melting point. 2. It should possess a high atomic number. 3. It should possess high thermal conductivity (to dissipate the heat quickly). 4 It should have low vapour pressure at high temperatures (1 prevent evaporation of the target material and its deposition on the wails of the X-ray tube, as this would cause absorption of X-rays and disturbance in the insulation properties of the tube). ‘Tungsten, having an atomic number 74, and melting point 3400°C is the most preferred target material. X-ray tube is contained in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness. ‘The power ratings, viz., kilovoltage (kVp), tube. current (mA), besides the cooling pattern, decides the structure of an X-ray unit, 4: REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBE 1. An industrial X-ray tube must be capable of operating continuously for indefinite periods at maximum loading 2. Itshould be able to pass appreciable current over the lowest range of operating voltages. This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, which necessitate low voltage techniques, within reasonable exposure periods. 3. It should possess the smallest possible focal area. For maximum radiographic definition, a point source of radiation is one of the requirements. Modern X-ray tubes have very small focal areas.4. The design safety should include sufficient shielding material (say lead or equivalent steel) so that the leakage radiation level at every rating combination (KY, mA) does not exceed I R/h at | metre from the target. 5: SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBES Industrial radiography involves inspection of objects of various materials and in many shapes and sizes. For objects containing organic compounds, eg., food stuff, plastic insulating materials, etc., the required voltage is in the range of 50-100 kV. The examination of light ‘metal and steel castings, welds in pipelines, pressure vessels, ships and bridges and weapons of war, requires kilovoltage in the range 150 kV - 2 MV. Most frequently used voltage is between 150 kV and 400 kV. Portable X-ray units, in the voltage range 150 kV to 250 kV are used for field radiography. X-ray units of higher voltage are generally stationary ones, for use in enclosed installations. X-ray units can also be used as cabinet installations with incorporated lead shielding and safety interlocks (eg., the unit becomes operable, by actuation of certain microswitches, only when the object occupies a preset position in front of the beam port), 5.1: Fluoroscopy The fluoroscopy technique is used for continuous production line scanning of die castings, in food processing industry, etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray source, fluorescent screen (zinc cadmium sulphide) and leaded glass barrier. ‘The equipment is normally supplied in shielded enclosures. The object to be examined is placed in between X-ray beam and fluorescent screen. A shadow image is produced on the screen and it is viewed through television monitor system or by the use of image intensifiers. 5.2 : Fine Focus Tube The use of fluorescent screens, for examination of castings and assemblies at considerable magnification, is made possible by using a tube with a very fine focus of about 0.2 mm in diameter. The small size of the spot reduces geometric unsharpness and also produces image magnification. Electron beam Fig. 2.3 : Rod Anode System5.3 : Rod Anode Tube ‘The examination of confined spaces, like the pipes of a steam boiler or the cylinder heads of an internal combustion engine, has given rise to an X-ray equipment with the target at the end ofa long tube. The target and therefore, the whole anode is earthed, so that the source of radiation can be pushed into the cavities mentioned above. In X-ray units used for circumferential radiography, the target is placed at right angle to the tube axis and as a result, the radiation emerges all round in the form of a disc. For unidirectional beam, the target is at 45° inclination (Fig. 2.3). 5.4: Crawler X-ray Units ‘These units are useful for cross-country pipe line inspection, with automatic movement from Joint to joint and are becoming increasingly popular. The power input is obtained from diesel generators. 6: X-RAY GENERATOR CIRCUITS The power supply required for the operation of an X-ray tube are a, a low voltage, to heat the filament, b. ahigh voltage, to accelerate the electrons. ‘The filament of an X-ray tube is normally operated at 6-12 volts with 5-6 amps of current. ‘This is derived from the mains line using a step down transformer. The high voltage is usually obtained from a step-up transformer. To maintain the target at positive potential with respect to the filament, different types of rectification circuits are used, viz., half-wave rectification, full-wave rectification and constant potential units. There are various advantages of using a constant potential X-ray unit. It yields better X-ray output than that produced by a pulsating potential having the same peak kilovoltages. It gives 2 more penetrating beam, as required in industrial radiography. 7: LINEAR ACCELERATOR To obtain high energy X-rays in the MeV range, for inspection of very thick objects, linear accelerators are used. In these, the X-ray intensity can be of the order of few hundred Roentgen per minute at one metre.2B. RADIATION SOURCES Radioisotopes are broadly classified as J. maturally occurring and 2. artificially made. Potassium-40, uranium-238 and its daughter products are some of the naturally occurring radioisotopes. Of these naturally occurring radioisotopes, radium-226(encapsulated) was used carlier in industrial radiography. Radioisotopes, presently used in industrial radiography viz. cobalt-60, iridium-192, thulium-170, are artificially produced. 2: PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES. There are three methods of producing artificial radioisotopes; by, a. activating elements with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, b. processing fission products fcom spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor, ©. bombarding elements with charged partictes from particle accelerators. 2.1: Production by Activation Process When a target element is bombarded with neutrons in a reactor, activation may occur mainly by one of the following processes depending on the energy of the neutrons. 59 & (a-ryreaction = eg. 5-Co (n,2) Sco b. (np)reaction : eg. sco (np) Sire 27, 24, AI (nya) Na ©. (nya)reacti . (nayreaction : eg. 1 Iridium-192 is also obtained by a process similar to *a', by bombardment of neutrons. When a target containing *m' gram of the element of interest is exposed to a neutron flux of *$' nlem*sec. the activity induced in the target (S,) is given by the relation 6X mx eX “ S= aerate [1-299 ] Bg Where, _S, is activity in becquerels (Bq) tis time of irradiation T is half-life of radioisotope produced (¢ & T are in same units) «@ is cross section in barns (10 cm?) for the reaction A is mass number of the target elementFor production of iridium-192, cobalt-60 and thulium-170 radiography sources, thin metal discs of purity better than 99.9 per cent are used as targets 2.2 : Production by Nuclear Fission Caesium-137, used sometimes in industrial radiography is produced by nuclear fission. Ina nuclear reactor, uranium atom splits (undergoes fission) into two different elements with the release of neutrons and enormous amount of energy, Caesium-137 and strontium-90, two radioisotopes, commonly used both in industrial and medical applications, are produced by this method. Caesium-137, because of its chemical form, is now discouraged for use in industrial radiography. 3: SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have suitable radiation energies, higher radiation output, reasonably long half-life and possibility of economic production at high specific activities. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are two commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography. Table 2.1 gives the characteristics of these (wo radioisotopes. TABLE 2.1 : CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES Source Half-life Production Gamma Radiation Useful Process Energy Output Range of (MeV) —R/M/Ci_— Thickness atl metre in Stee! (mm) 192, 191 0.296 to Thad 1) A 10- 60 al EOD ggg 0-88 60 59 LI7& CK 7 1 50-200 37? S39 7087) yg 3 3.4 : Specific Acti ity The specific activity of a radioisotope is measured in gigabequerels per gram (GBq/g) or curies per gram (Ci/g). A high specific activity indicates that a radioisotope of given activity will be of smaller mass, In industrial radiography, to obtain a sharper image, the size of the source should also be small. This is achieved by a source of higher physical density. Iridium-192,with a physical density 22.4 g/ec and half life 74.5 days, is a very good source for industrial radiography. 4: FABRICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES Fabrication of a sealed radioisotopes involves sealing of the active material in an inactive capsule, resistant enough to withstand, under normal conditions of use, dispersion of active ‘materials. Generally, stainless steel is used as the encapsulation material. Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT), Mumbai-400 094, fabricates and supplies cobalt-60 and iridium-192 radiography sources for use in a variety of equipment and in a range of activity values. Although there are differences in shapes and sizes of source assemblies, the inner source capsule, loaded in these, are similar in shape and dimensions. It is a stainless steel capsule with dimensions: 8mm length, 4.5mm diameter. Each iridium-192 pellet is of dimension 2.5mm diameter and 0.3mm thickness. The number of pellets in a capsule depends on the activity required. A 1000 GBq capsule may have four or five such pellets.TABLE 2.2 : DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60 SOURCE (Balf-life : 5.27 years) Months-> 00 02 04 06 08 10 Years 00 - 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 01 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78 02 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.69 03 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 04 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53, 05 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 06 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 o7 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 08, 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31 09 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 10 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.24 TABLE 2.3 : DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192 SOURCE (Half-life : 74.5 days) Days 0 5S 0 15 20 2 30 35 40 45 000 - 0.95 0,91 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 050 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52. 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 100 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26 150 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 200 OAS 0.15 0.14 O13 0.13 0.12 O12 O11 O11 0.102C. GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT 1: INTRODUCTION Gamma radiography equipment or camera consists of the following : 1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container for the gamma source during its storage and it has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation beam, when needed, 2. An “Exposure Mechanism’, built in the source housing or separately attachable and 3. Accessories such as source manipulators, teleflex cable and gear drive system, flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel, source position indicators, radiation beam collimators, source changers (for transport), etc. Design and development of radiography equipment has special importance in the programme of NDT inspection, 2: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE DEVICES ‘The design and test criteria for radiographic exposure devices are based upon both use and transport considerations, as these devices are also used as transport packages. Size, shape and weight of a radiography camera is dependent upon the types of exposure mechanism, the activity of the radioisotope and also on the shielding material used. ‘The heart of the gamma radiography exposure device is source assembly with its housing. The design and fabrication criteria to be considered are shielding material exposure mechanism source assembly safety interlocks control unit accessories feasibility and reliability easy maintenance and source replenishment installation transportation Repe Per ays 5 In general, the exposure devices can be broadly classified on the basis of their weight. a) Manually handled (light) - upto S0kg (Class P) (Portable) b) Trolley mounted (medium) - 50-500kg (Class M) (Mobile) ©) Fixed (Inhouse) (Heavy) - Over 500 kg (Class F) (Fixed) ‘Trolley and manually handled units can be moved at the site for exposures. Classifications given in brackets are as per ISO 3999.Dn, i ll 1. Main body 2. Source 3. Source assembly 4, Shutter 5. Teleflex cable 6. Driving unit Fig. 2.5 : Source Exposure Methods. a) Source held in the housing and the shutter is displaced to expose the source (Fig. 2.52). It could be used only in portable cameras because of practical limitations on size and weight of the shutter. (no longer in use in India) irical drum which is rotated to expose the source (Fig. 2.5b). ) Source held on a cylint n beam. It provides wide radia c) Source enclosed in a rigid source holder which is moved through a small distance for «giving the exposure (Fig. 2.5c). This type is used generally for sources with more penetrating radiation such as cobalt-60, of higher activity, and for use in permanent exposure rooms. d) Source assembly attached to the tip of a flexible cable and driven out of the source housing for panoramic exposure (Fig. 2.5d)3: DESIGN ‘The important points to be considered, while designing a radiography camera are ; type of source assembly, . shielding material, . source exposure mechanism, . incorporation of safety devices, . feasibility of fabrication, easy maintenance and source replenishment, installation and transportation. PN AWELKE 3.1 : Source Assembly ‘The radiation source in a radiography camera is always housed in a secondary container called “source assembly’. ‘The source assembly can be of two types, rigid or flexible. Rigid source holder is preferred for source housings shown in fig. 2.5a to 2.5c, Flexible source assembly is used, when the source is required to travel large distance to and from the source housing, through bends and at different planes. (Fig 2.6) e Tridium-192 Source capsule pellet ROLI-1 source assembly Cee: peer nS Techops-660 source assembly A ‘eletron source assembly : Fig. 2.6 : Source Assemblies 3.2 : Shielding Material As stated earlier, size and weight of a source housing is decided by the shielding material and its thickness. Properties of different shielding materials are given Table 2.4.TABLE 2.4: PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHY SHIELDING MATERIALS Material Lead Heavy Alloy 1. Atomic number 82 88% tungsten (Z: 92 Beka C. 2. Density in gram/ec 13 18.9 19.07 3. Melting point (°C) 327 3420 1132 5. Half value layer Cobalt-60 (mm) 12.45 7.65 6.88 Iridium-192 (mm) 4.8 32 2.71 Lead is a commonly used shielding material, as itis cheaper, easily available and can be made in any desired shape, But, it needs a metal lining to hold it, as it is a soft material. Heavy alloy and uranium are best suited for shielding to produce compact and light weight cameras. However, fabrication of source housings with these materials requires special techniques. 3.3 Source Exposure : Directional exposures with collimated beam with source fixed in the source housing are best from the radiation safety stand point. However, such exposures greatly restrict the flexibility of operation, Therefore, most of the modern units are designed for panoramic exposure with provisions to attach collimators (Fig. 2.7) for directional exposures. Yi = iy YY yyy Wd Ns For circumferential exposure For unidirectional exposure SI Iding thickness should be more than 1 TVL, Fig. 2.7 : CollimatorsPanoramic exposures are made by moving the source assembly out of the source housing, using remote driving devices, operated by pneumatic, electrical or mechanical systems, With flexible source assembly, only mechanical systems using teleflex cable are favoured. 3.4 : Safety Devices All radiography equipment should be provided with safety devices such as interlocks, source couplings source holder locking, immobilizing device for the source, etc. In-house ft are planned with more elaborate safety devices, such as door interlocks, audio-visual signals, search operations in exposure areas, and other fool-proof safety features. In addition, radiation monitoring instruments should also be incorporated in the design. 3.5 : Fabrication Design of the unit should be done keeping in mind the limitations during the fabrication of components, These components are evaluated for soundness and reliability to ensure fool- proof performance over the designed life of the equipment. 3.6 : Maintenance ‘The equipment should be designed in such a way that minimum maintenance is required during its service and defective part is easily replaceable. 3.7 : Transportation ‘The design of the camera, when loaded with source should meet the prescribed transport regulations. 3.8 : Installation Installation of units with kilocurie activity needs special gadgets. These gadgets should be designed in conjunction with the unit to be installed. TABLE 2.5 : PERMISSIBLE LEAKAGE LEVEL AROUND RADIOGRAPHY CAMERAS: ‘Maximum exposure rate mGy/h (mR/h) Class Onexternal. ~—-SOmm from Im from surface of external surface external surface container of container of container Portable 2.0(200) or 0.5 ( 50) 0.02 @) Mobile 2.0 (200) or 1.0 (100) 0.05 (5) Fixed 2.0(200) or 1.0 (100) 0.10 (10)4: QUALITY CONTROL DURING PRODUCTION All radiography cameras are required to be subjected to strict quality control examination to confirm the integrity of mechanical parts and also to ensure that radiation leakage levels are below the permissible limits. ‘The existing permissible radiation leakage levels on the source housings in 'off' position are given in the table 2.5. Prototype units with remote control system are specially tested for operational reliability under simulated conditions to assess the life of components and associated acessories. 5 : EQUIPMENT IN USE IN INDIA Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources together can cover an inspection range of thickness 10-200 mm, steel equivalent. Thus, efforts for equipment development have been mainly directed towards these sources. Many equipment are commercially available, with these sources, shielded either with lead, heavy alloy or depleted uranium 1. Portable Teletron SU-100/50 Gammamat TI/TI-F/S-301 Amertest-660 Century SA Spec-2T Gammarid 2. Mobile ROLI-1 Gammamat-M (Crawler) CRC2A Gammamat TK 10 IRCX-150 GR-50 3, Fixed CBC 5000 Gammamat TK 100/600 Amertest 520 Gas Prom Some of these equipment are discussed below. 5.1: Lead shielded, low cost equipment S.A.1 : Iridium-192 Units ROLI-1 is 2 remote operated lead shielded camera designed for 35 Ci iridium-192 source (Fig. 2.8). It has "S" conduit to house a flexible source assembly. 5.1.2 : Cobalt-60 Units Radiography camera with a capacity of 10 Ci designed for panoramic exposure is shown infigure 2.9. ‘The spherical source housing, is mounted on a rugged trolley for ease of maneuver. The unit enables source movement in a rigid guide tube for panoramic exposure. Radiation beam can be restricted for directional exposures using a collimator, which can be fixed to the source housing. 5.2: Light Weight, High Activity Equipment ‘These have either depleted uranium or heavy alloy material for shielding. Fabrication of these source housings is not as easy as lead source housings. ‘The cost of the material is also very high. Some of the imported radiography equipment approved in India are shown in figures 2.10 to 2.14. 6: TYPE APPROVAL OF GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT ‘The built-in safety of gamma radiography equipment, both from radiation and operational point of view, is very essential because majority of the radiography work is carried out in workshop areas and construction sites which call for a strong and rugged equipment. As per the present safety requirements, in addition to shielding adequacy, all models of radiography equipment must be so designed, as to withstand various mechanical and operational tests, such as drop test, fire test, vibration test, shock test, water immersion test and endurance test, as per the specifications laid down by International Standards Organisation (ISO 3999). Only those equipment which conform to all the provisions of ISO 3999 are type approved and permitted to be used for industrial radiography work.1. Source assembly 2, Source 3, Lead Shield 4, Locking system 5. Secondary container Portable/mobile camera Flexible source assembly Flexible guide tube 'S' conduit Ball & socket coupling Fig, 2.8 : ROLI- Camera 2, Source assembly 3, Rotating shutter 4, Lead shield 5, Shutter handle 6. Shutter arrestor plug 7. Shipping cap 8, Front side cover 9. Rear side cover Fig. 2.9. CRC-2 Camera- Shield . Source A i . Source assembly Portable camera Rigid source assembly (cungsten) Key lock for shutter Shutter opening handle Spring lock for shutter 8. Shielding plug a 1 2 3 1 4, Source assembly catch 5. 6 1. Depleted uranium shield Ball & socket coupling Straight conduit Fig. 2.10 : Teletron/Gammavolt Camera UL Zi Hi/ 2 a 1. Source 2. Lock 3. Source assembly 4. Stopper 5. Shield Portable camera 'S' conduit Ball & socket coupling Depleted uranium shield Flexible guide tube Flexible source assembly Fig. 2.11 : TechOps/Amertest Camera 2.192B 4 5 x 1. Source capsule 4, Source assembly 2, Safety plug 5. Plunger type lock 3. Depleted uranium shield Fig. 2.12 : SPEC - 2T Camera, Yj lilaay YY 1. Source assembly Ls Ue 2. Source aS 3. Shield 4, Shutter 3 Portable camera Depleted uranium shield exible pencil Straight conduit Flexible guide tube Ball & socket coupling Fig. 2.13 : Gammamat CameraWY iy Wy yy i, Shutter plug in a hollow shuttle 2, Shutter arrestor 3. Shutter shuttle receptor 4. Source capsule 5. Source holder 6. Shield 7, Lock Fig. 2.14 : Gammarid - 192 Camera.3A. PHOTOGRAPHIC AND Nt RECORDING 1: INTRODUCTION ‘The type of X-ray film used in radiography, plays an important role in the detection of flaws. It is therefore, important to have detailed knowledge about structure and properties of films. 2: STRUCTURE OF X-RAY FILM Figure 3.1 shows cross-section of a typical X-ray film. It consists of base, emulsion, binding layer and protective layer Protective layer (1x) Emulsion (10 - 154) Polyester Base (1754) Emulsion (10 - 15) Protective layer (14) Fig. 3.1: Cross Section of an X-ray Film 2.1: Film Base Polyester is the most commonly used material for film base. 2.2: Emulsion Silver bromide (AgBr) mixed with gelatine is used as film emulsion. 2.3 : Binding layer This layer acts as binder between film base and emulsion. 2.4 : Protective layer ‘The protective layer consists only gelatine, It serves to protect the lower layers from physical damage, abrasion and stress marks.3: CHARACTERISTICS OF FILMS 3.1: Film Density X-ray film on exposure to radiation and processing produces black deposits of silver. This blackening of the film is called optical density (D) and is given by the expression, = L D = Log, L Where L, = Intensity of incident light L; = Intensity of transmitted light Optical density is measured with an instrument called *Densitometer’. ‘The factors which control the optical density are ; type of film . energy of radiation amount of exposure and processing conditions Density, t 34 al 8B @- Fast Film B- Slow Film 2 if LZ aT > 0 2 a i 2 3 Log relative exposure — Fig. 3.2 : Characteristic Curves of X-ray Films 3.2 : Characteristic Curve If a number of different exposures are given to various areas of an X-ray film and densities obtained at these areas after processing are plotted as a function of Log,» (exposure), theresulting curve is called ~Characteristic Curve’ of the film (Fig. 3.2). A characteristic curve gives information on : a. speed of film and b, film contrast 3.2.1 Speed Speed is defined as the density recorded on a film due to a given radiation exposure. It is measured in terms of inverse of exposure required to produce a radiograph of a particular density, under given conditions. Keeping other factors constant, a film which requires less exposure is faster. Figure 3.2 shows characteristics of two industrial X-ray films in which film A is faster than film B, TABLE 3.1 : FILM FACTORS OF SOME COMMON FILMS Source ‘Type of Film Film Factor | Source ‘Type of Film Film Factor with Double with Double Lead Screen Lead Screen Iridium-192 Agfa D-2 9.5R Cobalt-60 Agfa D-2 19.6R D-4 4.0R D4 8.0R D7 12R D7 25R NDP - 55 3.8R NDT - 55 TSR NDT - 65 14R NDT - 65 3.0R NDT - 70 10R NDT - 70 2.0R ‘The amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on a film to produce a given film density (usually 2.0) under specified conditions of processing is called “film factor’. A film ith lower film factor is faster than the one with a higher value. Film factor depends on energy of radiation, Film factor values for a few commonly used films are given in Table 3.1. 3.2.2 Contrast Film contrast or gradient is defined as the change in density recorded on a film for 2 given change in radiation intensity. ‘The slope of the characteristic curve at a given density is the measure of the gradient of the film, Gy, at that density, G. D,-D, ©" Tog E, - Log E,‘The gradient of a film depends on the size of its crystals, _ Gradient of industrial X-ray films oes on increasing with optical density, as shown in figure 3.3. It is practically independent of the radiation energy. In general, compared to coarse grain film fine grain films have lower speeds, but, higher gradient at a given density. 8 a 1 z ts va Film Speed Gradient H>YZ Y 4 @ # a o 1 2 3 4 Density —> Fig. 3.3. Gradient Versus Density 3.3 ; Effect of radiation energy ‘There is very little effect on the shape of the characteristic curve due to energy of radiation. However, the film speed depends on radiation energy, as cin be seen in table 3.1. 3.4 : Various Types of Films The films can be divided into three groups on the basis of radiography requirements. 1, Films for use with fluorescent screens, also known as salt screen films. 2. Films for use with metal screens or without screens (also called “direct films'). This group covers a large range of industrial X-ray films. The films are classified depending upon the grain size of the films; Class-1 - Highest contrast, lowest speed film Class - 11 = High contrast, low speed film Class - IIT - Medium contrast, medium speed film Class - IV = Lowest contrast, highest speed film 3. Films used for special purposes, e,g, single emulsion films.3B. LEAD AND FLUORESCENT SCREENS 1. INTRODUCTION When an object is radiographed without using screens, there are two disturbing factors. 1. The absorption of primary radiation (transmitted through the object), in film is low. This results in longer exposure time. 2. The absorption of low energy scattered radiation (scattered by the object), in film is relatively more, This reduces the image quality. Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs, radiography screens are used. 2: TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY SCREENS ‘There are two types of radiography screens, commonly used in industrial radiography practice : metallic foil screens and fluorescent screens. ‘These screens differ in their basic characteristics e.g, speed, contrast and elimination of scattered radiation, 3: METALLIC FOIL SCREENS Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The X-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of lead screens, as shown in figure 3.4. Radiation transmitted — from object SELL LING |— Card board / plastic SN |— Lead screen (front) SS. it g |— Lead screen (backy eee ee Card board / plastic IZ NIDA SAN pactscatred radiation Fig. 3.4: -ray Film Sandwiched Between a Pair of Lead Intensifying Screens.3.1 : Reduction of scattered radiation Attenuation of incident radiation in the object results in production of low energy scattered radiation and this falls on the film, along with the transmitted primary radiation. As high atomic number elements have more absorption capacity for low energy radiations, if a metal foil of high atomic number is placed between object and film, it will absorb most of the low energy radiation, before it falls on the film. Hence, effect of the low energy, scattered radiation will be reduced. This metallic foil will serve additional purpose of intensification action also. Similarly, to reduce low energy back scattered radiation (obtained due to back scattering of the primary radiation, from objects placed behind the specimen to be radiographed), a metal sheet of high atomic number is placed behind the film. Hence, a double coated X-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of metallic foil screens to reduce the effect of scattered radiation on the film, thus resulting in an improved definition of radiograph. 3.2: Intensifying Action Intensifying action of a radiography screen is expressed in terms of Intensification Factor (IF) which is defined as Exposure time required to produce a certain pa it density without sereen Exposure time required to produce same density with screen In this definition, it is assumed that same film and radiation source are used for both the exposures. “IF' due to double lead screen exposure with iridium-192 source is about 4.5. Intensification action occurs due to the photoelectrons, emitted as a result of interaction of X or gamma rays with the material. Intensification factor due to metallic screens depends on : a, foil element, b. thickness of foil, c. energy of radiation, and 4. specimen thickness. 4: FLUORESCENT SCREENS: ‘These are also called “Salt Screens’. These screens consist of a card board or plastic material on which certain inorganic crystalline substances are coated on one side. ‘They glow giving light when radiation is incident on them. Since a photographic film is more sensitive to light than to X/r rays, it enhances the sensitivity of the film. A material which has its light emission in blue or ultraviolet region, is used for this purpose, since the film is highly sensitive to blue light. The most commonly used material for this purpose is calcium tungstate. These screens are used in pairs, so that a double coated X-ray film can be sand-witched between them ‘as shown in figure 3.5.Each crystal in salt screen emits light. This light diverges in all directions and gives image unsharpness. Intensification factor (IF) due to salt screens depends upon a. density of radiograph, b. thickness of screen, c. coating material and 4. energy of radiation In gamma radiography, the intensification factors with salt screens, are not very much greater than that obtained with lead screens. Secondly, these screens give poor quality image. Hence, these screens are not much used in industrial radiography, Li iti | E ae os Ae a RE a i =X or gamma rays Rat ae Co ca a |-Card board / plastic Sa |-Salt (CaWO,) screen ~ Film {- Salt (CaWO,) screen rat m1 Ta i ie at x ae a at oT ec TEE car toate Fig. 3.5 : X-ray Film sandwiched between a pair of salt intensifying screens44. WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS 1: INTRODUCTION In radiography, work parameters and conditions play an equally important role as the applied radiography techniques. The handling of X-ray films before and after exposure and film processing are important in this respect. 2: HANDLING OF FILMS X-ray films should be handled carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure creasing, buckling and friction on it. The normal pressure applied on a cassette to provide good contact with the object does not damage the films. Whenever the films are loaded in flexible cassettes and external clamping devices are used, it should be seen that pressure is applied uniformly. Localized pressure on film can produce artifacts in the radiograph 2.1: Loading and Unloading Films Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marks. Precaution should be taken to avoid handling films in a manner which would cause friction and give confusing black marks on the radiograph, 2.2: Expiry Date ‘The expiry date on a film pack means that the film should be used before the given date. Expiry dates of the films depend on the storage conditions 3: FILM STORAGE 3.1: Protection from Gamma and X-rays X-ray film should be protected from X-rays and gamma rays to avoid fogging. 3.2 : Chemical and Physical Hazards Film should not be kept in a chemical storage room or in any location, where there is leakage of gas. Chemical vapours, high humidity and temperatures also contribute to film fogging. Film should be stored in as cool a place as possible, and in tropical regions, temperatures control in the store room is recommended. Films may be stored for long periods ina refrigerator, 4: FILM PROCESSING After exposure to radiation, a latent image of the object is formed in the X-ray film. Film processing converts this invisible image to a visible and permanent image. There are five main stages involved in film processing.1, Development : creation of the visible image. 2, Stop bath: removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing action. 2, Fixation: removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide and making image permanent. 3. Washing removal of unwanted fixation products. 4, Drying. : removal of unwanted water. 5: LATENT IMAGE FORMATION On exposure to X or gamme radiation, silver bromide in the film is converted to metallic sil 6: EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT ‘The function of developer solution is to reduce only exposed grains of silver bromide into additional metallic siiver and leave unexposed, unaffected grains. ‘The rate of development of, exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rate of unexposed crystals. Mechanism of the reaction is Agtte ——> Ag The electron for the reaction is donated by developer solution. 6.4 : Developers in Use ‘There are two distinct types of developers. . i. Solid pack, containing two separate bags of chemicals which have to be dissolved in correct quantity of water before use. 6.1.1 1 Commercial Developers Some of the commerciaily available developers for manual processing of X-ray films are given in Table 4,1, 6.1.2 : Use of Developers Idea! developing temperature is 20° C and duration of 5 minutes. To avoid faults during developing, it should be properly agitated during developing.TABLE 4.1 Make ‘Trade Name Size of the pack to make (in litres of working solution Kodak Indian DA-19b 2.25 Photographic Co developer 450 9.00 13.50 22.50 Agfa-Gaevert G-230 2.25 developer 450 9.00 13.50 22.50 May & Baker Solidex X-ray 2.50 Developer 450 9.00 13.50 22:50 7: STOP BATH After developing, the image comes into existence and remaining processes makes it permanent and enable to be viewed. If no action is taken, the developer will continue to work producing enhanced density, fog or irregular developer stains. ‘The unwanted developer is removed using ‘a stop bath. There are two types of stop baths. 7.1: Water Rinse ‘The excess developer is removed from the film simply by immersing it in a running water bath, Static water rinse involves the risk of solution becoming alkaline with use and cease to be of any use in stopping development. Hence, running water bath is recommended. 7.2 : Acetic Acid Rinse ‘This bath is static and 2 to 3 per cent solution of acetic acid is employed. This is more efficient in action and requires films to be immersed in it for about 5 seconds with agitation. However, unlike flow water rinse, acetic acid will become continuously exhausted with use. A throughput of 100 FT?/galion is reasonable life suggested for this. 7.3 Faults arising during rinsing. ‘The only fault which can occur at this stage is due to delay in putting the developer laden film in stop bath. A thin layer of oxidized developer on the film can lead to production of brown stains,8: FIXING BATH. ‘The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transforms it into water soluble compound which gets dissolved in washing operation. In addition, it enables the image to become permanent. Since the silver halide is still sensitive to light to a small extent, and so will slowly darken if itis allowed to remain on the film, 8.1 : Fixing Agent The most widely used agent is sodium thiosulphate (Na,S,0,), commonly known as “hypo’ Its solution in water rapidly dissolves silver chloride and bromide. 8.2 : Use of Fixing Bath Generally, the film is kept for 2-3 minutes in rapid fixing bath and for about 10 minutes ordinary hypo bath, 1. Agitation: ‘The films should be agitated initially, when immersed in fixer. 2. Temperature: The fixation process is less critical than development process and a temperature range of + 2.5°C to standard 20°C is acceptable. 8.3 : Faults arising due to fixation Most of the defects arise due to contamination of fixer by developer into fixer, through careless use of stop bath stage. Faults may also arise if films are inserted without agitation. Streaks may be produced, due to uneven removal of developer. 9: WASHING AND DRYING 9.1: Washing Washing is carried out to eliminate unwanted products from the emulsion after the fixing operation. For this purpose, the film is washed in running water for about 20 minutes and then taken for drying, It is important to use flowing water, so that the film on its removal from bath is taken out from uncontaminated water, OG Faults arising during washing Usually sventy minutes are allotted for this stage, but the period may prove insufficient if, a. the water is unusually cold, b, flow is inadequate, ©. tank is too small for film throughput and 4d. film is not inserted in a proper way.Each of these factors will lead to incomplete elimination of thiosulphate complexes from gelatin, This will make the film yellow/brown on storage. 9.2: Drying It is necessary to remove excess water, as a wet radiograph is not convenient to handle and is liable to mechanical damage. Usually the wet films are dried by blowing a current of hot air over the films, and various types of drying cabinets exist for this purpose. These cabinets often include filter at their air intake to free the air from dust, which may stick to the wet film. 10: CHECK LIST OF PROCESSING DIFFICULTIES AND FILM BLEMISHES: Blemish or Difficulty Causes Black crescents Kinking of film before processing. White crescents Sharp bending or folding of the processed film. Overall fog Over-development, over-age film, prolonged exposure to safe light, improper safelight filter, insufficient protection in storage from radiation sources, film stored where temperature or humidity is too high or chemical vapours exist, viewing developed film, before it is properly fixed. Black streaks / blotches Light leaks due to faulty film holders or cassette, Streaks White and black streaks at points where film was attached to hanger caused by processing solution remaining on clips from earlier use. Inadequate agitation during development. Removing film to view during development time causing developer to run across film unevenly. Contamination by chemically active deposits, contamination of developer / fixer, Drying spots and Drops of water on semi-dried film or drops of water running streaks down semi-dried surface. Black spots Developer splashes before placing entire film in developer. Brown stains Inadequate fixing or exhausted fixing solution, prolonged development in old developer, inadequate rinsing. Dark deposits Oxidized products from developer or reacting silver salts. White crystalline Inadequate washing after processing. deposits Milky appearance Incomplete fixing, exhausted fixing bath. Sharply outlined Uneven development, films not agitated during development, light dark areas films, hung too close together in developer. Blisters Formation of gas bubbles in film emulsion. Air bubbles Air trapped on film surface during development. (light spots/patches) 4.5Reticulation (leather Solution too warm, extreme differences in temperature of like appearance) successive processing baths. Frilling (loosening Fixing in warm or exhausted bath, of emulsion) Prolonged washing at high temperature, marks (Black Due to static electric discharges caused friction between film and birdtrack effects) some other object. Scratches (black, Improper handling. crack-like lines), Dark fingerprints Film touched with dirty fingers before development. Light fingerprints Film (ouched with greasy fingers before development. White spots and areas Pitted or worn screens. Dirt on film screens. Brittle radiographs Excessive hardening in fixer. Excessive drying time. iL : GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION ‘The radiographic image on the film is governed mainly by the basic principles of the shadow formation. A shatp and undistorted image is obtained by controlling various geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to object distance, alignment of radiation beam with respect to the plane of the object and film, Different exposure geometries are shown in Fig. 4.1, From these exposure geometries, it could be seen that the radiographic images always have an element of magnification which will depend upon the closeness of the film with the specimen. Distortion in the image would depend on the relative planes of the object and the film. its are made to keep both of them in the same plane, however, with specimen of odd geometry image distortions are observed. Both X and gamma rays produce a certain unsharpness on the radiograph due to the finite size of the ical spot or the source. This unsharpness is called geometrical unsharpness (U,) which is calculated as dxt SFD-t or SFD = t(1+ d/U) where, d - effective diameter of the source/focal spot, SFD ~ source to film distance, t= thickness of the object. Ic is clear from this expression, that U, can never be zero, The magnitude of U, can only be minimized by proper selection of exposure variables. Considering this fact, various codes permit a certain U, value related to object thicknesses.Small source |! Large source.” Large SFD ‘Small SFD Small Ug Ug” Large Ug ‘Small Ug Large Ug s s ¢ Ji 1 | / Ye ye te y | | ' Io I 1 aS | a °. 5, ZA Thinner object Thicker object Film close to Small Us Large Ug object k Small U; rye s mae Film away from | object [if il Large Ug 1 | 4. S-Source, 0 - Object F-Film, Ug- Unsharpness C- Central radiation beam axis on Central acs Central axis not Perpeniicular to perpendicular to ebject centre object centre Small Up Large Up . 4.1: Geometric Representation of Radiographic Image.Radiation: X-ray Fig, 4.2 : Exposure Chart for X-rays. THioourss cues) Material Steel Film : DuPont NDT 65 Film Density : 2.0 Distance : 36 inches Screens Lead Front : 0.12 mm Back 2 0.25 mm Development : 5 minutes 20°C Radiation : Iridium-192 gamma rays Material : Steel Film : DuPont NDT 35-75 Film Density : 2.0 Distance 24 inches ‘Screens : Lead Front : 0.12 mm Back 0.25 mm Development : 5 minutes 20°C Fig. 4.3 : Exposure Chart for Iridium-192 Source. (Different Films)a Curie x hour. ‘SFD (cm) 4 59| Jo! 0 SFD (cm) -->42 5049 Curie x hour ts 2 : gy as oe an ¢ 2 @ @ 6 6 1 Thickness (cm) Thickness (em) —> Lead screen : 0.1 mm front Lead screen : 0.15 mm front 0.15 mm back 0.20 mm back Iridium - 192 Cobalt - 60 Density : 2, Developing time : 5 minutes, 20° C Film : AgfaD,, For NDT - 65 film, multiply above values by 1.5 ‘To obtain exposure values in GBq x hour, multiply above values by 37. Fig. 4.4 : Exposure Chart for Gamma Rays (Different SFD) Recommendations for optimum results are - 1, source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable. Ideal source will be a point source, 2. source to object distance should be as large as possible, 3. the film should be in close contact with object and 4, source location should be such, that radi ‘ion pass normal through object thickness.12 : EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATIONS For calculating the exposure time, the following steps should be followed : 1 Calculate the present source activity in curies (Ci) from the decay charts. 2.Find thickness (cm) of the object. 3.Find HVT (cm) of object material, for the given source, from the HVT tables. 4,Find SFD (om) for the object thickness. 5. Write RHM value (0.5 for iridium-192 and 1.33 for cobalt-60) 6.Find film factor (F in Roentgen) from table 4.2. TABLE 4.2 : FILM FACTOR (F) VALUES Film Factor (F) NDT-65 NDT-70 AgfaD-7 Agfa D-4 Wridiu-92«14R 0 -10R) IR) 3.5R Source Cobit-60 = 28R = 20R —-2.2R 7.0R ese values in the following formula : Ex 24 x (SED)? x 60 Cx RHM x (100 Substitute al Exposure sime (minutes) Jt may be noted that this formula is not very accurate for higher thicknesses, particularly when using cobalt-60 source, Exposure charts as given in figures 4.2 - 4.4 are more accurate and are recommended for use. Exercise ] : Calculate the expos time in minutes for 0.75 inch thick steel using 180 kV X-rays. The machine is operated at 5 mA settings. om figure 4.2, the exposure for 0.75 inch steel at 160 kV is 35 mA.min. If the machine is operated at 5 mA setting, the exposure time is 35/5 = 7 minutes. Exercise 2 : Calculate the exposure time in minutes for 1.5 inch thick steel using NDT 65 film at 12 inch SED to produce optical density 2.0, using iridium-192 source of 8 curies. From figure 4.3, the exposure time for 1.5 inch steel on NDT 65 film is 250 ‘The exposure chart is made for SFD of 24 inch. EF (curie.min) xd} _ 250x128 Exposure time _oee = 7.8 minutes xposut time (min) od pe EF - Exposure factor for SFD 4, ; ai © Activity in curies ° 4, - New SED :Exercise 3 : Calculate the exposure time, with the following data : Source - iridium-192, 10 curies. (C=10) ‘Steel plate - 25 mm thick (x =25) (HVT or T,, = 12.5 mm) Film - NDT-65 (F=14) Radiography density required = 2.0 Let SED be 50 em Substituting all these values in formula, 1.4 x 239725 x 502 x 60 10x05 x 100° 1.4 x 4 x 2500 x 60 5 x 10000 ~ = 16.8 minutes. Exposure time (min) = From exposure chart (Fig. 4.2) we can see that for 25mm steel and SFD 50 cm, we need around 2.8 curie x hour. It means the product of source activity and time in hours should be 2.8. Hence, for a source activity of 2.8 curie, exposure time is 1 hour for 1.0 curie, exposure time is 2.8 hours for 10 cutie, exposure time is 2.8 x 60x 1/10 = 17 minutes ‘We can calculate similarly, for other thicknesses also.4B. EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY ‘The quality of a radiograph is assessed by radiographic sensitivity. The sensitivity, in turn, depends upon factors which control contrast and definition of the image. 1.1 : Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Sensitivity is a general qualitative term referring to the size of the smallest detail which can be seen on a radiograph. It is governed by the contrast and definition of the image appearing on the radiograph. 1.2 : Radiographic Contrast Radiographic Contrast is the density difference in two areas of a radiograph. It depends upon the subject contrast and film contrast, 1.2.1 : Subject Contrast is defined as the ratio of X or gamma ray intensities transmitted through two different areas of a specimen, It depends upon the radiation quality, intensity distribution, and scattered radiation, Higher the radiation energy, lower would be the subject contrast. 1.2.2 : Film Contrast (G) refers to the slope of characteristic curve of the film at a given density. It depends upon the type of film, processing conditions and optical density. It is independent of radiation quality. Mathematically, it can be expressed as D Log E 4.3 : Radiographic Definition Radiographic Definition refers to the sharpness of the outline of the image. It depends upon the type of film, screens, radiation energy and exposure geometry. 2: FACTORS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY ‘These are given in table 4.3. 3: IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (QD ‘The quality of radiograph is expressed in terms of IQI or penetrameter sensitivity. These are small devices placed on the surface of the specimen during exposure and visibility of their image on the radiograph, forms the criteria of sensitivity. Desirable properties of IQI are as given below : 1, The material should, preferably, be the same as that of the inspected. 2. It must be sensitive in its reading to changes in radiographic technique. 4.123. Method of recording should be simple, unambiguous. 4. Itshould have means for identification. TABLE 4.3 : FACTORS INFLUENCING RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY Radiographic Contrast Subject Contrast Attloed by a. Thickness difference in specimen b. Atomic number and density of specimen c. Radiation quality d, Scattered radiation Film Contrast | Affected by a. Type of film b. Film processing Parameters c. Radiographic density 4. Activity of developer of specimen e, Screen film contrast Radiographic Definition Geometric Factors t Affected by a. Focal spot! source size b. Source to film distance c. Specimen to film distance d, Sudden change in thickness 3.1 : Commonly Used Image Quality Indicators Graininess Factors | Affected by a. Type of film b. Type of séreen ¢, Film development Various types of designs of IQI based on wires, holes, slits, etc. have been used. Some common designs are shown in figure 4.5, 3.1.1 : Plaque/Hole (ASTM) type This type of IQI is a constant thickness plate having three drilled holes of different diameters. If the plate thickness is T, the hole diameters are T, 2 T and 4T with minimum hole diameters are 0.010, 0.020 and 0.040 inches respectively. The plaque must be of the same material as specimen, The same penetrameters are accepted by ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Identification numbers and notches, specifying the material and the IQI thickness are fixed on each plate. The number indicates thickness in thousands of an inch. ‘Three quality levels can be determined with a given ASTM IQI, as given in table 4. -13Wire Diameter (mm) 04. 0.32 0.25 0.2 0.16 0.13 ot : i0 ISO 16 DIN WIRE Wire Diameter (inch) * Se ASTM 0.0032 0.010 0.032 0.100 0.006 0.013 0.040 0.126 0.005 0.016 0.050 0.160 0.0063 0.020 0.063 0:20 0.008 0.025 0.080 0.25 0.010 0.032 «0.100 0:32 1 3A ASTM PLAQUE . ASTM WIRE Fig. 4.5. Image Quality Indicators TABLE 4.4 Levelof —Penetrameter. = Minimum Equivalent inspection thickness perceptible penetrameter (% of specimen hole diameter _sensitivity thickness) per cent 1 0.7 i 1 1 14 2 14 2 2.0 2 28 4 28 4 4 4 5.6Equivalent sensitivity SE is calculated as terms of T SE = where, n = penetrameter thickness expressed in percentage of specimen thickness T = thickness of penetrameter SE is defined as the thickness of penetrameter expressed in percentage in which 2 T hole would be visible under the same condition. 3.1.2 : Wire Type Wire type IQI consists of a series of wires of minimum length 25 mm, mounted side by side parallel with a distance between the axis of wires of not less than three times the wire diameter and not less than 5 mm and arranged in order of increasing diameter. Wire type of IQIs have been adopted internationally. Most commonly used are DIN type and ASTM type IQIs. 3.2 : Placement of IQI As a general practice, IQI must be placed on the source side of the specimen. Film side 1QIs are also permitted in some codes only in special circumstances. In case of plaque type IQI, it is generally placed parallel to the weld at a location of poorest sensitivity for a given technique. Wire 1Q1 is placed across the weld (Fig 4.6). When the weld with the reinforcement is examined, a shim of metal should be placed under the IQI to match the total thickness. When the objects are too small or have a complicated structure for 1QI placement, QI can be placed on a uniform block of the same material. iam a Ua Fig. 4, [ | : Placement of Image Quality Indicators.TABLE 4, : SELECTION OF ASTM IQI, (ASME SECTION V. 1993) Material Thickness, QI Designations and Essential Holes Penetrameters Nominal Single Wall Source Side Film Side Material Thickness | ‘ Range in Inches Designation Essential Wire | Designation “Essential Wire Hole Dia. Hole Dia. h inch Upto 0.25 incl. 12 2T — 0.008 10 2T 0.006 0.25 to 0.375 15 27 0,010 12 27 0,008 0.375 to 0.5 "1 27 0.013 15 27 0.010 0.5 to 0.75 20 2T 0.016 7 2T 0.013 0.75 to 1.0 25 2T 0.020 20 2T 0.016 1.0 to 1.5 30 2T ~— 0.025 25 2T 0.020 1.25 to 2.0 35 2T 0.032 30 2T 0.025 2.0 to 2.5 40 2T — 0.040 35 2T 0.032 2.5 to 4.0 50 2T 0.050 40 2T 0.040 4.0 to 6.0 60 2T 0.063 50 2T 0.050 6.0 to 8.0 80 2T 0.100 60 2T — 0.063 8.0 to 10.0 100 2T 0.126 80 2T 0,100 10.0 10 12.0 120 2T 0.160 100 27 0,126 12.0 0 16.0 160 27 0,250 120 2T 0.160 16.0 1020.0 200 27 0.320 160 27 0.250 4: IDENTIFICATIONS Every radiograph must have permanent identification marks which identify the job, the region examined and the orientation of the film. Except-on very thick steel sections, thin lead letters and characters can be used for placement on the specimen or film to be visible on the radiograph. They should be fixed on the specimen when it is casting or weld and left in position whenever used. However, most of the specimen will have permanent marking either by stamping, engraving ot painting according to what is most appropriate for the service condition of the specimen. 5: CONTROL JF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY As given in table 4.3, there are many factors which contribute to the resultant quality of a radiograph. ‘These factors should be carefully controlled by following a well recognised national/international practice usually specified in codes. Information on the following points is essential. Technique Classification and general requirements such as very high sensitivity, high sensitivity and medium sensitivity are followed as per code.Material and its Thickness data is essential to select the source, SFD and other important radiography parameters. Whenever possible, fabrication procedure such as welding, casting, ete. should be made available. Film and Screen used are checked up with the recommendations of the code with respect to the technique classification. Film Processing should be standard as per the recommendations of manufacturer of the chemicals. Shortened and prolonged development time must be avoided, Density of the Radiograph should be between 2-3. Higher density may be employed provided high intensity illuminator is available for viewing the radiographs. Fog density and expiry date of the film should be checked. Fog density should not exceed 0.2. Identification Marking System has to be explicit to enable finding the exact area of the specimen without any ambiguity. Lead markers impression must appear on the radiograph. Source, its active dimensions and calibration data should be verified with recommendations of the code, SED is directly linked with specified U, value It also determines the diagnostic area coverage of the specimen, Exposure geometry with relative position of source, specimen and films shown be given in a sketch for verification, QI, its location bears the most important information leading to assessment of the sensitivity ofa radiograph. Observed sensitivity is calculated in terms of thickness of plaque/hole or diameter of the wire discernible by eye. Exposure Time should be in the specified range in the. code. Besides the above points, the radiograph is carefully examined on both sides with reflected light to reveal superficial marks such as scratches, crimps and other processing marks. Use of magnifying glass would be helpful, Familiarity with film artifacts and their indication is also essential to determine the genuine discontinuity as different from the spurious indication on the film, 6 : UNSATISFACTORY RADIOGRAPHS Most common faults and their causes are listed below. 6. : High Density Excessive film density can be due to over-exposure, over-development of film or fog. In case of over-exposure, the film can be viewed on high intensity illuminator. Another exposure may be made by cutting down the exposure time by 1/3.Over-development of film can be avoided by following the manufacturer's recommendations for processing.- Unsuitable and wrongly mixed developers can also cause high density. 6.2 : Low Density Cause for low density may be under-exposure, under-development, or presence of material between the lead screen and the film. Under exposure can be corrected by increasing the exposure time by 40% or more. Under development can be due to too cold developer solution, too short development time, or weak developer solution. ‘These should be according to the recommended specifications. Wrongly mixed developers can also cause low film density. 6.3 : High Radiography Contrast Tecan be due to excessive subject contrast or high film contrast. High subject contrast can be rectified by increasing the KV, use of a filter at the tube or use of thickness compensation methods. Low contrast film can also be used. Check also for wrongly mixed developer, as well as the practice of prolonged development times to compensate for under-exposed film. 6.4 : Low Radiography Contrast It can be due to low subject and film contrast and under-development. It can be corrected by decreasing energy of radiation, use of higher contrast film and processing the film under standard conditions. 6.5 : Poor Definition Possible causes can be geometrical exposure factors, poor contact between film and screen, graininess of screens and graininess of film. The geometrical factors should be verified and readjusted to meet the specified U, value. Film and screen graininess can be controlled by using fine grain film and improving the contact between the film and the screen. In addition, possible movement of the source, film, specimen should be arrested to eliminate movement unsharpness (U,) 6.6 : Fog It can result from excessive exposure to light (including safe light), inadequate film storage facility or improper film processing. Film loading and processing area should be examined for leakage of light and brightness of safe light. The filter on safe light should also be examined for fading of coating dyes due to use of high wattage bulb. Inadequate storage facility may result in improper protection from radiation or excessive heat, humidity and gases. Improper film processing can be corrected by mixing proper solutions, 4.18