NOUNS

Definition
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Whatever exists, we
assume, can be named, and that name is a noun. A proper noun, which names a
specific person, place, or thing (Carlos, Queen Marguerite, Middle East, Jerusalem,
Malaysia, Presbyterianism, God, Spanish, Buddhism, the Republican Party), is
almost always capitalized. A proper noun used as an addressed person's name is
called a noun of address.Common nouns name everything else, things that
usually are not capitalized.
A group of related words can act as a single noun-like entity
within a sentence. A Noun Clause contains a subject and verb and
can do anything that a noun can do:
What he does for this town is a blessing.
Click on "Noun
A Noun Phrase, frequently a noun accompanied by modifiers, is a School" to read
group of related words acting as a noun: the oil depletion and hear Lynn
allowance; the abnormal, hideously enlarged nose.

Ahren's
Noun

There is a separate section on word combinations that

become Compound Nouns such as daughter-in-law, halfmoon, and stick-in-the-mud.
Categories of Nouns

"A
is

Person Place or
Thing"

(from

Scholastic
Rock,

1973).

Schoolhouse

Nouns can be classified further as count nouns, which name Rock and its
anything that can be counted (four books, two continents, a few characters
dishes, a dozen buildings); mass nouns (or non-count nouns), andother
which name something that can't be counted (water, air, energy, elements

are

blood); and collective nouns, which can take a singular form but trademarks and
are composed of more than one individual person or items (jury, service
team, class, committee, herd). We should note that some words of

marks

American

Broadcasting
Companies,
Inc. Used with
permission.

can be either a count noun or a non-count noun depending on how they're being
used in a sentence:
a. He got into trouble. (non-count)
b. He had many troubles. (countable)
c. Experience (non-count) is the best teacher.
d. We had many exciting experiences (countable) in college.
Whether these words are count or non-count will determine whether they can be
used with articles and determiners or not. (We would not write "He got
into the troubles," but we could write about "The troubles of Ireland."
Some texts will include the category of abstract nouns, by which we mean the
kind of word that is not tangible, such as warmth, justice, grief, and peace. Abstract
nouns are sometimes troublesome for non-native writers because they can appear
with determiners or without: "Peace settled over the countryside." "The skirmish
disrupted the peace that had settled over the countryside." See the section
on Plurals for additional help withcollective nouns, words that can be singular or
plural, depending on context.
Forms of Nouns
Nouns can be in the subjective, possessive, and objective case. The
word case defines the role of the noun in the sentence. Is it a subject, an object, or
does it show possession?

The English professor [subject] is tall.

He chose the English professor [object].

The English professor's [possessive] car is green.

Nouns in the subject and object role are identical in form; nouns that show the
possessive, however, take a different form. Usually an apostrophe is added followed

by the letter s (except for plurals, which take the plural "-s" ending first, and then add
the apostrophe). See the section onPossessives for help with possessive forms.
There is also a table outlining the cases of nouns and pronouns.
Almost all nouns change form when they become plural, usually with the simple
addition of an -s or -es. Unfortunately, it's not always that easy, and a separate
section on Plurals offers advice on the formation of plural noun forms.
Assaying for Nouns*
Back in the gold rush days, every little town in the American Old West had an
assayer's office, a place where wild-eyed prospectors could take their bags of ore for
official testing, to make sure the shiny stuff they'd found was the real thing, not "fool's
gold." We offer here some assay tests for nouns. There are two kinds of tests: formal
and functional what a word looks like (the endings it takes) and how a word
behaves in a sentence.

Formal Tests
1. Does the word contain a nounmaking morpheme? organization,
misconception,
statehood,

weirdness,
government,

democracy, philistinism, realtor, tenacity, violinist

2. Can the word take a plural-making morpheme? pencils,
boxes
3. Can the word take a possessive-making morpheme? today's,
boys'

Function Tests
1. Without modifiers, can the word directly follow an article and
create

grammatical

etc.)? the state, anapple, a crate

unit

(subject,

object,

2. Can it fill the slot in the following sentence: "(The)

_________ seem(s) all right." (or substitute other predicates
such as unacceptable, short, dark, depending on the word's
meaning)?
Testing the Tests:
With most nouns, the test is clear. "State," for example, can be a plural
("states"), become a possessive ("state's"), follow an article ("a/the state"), and fit in
the slot ("the state seems all right"). It doesn't have a noun-making morpheme, but it
passes all the other tests; it can pass as a noun. (The fact that "state" can also be a
verb "We state our case" is not relevant.) "Greyness" cannot take plural ending
nor can it be possessive, but it does contain a noun-making morphene and it can
follow an article and fit in the slot sentence. Can the word "grey," which is obviously
also an adjective, be a noun? It's hard to imagine it passing any of the formal tests,
but it can follow an article and fill the slot: "The grey seems acceptable." And what
about "running," which is often part of a verb (He is running for office)? Again, it won't
pass the formal tests, but it will fit the slot sentence: "Running is all right." (It can also
follow an article, but in rather an odd way: "The running is about to begin.") "Grey"
and "running" are nouns, but just barely: one is an adjective acting like a noun, and
the other is a verb acting like a noun (a gerund).
Additional Help With Nouns
A simple exercise in Naming Nouns will help answer any questions you might
have about count and non-count nouns and help you distinguish between plural and
singular forms.
The categories of count and non-count nouns can be confusing, however, and
we suggest further review, especially for writers for whom English is a second
language. The second section we offer is called Count and Non-Count, a basic
review of those concepts and their uses in sentences, with many examples. Third,
we offer WORKING WITH NOUNS, a more extensive (and somewhat more
advanced) review of the count and non-count distinction, along with exercises.
Finally, just when you thought you couldn't stand such riches, we suggest you review

the uses of Articles, Determiners, and Quantifiers with count and non-count
nouns.

Pronouns
A pronoun is used in place of a noun or nouns. Common pronouns include he, her,
him, I, it, me, she, them, they, us, and we. Here are some examples:
INSTEAD OF: Luma is a good athlete.
She is a good athlete. (The pronoun she replaces Luma.)

INSTEAD OF: The beans and tomatoes are fresh-picked.

They are fresh-picked. (The pronoun they replaces the beans and tomatoes.)
Often a pronoun takes the place of a particular noun. This noun is known as the
antecedent. A pronoun "refers to," or directs your thoughts toward, its antecedent.
Let's call Luma and ask her to join the team. (Her is a pronoun;Luma is its
antecedent.)
To find a pronoun's antecedent, ask yourself what that pronoun refers to. What
does her refer to in the sentence abovethat is, who is the her? The her in the
sentence is Luma; therefore, Luma is the antecedent.
Subjective Pronouns

A subjective pronoun acts as the subject of a sentenceit

performs the action of the verb. The subjective pronouns arehe, I,
it, she, they, we, and you.
He spends ages looking out the window.
After lunch, she and I went to the planetarium.
Objective Pronouns
An objective pronoun acts as the object of a sentenceit receives the action of the
verb. The objective pronouns are her, him, it, me, them, us, and you.
Cousin Eldred gave me a trombone.
Take a picture of him, not us!
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun tells you who owns something. The possessive pronouns
are hers, his, its, mine, ours, theirs, and yours.

The red basket is mine.

Yours is on the coffee table.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points out a noun. The demonstrative pronouns arethat,
these, this, and those.
That is a good idea.
These are hilarious cartoons.
A demonstrative pronoun may look like a demonstrative adjective, but it is used
differently in a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used in a question. It helps to ask about something. The
interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, and compound words ending in
"ever," such as whatever, whichever, whoever, and whomever.
What on earth is that?
Who ate the last Fig Newton?
An interrogative pronoun may look like an interrogative adjective, but it is used
differently in a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to an indefinite, or general, person or thing. Indefinite
pronouns include all, any, both, each, everyone, few, many, neither, none, nothing,
several, some, and somebody.
Something smells good.
Many like salsa with their chips.
An indefinite pronoun may look like an indefinite adjective, but it is used differently in
a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a clause, or part of a sentence, that describes a noun.
The relative pronouns are that, which, who, and whom.
You should bring the book that you love most.
That introduces "you love most," which describes the book.
Hector is a photographer who does great work.
Who introduces "does great work," which describes Hector.
Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of a sentence. The reflexive pronouns
are herself, himself, itself, myself, ourselves, themselves, andyourselves. Each of
these words can also act as an intensive pronoun (see below).
I learned a lot about myself at summer camp. (Myself refers back to I.)
They should divide the berries among themselves. (Themselvesrefers back to they.)
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent (the noun that comes before it).
The

intensive

pronouns

are herself,

himself,

itself,

myself,

ourselves,

themselves, and yourselves. Each of these words can also act as a reflective
pronoun (see above).
I myself don't like eggs.
The queen herself visited our class.
See also: Pronouns: Pinch Hitters, Pronouns and Case, and Pronoun Reference.

Pronouns

More Grammar Rules:

Definition:
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three
cases: Subject, Object, or Possessive.
Rule 1
Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can
remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple
sentence.
Example:
______

did

the

job.

I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are, therefore, subject
pronouns.
Rule 2
Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs
such asis, are, was, were, am, and will be.
Examples:
It
This

is
is

he.
she

speaking.

It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

NOTE: In spoken English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object
pronouns. Many English teachers support (or at least have given in to) this
distinction between written and spoken English.

Example:
It could have been them.
Better:
It could have been they.
Example:
It is just me at the door.
Better:
It is just I at the door.
Rule 3
Object pronouns are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of
the preposition). Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
Examples:
Jean

talked

to

him.

Are you talking to me?

To be able to choose pronouns correctly, you must learn to identify clauses. A clause
is a group of words containing a verb and subject.
Rule 4a
A strong clause can stand on its own.
Examples:
She is hungry.
I am feeling well today.
Rule 4b
A weak clause begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because.
Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.

Examples:
Although she is hungry...
If she is hungry...
Since I am feeling well...
Rule 4c
If a sentence contains more than one clause, isolate the clauses so that you can
decide which pronoun is correct.
Examples:

Weak

Strong

[Although she is hungry,]

[she will give him some of her food.]

[Although this gift is for him,]

[I would like you to have it too.]

Rule 5
To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as,
mentally complete the sentence.
Examples:
Tranh

is

as

smart

as

she/her.

If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say, "Tranh is as smart as she is."
Therefore, she is the correct answer.
Zoe

is

taller

than I/me.

Mentally completing the sentence, we have, "Zoe is taller than I am."

Daniel

would

rather

talk

to

her

than

I/me.

We can mentally complete this sentence in two ways: "Daniel would rather talk to her
than to me." OR "Daniel would rather talk to her than I would." As you can see, the
meaning will change depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 6
Possessive

pronouns

show

ownership

and

never

need

apostrophes.

Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

NOTE: The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it
has.
Examples:
It's

cold

morning.

The thermometer reached its highest reading.

Rule 7
Reflexive pronouns - myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself,
yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the
sentence.
Correct:
I worked myself to the bone.
Incorrect:
My

brother

and

myself

The word myself does not refer back to another word.

Correct:
My brother and I did it.
Incorrect:
Please give it to John or myself.
Correct:
Please give it to John or me.

did

it.

ADJECTIVES

Select from the follow ing

Definition

Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the
sentence. The Articles a, an, and the are adjectives.

the tall professor

the lugubrious lieutenant

a solid commitment

a month's pay

a six-year-old child

the unhappiest, richest man

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called

an Adjective Clause. My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer. If an
adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes
an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who iskeeping my family in the poorhouse.
Before getting into other usage considerations, one general note about the use
or over-use of adjectives: Adjectives are frail; don't ask them to do more
work than they should. Let your broad-shouldered verbs and nouns do the hard
work of description. Be particularly cautious in your use of adjectives that don't have
much to say in the first place: interesting, beautiful, lovely, exciting. It is your job as a
writer to create beauty and excitement and interest, and when you simply insist on its
presence without showing it to your reader well, you're convincing no one.
Consider the uses of modifiers in this adjectivally rich paragraph from Thomas
Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel. (Charles Scribner's, 1929, p. 69.) Adjectives are
highlighted in this color; participles, verb forms acting as adjectives, are highlighted
in this blue. Some people would argue that words that are part of a name like
"East India Tea House are not really adjectival and that possessive nouns
father's, farmer's are not technically adjectives, but we've included them in our
analysis of Wolfe's text.

He remembered yet the East India Tea House at the Fair, the sandalwood, the
turbans, and the robes, the cool interior and the smell of India tea; and he had felt
now

the nostalgic thrill

of dew-wet mornings

in

Spring,

the cherry scent,

the coolclarion earth, the wet loaminess of the garden, the pungent breakfast smells
and

the floating snow

of

blossoms.

He

knew

the inchoate sharp excitement

of hot dandelions in young earth; in July, of watermelons bedded in sweet hay, inside
afarmer's covered wagon; of cantaloupe and crated peaches; and the scent
of orange rind, bitter-sweet, before a fire of coals. He knew the good male smell of
his father's sitting-room; of the smooth worn leather sofa, with the gaping horse-hair
rent;

of

the blistered varnished wood

upon

the

hearth;

of

the heated calf-

skin bindings; of the flat moist plug of appletobacco, stuck with a red flag; of woodsmoke and burnt leaves in October; of the brown tired autumn earth; of honey-suckle
at

night;

of warm nasturtiums,

of

a clean ruddy farmer

who

comes

weekly

with printed butter, eggs, and milk; of fatlimp underdone bacon and of coffee; of a
bakery-oven

in

the

wind;

of large deep-hued stringbeans smoking-

hot andseasoned well with salt and butter; of a room of old pine boards in which
books

and

carpets

have

been

stored,

long closed;

of Concord grapes

in

their long white baskets.

An abundance of adjectives like this would be uncommon in contemporary prose.
Whether we have lost something or not is left up to you.
Position of Adjectives
Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a
sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun
phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when
they do, they appear in a set order according to category. (See Below.) When
indefinite pronouns such as something, someone, anybody are modified by an
adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun:
Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished.
Something wicked this way comes.
And there are certain adjectives that, in combination with certain words, are always
"postpositive" (coming after the thing they modify):

The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy fortune, lives in New York proper.
See, also, the note on a- adjectives, below, for the position of such words as
"ablaze, aloof, aghast."
Degrees of Adjectives
Adjectives can express degrees of modification:

Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is
the richest woman in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive,

the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only
the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We
use the comparative for comparing two things and the
superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice
that

the

word than frequently

accompanies

the Click on the "scary bear"

comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. to read and hear George
The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most Newall's "Unpack Your
comparatives and superlatives, although we need - Adjectives"
ierand -iest when
in y(happier

and

(from

two-syllable

adjective

ends Scholastic Rock, 1975).

happiest);

otherwise

we Schoolhouse Rock and

use more andmost when an adjective has more than its characters and other
one syllable.

elements are trademarks

and service marks of
American
Companies,

Broadcasting
Inc.

with permission.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

rich

richer

richest

lovely

lovelier

loveliest

Used

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Irregular Comparative and Superlative
Forms
good

better

best

bad

worse

worst

little

less

least

more

most

further

furthest

much
many
some
far

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already

express an extreme of comparison unique, for instance although it probably is
possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something can be more
perfect, and someone can have a fuller figure. People who argue that one woman
cannot be more pregnant than another have never been nine-months pregnant with
twins.
Grammar's Response
According to Bryan Garner, "complete" is one of those adjectives that
does not admit

of

comparative

degrees.

We

could

say,

however,

"morenearly complete." I am sure that I have not been consistent in my application of

this principle in the Guide (I can hear myself, now, saying something like "less
adequate" or "more preferable" or "less fatal"). Other adjectives that Garner would
include in this list are as follows:
absolute

impossible

principal

adequate

inevitable

stationary

chief

irrevocable

sufficient

complete

main

unanimous

devoid

manifest

unavoidable

entire

minor

unbroken

fatal

paramount

unique

final

perpetual

universal

ideal

preferable

whole

From The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Styleby Bryan Garner.
Copyright 1995 by Bryan A. Garner. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.,
www.oup-usa.org, and used with the gracious consent of Oxford University Press.

Be careful, also, not to use more along with a comparative adjective formed
with -er nor to use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do
not write that something is more heavier or most heaviest).
The as as construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality:

He is as foolish as he is large.

She is as bright as her mother.

Premodifiers with Degrees of Adjectives

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be
accompanied by premodifiers, single words and phrases, that intensify the degree.

We were a lot more careful this time.

He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in town.

We like his work so much better.

You'll get your watch back all the faster.

The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

The weather this week has been somewhat better.

He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously than his brother

does.

And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase, is used for this
purpose:

He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected.

That's a heck of a lot better.

If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative, a determiner is also required:

She is wearing her very finest outfit for the interview.

They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner

and the thing being modified is understood:

Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most.

The quicker you finish this project, the better.

Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.

Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and
Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission.

Less versus Fewer

When making a comparison between quantities we often have to make a
choice between the words fewer and less. Generally, when we're talking
about countable things, we use the word fewer; when we're talking about
measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word less. "She
had fewer chores, but she also had less energy." The managers at our
local Stop & Shop seem to have mastered this: they've changed the signs
at the so-called express lanes from "Twelve Items or Less" to "Twelve
Items or Fewer." Whether that's an actual improvement, we'll leave up to
you.
We do, however, definitely use less when referring to statistical or
numerical expressions:

It's less than twenty miles to Dallas.

He's less than six feet tall.

Your essay should be a thousand words or less.

We spent less than forty dollars on our trip.

The town spent less than four percent of its budget on snow
removal.

In these situations, it's possible to regard the quantities as sums of

countable measures.
Taller than I / me ??
When making a comparison with "than" do we end with a subject form or
object form, "taller than I/she" or "taller than me/her." The correct response
is "taller than I/she." We are looking for the subject form: "He is taller than I
am/she is tall." (Except we leave out the verb in the second clause, "am"
or "is.") Some good writers, however, will argue that the word "than"

should be allowed to function as a preposition. If we can say "He is tall like

me/her," then (if "than" could be prepositional like like) we should be able
to say, "He is taller than me/her." It's an interesting argument, but for
now, anyway in formal, academic prose, use the subject form in such
comparisons.
We also want to be careful in a sentence such as "I like him better
than she/her." The "she" would mean that you like this person better than
she likes him; the "her" would mean that you like this male person better
than you like that female person. (To avoid ambiguity and the slippery use
of than, we could write "I like him better than she does" or "I like him better
than I like her.")
More than / over ??
In the United States, we usually use "more than" in countable numerical
expressions meaning "in excess of" or "over." In England, there is no such
distinction. For instance, in the U.S., some editors would insist on "more
than 40,000 traffic deaths in one year," whereas in the UK, "over 40,000
traffic deaths" would be acceptable. Even in the U.S., however, you will
commonly hear "over" in numerical expressions of age, time, or height:
"His sister is over forty; she's over six feet tall. We've been waiting well
over two hours for her."
The Order of Adjectives in a Series
It would take a linguistic philosopher to explain why we say "little brown house"
and not "brown little house" or why we say "red Italian sports car" and not "Italian red
sports car." The order in which adjectives in a series sort themselves out is
perplexing for people learning English as a second language. Most other languages
dictate a similar order, but not necessarily the same order. It takes a lot of practice
with a language before this order becomes instinctive, because the order often
seems quite arbitrary (if not downright capricious). There is, however, a pattern. You
will find many exceptions to the pattern in the table below, but it is definitely

important to learn the pattern of adjective order if it is not part of what you naturally
bring to the language.
The categories in the following table can be described as follows:
I.

Determiners articles and other limiters. See Determiners

II.

Observation postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero,

a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g.,
beautiful, interesting)

III.

Size and Shape adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g.,

wealthy, large, round)

IV.

Age adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)

V.

Color adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)

VI.

Origin denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French,

American, Canadian)

VII.

Material denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of

(e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)

VIII.

Qualifier final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking
chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

Determi Observat
ner

ion

Physical Description

Size
a

beautiful

Shape Age
old

Origin

Mater Qualifi
ial

er

Noun

Col
or
Italian

touring car

an

expensiv

antiq

ue

silver

mirror

silk

roses

longfour

gorgeous

stemm

red

ed
her

blac

short

our

big

those

several
some

old

Englis

sheepd

og
wood

square
dilapidate

that

hair

en

little

hat

boxes

hunting cabin

enorm

youn

Americ

basket

ous

an

ball

delicious

Thai

players
food

This chart is probably too wide to print on a standard piece of paper. If you
click HERE, you will get a one-page duplicate of this chart, which you can
print out on a regular piece of paper.
It would be folly, of course, to run more than two or three (at the most) adjectives
together. Furthermore, when adjectives belong to the same class, they become what
we call coordinated adjectives, and you will want to put a comma between them: the
inexpensive, comfortable shoes. The rule for inserting the comma works this way: if
you could have inserted a conjunction and or but between the two adjectives,
use a comma. We could say these are "inexpensive but comfortable shoes," so we
would use a comma between them (when the "but" isn't there). When you have three
coordinated adjectives, separate them all with commas, but don't insert a comma

between the last adjective and the noun (in spite of the temptation to do so because
you often pause there):
a popular, respected, and good looking student
See the section on Commas for additional help in punctuating coordinated
adjectives.
Capitalizing Proper Adjectives
When an adjective owes its origins to a proper noun, it should probably be
capitalized. Thus we write about Christian music, French fries, the English
Parliament, the Ming Dynasty, a Faulknerian style, Jeffersonian democracy. Some
periods of time have taken on the status of proper adjectives: the Nixon era, a
Renaissance/Romantic/Victorian poet (but a contemporary novelist and medieval
writer). Directional and seasonal adjectives are not capitalized unless they're part of
a title:
We took the northwest route during the spring thaw. We stayed there until the town's
annual Fall Festival of Small Appliances.
See the section on Capitalization for further help on this matter.
Collective Adjectives
When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class
or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the
oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the
dear departed. The difference between aCollective Noun (which is usually regarded
as singular but which can be plural in certain contexts) and a collective adjective is
that the latter is always plural and requires a plural verb:

The rural poor have been ignored by the media.

The rich of Connecticut are responsible.

The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.

The young at heart are always a joy to be around.

Adjectival Opposites
The opposite or the negative aspect of an adjective can be formed in a number
of ways. One way, of course, is to find an adjective to mean the opposite an
antonym. The opposite of beautiful is ugly, the opposite of tall is short. A thesaurus
can help you find an appropriate opposite. Another way to form the opposite of an
adjective is with a number of prefixes. The opposite of fortunate is unfortunate, the
opposite of prudent isimprudent, the opposite of considerate is inconsiderate, the
opposite of honorable is dishonorable, the opposite of alcoholic is nonalcoholic, the
opposite of being properly filed is misfiled. If you are not sure of the spelling of
adjectives modified in this way by prefixes (or which is the appropriate prefix), you
will have to consult a dictionary, as the rules for the selection of a prefix are complex
and too shifty to be trusted. The meaning itself can be tricky; for instance, flammable
and inflammable mean the same thing.
A third means for creating the opposite of an adjective is to combine it
with less or least to create a comparison which points in the opposite direction.
Interesting shades of meaning and tone become available with this usage. It is
kinder to say that "This is the least beautiful city in the state." than it is to say that
"This is the ugliest city in the state." (It also has a slightly different meaning.) A
candidate for a job can still be worthy and yet be "less worthy of consideration" than
another candidate. It's probably not a good idea to use this construction with an
adjective that is already a negative: "He is less unlucky than his brother," although
that is not the same thing as saying he is luckier than his brother. Use the
comparative less when the comparison is between two things or people; use the
superlative least when the comparison is among many things or people.

My mother is less patient than my father.

Of all the new sitcoms, this is my least favorite show.

Some Adjectival Problem Children

Good versus Well

In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have to choose
between the adjective good and the adverb well. With most verbs, there is
no contest: when modifying a verb, use the adverb.
He swims well.
He knows only too well who the murderer is.
However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do with the five
human senses, you want to use the adjective instead.
How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you.
After a bath, the baby smells so good.
Even after my careful paint job, this room doesn't look good.
Many careful writers, however, will use well after linking verbs relating to
health, and this is perfectly all right. In fact, to say that you are good or that
you feel good usually implies not only that you're OK physically but also
that your spirits are high.
"How are you?"
"I am well, thank you."
Bad versus Badly
When your cat died (assuming you loved your cat), did you
feel bad or badly? Applying the same rule that applies to good versuswell,
use the adjective form after verbs that have to do with human feelings. You
felt bad. If you said you felt badly, it would mean that something was
wrong with your faculties for feeling.

Other Adjectival Considerations

Review the section on Compound Nouns and Modifiers for the formation of
modifiers created when words are connected: a four-year-old child, a nineteenthcentury novel, an empty-headed fool.
Review the section on Possessives for a distinction between possessive forms
and "adjectival labels." (Do you belong to a Writers Club or a Writers' Club?)
Adjectives that are really Participles, verb forms with -ing and -ed endings, can
be troublesome for some students. It is one thing to be afrightened child; it is an
altogether different matter to be a frightening child. Do you want to go up to your
professor after class and say that you areconfused or that you are confusing?
Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described ("you") has
a passive relationship with something something (the subject matter, the
presentation) has bewildered you and you are confused. The -ing ending means that
the noun described has a more active role you are not making any sense so you
are confusing (to others, including your professor).
The -ed ending modifiers are often accompanied by prepositions (these are not
the only choices):

We were amazed at all the circus animals.

We were amused by the clowns.

We were annoyed by the elephants.

We were bored by the ringmaster.

We were confused by the noise.

We were disappointed by the motorcycle daredevils.

We were disappointed in their performance.

We were embarrassed by my brother.

We were exhausted from all the excitement.

We were excited by the lion-tamer.

We were excited about the high-wire act, too.

We were frightened by the lions.

We were introduced to the ringmaster.

We were interested in the tent.

We were irritated by the heat.

We were opposed to leaving early.

We were satisfied with the circus.

We were shocked at the level of noise under the big tent.

We were surprised by the fans' response.

We were surprised at their indifference.

We were tired of all the lights after a while.

We were worried about the traffic leaving the parking lot.

A- Adjectives
The most common of the so-called a- adjectives are ablaze, afloat, afraid,
aghast, alert, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware.
These adjectives will primarily show up as predicate adjectives (i.e., they come after
a linking verb).

The children were ashamed.

The professor remained aloof.

The trees were ablaze.

Occasionally, however, you will find a- adjectives before the word they modify: the
alert patient, the aloof physician. Most of them, when found before the word they
modify, are themselves modified: the nearly awake student, the terribly alone
scholar. And a- adjectives are sometimes modified by "very much": very much afraid,
very much alone, very much ashamed, etc.

Verbs Express Actions

Verbs are doing words. A verb can express:

A physical action (e.g., to swim, to write, to climb).

A mental action (e.g., to think, to guess, to consider).
A state of being (e.g., to be, to exist, to appear).
The verbs which express a state of being are the ones which take a little practice to
spot, but, actually, they are the most common. The most common verb is the verb to
be. That's the one which goes:
Subject

Verb to be in the
past tense

Verb to be in the
present tense

Verb to be in the
future tense

was

am

will be

You

were

are

will be

He / She / It

was

is

will be

We

were

are

will be

You

were

are

will be

They

were

are

will be

If you're a native English speaker who's new to studying grammar, you probably
know this table without even knowing you know it.

Lots of Verbs Express Physical Actions

Here are some sentences with the verbs highlighted. (These verbs express physical
actions.)

She sells pegs and lucky heather.

(In this example, the word sells is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to sell.)

The doctor wrote the prescription.

(In this example, the word wrote is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to
write.)
Alison bought a ticket.
(The word bought is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to buy.)
Verbs Express Mental Actions Too
As we covered at the start, verbs do not necessarily express physical actions like the
ones above. They can express mental actions too:
Example:

She considers the job done.

(The word considers is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to consider.)
Peter guessed the right number.
(The word guessed is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to guess.)
I thought the same thing.
(The word thought is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to think.)
Verbs Express a State of Being
A small, but extremely important group of verbs do not express any activity at all.
The most important verb in this group arguably of all is the verb to be. As already
mentioned, this is seen in forms like is, are, were, was, will be, etc.
Some real examples:

Edwina is the largest elephant in this area.

(The word is is a verb from the verb to be.)
It was a joke.
(The word was is a verb from the verb to be.)
I am.
(The word am is a verb from the verb to be.)
(Point of interest: I am is the shortest sentence in English.)

Click on the verbs:

My two sisters sent a card to my aunt and unclein 1930, and it has only just arrived.
A sticker onthe card apologised for the delay. I wasamazed.

Take the test on verb tenses

Verb Terminology
There is a lot of grammatical terminology associated with verbs. Below are
explanations of those used most frequently by grammarians. (There is a more
comprehensive list in theGlossary of Terms.)
INFINITIVE FORM
When a verb is preceded by the word to, it is said to be in its infinitive form (i.e., most
basic form).

I have to smoke that!

(to smoke - infinitive form of the verb)
PAST TENSE
Verbs which express actions in the past are said to be in the past tense.

He talked with more claret than clarity. (Susan Ertz)

(talked - past tense of the verb to talk)
I ran to the lake.
(ran - past tense of the verb to run)
They were all there.
(were - past tense of the verb to be)
PRESENT TENSE
Verbs which express present actions are said to be in the present tense.

John jumps out the window.

(jumps - present tense of the verb to jump)
Who is ill?
(is - present tense of the verb to be)
He is the kind of a guy who lights up a room just by flicking a switch.
(is - present tense of the verb to be)
(lights up - present tense of the verb to light up)
FUTURE TENSE
Verbs which express actions in the future are said to be in the future tense. These
are usually formed by preceding the verb with the word will.

I will take the blame.

(will take - future tense of the verb to take)

They will surrender.
(will surrender - future tense of the verb to surrender)
Give me where to stand, and I will move the earth. (Archimedes, 287-212 BC)
(will move - future tense of the verb to move)
SUBJECT OF A VERB
The person or thing performing the action of the verb is said to be the subject of the
verb or the subject of the sentence.

Tony stole the boat.

(Tony - subject of the verb to steal)
Tony is guilty.
(Tony - subject of the verb to be)
Who was that?
(Who - subject of the verb to be, i.e., was)
DIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB
Many verbs perform an action on something. This is called the direct object of the
verb.

Terry kissed her hand.

(her hand - direct object of the verb to kiss)
Beverly will eat a whole chicken.
(a whole chicken - direct object of the verb to eat)
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Some verbs cannot have a direct object. These verbs are said to be intransitive
verbs.

The rain fell heavily.

(The rain fell, but it did not perform an action on anything. In this example, the
verb to fall is an intransitive verb.)
Jack protested in the street.
(Jack protested, but he did not perform an action on anything. In this example, the
verbto protest is an intransitive verb.)

Verbs that can have a direct object (most of them) are called transitive verbs.

Barney copied the answer.

(the answer - direct object of the transitive verb to copy)
INDIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB
Some verbs have two objects, a direct object (see above) and an indirect object. The
indirect object is the person or thing for whom the action was performed.

Jamie read the children a story.

(a story - direct object; the children - indirect object)

I will bake him a cake.
(a cake - direct object; him - indirect object)
The postman gives Anne a letter everyday.
(a letter - direct object; Anne - indirect object)
PASSIVE SENTENCE
The subject of a sentence does not always do the action of the verb. Sometimes, the
action is done to the subject. Such sentences are called passive sentences, because
the subjects are being passive, i.e., not doing anything.

Carl was arrested.

(Carl is not doing anything, but he is the subject of the sentence.)
(Note: Carl is the subject of the verb to be, i.e., was.)
Passive verbs always comprise two parts (was arrested in this example). The person
doing the action of the verb in a passive sentence is usually shown with the word by.

Carl was arrested by PC Adams.

Passive verbs are said to be in the passive voice. Passive sentences are quite
useful:

The carpet was damaged. (< passive sentence - no blame)

We damaged the carpet. (< active sentence)
ACTIVE SENTENCE
Active sentences are the opposite to passive sentences (see above). In an active
sentence, the subject of the verb performs the action.

We damaged the carpet.

(This is an active sentence. We is the subject.
We damaged the carpet.)
Jamie read a story.
(This is an active sentence. Jamie is the subject.
Jamie read a story.)
CONJUGATION OF VERBS
A verb will change its form a little depending on the subject. For example:

I write / He writes (< write and writes)

The camel laughs / The jackals laugh (< laughs and laugh)
When verbs change in this way, it is known as conjugation. A verb conjugates
according to the subject. The subject of a verb can be in one of six forms:

1. I
2. You
3. He / She / It
4. We
5. You
6. They
The first three are the singular forms (known as first person singular, second
personsingular, and third person singular). The second three are the plural forms
(known as first person plural, second person plural and third person plural).
All subjects fit in one of these categories. Camel is like he (i.e., third person singular)
andjackals is like they (i.e., third person plural).
This topic rarely causes problems for native English speakers, who conjugate verbs
correctly without much thought.
Interestingly, this is the origin of the insurance term third party (insurance for them).
PARTICIPLES
Participles are formed from verbs. There are two types: present participles and past
participles. Present participles end ...ing. Past participles have various endings.
Below is a table showing some participles:
Verb

Present Participle

Past Participle

to sing

singing

sung

to drive

driving

driven

to go

going

gone

to rise

rising

risen

to watch

watching

watched

to be

being

been

Participles can be used as adjectives. For example:

Soaring prices affect the quality of the wool.

(soaring - present participle - used as an adjective)
I am not the first to comment that prices are falling.
(falling - present participle - used as an adjective to describe prices)
(Note: When an adjective is placed after the word it is describing, it is called
a predicate adjective.)
He is a forgotten hero.
(forgotten - past participle - used as an adjective)
They were neglected.
(neglected - past participle - used as an adjective)
(Note: This is a passive sentence (see above). In this role, neglected is known as
a past passive participle.)

Read more at http://www.grammarmonster.com/lessons/verbs.htm#8OrSVrjL36mxAf2y.99

Simple Tense
Verb tense tells you when the action happens. There are three main verb tenses:
present, past, and future. Each main tense is divided into simple, progressive,
perfect,

and

Simple
Presen
t
Past

Future

finish

finished
will
finish

perfect

progressive

Perfect

Progressive

Perfect

am/is/are

have/has

have/has

finishing

finished

finishing

had finished

had been finishing

was/were
finishing
will be finishing

will
finished

Progressive

have will

have

finishing

been

been

tenses.

Things
a.

to
Present

b.

Past

c.

Future

remember
tense

is

tense
tense

about
the

needs

I run a marathon twice a year. (present)

I ran a marathon last year.(past)

I will run a marathon next year. (future)

I eat lunch in my office.

I ate lunch an hour ago.

I will eat lunch in one hour.

see

I see a movie once a week.

I saw a movie yesterday.

I will see a movie tomorrow.

original

has

run

eat

simple

a
will

tense:

verb
few

(shall)

form.
patterns.

verb.

know

I know it.

I knew it the day before yesterday.

I will know it by tomorrow.

learn

I learn English.

I learned English the last two years.

I will learn English next year.

cook

I cook my supper every night.

I cooked our dinner already.

I will cook breakfast tomorrow.

Present Simple Tense

I sing
How do we make the Present Simple Tense?

subject

auxiliary verb

+
do

main verb
base

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the
auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject
+

auxiliary verb

main verb

I, you, we, they

like

coffee.

He, she, it

likes

coffee.

I, you, we, they

do

not

like

coffee.

He, she, it

does

not

like

coffee.

Do

I, you, we, they

like

coffee?

Does

he, she, it

like

coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

subject

main verb

am

French.

You, we, they

are

French.

He, she, it

is

French.

am

not

old.

You, we, they

are

not

old.

He, she, it

is

not

old.

Am

late?

Are

you, we, they

late?

Is

he, she, it

late?

How do we use the Present Simple Tense?

We use the present simple tense when:

the action is general

the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future

the action is not only happening now

the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.
past

present

future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:

I live in New York.

The Moon goes round the Earth.

John drives a taxi.

He does not drive a bus.

We meet every Thursday.

We do not work at night.

Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the present simple tense for situations
that are not general. We can use the present simple tense to talk about now. Look at
these examples of the verb "to be" in the present simple tense - some of them
are general, some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past

present

future

The situation is now.

I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past

present

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

future