EENS 1110

Physical Geology

Tulane University

Prof. Stephen A. Nelson

Groundwater

This page last updated on 09-Apr-2012

Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in rock and sediment beneath
the Earth's surface. It originates as rainfall or snow, and then moves through the soil into the
groundwater system, where it eventually makes its way back to surface streams, lakes, or
oceans.

Groundwater makes up about 1% of the water on Earth (most water is in oceans).

But, groundwater makes up about 35 times the amount of water in lakes and streams.

Groundwater occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface, but is usually restricted to
depths less that about 750 meters.

The volume of groundwater is a equivalent to a 55 meter thick layer spread out over the
entire surface of the Earth.

It is an important resource for potable water, irrigation, and industry.

Because it is largely hidden from view, it is often forgotten and subject to contamination
by careless humans.

Groundwater is a primary agent of chemical weathering and is responsible for the

formation of caves and sinkholes.

The Groundwater System

Groundwater resides in the void spaces of rock, sediment, or soil, completely filling the voids.
The total volume of open space in which the groundwater can reside is porosity. Porosity

determines the amount of water that a rock or sediment can contain.

Porosity
In sediments or sedimentary rocks the porosity depends on grain size, the shapes of the grains,
and the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation.

Well-rounded coarse-grained
sediments usually have higher
porosity than fine-grained
sediments, because the grains do
not fit together well.

Poorly sorted sediments usually have lower porosity because

the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the open space.

Since cements tend to fill in the pore space,

highly cemented sedimentary rocks have lower
porosity.

In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is

usually low because the minerals tend to be
intergrown, leaving little free space. Highly
fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks,
however, could have high porosity

Secondary porosity is porosity that developed after rock formation. Processes such as
fracturing, faulting, and dissolution can create secondary porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected, and the
size of the interconnections. Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high porosity
does not necessarily imply high permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with
little or no interconnections between pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity and
low permeability is a vesicular volcanic rock, where the bubbles that once contained gas give
the rock a high porosity, but since these holes are not connected to one another the rock has low
permeability.
A thin layer of water will always be
attracted to mineral grains due to
the unsatisfied ionic charge on the
surface. This is called the force of
molecular attraction. If the size of
interconnections is not as large as
the zone of molecular attraction,
the water can't move.
Thus, coarse-grained rocks are usually more permeable than fine-grained rocks, and sands are
more permeable than clays.
Aquifers
An aquifer is a large body of permeable material where groundwater is present and fills all pore
space. Good aquifers are those with high permeability such as poorly cemented sands, gravels,
or highly fractured rock. An aquitard is a body of material with very low permeability. In
general, tightly packed clays, well cemented sandstones, and igneous and metamorphic rocks
lacking fractures are good aquitards. Large aquifers can be excellent sources of water for human
usage such as the High Plains Aquifer (in sands and gravels) or the Floridian Aquifer (in porous
limestones) as outlined in your text.
Aquifers can be of two types:

Unconfined Aquifers - the most common type of aquifer, where the water table is
exposed to the Earth's atmosphere through the zone of aeration. .

Confined Aquifers - these are less common, but occur when an aquifer is confined
between layers of impermeable strata (aquitards).

The Water Table

Rain that falls on the
surface seeps down
through the soil and into a
zone called the zone of
aeration or unsaturated
zone (also called
the vadose zone), where
most of the pore spaces are
filled with air. As it
penetrates deeper it
eventually enters a zone
where all pore spaces and
fractures are filled with
water.
This zone is called the saturated zone or phreatic zone . The surface below which all openings
in the rock are filled with water (the top of the saturated zone) is called the water table.
The water table occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface. In desert regions it is always
present, but rarely intersects the surface.

In more humid regions

it reaches the surface at
streams and lakes, and
generally tends to
follow surface
topography. The depth
to the water table may
change, however, as the
amount of water
flowing into and out of
the saturated zone
changes.
During dry seasons, the depth to the water table increases. During wet seasons, the depth to the
water table decreases.

Discontinuous aquitards
and aquifers may exist in
the subsurface. These
arrest downward
infiltration to the water
table and form what are
called perched water
tables. They overlie
unsaturated material and
may be confused with
the main water table.
Because they are smaller,
they are more easily
dewatered or
contaminated.
Movement of Groundwater
Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is generally slower than
it would move in a stream because it must pass through the intricate passageways between free
space in the rock. First the groundwater moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But it can
also move upward because it will flow from higher pressure areas to lower pressure areas, as
can be seen by a simple experiment illustrated below. Imagine that we have a "U"-shaped tube
filled with water. If we put pressure on one side of the tube, the water level on the other side
rises, thus the water moves from high pressure zones to low pressure zones.

The same thing happens beneath the surface of the

Earth, where pressure is higher beneath the hills
and lower beneath the valleys

The Earth's surface can be divided into areas

where some of the water falling on the surface
seeps into the saturated zone and other areas
where water flows out of the saturated zone
onto the surface. Areas where water enters the
saturated zone are called recharge areas,
because the saturated zone is recharged with
groundwater beneath these areas. Areas where
groundwater reaches the surface (lakes,
streams, swamps, & springs) are
calleddischarge areas, because the water is
discharged from the saturated zone. Generally,
recharge areas are greater than discharge areas.

Groundwater movement is slow relative to that in surface streams. This is because it must
percolate through pore openings and is further slowed by friction and electrostatic forces.
For comparison, typical rates of flow are as follows:
Ocean currents - 3 km /hour
Steep river channel - 30 km /hour
Groundwater - 0.00002 km /hour
Groundwater flow occurs on a variety of scales. Local Shallow flow occurs over short times
and distances, whereas, deep long distance flow occurs over time scales of centuries.

The rate at
which
groundwater
moves
through the
saturated zone
depends on
the
permeability
of the rock
and
the hydraulic
head. The
hydraulic head
is defined as
the difference
in elevation
between two
points on the
water table.
The hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic head divided by the
distance between two points on the water table.

The velocity, V, is of groundwater flow is given by:

V = K(h2- h1)/L
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, which is a measure of the permeability of the material
through which the water is following.
If we multiply this expression by the area, A, through which the water is moving, then we get
the discharge, Q.
Q = AK(h2 - h1)/L
which is Darcy's Law. It simply states that discharge is proportional to the hydraulic gradient
times the permeability. Discharge is higher if the hydraulic gradient is high and/or of the
permeability is high.
Note that like stream discharge, Q has units of volume per time (i.e. cubic meters per second).
Springs
A spring is an area on the surface of the Earth where the water table intersects the surface and
water flows out of the ground. Some springs occur when an aquitard intersects an aquifer at the
surface of the Earth . Such juxtaposition between permeable and impermeable rock can occur

along geological contacts and fault zones (see figure 19.14 in your text for other examples),

Hot Springs and Geysers

Hot springs are groundwater discharges of water with temperatures that range from 30 to
104C. The waters are usually rich in dissolved minerals that often precipitate around the
springs. They develop in two settings: (1) where deep groundwater surfaces along faults or
fractures, and (2) in geothermal regions where groundwater is heated by shallow magma or hot
rock. Hot springs are distinctive geological features. If the surface through volcanic ash they
become a viscous slurry called mudpots. If they precipitate dissolved minerals on cooling, they
can form deposits like travertine made of calcite.
Hot springs can also produce a wide range of colors due to thermal sensitive bacteria that
metabolize sulfur minerals.
Geysers form when hot water erupts to the surface. They are caused by boiling of the water at
depth which causes vapor bubbles to rise and reduce the pressure. This results in rapid boiling
which sends the water to the surface as a geyser. The cycle then repeats after the empty
chamber is refilled with water and is heated to the boiling temperature.
See http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/geol/geyser.htm
Hot springs and geysers are common in active volcanic regions, notably Yellowstone Park in
Wyoming.
Wells
A well is human-made hole that is dug or drilled deep enough to intersect the water table. Wells
are usually used as a source for groundwater. If the well is dug beneath the water table, water
will fill the open space to the level of the water table, and can be drawn out by a bucket or by
pumping. Fracture systems and perched water bodies can often make it difficult to locate the
best site for a well.

A special kind of confined aquifer is an artesian system, shown below. In an artesian system, the
aquifer is confined between aquitards and is included so that the pressure inside the aquifer can
push the water from a well or spring upward to nearly the same level as the top of the water
table. Artesian systems are desirable because they result in free flowing artesian
springs andartesian wells.

Changes in the Groundwater System

When discharge of groundwater exceeds recharge of the system, several adverse effects can
occur. Most common is lowering of the water table, resulting in springs drying up and wells
having to be dug to deeper levels. If water is pumped out of an aquifer, pore pressure can be
reduced in the aquifer that could result in compaction of the now dry aquifer and result in land
subsidence. In some cases withdrawal of groundwater exceeds recharge by natural processes,
and thus groundwater should be considered a non-renewable natural resource.

Water Quality and Groundwater Contamination

Water quality refers to such things as the temperature of the water, the amount of dissolved
solids, and lack of toxic and biological pollutants. Water that contains a high amount of
dissolved material through the action of chemical weathering can have a bitter taste, and is
commonly referred to as hard water. Hot water can occur if water comes from a deep source or
encounters a cooling magma body on its traverse through the groundwater system. Such hot
water may desirable for bath houses or geothermal energy, but is not usually desirable for
human consumption or agricultural purposes. Most pollution of groundwater is the result of
biological activity, much of it human. Among the sources of contamination are:

Sewers and septic tanks

Waste dumps (both industrial and residential)

Gasoline Tanks (like occur beneath all service stations)

Biological waste products - Biological contaminants can be removed from the

groundwater by natural processes if the aquifer has interconnections between pores that
are smaller than the microbes. For example a sandy aquifer may act as a filter for
biological contaminants.

Agricultural pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides.

Salt water contamination - results from excessive discharge of fresh groundwater in

coastal areas.

Groundwater contamination can result from a point source where the contaminant plume
emanates from 1 spot. Concentrations of the contaminant are highest near the source and
decrease away from the source. Or, from a widespread source where the pollution is introduced
over a wide area and diffused throughout the groundwater over a broad region. Nonpoint
source contaminants are difficult to identify and address.
Groundwater contaminant plumes change over time. They grow in length with groundwater
flow. They grow in width by diffusion and dispersion.
Large plumes pollute large areas and affect many people.
Remediation of Groundwater Contamination Problems
In order to begin remediation , contaminant characterization is first done. Monitoring wells are
installed to assess flow behavior. This allows for chemical testing to quantify the amount of and
character of the contaminants. Strategies are then designed to reduce health risks.
Remediation is usually quite expensive. Most strategies include removing the source of the
contaminant, then pumping the groundwater out and treating it. Sometimes heat is pumped in
to volatilize the groundwater or steam is pumped in to clean out the containments. Newly
developed techniques uses bacteria to clean the groundwater in a process calledbioremediation.
Prevention of Groundwater Contamination
Contamination is best prevented by managing land uses. Landfills now require lining the

bottom of the landfill with impermeable clay and plastic liners. Underground storage tanks
require double-lining to prevent leakage.
Still the best practice is to require that contaminants not be allowed into the groundwater
system.
Geologic Activity of Groundwater

Dissolution - Recall that water is the main agent of chemical weathering. Groundwater
is an active weathering agent and can leach ions from rock, and, in the case of carbonate
rocks like limestone, can completely dissolve the rock.

Chemical Cementation and Replacement - Water is also the main agent acting during
diagenesis. It carries in dissolved ions which can precipitate to form chemical cements
that hold sedimentary rocks together. Groundwater can also replace other molecules in
matter on a molecule by molecule basis, often preserving the original structure such as
in fossilization or petrified wood.

Caves and Caverns - If

large areas of limestone
underground are dissolved
by the action of
groundwater these cavities
can become caves or
caverns (caves with many
interconnected chambers)
once the water table is
lowered. Once a cave
forms, it is open to the atmosphere and water percolating in can precipitate new material
such as the common cave decorations like stalactites (hang from the
ceiling), stalagmites(grow from the floor upward), and dripstones, and flowstones.

Sinkholes - If the roof of a

cave or cavern collapses, this
results in a sinkhole. Sinkholes,
likes caves, are common in
areas underlain by limestones.
For example, in Florida, which
is underlain by limestones, a
new sinkhole forms about once

each year, gobbling up cars and

houses in process.

Karst Landscapes - In an area where the main type of weathering is dissolution (like in
limestone terrains), the formation of caves and sinkholes, and their collapse and
coalescence may result in a highly irregular topography called karst landscapes (see
figure 19.28 in your text).

Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam.

1. Define the following: (a) porosity, (b) permeability, (c) hydraulic head, (d) hydraulic
gradient, (d) confined aquifer, (f) unconfined aquifer, (g) perched water body, (h)
sinkhole, (i) stalactite, (j) stalagmite.
2. Give several examples of rocks or sediments that would make a good aquifer and those
that would make a good aquitard.
3. What factors increase the flow rate (discharge) of groundwater?
4. What can cause the water table to rise or fall?
5. Define and explain artesian wells and artesian springs.
6. What causes hot springs and geysers? Why are some hot springs very colorful?
7. How can groundwater become contaminated?
8. What can be done to prevent the contamination of groundwater?
9. What features of the groundwater system help to remove biological (microbial)
contamination?
10. How are caves and caverns formed?
11. What is a karst landscape and how does a karst landscape develop?

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Igneous and metamorphic-rock aquifers

The principal water-yielding aquifers of North America can be grouped into

five types: unconsolidated and semiconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers,
sandstone aquifers, carbonate-rock aquifers, aquifers in interbedded
sandstone and carbonate rocks, and aquifers in igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Igneous and metamorphic-rock aquifers can be grouped into two
categories: crystalline-rock aquifers and volcanic-rock aquifers.
Large areas of the eastern, northeastern, and north-central parts of the
Nation are underlain by crystalline rocks. Spaces between the individual
mineral crystals of crystalline rocks are microscopically small, few, and
generally unconnected; therefore, porosity is insignificant. These igneous
and metamorphic rocks are permeable only where they are fractured, and
they generally yield only small amounts of water to wells. However, because
these rocks extend over large areas, large volumes of groundwater are
withdrawn from them, and, in many places, they are the only reliable source
of water supply.
Although crystalline rocks are geologically complex, movement of water
through the rocks is totally dependent on the presence of secondary
openings; rock type has little or no effect on groundwater flow.

Groundwater percolates downward through the regolith which is a layer of weathered

rock, alluvium, colluvium, and soil to fractures in underlying bedrock. The water moves
from highland recharge areas to discharge areas, such as springs and streams at lower
altitudes. This example is in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Province.
Volcanic rocks have a wide range of chemical, mineralogic, structural, and
hydraulic properties, due mostly to variations in rock type and the way the
rock was ejected and deposited. Unaltered pyroclastic rocks, for example,
might have porosity and permeability similar to poorly sorted sediments. Hot
pyroclastic material, however, might become welded as it settles, and, thus,
be almost impermeable. Silicic lavas tend to be extruded as thick, dense
flows, and they have low permeability except where they are fractured.

Basaltic lavas tend to be fluid, and, they form thin flows that have
considerable pore space at the tops and bottoms of the flows. Numerous
basalt flows commonly overlap, and the flows are separated by soil zones or
alluvial material that form permeable zones. Columnar joints that develop in
the central parts of basalt flows create passages that allow water to move
vertically through the basalt. Basaltic rocks are the most productive aquifers
in volcanic rocks.
A typical Pliocene and
younger-age basaltic
lava flow of the
northwestern United
States contains layers of
varying permeability.
Permeability is greatest
near the top and the
bottom of the flow and
least in the dense,
center part of the flow.

This map of igneous and metamorphic-rock aquifers in the United States

shows the shallowest principal aquifer. In some places, other, sometimes
more productive, aquifers underlie those mapped. In other places, local
aquifers, such as those along stream valleys, might overlie the aquifers
mapped. Local aquifers are not shown because of the scale of the map.
PRINCIPAL IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC-ROCK
AQUIFERS

Igneous and
metamorphic-rock
aquifers at or near the
land surface.

Limit of continental glaciation.

North of this line, glacial sand and
gravel aquifers overlie bedrock
aquifers in many places.

Basaltic rocks form most of the volcanic-rock aquifers mapped. These flows
cover extensive areas in the northwestern United States and Hawaii. In
places, the basaltic-rock aquifers are extremely thick. For example, those of
the Columbia Plateau aquifer system in Washington are more than 2,544
meters thick in places, and those of the Snake River Plain aquifer system in
Idaho are locally more than 800 meters thick. In most places, however, the
thickness of these aquifers is 100 meters or less. Groundwater flow in the
basaltic-rock aquifers is local to intermediate. In Idaho, the basaltic-rock
aquifers are extremely permeable, and numerous large springs discharge
several tens of cubic meters per second from them.
Igneous and metamorphic-rock aquifers include:

Columbia Plateau basaltic-rock aquifers

Pacific Northwest basaltic-rock aquifers

Snake River Plain basaltic-rock aquifers (Idaho)

Southern Nevada volcanic-rock aquifers

Piedmont and Blue Ridge Crystalline-rock aquifers

Hawaiian aquifers

Publication source

 Introduction and National Summary (chapter A)

Volcano-Groundwater Interaction
Members
-Bernardo Beate, Ecuador
-Zinzuni Jurado-Chichay, United States
-Craig Forster, United States
-Dina Lopez, Canada
-Luz Luna, El Salvador
-Guillermo Moran, El Salvador
-Alfredo Rene Roldan Manzo, Guatemala
-Carlos Pulinger, El Salvador
-Sharon Templeton, United States
Introduction
The volcano-groundwater interaction study group was charged with the task of
identifying hydrogeology-related projects that would complement volcanological
research at the Santa Mara Decade Volcano. Although four project ideas are
proposed, none stands alone as a hydrogeology-specific study. Each project, however,
supports one or more aspects of the volcanological studies.
Project I

Evaluating Explosive Activity at Santiaguito Dome

Overall Objectives
The overall goal of this project is to evaluate the mechanics of explosive activity at
Santiaguito Dome and to assess the probability for explosions to trigger dome
collapse. A more detailed description of the overall project objectives are provided by
the "Dome Growth" study group.
Objectives of Complementary Hydrologic Studies
The objectives of the proposed hydrologic studies include:
1) estimating phreatic levels in the vicinity of the dome,
2) assessing changes in chemical and thermal conditions within the dome as indicated
by changes in groundwater chemistry, temperature, and isotopic signatures
3) estimating the volume of subsurface water passing through the dome,
4) evaluating possible relationships between explosive activity and both short and
long-term variations in rainfall.
Methodology
Relatively routine hydrology studies (spring mapping, groundwater sampling, and
rainfall monitoring) and subsequent analyses can provide the information needed to
attain the objectives outlined above. Data collection must be closely coordinated with
the concurrent volcanological observations (e.g., soil gas and fumarole surveying and
sampling, video recording of explosions and eruptions, characterizing eruptive
products, and monitoring both seismic activity and dome growth) outlined by the
"Dome Growth" study group.
The hydrology studies should emphasize characterizing the input, output, and
throughput of heat, fluid, and solutes through the dome area. Precipitation falling
within the 1902 crater and adjacent slopes of Santa Mara volcano likely forms the
primary source of water moving through the dome. Estimates of total annualized
rainfall and seasonal variations in rainfall can be obtained by monitoring rainfall near

the dome (perhaps by locating a rainfall gage near the Hotel de Magermann). An
automatic monitoring station that requires little attention throughout the year would
provide the detailed record needed to evaluate the way that temporal variations in
rainfall might influence variations in explosive activity. Finances and manpower
permitting, it would be preferable to have a complete meteorological station
established near the dome and a least four automatic rainfall gages deployed on the
slopes of the Santa Mara volcano. Adopting this strategy would provide a better
description of rainfall distribution near the dome and the complementary
meteorological data (air temperature, wind speed, etc.) that should be collected as
base line information for use by those involved in the Santa Mara Decade Volcano
studies.
Total fluid output, and temporal variations in the volume of fluid output, can be
estimated by measuring rates of fluid discharge from springs located downslope from
the dome and by measuring discharge rates of streams found in the headwaters of the
Ro Nim I & II and the Ro El Tambor. Difficulties associated with maintaining
automatic monitoring equipment suggests that these observations are best made
manually during frequent and regular visits by field personnel. Spring and streamflow
gaging data would be augmented by estimates of fluid losses occurring through
evaporation and explosive activity at the dome.
Rates and patterns of groundwater flow are controlled in part by the phreatic level
within both the Santa Mara volcano and the Santiaguito dome. Locating the
elevations of both cold and hot springs near the dome and on the adjacent slopes of
Santa Mara will provide a basis for estimating minimum elevations of water levels in
the immediate vicinity of the dome. This information will aid in assessing the depth of
eruptive phreatic activity and provide insight into the hydraulic gradients that drive
fluid flow through the dome. Obtaining reasonable estimates of fluid fluxes through
the dome will assist in computing a thermal energy balance because a significant
percentage of heat entering the dome is likely dissipated by advective transport in the
groundwater flow system.
Monitoring temperature, chemistry, and isotopic characteristics of several thermal
springs located immediately downslope of the dome may provide direct indications of
changes in chemical and thermal regimes within the dome that, in turn, may presage
important changes in explosive activity. Because anecdotal information suggests that
measurable changes in spring temperature and discharge rate will be found on a

seasonal basis, it will be important to make frequent observations (at least 20 times
per year) to separate dome-related variations from those caused by the background
seasonal variations.
Data collected in the proposed study should be used to construct plausible conceptual
(and possibly numerical) models of fluid flow and heat transfer at the site of the active
volcanic dome. Modeling studies that incorporate a simplified representation of the
physical processes should yield insight into the way that different hydrothermal
regimes might lead to ultimate dome collapse.
Recommendations
1) The proposed hydrologic studies should be designed and implemented in concert
with associated volcanological studies of dome growth at Santiaguito Dome.
2) The monitoring activities should be carried out over at least a two year period in
order to provide a reasonable basis for assessing the possible magnitude of seasonallyderived variations in our observations.
3) Regular monitoring should be carried out by INSIVUMEH staff with seasonal
assistance from university students and foreign scientists.
4) A minimum effort should include at least twice-monthly visits to manually collect
rainfall data, groundwater samples, and measure spring and stream flows.
5) The field-based hydrologic studies should be funded as an integral part of the dome
growth studies, or at least as a clearly connected companion study.
6) Follow-up modeling studies might best be carried out by INSIVUMEH staff or
university students within training programs supervised by foreign scientists.
Application of Study Results
This hydrologic study does not directly produce an assessment of the probability that
explosive activity at Santiaguito dome will trigger a dangerous dome collapse, rather
supporting information needed to make such an assessment is obtained.
Project II

Baseline Hydrogeology Studies

Objectives
Baseline studies of the regional and local groundwater flow systems should be
implemented to better asses how groundwater flow systems might modify thermal
regimes, influence local hydrothermal systems, and influence deep-seated volcanic
processes in the vicinity of the Santa Mara volcano. These studies should form an
integral component of a full-fledged sequence of volcanological studies carried out as
part of the Santa Mara Decade Volcano studies.
Methodology
Relatively routine hydrology studies (spring mapping, groundwater sampling, and
rainfall monitoring) and subsequent analyses can provide the information needed to
attain the objectives outlined above. Data collection must be designed to maximize the
use of existing information available from geothermal exploration activities at Zuil,
Meteorological observations at Quezaltenango, and any groundwater resource studies.
A 20 by 20 km region is suggested; extending from Quezaltenango on the east and
centered, in a north-south orientation, on the Santa Mara volcano. Specific fieldbased tasks should focus on surveying the location, elevation, discharge rate,
chemistry, temperature, and isotopic signature of all wells and springs found within
the study area. Subsequent analysis would use the data to constrain numerical models
of non-isothermal groundwater flow that, in turn, would aid in assessing the way that
advective transport of heat by groundwater flow influences both regional and local
thermal regimes. In addition to providing baseline information for the Decade Volcano
studies, results of this project would assist geothermal exploration activities at the
Zuil geothermal well-field.
The hydrologic studies should be coordinated with other activities that could be
included within the hydrology project or carried out within other volcanological
studies. For example, detailed geological mapping, fumarole surveying and sampling,
soil gas surveys, and shallow heat flow mapping would assist in constraining models
of the hydrothermal system.
Recommendations

1) The proposed hydrologic studies should be designed and implemented once it is

clear that a full-fledged sequence of vulcanologic studies will be carried out for the
Santa Mara Decade Volcano.
2) Although monitoring is not suggested at first, once the baseline survey is complete
and other volcanological data are obtained, it may be appropriate to monitor
conditions at one or more locations within the proposed study area.
3) The baseline hydrologic studies could be carried out by INSIVUMEH staff with
assistance from INDE staff, university students, and foreign scientists.
4) The hydrologic studies should be funded as an integral and fundamental element of
the Decade Volcano program.
Application of Study Results
Although this hydrological study does not directly assist in minimizing volcanic
hazards, the resulting data provide information needed to better understand the
hydrothermal setting of Santa Mara volcano; one of 13 volcanoes with sufficient risk
of major eruptions to warrant designation as a Decade Volcano.
Project III
Slope-Stability Assessments in Areas of Extensive Hydrothermal Alteration
Objectives
Altered fault rocks similar to those found at the 1991 Zuil landslide are likely to be
found along the fault-bounded sides of steep-walled valley found in the volcanic
terrain of Central America. Earthquake activity associated with active volcanism in
the region may trigger destructive landslides. Strategies must be developed to map the
distribution of areas of extensive hydrothermal alteration that can lead to landslide
activity similar to that experienced at the Zuil geothermal well-field in 1991.
Mapping the distribution of altered fault rocks is best accomplished by developing an
improved understanding of how current and former hydrothermal systems operate in
faulted volcanic terrain.
Methodology

Strategies for mapping the distribution of hydrothermally altered fault rocks can be
developed by defining the landslide hazards along a 10 km portion of the Samal
Valley centered on the Zuil geothermal well-field where the 1991 landslide occurred.
Tasks should include:
-detailed mapping of faults and volcanic features along the Samal Valley
-detailed mapping of zones of hydrothermal alteration
-mapping of previous landslide scarps
-collecting and analyzing samples of both altered and unaltered fault rocks
-searching for hydrothermal explosion craters
-using topographic maps and aerial photographs to identify areas of steep slopes
-mapping the location, chemistry, temperature, and isotopic character of fumaroles
and thermal springs to assess their impact on the development of weak rocks
Developing a useful strategy for defining the hazards map requires integrating an
understanding of the patterns and rates of fluid flow in fault-controlled hydrothermal
systems. An excellent example of such a system is exposed in cross section at the
landslid scarp found at the Zuil geothermal well-field. Detailed observations of the
chemical, thermal, and isotopic character of fluids, fumarolic gases, soil gases, and
altered rocks found within the landslide scarp will assist in identifying the geometry
and size of regions of altered rock most likely to fail. The fact that fumaroles exposed
by the landslide were not identified prior to slope failure, suggests that hidden
fumarolic activity may continue to weaken slopes located in similar environments.
Recommendations
1) The proposed study should be implemented immediately in order to take advantage
of the fresh exposures exhumed by the 1991 landslide.
2) Mapping and sampling activities should be carried out by INSIVUMEH and INDE
staff with seasonal assistance from university students and foreign scientists.
Application of Study Results

This study integrates hydrological, geochemical, and geological mapping activities

and analyses within a project designed to help assess and minimize the risk of
landslides similar to the one experienced at the Zuil geothermal well-field in 1991.
Conclusions
The workshop teams had many specific recommendations in the individual
summaries, but there are some repeated themes, many of which are also noted in the
unanimous recommendations:
*The need for continuous collection of important data is reiterated by many teams,
and is vital for anticipating volcanic events.
*The collaboration of visiting specialists with Guatemalans in teams is essential, and
such collaborations should recognize and reinforce the fact that effective hazard
mitigation will require a leadership role by Guatemalans.
*Effective communication of the significance of scientific results concerning volcanic
hazard mitigation to the general public should be part of the mission of
interdisciplinary teams, because this is a vital element for overall success of this
enterprise.
*The Guatemalan agencies and institutions interested in volcanic hazard mitigation
should be strengthened and encouraged to pool their resources and to coordinate their
efforts.

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Sci Total Environ. 2014 Oct 15;496:531-50. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.07.063. Epub 2014 Aug 7.

Groundwater flow in a relatively old oceanic volcanic island: the Betancuria

area, Fuerteventura Island, Canary Islands, Spain.
Herrera C1, Custodio E2.

Author information

Abstract
The island of Fuerteventura is the oldest of the Canary Islands' volcanic archipelago. It is constituted by
volcanic submarine and subaerial activity and intrusive Miocene events, with some residual later
volcanism and Quaternary volcanic deposits that have favored groundwater recharge. The climate is arid,
with an average rainfall that barely attains 60 mm/year in the coast and up to 200 mm/year in the
highlands. The aquifer recharge is small but significant; it is brackish due to large airborne atmospheric
salinity, between 7 and 15 gm(-2)year(-1) of chloride deposition, and high evapo-concentration in the soil.
The average recharge is estimated to be less than about 5 mm/year at low altitude and up to 10 mm/year
in the highlands, and up to 20 mm/year associated to recent lava fields. Hydrochemical and water isotopic
studies, supported by water table data and well and borehole descriptions, contribute a preliminary
conceptual model of groundwater flow and water origin in the Betancuria area, the central area of the
island. In general, water from springs and shallow wells tends to be naturally brackish and of recent
origin. Deep saline groundwater is found and is explained as remnants of very old marine water trapped
in isolated features in the very low permeability intrusive rocks. Preliminary radiocarbon dating indicates
that this deep groundwater has an apparent age of less than 5000 years BP but it is the result of mixing
recent water recharge with very old deep groundwater. Most of the groundwater flow occurs through the
old raised volcanic shield of submarine and subaerial formations and later Miocene subaerial basalts.
Groundwater transit time through the unsaturated zone is of a few decades, which allows the
consideration of long-term quasi-steady state recharge. Transit times are up to a few centuries through
the saturated old volcanics and up to several millennia in the intrusive formations, where isolated pockets
of very old water may exist.
Copyright 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
KEYWORDS:
Canary Islands; Conceptual hydrogeological model; Fuerteventura Island; Groundwater recharge; Old volcanic
island; Spain
PMID:

25108255

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

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STATUS GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION IN GEOLOGICALLY COMPLEX AND

PROBLEMATIC TERRAIN - GUIDELINES
Report No 966/1/02
April 2002
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. Background
The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has identified the provision of sustainable water
and sanitation services to all as being one of its top priorities (DWAF, 1994). The challenge of
providing developing rural areas in South Africa with sufficient potable water is substantial,
especially where settlement is not densely concentrated and the ability to pay is low. The water
requirements of these settlements can be met most cost-effectively from groundwater. The
provision of these regions with sufficient potable water is complicated by the large backlog in
water delivery, which results in pressure for rapid service delivery at the expense of timeconsuming groundwater exploration methods.
Previous studies (King, 1997) have shown that some of the greatest water needs occur in
regions underlain by fractured basement aquifers with complex hydrogeology and where the
exploitation potential of groundwater has been thought to be low due to historically low drilling
success rates or the high frequency of low yielding boreholes. Groundwater exploration success
rates in these environments have been relatively low due to inappropriate exploration or
interpretation methods resulting from an incomplete understanding of the geohydrology.
The current paradigm of groundwater exploration in South Africa, as well as in many other
places in Africa, is based on a geophysical approach, where most boreholes are sited on
anomalies identified from magnetic or electromagnetic traverses, often with little or no
understanding of the structural geology of the target area. In many areas of complex
hydrogeology this technique has proved to be unsuccessful for a variety of reasons. Specific
causes that have been identified include:

an inadequate understanding of the occurrence of groundwater and the factors affecting

permeability in these terrains, leading to inappropriate exploration planning;

siting of boreholes on geophysical anomalies witl10ut a conceptual understanding of the

geological framework and how it affects the geophysical response, or siting boreholes
without an adequate interpretation of the geophysical data;

the use of only one geophysical method, which makes the interpretation of anomalies
difficult or unsubstantiated;

the use of inappropriate geophysical methods for the specific terrain; and

inappropriate or insufficient quantification of the sustainable yield of boreholes due to

inadequate test pumping procedure or analysis methods.

As the demand for groundwater grows and the more obvious aquifers and target features
become increasingly exploited, it can be expected that further development will have to consider
alternative targets in such problematic and complex fractured geological environments.
Significant savings in exploration and especially drilling costs can be realised if success rates
could be improved. However, it is essential not to consider exploration in isolation from resource
evaluation. If tl1ese complex terrain's are to be developed in a sustainable manner, the
impol1ance of quantifying groundwater resources will be magnified due to the their low
potential.
To improve the borehole success rate in these terrains, and to develop groundwater resources
in a sustainable manner, a multi-disciplinary approach is needed. This approach must
incorporate:
1. an understanding of the structural geology and its influence on the occurrence of
groundwater so that target features can be identified;
2. the identification of appropriate methods and interpretative techniques to delineate target
features in the field;
3. and the use of simple yet effective groundwater resource evaluation methods.
The Council for Geoscience undertook this project to re-evaluate the groundwater resources of
some of these regions using a rigorous scientific approach, with tl1e objective of establishing a
more successful exploration strategy.
A multidisciplinary approach was followed where structural geological mapping, tectonics, strain
analysis, LANDSAT image interpretation and geophysical methods were combined to unravel
the geodynamics of a region and to identify geological structures where groundwater could be
located. These methods include:
1. the identification and categorisation of lineaments observed on LANDSAT using various
digital filtering techniques into strike-frequency and strike-length plots to identify
preferential structural orientations;
2. structural mapping on a regional scale to identify tectonic processes given tl1e
geological and deformation history;
3. structural mapping of joints on an outcrop scale to identify compressional and
extensional orientations through strain analysis; and

4. geophysical exploration of identified potential water bearing structures using magnetics,

resistivity and electromagnetics.
Data collection for exploration is often costly and time consuming, hence it is important that any
proposed techniques be fully analysed to determine their practical viability. Consequently, a
financial analysis of the proposed methodology is presented, demonstrating that, although
exploration costs of the adopted approach are higher, the ultimate establishment costs per
successful water point and the costs of the water are dramatically reduced compared to
conventional methods due to greatly improved success rates and significantly higher yields.
These results suggest that it is cost effective to undertake groundwater exploration in a scientific
manner, whether only successful points are required for hand pumps, or where high yields are
required for reticulated motorised schemes.
From these results, a suggested method for exploration has been formulated to assist witl1
undertaking regional exploration programmes.
2. Research Objectives
The primary objective of this project is to investigate the development potential of groundwater
in problematic or complex terrain where the demand for water for rural communities is expected
to grow, and to develop guidelines for groundwater exploration and development in these
environments. The supporting objectives are to:

investigate the occurrence of groundwater and the geological and structural controls that
distinguish high yielding features from those that have low potential;

evaluate the ability of currently used geophysical metll0ds to distinguish or delineate

target features;

quantify the exploitation potential of groundwater and evaluate methods for estimating
sustainable aquifer and borehole yields;

and to develop guidelines for groundwater exploitation in these environments.

The geological evaluation of target features and the guidelines for groundwater exploration will
assist water practitioners with siting boreholes and interpreting geophysical data. Furthermore it
will reduce the use of inappropriate geophysical methods and/or the. siting of boreholes based
on an incorrect geophysical interpretation. This will reduce the frequency of incorrectly sited
boreholes and increase the drilling success rate.
The evaluation of methods to estimate sustainable yield will assist consultants and
implementing agents with planning pumping tests and. recommending pumping rates so that
groundwater abstraction does not exceed sustainable yield of the aquifer.
3. Research Areas
Field data is provided from 4 study areas in South Africa. The four research areas were selected
on the basis of the following criteria:

The area is densely populated rural region with underdeveloped infrastructure and services and
has been identified as a critical water deficit area by DWAF.
Water scarcity is a serious problem and the area and relies mostly on springs, rivers, hand-dug
wells and some boreholes. Groundwater would be a preferred water option in the area because
of its generally availability even in drought situations and its relatively good quality.
The areas are underlain by fractured bedrock aquifers where success rates and borehole yields
have been historically low, yet high yielding holes are present suggesting that suitable
hydrogeological target features do exist.
The areas which have been studied include: the Natal Metamorphic Province of the KwaZuluNatal south coast in the vicinity of Mapumulo; regions underlain by thick Dwyka Group rocks
inland of the south coast in the vicinity of Harding; the greenstone belt of the Barberton
Supergroup in the vicinity of Tjakastad, and the basement rocks and greenstones of the
Limpopo Mobile Belt in the vicinity of Alldays.
4. Dwyka Group
The area of investigation is situated immediately north of the Transkei border, about 12 km southeast of Harding in KwaZulu-Natal. Water demand in the study area is primarily for
domestic purposes and partly for small-scale agricultural activity. Currently, water supply needs
are met mostly from upland springs, rivers in the valley bottoms, and boreholes equipped with
hand pumps. However, groundwater could play an important role, as it is a reliable water
source, even in drought situations, and is generally of good quality compared to other water
sources in the area. Water supply provision is complicated by the fact that settlement is
concentrated on hill tops and extremely limited access exists to low lying areas, where a more
assured water supply could be located. The extreme topography, however, would create static
pumping heads of over 300 m; hence, groundwater exploration is predominantly restricted to the
hill top regions.
The tillite has a very low permeability and forms a cover of up to 450 m thickness in the area,
which prevents drilling through the formation into a more consistent aquifer. This fact is reflected
in the very poor historical success rate in the area, with 84 % of the holes being dry.
These unfavourable hydraulic properties explain the relatively low yield of the aquifer. An
average-blow yield of 0.14 l/s can be expected in wet boreholes; however, this is not sustainable
on a continuous basis since fractures in the area are seldom interconnected. Hence long-term
sustainability is limited for all but very low pumping rates. The investigations suggest that high
yielding boreholes can only be found at sites where several interconnected fractures exist to
enlarge the general low permeability of the formation. The massive nature of the rock and the
brittle calcite filled fractures suggest that the formation may be a candidate for hydrofracturing to
increase yields and fracture connectivity.
The research study showed that successful groundwater exploration for the area is possible, but
should be limited to establish hand pump schemes. In addition, the water quality of the Dwyka
tillites is suitable for domestic consumption. An evaluation of the structural geology and the
hydrogeological conditions of the area together with a suitable geophysical method for the
environment pushed the drilling success rate up from a historical 12 % to 50 %. The
unfavourable hydraulic properties of the tillite however, limit tl1e yield of holes and median yields

of successful holes could not be increased. Therefore, groundwater abstraction in the area will
mostly be restricted to exploitation through hand pumps to support small communities. High
yielding boreholes are seldom encountered and can only be found at major fault zones where
interconnected fracture zones are present to distinctively enlarge the permeability of the
subsurface. These are located at the margins of the Dwyka Group.
5. Natal Metamorphic Province
The Natal Metamorphic Province underlies 15% of all rural areas in KwaZulu-Natal and
therefore underlies more of the rural areas than any other lithological province. It is also
relatively densely settled. The research area is situated in the Mapumulo District of KwaZuluNatal, about 30 km northwest of Stanger and 75 km north of Durban and extends over
approximately 1300 km2. The area is bounded by steep sandstone cliffs to the east and west,
while the Tugela thrust belt forms the northern boundary.
Water in the study area is used for domestic purposes and partly for small-scale agricultural
activity. Currently, water supply needs are mostly met from rivers and springs, with boreholes
equipped with hand pumps playing a secondary role. However, groundwater could play an
important role, as it is a reliable water source, even in drought situations and is generally of
good quality compared to other water sources in the area. Settlement varies from dispersed and
isolated kraals to dense settlements in communities.
The rocks of the Natal Metamorphic Province are characterised by negligible primary porosity
and groundwater movement is primarily within hard rock aquifers and controlled by zones of
deep weathering, faulting, fracturing and jointing. Accordingly, water strikes or seepage
encountered in the exploration boreholes drilled during the investigations are either associated
with the contact between weathered and solid bedrock, or deep-seated fracture zones of low
pel1neability but high confining pressure. There is no evidence of any additional aquifers at
contacts between different lithologies, suggesting that tectonic contacts are more relevant than
lithological contacts. Lithological variations are more significant in terms of water quality, with
poorer water quality having been recorded in schists and granites (King, 1997).
The area exhibits a poor historical success rate with about 46% of the holes being dry. Borehole
yields are generally low with only 23% giving a yield greater than 1 l/s, however in this study
greater than 75% of boreholes yielded more than 1 l/s. These reported borehole yields are
mainly derived from blow tests and seldom from a long duration test. Therefore the percentage
of boreholes with a sustainable yield exceeding 1 l/s is likely to be much lower. Dry boreholes as
well as high yielding holes have been drilled into all lithologies and are not restricted to any
specific rock type; poor and high yielding holes occur within the same lithology and give
evidence that structures of tectonic origin are a major factor influencing groundwater
occurrence.
During the Critical Intervention Programme, where only geophysical siting was used, 37% of 27
boreholes drilled in the study area were dry and only 2 had blow yields exceeding 1 l/s. The
median yield of successful holes was 0.1 l/s. This study achieved an 89% success rate, with 7
of 9 boreholes exceeding 1 l/s and a median yield of between 1.8-3.3 l/s. This suggests that the
aquifer can be reconsidered in terms of reticulated water supply if a scientifically appropriate
exploration strategy is adhered to.

The research showed that successful groundwater exploration for the area is possible. An
evaluation of the structural geology and the hydrogeological conditions of the area together with
a suitable geophysical metll0d for the environment pushed the drilling success rate up from a
historical 54% (NGDB) and 63% (Critical Intervention Program) to 89%. Beside the improved
success rates, the research did result in significantly improved yields. Whereas the median yield
for the NGDB and CIP records is 0.1 l/s, a median yield of 1.8 l/s was achieved with the applied
exploration method, which accordingly lowers water production costs considerably. The average
yield of all boreholes was pushed up from a historical 0.96 l/s to 2.55 1/s.
6. Limpopo Mobile Belt
The research area is situated near the northern border of the Northern Province in the Limpopo
River catchment and is underlain by rocks of the Limpopo Mobile Belt (LMB). This geological
province is an E- W elongated low lying belt straddling eastern Botswana, southern Zimbabwe
and the northern part of the Northern Province in South Africa. Two study areas were selected
within the belt, one situated in the northern Bochum District west and southwest of Alldays
(study area I), and the other (study area II) is located in Messina District east of Messina (Figure
6-1). Study area I is characteristic of the western part of the LMB, where a quaternary sand
cover overlies the metamorphic basement rocks. Rock outcrops are few and the topography is
level. Study area II represents the situation in the eastern part of the LMB, where the basement
rocks are exposed at surface, with rare occurrences of quaternary cover.
The area exhibits a poor historical success rate with <40%of boreholes yielding water yielding
more than 0.1 l/s. Borehole yields fall mainly in the category between 0.01 and 1 l/s (69% study
area I and 45% study area II), with the median yield of successful boreholes being only 0.39 l/s.
Only 13% of boreholes yield more than 2 l/s. Dry boreholes as well as high yielding boreholes
have been drilled in all litll010gies and are not restricted to any specific rock type.
The aquifers of the Limpopo Mobile Belt are predominantly structurally controlled and significant
water movement is restricted to major fracture and fault zones, primarily related to recent (Post
Karoo) geodynamics. These structures can be extremely high yielding and can generate blow
yields in excess of 20 l/s. In many instances the distance to streams and rivers is indicative of a
fault zone, since many rivers tend to follow structures when they deviate or dogleg from the
northerly surface topographic gradient. The highest yielding boreholes are drilled into ENE
striking features, the orientation considered as extensional in nature.
However, the scale of the feature shows a strong influence on the yield of the boreholes with
regional scale fault having a far better groundwater potential than local scale structures.
The results suggest that the Limpopo Mobile Belt is a poor aquifer due to marginal to poor water
quality (class II-III) related to nitrate levels, low recharge and the extreme heterogeneity in
targets. Low success rates exist concurrently with very high yielding features; however, these
are restricted to mainly regional scale fault zones. Smaller fault zones and alluvial cover along
the streams provide a more limited aquifer. Consequently, water abstraction will have to be
reliant on regional abstraction systems from identified structures and reticulation to the point of
need. Fortunately, the flat topography does not hinder reticulation.
7. Barberton Greenstone Belt

The study showed that an evaluation of the structural geology and the hydrogeological
conditions of the area together with a suitable geophysical method for the environment pushed
the drilling success rate up from a historical 50% (NGDB) to 89%. Beside the improved success
rates, the proposed methodology resulted in significantly improved yields.
A substantial cut in costs in terms of water production expressed as Rills was achieved during
this exploration programme. Historic success rates have resulted in an expenditure of
approximately R24200 for the establishment of each successful borehole. In comparison, with
an exploration budget of about R55000 for the proposed methodology, success rates of 89%
can be expected and establishment costs would come down to about R19875 per successful
borehole.
Median yields were increased from 0.4 l/s to up to 1.0 l/s, which brings down the costs of water
production from 60500 R/l/s in case of random drilling to 18370 R/l/s in this project. The high
median yield achieved during this project suggests that water supply systems in the area could
involve reticulated systems.
Groundwater is an important resource in the study area, providing a clean, reliable, low cost
water source. The geology of the area consists of impermeable granites and meta-basalts
metamorphosed at a low-grade amphibolite schist to green schist facies, Fractures in the
granites have been intruded by extensive quartz veining, which renders them relatively
impermeable and makes them poor targets for groundwater exploration. The meta-basalts are
the best targets for groundwater exploration, especially where fracture zones associated with
faults and dykes are present.
Dip-slip and strike-slip faults were water bearing and are associated with the formation of deep
open cavities that enhance the permeability of the greenstones. The geodynamic and strain
analyses suggest that structures having a NNE -SSW strike direction are more likely to be under
extension and therefore open, hence they are the primary hydrogeological targets. The E- W
striking lineaments are more likely to be strike-slip faults and are also the hydrogeological
targets if the target is not a shear zone where gouge material has reduced permeability. The NS lineaments are expected to have high yielding holes as well, but only if the targeted lineament
is a fault, however, this was not proven by the drilling results.
8. Guidelines for Exploration in Complex Terrain
Potential hydrogeological targets are often selected based on a hydrocensus and/or a
geological review of existing geological maps. Boreholes are subsequently sited using groundbased geophysics, with the EM-34 and magnetometer being the most widely used methods.
This approach has been widely used in the study areas investigated, and has been shown to be
relatively unsuccessful and uneconomical when compared to the results that could be achieved
by a more integrated and geologically focussed approach. However, using data from the Critical
Intervention Programme in KwaZulu-Natal, where the above mentioned geophysical approach
was adopted, the geophysical approach has been shown to be more economical than historical
success rates, however, median yields were NOT increased. The major disadvantage of this
method is that the nature of the hydrogeological targets is rarely understood, neither are the
structural and geological stress conditions that control the orientation of structures, which in turn
control the distribution of groundwater yield. Consequently, the method is commonly no more
than 'anomaly hunting', with geophysical anomalies being attributed to potential weathering
profiles, intrusive contacts, or potentially water bearing fracture zones that are assumed to be

hydrogeological targets. Often little is known about variations in rock mineralogy, the presence
of clay gouge in shears, or the existence of complex folding of the rock fabric, all of which could
result in geophysical anomalies. These conditions result in geophysical anomalies over features
that are not hydrogeologically significant or even water bearing, In addition, little is known about
the regional extensiveness of potential targets or current structural stresses that determine
whether the feature is hydrogeologically significant.
The addition of remote sensing to the exploration toolbox allows the regional extensiveness of
targets to be identified, LANDSAT TM images or aerial photos assist with identifying potential
geological lineaments tl1at are regionally significant so that ground based geophysics can be
more intelligently directed towards the location of specific targets. However, such lineaments are
not always structurally significant, and the geological stresses responsible for tl1e features are
not understood, hence their ultimate water bearing potential is unknown.
A study of the tectonic history and the geodynamics of a region offers the advantage of
providing a framework for identifying targets that are hydrogeologically significant based on tl1e
understanding of current stress conditions. Consequently, structurally significant lineaments can
be identified and geophysical exploration restricted to targets considered to be of greatest
potential.
Hydrocensus
Objective
The objective of a hydrocensus is to hydrogeologically characterise a region in terms of tl1e
physical and economic feasibility of meeting water demands through groundwater by
quantifying:

Expected borehole yields and their variability by geological domain

Historic drilling success rates and probabilities of exceeding specific yields

Proximity of boreholes to geological structures and their yield

Depth to water strikes

Static water levels

Groundwater chemistry

Potential hydrogeological targets

These investigations should attempt to determine the number of boreholes that will be required
to meet water demands, the role of geological structures on yield, the depth to which boreholes
should be drilled, and the suitability of water quality for the desired usage.
The location of high yielding boreholes may also assist in identifying targets that are potentially
high yielding.

A hydrocensus should ideally also consider geological processes or mineralogies that may
negatively impact on groundwater quality in the long term. Critical factors, such as the presence
of volcanic massive sulphide deposits, hydrothermal alteration, carbonaceous shales,
carbonatites etc., may be indicators of the presence of heavy metals, light metals and nonmetals, heavy non-metals, halogens, alkaline earths, rare earths and noble metals that may
pose a significant long term health hazard. These elements may be present in the rock but not
observed in water samples from recently drilled boreholes; their mobility may be controlled by
oxidation-reduction conditions that alter with time. A typical example is arsenic, which is
prevalent in South Africa as arsenopyrites, but whose mobility is controlled by oxidation state.
Consequently, its presence would only begin to appear in water samples after variations in
drawdown due to pumping have introduced oxygen into the formation, resulting in oxidation and
weathering.
Methodology
The hydrocensus is conducted by collecting data from the National Groundwater Data Base and
previous hydrogeological investigations and subsequently overlaying the data onto existing
geological maps using a GIS. The specific processes are:

Inputting hydrocensus data into a GIS database, such as ARCVIEW, and creating layers
for lithology, structures, yield, static water level, water strike depth and water quality

Characterising domains by using domain boundary polygons to separate borehole data

with similar hydrogeological attributes

Determining the percentage of dry boreholes, and the variability in yield distribution of
successful boreholes for each domain Determining the optimum drilling depth for each
domain based on the depth below which few boreholes encounter water

Identifying domains where poor water quality precludes water use by categorising
median water quality

Identifying geological indicators of potential geochemical hazards

Performing a proximity analysis of yield versus distance from known structures to identify
important structures and the importance of structures on borehole success.

Tectonics and Geodynamics

Objective
Geodynamic investigations require that the tectonic history of the target be unravelled so that
mapped, identified or presumed structures and lineaments can be explained in terms of historic
and present day geological strain. Depending on the age of the rocks and the structural
complexity, this process may involve extensive literature review on the crustal evolution of the
region. Since these processes are of a large scale, investigations often are much broader than
the study area. For example, an understanding of the geodynamics of the Natal Metamorphic
Province requires a comprehension of Archean craton movement and offshore transform
faulting along the Aghulas Transform Fault during the break-up of Gondwanaland. The Limpopo

Mobile Belt requires investigation into plate tectonics and craton collision during Archean times,
and subsequent shearing during mobile belt emplacement.
Emphasis is given to tectonic events that resulted in brittle deformation, however, in many cases
brittle deformation occurs along zones of existing weakness resulting from earlier ductile
deformation, such as ENE faulting in the Natal Metamorphic Province along earlier ductile ENE
shears.
Geodynamic investigations aim to develop a conceptual model of pre- post- and syntectonic
geological evolution that describes historical extension, compression and shear orientations in
geological time. The objective is to define a chronologically expected pattern to explain
observed faulting by strain analysis using a strain ellipse. The potential rejuvenation of such
structures by subsequent tectonic events can then be identified and the present strain on
existing structures can be identified. Existing structures considered to be under extension
present hydrogeological targets.
Strain analysis conducted during geodynamic investigations also permits an understanding or
classification of observed lineaments and joint patterns in terms of their origin and present strain
conditions, hence allowing the identification of preferred structures.
Methodology
The process involves investigations into:

Identification of geological domains based on lithology, geochronology and structural

setting

Pre-depositional environment to identify aquifer boundaries and their nature

(depositional-lithological versus post depositional or tectonic). Plate tectonics and its
impact on geological strain in the region

Metamorphism and ductile deformation episodes and their expression in the lithologies

Intrusive and volcanic history

Recent tectonic history and processes. Mapping of faults and shears

Application of strain analysis based on historic strain and stress to derive a pattern of
faulting, folding, thrusting and shearing

Verification of predicted faulting against observed fault pattern

Structural Analysis
Objective
A structural analysis attempts to identify strain conditions in rocks by identifying compressional
and tensional orientations by mapping the strike and dip of joints and plotting the data on

stereonets. The objective is to identify the orientation that is extensional, so that geological
structures aligned perpendicular to extension can be identified. These targets are then assumed
to be open and are targeted as preferential targets.
The risk of using this methodology is that in many cases rocks have been exposed to several
tectonic events, perhaps with different stress orientations, hence jointing from several
generations may be superimposed in joint patterns. Consequently, joints may be aligned in
many orientations and the resulting structural analysis would be meaningless unless conducted
on subsets related to a specific event. Identifying joint patterns from specific events requires a
geodynamic analysis to identify stresses originating at various periods in time. A specific
example can be observed in the Limpopo Mobile Belt, where joints are the result of late Archean
shear, with post Karoo extension superimposed. For this reason, it is often necessary to conduct
joint mapping in the most recent lithological formation present, even if outside the study area, to
identify stresses originating from the most recent tectonic event. This process allows coarse
dating of joint sets.
Methodology
The investigations conducted include:

Identifying the age relationship of various formations present in the region

Mapping of the strike and dip of joint sets in the various lithologies post-dating the study
area, as identified at road cuttings and stream beds

Plotting joint lineation and bedding data on stereonets

Classification of joints by age relationship or by dip to categorise features by tectonic

origin

Derivation of compressional and extensional relationships by structural analysis

Remote Sensing
Objectives
The objective of using remote sensing methods is to identify structures that may be of
hydrogeological significance and that are not noticeable in the field, or that have not already
been mapped. These can be identified by satellite images using variations in surface
reflectance, by aerial photos using variations in tone and contrast, or by airborne geophysics,
which is based on variations in rock physical properties. Often digital filters are used to enhance
features considered to be of interest, such as vegetation, structure, soil moisture, clay content,
magnetic field etc.
Identified lineaments are presumed to have a hydrogeological significance, and are presumed
to be related to lithological variations, faults, variations in saturation, topographical depressions
are linear vegetation trends. However, field proofing is necessary to verify the nature of the
identified lineament.

Unless a geodynamic analysis has been undertaken, it is usually not possible to identify the
stress regime of a lineament or its structural significance. To some extent this is overcome by an
analysis of lineament orientation and length so that the predominant regional scale features can
be identified.
The usefulness of remote sensing is hindered where:

disturbance of the land surface hinders lineament identification

surface cover such as sands prevents identification of subsurface structures

lineaments are related to non-structural features such as lithological variations of nonhydrogeological significance

rock physical properties are not sufficiently distinct to permit geophysical delineation
.features are too narrow to be delineated at the scale of the image

Methodology
Remote sensing investigations ideally require the following steps:

Selection of applicable digital features to highlight features of interest

Identification of lineaments and overlaying onto topographic and geological maps using
a GIS

Preparation of strike-frequency rose diagrams to identify dominant orientations

Preparation of strike-total length plots to identify regional orientations and trends.

Preparation of strike-maximum length plots to identify regional structures

Identification of target lineament orientations based on geodynamics, structural analysis,

and lineament strike analysis

Field Verification Investigations

Objective
Field proofing investigations are required to idel1tify the nature of target lineaments to determine
their nature and origin, and to pinpoint the lineaments in the field using observation or
geophysics with due consideration being given to constraints on siting. The objective is to
identify drilling sites on structural features identified as being of hydrogeological significance at
locations where drilling and water abstraction are physically, economically, socially and legally
acceptable.
A field survey is also required to evaluate the effect of constraints on target site selection.
These constraints may include:

topographic and access constraints affecting drilling rig mobilisation

water demand location and topographical constraints on reticulation or distribution

quantitative water demand and its impact on target location in terms of large regional
structures versus smaller local structures

access to properties and water rights

contamination potential and vulnerability

Acceptance of drilling site by stakeholders

These constraints impact on the point at which specific linear targets may be targeted and
ultimately determine where the boreholes can be sited.
Methodology
Field investigations include:

Observation of land use and geology to identify the nature of lineaments and ensure that
they are structurally significant

Observation and evaluation of constraints in terms of drilling rig accessibility, topographic

constraints between source and demand location, distance from demand points,
contamination

Field geophysics to pinpoint the structure in the field at potential target points

9. Conclusions and Recommendations

The results obtained in the 4 selected study areas show that the methodology employed results
in increased borehole success rates compared to previous drilling, as recorded in the National
Groundwater Database and the Critical Intervention Programme, which utilised a geophysical
approach:
Borehole Success Indicators
Geology
Dwyka Tillite
NMP
LMB
BGB
Financial Indicators

1
12%
50%
40%
50%

Success Rate
2
3
27%
50%
63%
89%
38%
66%
89%

1
0.16 l/S
0.1 l/S
0.39 l/s
0.4 l/s

Median Yield
2
3
0.1 l/S 0.1 l/S
0.1 l/s 1.8 l/s
0.1 l/s 3.9 l/s
1.2 l/s

Geology

R/successful borehole

Dwyka
NMP
LMB
BGB

1
99473
22990
30250
24200

2
52100
20710
34855

3
28600
18370
24390
19875

R/l/s
1
621706
229900
77564
60500

2
521000
207100
348550

3
286000
10206
6254
18370

The project indicates that groundwater exploration is significantly more cost effective when
structural controls on groundwater occurrence are considered so that only potentially significant
targets are considered for field investigation. However, groundwater exploration exhibits a
significant economy of scale and unit costs per borehole decrease with the number of boreholes
drilled. In the Dwyka Tillites exploration costs as a proportion of total borehole establishment
costs were shown to drop from 27% for 3 boreholes to 14% for 20 boreholes to 12% for 50
boreholes. Consequently, such an approach is warranted only when the exploration costs can
be distributed over several boreholes. Based on financial analyses for establishing 10
boreholes, the proposed methodology proved to be cost-effective in all the geological provinces
investigated. Cost-effectiveness would subsequently increase with the number of boreholes
required in each study area.
Consequently, cost effective groundwater exploration should:

Have a regional focus and be based on identifying target features for a region rather
than be locally demand driven, where boreholes are sited only for a few specific
communities. This will minimise the exploration cost overhead per borehole due to the
economy of scale principle. However, subsequent drilling of targets can be locally
demand driven according to priorities.

Consider the expertise required rather than the expertise locally available. Borehole
siting is commonly undertaken by a local consultant using the tools and skills he has
available. This often results in the repetition of poor practice and the use of
instrumentation that cannot achieve the required results. This was seen to be the case in
KwaZulu-Natal, where the EM-34 was consistently applied in spite of poor results
resulting from its limited depth of penetration and a lack of understanding of the nature of
structurally significant targets.

In complex structural environments, exploration should be guided by a hydrogeologist

with an understanding of the tectonic setting and geodynamics, together with the water
bearing properties of identified targets rather than be restricted to 'divining' using a
variety for instrumentation.

Consider the geological nature of targets prior to geophysical investigation. Some of the
high yielding targets identified and drilled during this study did not exhibit any
geophysical anomalies using magnetics or electromagnetics, yet were considered to be
of structural significance and proved to be high yielding. Conversely, some geophysical
anomalies yielded dry boreholes on targets that were drilled in spite of not being
structurally relevant (compressional lineaments, compressional dykes, lithological
variations etc.).

Consider the nature of the geological environment. hence no fixed methodology is

applicable. Not all the methodologies adopted proved to be successful in all areas. For
example, a quaternary cover may limit the usefulness of remote sensing, or several
generations of tectonic events super imposed on a lithology may limit structural analysis
unless a younger formation is present.

Groundwater exploration should be tendered on a per successful site or R/l/s

basis. Define Outputs Rather than Inputs. The current practice of sub-contracting
borehole siting to geohydrological consultants purely on cost or a per borehole sited
basis does not promote incentive to increase success rates. In fact, the opposite may be
the case, with consultants' income increasing with the number of boreholes sited and the
number of boreholes where drilling supervision is provided, regardless of success. The
sub-contracting of borehole siting independent of drilling success also reduces the
responsibility of the Implementing Agent, who carries the drilling budget. An incentive to
increase success rates could be achieved by tendering groundwater exploration on a per
successful site or a per R/l/s basis, placing the onus for success on the tenderer. This
approach would also encourage consultants to use the most appropriate methodology
for exploration, as opposed to the current approach adopted by OW AF where the
approach is prescribed and standard rates are defined, as occurred during the Critical
Intervention Programme as well as subsequent programmes such as BOTT.

The above-mentioned conclusions suggest that there is a significant need for a fundamental
paradigm shift in groundwater exploration in South Africa. All of the above lessons can be
considered as being opposed or contradictory to the current practice of groundwater exploration
for rural water supply.
10. Recommendations for Future Research
The major shortcoming encountered during the project was that the current situation in South
Africa has resulted in a fundamental split between geological mapping and groundwater
exploration. Geological mapping has been lithologically and petrologically oriented, with little
attention being paid to structures other than mapping the location of major faults. Little or no
attention has been paid to joint mapping to permit a structural analysis. In addition, tectonic
evolution, where it has been considered, has often ignored more recent post- deposition
deformation. For example, resulting strain and stresses on Archean rocks resulting from the
break-up of Gondwanaland is rarely described and the geological community has concentrated
on Archean tectonics and unravelling the complexities related to the ages of metamorphic
episodes. As a result, a hydrogeologist considering a structural analysis of target features must
go through a mapping exercise. This project has shown that structural analysis usually requires
2 days to complete 4 1:50 000 sheets, however, a tectonic interpretation may require extensive
literature review and the application of strain analyses to an observed fault set since the
required information on recent tectonics is rarely available. This shortcoming requires that the
scope of geological mapping be broadened if the results are to be of greater value to the
hydrogeological community. A programme of structural mapping is urgently required if
groundwater targets are to be regionally identified.
In contrast, the hydrogeological community has paid scant if any attention to the importance of
geodynamics and structural analysis in groundwater exploration. Consequently, exploration has
not been focussed and has been relegated to an exercise in anomaly hunting that adds little to
the identification of future targets. A structural understanding of the aquifer is rarely built up and

mistakes are commonly repeated. This shortcoming may reflect a lack of training in structural
geology in South Africa, which is fundamental to groundwater exploration in fractured aquifers.
This lack of awareness has resulted in minimal attention being given to structural models in
hydrogeological investigations.
Urgent attention also needs to be given to cost-benefit analyses of past and current
groundwater exploration strategies, as it is only by using the language of economics that the
voice of hydrogeologists calling for a revision in exploration strategy will be heard.
Figure 1. Flow Chart of the Groundwater Exploration process