Introduction to Finite Elements
Development of Truss
Equations
Trusses: Engineering structures that are composed only
of two-force members. e.g., bridges, roof supports
Actual trusses: Airy structures composed of slender
members (I-beams, channels, angles, bars etc) joined
together at their ends by welding, riveted connections or
large bolts and pins
A typical truss structure
Gusset plate
Ideal trusses:
Assumptions
Ideal truss members are connected only at their ends.
Ideal truss members are connected by frictionless pins (no
moments)
The truss structure is loaded only at the pins
Weights of the members are neglected
A typical truss structure
Frictionless pin
These assumptions allow us to idealize each truss
member as a two-force member (members loaded only
at their extremities by equal opposite and collinear
forces)
member in
compression
member in
tension
Connecting pin
FEM analysis scheme
Step 1: Divide the truss into bar/truss elements connected to
each other through special points (nodes)
Step 2: Describe the behavior of each bar element (i.e. derive its
stiffness matrix and load vector in local AND global coordinate
system)
Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire truss by putting
together the behavior of each of the bar elements (by assembling
their stiffness matrices and load vectors)
Step 4: Apply appropriate boundary conditions and solve
Stiffness matrix of bar element
E, A
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
L: Length of bar
A: Cross sectional area of bar
E: Elastic (Youngs) modulus of bar
u (x ) :displacement of bar as a function of local coordinate x of bar
The strain in the bar at x
du
(x)
dx
The stress in the bar (Hookes law)
(x ) E (x )
d 2x
Tension in the bar
T(x ) EA
d 1x
x
x
u (x ) 1 d 1x d 2x
L
L
L
Assume that the displacement u (x ) is varying linearly along the bar
x
x
u (x ) 1 d1x d 2x
L
L
du d 2x d 1x
Then, strain is constant along the bar: dx
L
E
Stress is also constant along the bar: E d 2x d 1x
L
Tension is constant along the bar:
EA
T EA
d 2x d 1x
L
The bar is acting like a spring with stiffness k EA
L
Recall the lecture on springs
E, A
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
Two nodes: 1, 2
Nodal displacements: d 1x d 2x
Nodal forces: f1x f2x
Spring constant: k EA
L
Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
Element force
vector
f1x k - k d 1x
f k d
f 2x - k k d 2x
Element nodal
Element
stiffness
matrix
displacement
vector
What if we have 2 bars?
E1, A1
E2, A2
L2
L1
This is equivalent to the following system of springs
k1
E1A1
L1
k2
E 2A2
L2
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x
PROBLEM
d2x
d3x
Problem 1: Find the stresses in the two-bar assembly loaded as
shown below
E, 2A
E, A
P
1
2
3
L
L
Solution: This is equivalent to the following system of springs
k1
2EA
L
k2
EA
L
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x
d2x
d3x
We will first compute the displacement at node 2 and then the
stresses within each element
The global set of equations can be generated using the technique
developed in the lecture on springs
k1
k1
k k k
1 1 2
0
k2
here
0 d1x F1x
k2 d 2 x F2 x
d F
k2
3x
3x
d1x d3 x 0 and F2 x P
Hence, the above set of equations may be explicitly written as
k1d 2 x F1x
(1)
(k1 k2 )d 2 x P (2)
k2 d 2 x F3 x
(3)
P
PL
From equation (2) d 2 x
k1 k2 3EA
To calculate the stresses:
For element #1 first compute the element strain
(1)
d 2 x d1x d 2 x
P
L
L 3EA
and then the stress as
(1)
(1)
3A
Similarly, in element # 2
(element in tension)
d3 x d 2 x
d2 x
P
L
L
3EA
P
(2)
(2)
E
(element in compression)
3A
(2)
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
Inter-element continuity of a two-bar structure
Bars in a truss have various orientations
member in
compression
member in
tension
Connecting pin
d 2y , f 2y
d 2y , f2y 0
d 2x , f2x
d 2x , f 2x
d1y , f1y
d 1y , f1y 0
d 1x , f1x
d1x , f1x
x
At node 1:
d1x
d1x
f
1x
f1x
d 1y
d1y
f1y 0
f1y
At node 2:
d 2x
d 2x
f 2x
f 2x
d 2y
d 2y
f2y 0
f 2y
In the global coordinate system, the vector of nodal
displacements and loads
d1x
d
d 1y ;
d 2x
d 2y
f1x
f
f 1y
f 2x
f 2y
Our objective is to obtain a relation of the form
f k d
41
4 4 41
Where k is the 4x4 element stiffness matrix in global coordinate
system
The key is to look at the local coordinates
d 2y , f2y 0
d 1y , f1y 0
d 2x , f2x
f1x k - k d 1x
f 2x - k k d 2x
d 1x , f1x
x
Rewrite as f
1x
k
f1y 0
f 2x - k
f 0
2y
EA
L
0 - k 0 d1x
0 0 0 d 1y f k d
0 k 0 d 2x
0 0 0 d
2y
NOTES
1. Assume that there is no stiffness in the local ^y direction.
2. If you consider the displacement at a point along the local x
direction as a vector, then the components of that vector along the
global x and y directions are the global x and y displacements.
3. The expanded stiffness matrix in the local coordinates is
symmetric and singular.
NOTES
5. In local coordinates we have
f k d
41
44 41
But or goal is to obtain the following relationship
f k d
41
4 4 41
Hence, need a relationship between d and d
d 1y
and between f and f
d1x
d
d 1y
d 2x
d 2y
d 1x
d
d 1y
d
2x
d
2y
d1x
d1x
d 2x
d 2x
d1y
d 2y
d 2y
Need to understand
how the components
of a vector change
with coordinate
transformation
Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
y
y
v x
v y cos
vx
v y
vy
v x cos
v y sin
v x sin
Angle q is
measured positive
in the counter
clockwise direction
from the +x axis)
x
The vector v has components (vx, vy) in the global coordinate system
and (v^x, v^y) in the local coordinate system. From geometry
v x v x cos v y sin
v y v x sin v y cos
In matrix form
v x cos sin v x
v
y sin cos v y
Or
v x l m v x
v
v
m
l
y
y
Direction cosines
where
l cos q
m sin q
Transformation matrix for a single vector in 2D
*
m
l
T
v
relates
T
m
l
v x
v x are components of the same
where v and v
v y
v y vector in local and global
*
coordinates, respectively.
Relationship between d and d for the truss element
d 1y
At node 1
At node 2
d 1x
* d1x
T
d1y
d1y
d 2x
* d 2x
T
d 2y
d 2y
d1x
d 2y
d1x
d
2x
Putting these together d T d
d 2y
d 2x
d 1x l
m 0
0 d1x
0
0 d1y
d 1y m l
d
0
0
l
m 2x
d 2x
d
d 0
0 m l 2y
2y
d
d1y
T *
T
44
0
0
*
T
Relationship between f and f for the truss element
At node 1
At node 2
f1y
f1x
* f1x
T
f1y
f1y
f1x
f2x
* f 2x
T
f 2y
f 2y
f 2x
f 2y
f 2x
f1x l
m 0
0 f1x
0
0 f1y
f1y m l
f
0
0
l
m 2x
f 2x
f
f 0
0 m l 2y
2y
T
f2y
f1x
Putting these together f Tf
f1y
T *
T
44
0
0
*
T
Important property of the transformation matrix T
The transformation matrix is orthogonal, i.e. its inverse is its
transpose
1
T T
Use the property that l2+m2=1
Putting all the pieces together
d 2y , f2y
d 1y , f1y
d T d
d 2x , f2x
f k d
d 1x , f1x
x
The desired relationship is
Where
f T f
f k d
41
Tf k Td
1
f T kTd
4 4 41
k T k T is the element stiffness matrix in the
T
44
44 44 44
global coordinate system
m 0
0
l
m l
0
0
T
0
0
l
m
0 m l
0
l2
lm
2
lm
m
EA
T
k T k T
L l 2 lm
2
lm m
k
0
k
- k
0 - k 0
0 0 0
0 k 0
0 0 0
l 2 lm
2
lm m
l2
lm
2
lm
m
Computation of the direction cosines
x2 x1
L
y y
m sin q 2 1
L
l cos q
2 (x2,y2)
1 (x ,y )
1 1
What happens if I reverse the node numbers?
x1 x2
l ' cos q
l
L
y1 y2
m' sin q
m
L
(x2,y2)
Question: Does the stiffness matrix change?
1 (x1,y1)
Example Bar element for stiffness matrix evaluation
E 30 10 6 psi
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
A 2 in 2
L 60 in
q 30
4
3
30 10 6 2 4
k
3
60
4
3
3
4
1
4
3
4
1
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
4
1
4
3
4
1
4
lb
in
3
l cos 30
2
1
m sin 30
2
Computation of element strains
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
Recall that the element strain is
d 1x
d 1y
d 2x d 1x 1
1 0 1 0
L
L
d
2x
d
2y
1
1 0 1 0 d
L
1
1 0 1 0 Td
L
m 0
0
l
m l
0
0
1
d
1 0 1 0
0
0
l
m
L
0 m l
0
1
l m l md
L
d 1x
d
1
l m l m 1y
d
L
2x
d 2y
Computation of element stresses stress and tension
Recall that the element stress is
E
E
d 2x d 1x l
L
L
Recall that the element tension is
EA
T EA
l
L
m l
m d
m l
md
Steps in solving a problem
Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table
linking local and global nodes; also form the table of
direction cosines (l, m)
Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element in
global coordinate system with global numbering
Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the
global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table
Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions
Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the unknown
displacements
Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces
Node element connectivity table
ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1
1
El 1
2
60
60
L
El 3
60
El 2
1 (x ,y )
1 1
2 (x2,y2)
Stiffness matrix of element 1
d1x d1y d2x d2y
d1x
(1)
d1y
d2x
d2y
Stiffness matrix of element 3
d3x d3y d1x d1y
d3x
( 3)
d3y
d1x
d1y
Stiffness matrix of element 2
d2x d2y d3x d3y
d2x
( 2)
d2y
d3x
d3y
There are 4 degrees of
freedom (dof) per
element (2 per node)
(1)
Global stiffness matrix
d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y
d1x
d1y
d2x
d2y
d3x
d3y
66
How do you incorporate boundary conditions?
( 2)
( 3)
Example 2
The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
E: Youngs modulus
A: Cross sectional area of each bar
Solve for
P1 (1) d and d
2x
2y
(2) Stresses in each bar
y
3
El#2 P2
El#1
2
45o
1
Solution
Step 1: Node element connectivity table
ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1
1
2
2
Table of nodal coordinates
Node
Lcos45
Lsin45
2Lsin45
Table of direction cosines
ELEMENT
Length
x2 x1
y y
m 2 1
length
length
cos45
sin45
-cos45
sin45
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
(1)
l2
lm
m2
EA lm
L l 2 lm
lm
d1x
l 2 lm
lm m 2
l2
lm
lm
m2
d1y d2x
d2y
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
EA
2L 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
d1x
d1y
d2x
d2y
Stiffness matrix of element 2
d2x d2y
(2)
d3x
d3y
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
EA
2L 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
d2x
d2y
d3x
d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
EA 1 1 2 0 1 1
K
2L 1 1 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
The final set of equations is
Kd F
Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions
0
0
d2 x
d
d 2 y
0
Hence reduced set of equations to solve for unknown
displacements at node 2
EA 2
2L
0
0 d 2 x P1
2 d 2 y P2
Step 5: Solve for unknown displacements
P1 L
d2 x
EA
d
2 y P2 L
EA
Step 6: Obtain stresses in the elements
For element #1:
E 1
(1)
L 2
1
2
E
PP
(d 2 x d 2 y ) 1 2
2L
A 2
d1x
d
1 1y
2 d2 x
d 2 y
0
0
For element #2:
E 1
1
(2)
L 2
2
1
2
E
P1 P2
(d 2 x d 2 y )
2L
A 2
d2 x
d
1 2y
2 d3 x
d3 y
Multi-point constraints
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
Figure 3-19 Plane truss with inclined boundary
conditions at node 3 (see problem worked out in class)
Problem 3: For the plane truss
y
P
El#2
2
El#1
P=1000 kN,
L=length of elements 1 and 2 = 1m
E=210 GPa
A = 610-4m2 for elements 1 and 2
= 6 2 10-4 m2 for element 3
El#3
45o
1
Determine the unknown displacements
and reaction forces.
Solution
Step 1: Node element connectivity table
ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
Table of nodal coordinates
Node
Table of direction cosines
ELEMENT
Length
x2 x1
y y
m 2 1
length
length
L 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
(1)
l2
lm
m2
EA lm
L l 2 lm
lm
l 2 lm
lm m 2
l2
lm
lm
d1x
m2
d1y d2x
0 0
9
-4
(210 10 )(6 10 ) 0 1
0 0
1
0 1
d2y
0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0
d1x
d1y
d2x
d2y
Stiffness matrix of element 2 d2x d2y
(2)
1
9
-4
(210 10 )(6 10 ) 0
1
1
d3x
d3y
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
d2x
d2y
d3x
d3y
Stiffness matrix of element 3
d1x
(3)
d1y
d3x
d3y
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
(210 109 )(6 2 10-4 ) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
d1x
d1y
d3x
d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5
0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5
0
0
1 0
1
0
5
K 1260 10
1
0
1
0
0
0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5
0.5
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5
The final set of equations is
Kd F
Eq(1)
N/m
Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions
0
0
d 2 x
d3 x
d3 y
Also,
d 3y 0
y
P
El#2
2
El#1
El#3
45o
1
in the local coordinate system of element 3
How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)
coordinates?
F1x
F
1y
F
2y
F3 x
F3 y
Also,
F 3x 0
y
P
El#2
2
El#1
El#3
45o
1
in the local coordinate system of element 3
How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)
coordinates?
Using coordinate transformations
d 3x
d 3 y
l
m
d 3x
2
d 3 y
1
d 3y 0
m d3 x
1
lm
l d3 y
2
1
1
3x
3 y
2
2
3x
1 d3 y
1
3
y
3
x
(Multi-point constraint)
1
d 3y
d3 y d3 x 0
2
Eq (2)
d3 y d3 x 0
Similarly for the forces at node 3
F 3x
F 3 y
l
m
F 3x
2
F 3 y
1
m F3 x
1
lm
n F3 y
2
1
1
3x
3 y
2
2
3x
1 F3 y
1
3
y
3
x
2
2
F 3x 0
1
F 3x
F3 y F3 x 0
2
Eq (3)
F3 y F3 x 0
Therefore we need to solve the following equations simultaneously
Kd F
Eq(1)
Eq(2)
d3 y d3 x 0
F3 y F3 x 0
Eq(3)
Incorporate boundary conditions and reduce Eq(1) to
1
1260 105
1
1
1.5
0.5
0 d 2 x
0.5 d 3 x
0.5
d3 y
F3 x
F
3y
Write these equations out explicitly
1260 105 ( d 2 x d3 x ) P
Eq(4)
1260 105 ( d 2 x 1.5d3 x 0.5d3 y ) F3 x Eq(5)
1260 105 (0.5d3 x 0.5d3 y ) F3 y
Eq(6)
Add Eq (5) and (6)
1260 105 (d 2 x 2d3 x d3 y ) F3 x F3 y 0 using Eq(3)
1260 105 ( d 2 x 3d3 x ) 0 using Eq(2)
d 2 x 3d3 x Eq(7)
1260 105 (3d 3 x d 3 x ) P
Plug this into Eq(4)
2520 105 d 3 x 106
d3 x 0.003968m
d 2 x 3d3 x 0.0119m
Compute the reaction forces
F1x
0
F
0
1y
5
F2 y 1260 10 0
F
1
3x
0
F3 y
500
500
0 kN
500
500
0.5
0.5
0
1.5
0.5
0.5
d
0.5
2x
0 d3 x
d
0.5
3y
0.5
ll
mm
lm
Physical significance of the stiffness matrix
In general, we will have a stiffness matrix of the form
k11
K k 21
k 31
k12
k 22
k 32
k13
k 23
k 33
And the finite element force-displacement relation
k11 k12 k13 d1 F1
k
21 k 22 k 23 d 2 F2
k 31 k 32 k 33 d 3 F3
Physical significance of the stiffness matrix
The first equation is
k11d1 k12 d 2 k13 d 3 F1
Force equilibrium
equation at node 1
Columns of the global stiffness matrix
What if d1=1, d2=0, d3=0 ?
F1 k11
While d.o.f 2 and 3 are held fixed
Force along d.o.f 1 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1
F2 k 21 Force along d.o.f 2 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1
F3 k 31 Force along d.o.f 3 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1
Similarly we obtain the physical significance of the other
entries of the global stiffness matrix
In general
Force at d.o.f i due to unit displacement at d.o.f j
k ij = keeping
all the other d.o.fs fixed
Example
The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
E: Youngs modulus
A: Cross sectional area of each bar
Solve for d2x and d2y using the physical
P1 interpretation approach
y
3
El#2 P2
El#1
2
45o
1
Solution
Notice that the final set of equations will be of the form
k11
k
21
k12 d 2 x P1
k22 d 2 y P2
Where k11, k12, k21 and k22 will be determined using the
physical interpretation approach
To obtain the first column
2 1.cos(45)
y
3
F2y=k21
El#2
F2y=k21
2
x
1 1.cos(45)
d2x=1
Force equilibrium
F
F
T2
F2x=k11
2
El#1
1
k11
d
1
2
x
apply
1
k
d2 y 0
21
2
y
k11 T1 cos(45) T2 cos(45) 0
k21 T1 sin(45) T2 sin(45) 0
F2x=k11
T1
1
2
Force-deformation relations
EA
T1 1
L
EA
T2 2
L
Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations
k11
T1 T2
k21
2
T1 T2
2
EA
1 2
2L
EA
1 2
2L
Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)
1
2
1
2 1.cos(45)
2
1 1.cos(45)
Finally
EA
EA 2
EA
k11
( )
1 2
L
2L
2L 2
EA
k21
1 2 0
2L
k12
d
0
2
x
apply
d2 y 1
k22 y
To obtain the second column
y
3
El#2
El#1
1
2 1.cos(45)
2
2
d2y=1
F2y=k22
T2
F2x=k12
T1
x
1 1.cos(45)
1
2
Force equilibrium
F
F
1
2
k12 T1 cos(45) T2 cos(45) 0
k22 T1 sin(45) T2 sin(45) 0
Force-deformation relations
EA
T1 1
L
EA
T2 2
L
Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations
k12
T1 T2
k22
2
T1 T2
2
EA
1 2
2L
EA
1 2
2L
Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)
1 1.cos(45)
1
2
2 1.cos(45)
1
2
This negative is due to compression
Finally
EA
k12
1 2 0
2L
EA
EA 2
EA
k22
(
)
1 2
L
2L
2L 2
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
3D Truss (space truss)
In local coordinate system
f1x
k
f1y 0
f1z 0
f 2x k
f 0
2y
f 0
2z
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 k
0 0
0 0
0 k
0 0
0 0
f k d
0
0
0
0
0
0
d 1x
0
0 1y
0 d 1z
0 d 2x
0 d
2y
0
d 2z
The transformation matrix for a single vector in 3D
*
d T d
l1
*
T l 2
l3
m1
m2
m3
n1
n2
n3
2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
l1, m1 and n1 are the direction cosines of x^
l1 cos q x
m1 cos q y
n1 cos q z
Transformation matrix T relating the local and global
displacement and load vectors of the truss element
d T d
T *
T
66
0
f T f
0
*
T
Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
k T k T
T
66
66 66 66
2
l1 2
l1 m1
l1 n1
l1
l1 m1 l1 n1
2
2
m1
m1 n1 l1 m1 m1 m1 n1
l1 m1
2
2
l
n
m
n
n
l
n
m
n
n
EA 1 1
T
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
k T kT
2
2
L l1
l1 m1 l1 n1
l1
l1 m1
l1 n1
2
l m m 2 m n l m
m
m
n
1
1 1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
2
2
l1 n1
m1 n1
n1
l1 n1 m1 n1 n1
Notice that the direction cosines of only the local ^x axis enter the
k matrix
Analyze the space truss shown in Figure 318. The truss is
composed of four nodes, whose coordinates (in inches) are
shown in the figure, and three elements, whose crosssectional
areas are given in the figure. The modulus of elasticity E
1:2 106 psi for all elements. A load of 1000 lb is applied at
node 1 in the negative z direction. Nodes 24 are supported
by ball-and-socket joints and thus constrained from
movement in the x; y, and z directions. Node 1 is constrained
from movement in the y direction by the roller shown in
Figure 318.
EA
k T kT
L
T
Element 3
l12 l1m1 l1n1
2
l1m1 m1 m1n1
l n m n n 2
1 1
1
1 1
Element 1
Element 2
l1
l1l1
m1
l1m1
l1n1
n1
m1m1
m1n1
n1n1
