1. Define computer ethics.
AnswerThe term computer ethics was coined in the mid 1970s by Walter Manor to refer to that field of
applied professional ethics dealing with ethical problems aggravated, transformed, or created by
human technology. Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer
technology, and the formulation and justification of the policies for the ethical use of such
technology. Computer ethics examine the ethical issues surrounding computer usage and the
connection between ethics and technology. It includes consideration of both personal and social
policies for ethical use of computer technology. The goal is to understand the impact of
computing technology upon human values, minimize the damage that technology can do to
human values, and to identify ways to use computer technology to advance human values.
2. Explain the four classifications of ethical issues.
AnswerEthical issues can be classified into:
1. Privacy issues: The privacy issues deal with the collection, storage, and dissemination of
information about individuals. For example:
What information about oneself should an employer reveal to others?
What kind of surveillance can an employer use on its employees?
What things can people keep to themselves and not be forced to reveal to others?
What information about individuals should be kept in databases, and how secure is the
information there?
2. Accuracy issues: The accuracy issues deal with authenticity, fidelity, and accuracy of
information collected and procured. The questions that need to be addressed in accuracy issues
include:
Who is responsible for the accuracy, fidelity, and accuracy of information collected?
How can we ensure that information will be processed properly and presented accurately
to the users?
How can we ensure that errors in databases, data transmissions, and data processing are
accidental and not intentional?
Who is to be held responsible for errors in information, and how should the injured party
be compensated?
3. Property issues: The property issues deal with ownership and value of information
(intellectual property). Examples of issues that need to be addressed as property issues are:
Who owns the information?
What are the just and fair prices for its exchange?
How should one handle software piracy?
Under what circumstances can one use proprietary databases?
Can corporate computers be used for private purposes?
How should experts who contribute their knowledge to create expert systems be
compensated?
How should access to information channels be allocated?
4. Accessibility issues: The accessibility issues concern with the right to access information and
payment towards the same. These issues include:
Who is allowed to access information?
How much should be charged for permitting accessibility to information?
How can accessibility be provided for employees with disability?
Who will be provided with the necessary equipments for accessing information?
There is a need to address these four types of issues so that the computer and information
technology business operates in an ethical domain. We must ensure that information technology,
and the information it handles, is used to enhance the dignity of mankind.
2. Discuss the impact of globalization on computer ethics.
The fast pace of globalization and creation of global and cyber markets, has given computing a
new meaning. Bynum and Rogerson (1996) have suggested the use of the expression "Global
Information Ethics" to describe the impact of globalization on computers ethics. Others (see van
den Hoven, Introna, Johnson, and Nissenbaum, 1999) have used the expression "Information
Communications Technology Ethics" or ICT Ethics to attempt to capture the convergence of
information-related and
communications-related ethical issues in a global context.
Global networks like the Internet and especially the World Wide Web (WWW) are connecting
people all over the globe. Efforts are on to develop mutually agreeable standards of conduct and
efforts to advance and defend human values. Globalization has led to the discussion of the
following issues:
Global Laws: Over 200 countries are already interconnected by the Internet. Given this
situation, what is the effect and impact of the law of one particular country on the rest of
the world? Issues regarding freedom of speech, protection of intellectual property,
invasion of privacy vary from country to country. The framing of common laws
pertaining to such issues to ensure compliance by all the countries is one of the foremost
questions being debated.
Global Cyber Business: Technology is growing rapidly to enable electronic privacy and
security on the Internet to safely conduct international business transactions. With such
advanced technology in place, there will be a rapid expansion of global cyber business.
Nations with a technological infrastructure already in place will enjoy rapid economic
growth, while the rest of the world will lag behind. This disparity in levels of technology
will fuel political and economic fallout, which could further widen the gap between the
rich and the poor.
Global Education: Inexpensive access to the global information net for the rich and the
poor alike is necessary for everyone. However the impact of this sudden and global
education on different communities, cultures, and religious practices is likely to be
profound. The impact on lesser known universities would be felt as older well-established
universities begin offering degrees and knowledge modules over the Internet.
Unit 3 (Ethics And The Internet)
1.Discuss the distinct features of the Internet.
AnswerThe Internet has three distinct features:
Global Scope: The Internet has a global reach. Internet technology has much broader
scope and access than conventional modes of communications and data retrieval. With
little effort, a user can reach hundreds and thousands of individuals around the globe. The
ability to reach many people quickly and easily is not exactly new or unique compared to
radio or television communication. But the significant difference between the Internet
and television and radio is that in the case of radio and television, communication is in
most cases one way whereas in the case of Internet it is interactive. It is this interactivity,
which is the unique characteristic of the Internet. Not just interactivity, customizability,
easy usability, and accessibility are also distinct features of Internet.
Anonymity: The second important feature of the Internet is that it provides a certain kind
of anonymity. On the Internet, individuals have the possibility of creating a different
profile, ensuring that information about them cannot be traced while in communication
with others on the Internet. It is a silent feature of Internet communication and people can
deliberately avoid seeing or hearing one another directly. Anonymity makes
accountability for ones action difficult to achieve and tends to diminish trust in the
information that is being exchanged. The feature of anonymity has also facilitated the
development of virtual information.
The open and anonymous nature of communications on the web, has led to the development of
software with stealth to gather information intelligently. An inference is made from information
gathered without our knowledge or consent, which is termed as virtual information. This type
of information adds information to a persons profile and tends to redefine a persons digital
persona. This is an invasion of ones virtual privacy.
Reproducibility: The third feature is not just a feature of the Internet, but of information
technology in general. Electronic information exists in the form that makes it easy to
copy without any loss of originality or value in the process of reproduction. Copied data
or software is perfectly usable. Copied data or software leaves no evidence behind and
the creator/owner of the data or software could remain unaware of their work being
copied. Reproducibility facilitates anonymity.
2. What are the fundamental conceptions regarding the evaluation of individual actions?
AnswerIn the history of moral philosophy, two fundamentally different and mutually exclusive
conceptions of the moral evaluation of individual actions are prevalent:
One approach or school of thought believes that it is important to examine an issue under
independently justified principles of what one considers being right. The idea here is to
follow the principles that articulate what is morally right irrespective of the
consequences. This is referred to as deontological approach. In this approach, one starts
out with one or more moral principles and see how they apply to particular cases.
The other school of thought believes that it is important to look for the course of action
that maximizes the good. This approach involves determining which action yields the
best consequences measured in some standard of the good or morality. This approach
referred to as teleological approach involves deciding on what is good for population. It
also spells out what is wrong with actions that interfere with attempts to get it.
2. How is a professional code distinguished?
AnswerProfessional code can be distinguished into:
1. Code of Ethics: Code of ethics is more aspirational. They are mission statements
emphasizing the professional objectives and vision.
2. Code of Conduct: Code of conduct is more oriented towards the professionals attitude.
They do not describe in detail how to carry out a particular action, bur they make clear
the issues at stake in different specialized fields.
3. Code of Practice: Code of practice on the other hand fixes some accepted state of art
(Berleur, 1996) and relate to current operational activities
2. Describe the nature and features of the internet.
AnswerA network of networks is called as an Internet. In this the computers systems are connected with
each other in a local area network. They are also connected to computers on a national and
International scale. The fiber-optic cable, twisted - pair copper wire, microwave transmission, or
other communication medias are used for connecting each node, which is a part of the web. A set
of rules is followed when the computers on the web communicate with each other. These rules
are called as Internet Protocols. In this type of communication, the Internet acts as a packet
switched network. The data that needs to be transmitted is broken down into smaller packets. The
address of the final destination is attached with the packets. These packets may follow different
route from computer to computer until their final destination. At the final destination the
recipient machine reassembles the packets.
3. Discuss the impact of the information technology revolution on society.
AnswerThe amazing growth of information technology has implications for every aspect of society. So
far there is little research that reveals how technology has and will continue to change the
dynamics of society and the nonprofit sector. Following point elaborate how information
technology affects various sections of society:
The nonprofit sector is experiencing an organizational version of the "digital divide"-the
technology gap between large and small nonprofits. Hardware, software, and technical
assistance are not enough to close the divide; strategic planning and staff time are also
essential.
The true impact the Internet will have on society is in "building community," bringing
together groups of citizens, who are united by shared values working for the public good,
often spanning international lines.
Organizations that use technology well are usually marked by strong support from the
executive director, support from the board, and the presence of a "key user" staff person.
The Internet enables an organization to strengthen relationships with its current audiences
as it enables targeted, fast, and consistent communication. It can also enable nonprofits to
reach out to new audiences through effective use of search engines and "viral marketing".
Strategic use of technology is likely to require long-term collaborations with for-profit
and nonprofit partners.
Technology can be used to mobilize people globally around a common cause to achieve worldchanging results far beyond the promise of enabling nonprofit organizations to perform
important functions, such as fundraising and recruiting volunteers more effectively.
4. There is no nexus between cyber space and real space - Comment.
AnswerThere is the difference between the business rules for online commerce and carrying business in
the real space. Much of this difference comes from Internet's telepresence features. This feature
renders the network technologically indifferent to physical location. The network is very
insensitive to geography. It is not possible to determine the physical location of a user or a
resource. In real space, locating a person or entity with which business is interacting is much
easier. In the cyberspace to know the location of the partners with whom you are interacting is
very difficult to know. In some instances, even an Internet address tells something only about the
location of a given machine. There is no way to find the information about the actual user.
Unit 6 (Sources of the Law)
1. Explain the different sources of law.
AnswerThere are three main sources of law, namely, legislation, common law and custom. Legislation is
the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by the Constitution. It
constitutes the process of codification or legislative enactment. It consists of written laws, as
contrasted with the judge made law or common law.
Common law comprises the body of principles. It is a body of law that develops and derives
through judicial decisions, as distinguished from legislative enactments. Judicial decisions
become a source of law by reason of the practice of courts, of accepting "precedent" as a source
of law, that is, the established judicial practice that a court must follow the law laid down by a
decision of the higher judiciary in the country or state.
Custom denotes a usage or practice of the people which by common adoption and acquiescence
and by long and unvarying habit, has become compulsory and has acquired the force of law with
respect to the place or subject matter to which it relates. Legislation and common law can
operate in any sphere of human activity, while the operation of custom is generally restricted to a
particular locality, group or family.
2. Discuss the significance of legislation.
AnswerThere are three main sources of law, namely, legislation, case law and custom.
"Legislation" is the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by the
Constitution.
Significance of Legislation: Legislation is the foundation of democratic polity.
1. The legislature provides the following functions:
2. The legislature can legislate in advance. Judges cannot do so.
3. The legislature can make a law on any subject within its competence. But judges can deal
with a subject, only when the point arises before them.
4. The legislature (both of parliament, state or even local self Government) can (subject to
constitutional limitations) override the law laid down by the courts, on a particular point
(though, because of the doctrine of separation of powers, the legislature cannot reverse or
modify the actual decision rendered by the court in a particular case).
5. Legislation is the most fertile source of law. Subject to limitations flowing from the
constitutional doctrine, that matters of policy cannot be delegated, the legislature can vest
a subordinate authority with power to make rules, orders, etc.
A legislative enactment is not subject to appeal; and the law enacted by it cannot be reversed, by
a higher authority (though it can be declared to be void, if it is unconstitutional).
4. What is common law. How does it differ from codified law?
AnswerCommon law or uncodified law is the law flowing from judicial decisions. E.g. the process of
dispute resolution or adjudication of liability by either village elders or people holding power
through the process of issuing commands has received social acceptance. The uncodified law
governs large segment of the legal regime. The judgment pronounced by an organ of the higher
judiciary performs at least two important functions:
For the immediate parties, the judgment becomes a source, rights and duties.
For the world, it becomes a source of law, it happens to deal with a legal proposition and to make a definite pronouncement on the subject.
It is different from codified law because codified laws are made formally by a law making body
of people, where as common laws have their enunciations through decisions of courts.
Unit 7 (Information Technology and the Attempted Legal Response)
1. State and discuss the primary assumptions of a legal system.
AnswerFollowing are the primary assumptions of a legal system:
Sovereignty: Law making power is a matter of sovereign prerogative. As a result, the
writ of sovereign authority runs throughout wherever sovereign power exercises
authority. Beyond its authority, the sovereign cannot regulate a subject matter through
legal intervention.
Territorial Enforcement: Any law in real world context can only be subjected to
predetermined territorial enforcements. There are some exceptions to this. The sovereign
authority could join extra territorial jurisdiction in case of criminal law. This indicates
that the sovereign authority can initiate prosecution, even if the crime is committed
beyond the limits of the territory. The proceedings must comply with the principle of
'double criminality', that is in both the countries, the alleged act of commission must have
been criminalized.
Notion of property: The obtaining premise of the legal response considers 'property' as
tangible and physical. In the cyber context, 'property' in the form of digitized services or
goods poses serious challenges to this legal understanding. Also that the 'domain names'
raise fundamental questions.
Paper-based transaction: Obtaining legal response considers and encourages people to
create and constitute legally binding relationships on the basis of paper- based
transactions. Although the word document under law takes within its fold material other
than paper also. Since in cyber context, digital or electronic record forms the basis of
electronic transactions. Hence, the transactions are on the basis of electronic records.
Real relationships: Legal response considers relationships quite often. In view of
connectivity, pace and accuracy as to transmission, in the cyber context, these
relationships acquire unique distinction of virtual character. In case of trade and
commerce, commercial transaction in the form of contracts constitutes the foundation of
legal relationship.
Unit 8 (Cyber Crimes)
1. Discuss the current forms of computer crime.
AnswerThe misuse of computers began in the year 1960. Later with the rapid growth of
telecommunications dissemination of harmful contents, such as pornography and other
communication offences in computer networks arose. The modus operandi does not follow a
continuous path. It constantly adapts to new technologies. Hence, the computer crimes can be
analyzed under the following broad categories:
Privacy infringement: The personal rights of the citizens are endangered with the
collection, transmission, and storage of the personal data. Therefore, in the data
processing area, the protection of privacy needs to be considered. A balance needs to be
maintained between the privacy interests of data subjects concerned and the economic
freedom of the holders of personal data.
Economic offences: The economic crimes are considered as the central area of computer
crime. Hacking, fraudulent manipulation of the computer data is some of the economic
offences related to computers.
Computer hacking: The greatest risk that the information technology business faces
today is the security of information in terms of integrity, availability, and confidentiality.
Stories about website defacements, credit card frauds, non-availability of web and
application servers, and new virus attacks are common. These defacements are done by
hackers and this process is called as hacking.
Software piracy and other forms of product piracy: This includes illegal access of
computer programs. It also includes copying the softwares of the individuals to gather
more information.
2. Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act, 2000.
AnswerWhile considering the general terrain of cyber law, as of now, the following acts are construed as
cyber crimes in the IT Act, 2000:
Without permission of the authorized user
Accessing or securing access to such computer, computer system or computer network
Downloading, copying or extracting any data or information for such computer, computer
system or computer network including information or data held or stored on any
removable storage medium
Introducing any computer virus or contaminant in the computer, computer system or
network
Damaging the computer, computer system or network
Disrupting the working of the computer, computer system or network
Disrupting the access of the computer, computer system or network of an authorized user
Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer, computer system or
network
Tampering with computer source documents
Hacking with computer system
Publishing of information, which is obscene in electronic form
Carrying on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act
Failure to extend all facilities and technical assistance to the Controller to decrypt any
information necessary for the security of the nation
Unauthorized access or attempt to secure unauthorized access to a system that by official
notification is declared a protected system
1. How do professional codes address issues from the viewpoint of computing profession?
AnswerThe code of ethics provides a basis to address issues from the viewpoint of the computing
profession. These codes address issues from the viewpoint of computing profession by imposing
three levels of ethical obligations, which are to be followed by the professionals:
The first level is a set of ethical values, such as integrity and justice, which professionals share
with other human beings by virtue of their shared humanity. Code statements at this level are
statements of aspiration that provide vision and objectives.
The second level obliges professionals to more challenging obligations than those required at the
first level. At the second level, by virtue of their role as professionals and their special skills, they
owe a higher degree of care to those affected by their work. Every type of professional shares
this second level of ethical obligation. Code statements at this level express the obligations of all
professionals and professional attitudes. They do not describe specific behavior details, but they
clearly indicate professional responsibilities.
The third level comprises several obligations that derive directly from elements unique to the
particular professional practice. Code elements at this level assert more specific behavioral
responsibilities that are more closely related to the state of art within the particular profession.
The range of statements is from more general aspirational statement to specific and measurable
requirements. Professional code of ethics needs to address all three of these levels.
1.Examine the social and ethical issues arising out of the presence of computers in the
workplace.
AnswerThe social and ethical issues that can arise out of the presence of computers in the workplace are:
Task Automation: At workplace, computers have become universal tools that can in
principle perform any task and hence pose a threat to jobs. They are far more efficient
than humans in performing many tasks. Therefore, economic incentives to replace
humans with computerized devices are very high. In the industrialized world, many
workers doing jobs as bank tellers, autoworkers, telephone operators, typists, and graphic
artists, have already been replaced by computers. Even professionals like medical
doctors, lawyers, teachers, accountants, and psychologists are finding that computers can
perform many traditional duties performed by workers and professionals. On the other
hand, the computer industry has generated a wide range of new jobs in the form of
hardware engineers, software engineers, system analysts, webmasters, information
technology teachers, and computer sales clerks. Even when a job is not eliminated by
computers, the job profile could be radically altered. An airplane pilot may be assisted by
computers to make choice about the best landing times and air corridor selection. So, job
gains and losses are to be viewed in the context of the society we live in.
Health and Safety: Another workplace issue concerns health and safety. Often radiation
from machines, repetitive injuries, and posture related problems are common at computer
dominated workplaces. Another concern is poisonous non biodegradable computer waste,
which is causing a major threat to the environment. When information technology is
introduced into the work place, it is important to consider the likely impact upon health
and job satisfaction of workers who will use it. The advent of stress in the workplace due
to the introduction of computers is becoming more and more evident.
Employee Monitoring: Another major concern is the employee monitoring or
surveillance by the organizations using sophisticated computer driven technology. Some
amount of monitoring may be vital for protecting the interest of the employer and to
increase productivity, but excess of such surveillance can becomes unethical.
2. Explain the term digital signature. What is a digital signature certificate.
AnswerDigital Signature: The IT Act states that where any law provides that information shall be in
writing or in printed form, the requirement is deemed to be satisfied if such information is in an
electronic form and is accessible for subsequent reference. The key ingredients of the formation
of electronic contracts comprise communication of offer and acceptance by electronic means,
verification of the source of the communication, authentication of the time and place of dispatch
and finally the verifiability of the receipt of the data communication. A 'digital signature' may be
affixed to authenticate an electronic record. The digital signature serves to satisfy the legal
requirement of affixing of a signature in a written or printed document. The Central Government
has the power to make rules about the type of digital signature, the manner and format of digital
certificate that shall be affixed, control process and procedures to ensure adequate integrity,
security and confidentiality of electronic records and payments. Digital Signature Certificate: It
certifies the identity of the subscriber and implies his acceptance of the provisions of this act and
the rules and regulations contained therein. The certificate is issued only on the following
grounds:
1. The Certifying Authority being satisfied that the information contained in the application
of certificate is accurate.
2. The subscriber holds a Private Key capable of creating a Public Key.
3. The Private Key corresponds to the Public Key to be listed in the Digital Signature
Certificate.
4. The Public Key to be listed in the certificate can be used to verify a digital signature
affixed by the Private Key held by the subscriber.
But the certifying authority can revoke a digital signature certificate issued by it, if required.
2. Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act, 2000.
AnswerWhile considering the general terrain of cyber law, as of now, the following acts are construed as
cyber crimes in the IT Act, 2000:
Without permission of the authorized user
Accessing or securing access to such computer, computer system or computer network
Downloading, copying or extracting any data or information for such computer, computer
system or computer network including information or data held or stored on any
removable storage medium
Introducing any computer virus or contaminant in the computer, computer system or
network
Damaging the computer, computer system or network
Disrupting the working of the computer, computer system or network
Disrupting the access of the computer, computer system or network of an authorized user
Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer, computer system or
network
Tampering with computer source documents
Hacking with computer system
Publishing of information, which is obscene in electronic form
Carrying on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act
Failure to extend all facilities and technical assistance to the Controller to decrypt any
information necessary for the security of the nation
Unauthorized access or attempt to secure unauthorized access to a system that by official
notification is declared a protected system
2. What are the remedies for the breach of a contract.
AnswerThe principal remedies for the breach of contract are:
Damages: The party who has broken the contract needs to pay compensation for any loss
or damage that has occurred to the party with whom such a contract was entered into.
Specific performance of the contract: In certain cases, the court directs against the
party in default for the "specific performance" of the contract. This means that the party
will be asked to perform the obligations that he needs to perform according to the
contract.
Injunction: An injunction is a preventive relief and is granted at the discretion of the
court. The discretion of the court is not arbitrary but is guided by judicial principles. A
further check on the discretion is the provision for correction through an appeal in a
higher court.
1. What is meant by unauthorized access to a computer under the provisions of the IT Act,
2000.
AnswerThe IT Act defines unauthorized access by any person as acts done without the permission of the
owner, which includes:
Accessing or securing access to such computer, computer system or computer network,
Downloading, copying or extracting any data or information for such computer, computer
system or computer network including information or data held or stored on any
removable storage medium,
Introducing any computer virus or contaminant in the computer, computer system or
network,
Damaging the computer, computer system or network,
Disrupting the working of the computer, computer system or network,
Disrupting the access of the computer, computer system or network to an authorized user
Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer, computer system or
network,
The penalty to be paid by the person for unauthorized access by way of compensation not
exceeding one crore rupees to the affected person.
