THEORY AND
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUES
SEVENTH EDITION
WITH READINGS
BARBARA MACKIN NON
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ETHICS
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AMMAR,
For Edward, Jennifer, and Kathleen
Contents
Pr/'ace xv
Histog of Ethics 7Tme Line xviii
PART ONE ETHICAL THEORY 1
1
Ethics and Ethical Reasoning
Why Study Ethics? 1
Metaethics 2
What Is Ethics? 2
Ethics and Religion 3
Ethical and Other Types of Evaluation 4
Ethical Terms 6
Ethics and Reasons 6
Alternate Theories: Intuitionism and Emotivism 7
Ethical Reasoning and Arguments 7
The Structure of Ethical Reasoning and Argument 7
Evaluating and Making Good Arguments 8
Ethical Theory 9
Types of Ethical Theory 10
Can Ethics Be Taught? 11
READING Plato Euthyphro 12
C. L. Stevenson The Emotive Meaning of Ethical Terms 15
Review Exercises 19
Ethical Relativism 20
What Is Ethical Relativism? 20
Two Forms of Ethical Relativism 21
Strong versus Weak Interpretations of Ethical Relativism 21
Reasons Supporting Ethical Relativism 22
The Diversity of Moral Views 22
Moral Uncertainty 22
Situational Differences 22
Are These Reasons Convincing? 22
The Diversity of Moral Views 22
Moral Uncertainty 23
Situational Differences 24
Further Considerations 24
Moral Realism 25
Moral Pluralism 26
27
Friedrich Nietzsche Master and Slave Moralities 30
READING Mary Midgley TryingOutOne'sNewSword
Review Exercises 32
viii CONTENTS
3 Egoism
33
Psychological Egoism 34
What Is Psychological Egoism? 34
Is Psychological Egoism True? 35
Ethical Egoism 35
What Is Ethical Egoism? 35
Is Ethical Egoism a Good Theory? 36
The Moral Point of View 37
Why Be Moral? 38
READING Plato The Ring of Gyges 39
Thomas Hobbes Self Love* 45
Joseph Butler Upon the Social Nature of Man
48
Review Exercises 51
4 Utilitarianism 52
Historical Background 53
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill 53
The Principle of Utility 54
A Consequentialist Principle 54
The Intrinsic Good: Pleasure or Happiness 54
Calculating the Greatest Amount of Happiness 55
Quantity and Quality of Pleasure 56
Evaluating Utilitarianism 57
Application of the Principle 57
Utilitarianism and Personal Integrity 58
Ends and Means 58
The Trolley Problem 58
Act and Rule Utilitarianism 59
"Proof" of the Theory 60
READING Jeremy Bentham An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) 62
John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism
67
Review Exercises 72
5 Kant's Moral Theory 74
Historical Background: Immanuel Kant 75
What Gives an Act Moral Worth? 76
What Is the Right Motive? 76
What Is the Right Thing to Do? 77
The Categorical Imperative 78
The First Form 78
The Second Form 79
Evaluating Kant's Moral Theory 80
The Nature of Moral Obligation 80
The Application of the Categorical Imperative 80
Duty 81
CONTENTS lx
Moral Equality and Impartiality 81
Perfect and Imperfect Duties 82
Variations on Kantian Moral Theory 82
READING Immanuel Kant Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals 84
Review Exercises 95
6 Contractarianism 96
READING Thomas Hobbes The Leviathan* 97
T. M. Scanlon Contractualism and Utilitarianism
103
Review Exercises 107
7 Morality and Human Nature 108
Natural Law Theory 109
What Kind of Law is Natural Law? 109
Historical Origins: Aristotle 109
Nature, Human Nature, and the Human Good 110
Evaluating Natural Law Theory 111
Natural Rights 112
Evaluating Natural Rights Theory 113
Is There a Human Nature 114
READING Thomas Aquinas On Natural Law 115
John Locke Second Treatise of Civil Government 117
Jean-Paul Satre Existentialism Is a Humanism 120
Review Exercises 123
8 Virtue Ethics 124
Virtues and Everyday Life 124
What Is Virtue? 125
Evaluating Virtue Ethics 126
READING Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics 128
Philippa Foot Virtues and Vices 134
Review Exercises 143
9 Feminist Thought and the Ethics of Care 144
An Ethics of Care 144
Is There a Gender Difference in Morality? 146
The Source of Feminine Morality 147
Feminine versus Masculine Morality 148
Feminist Thought 148
Evaluation of Feminist Thought and the Ethics of Care 150
READING Nel Noddings Caring 152
Annette Baier The Need for More Than Justice
Review Exercises 161
155
x CONTENTS
PART TWO ETHICAL ISSUES 162
10
Euthanasia 162
Brain Death, Coma, and Persistent Vegetative State 162
Meaning and Types of Euthanasia 164
Active and Passive Euthanasia 164
Physician-Assisted Suicide 166
Pain Medication that Causes Death 168
Ordinary and Extraordinary Measures 169
Voluntary and Nonvoluntary Euthanasia 170
Combining the Types of Euthanasia 171
Morality and the Law 171
Making Moral Judgments About Euthanasia 172
The Moral Significance of Voluntariness 172
Active versus Passive Euthanasia 173
Ordinary versus Extraordinary Measures 175
Infant Euthanasia 175
READING J Gay-Williams The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia
178
James Rachels Active and Passive Euthanasia 181
Carl B. Becker Buddhist Views of Suicide and Euthanasia
185
Review Exercises 194
Discussion Cases 194
11 Abortion 196
Stages of Fetal Development 197
Methods of Abortion 198
Abortion and the Law 199
Abortion: the Moral Question 201
Arguments That Do Not Depend on the Moral Status of the Fetus 202
Utilitarian Reasoning 202
Some Rights Arguments 202
Arguments That Depend on the Moral Status of the Fetus 203
Method I 203
Method II 205
READING Judith Jarvis Thomson
A Defense of Abortion
Don Marquis Why Abortion is Immoral 220
209
Review Exercises 228
Discussion Cases 228
12
Sexual Morality 230
Conceptual Problems: What is and is Not Sexual 233
Relevant Factual Matters 234
Sexual Morality and Ethical Theories 234
Consequentialist or Utilitarian Considerations 234
Nonconsequentialist or Kantian Considerations 235
Naturalness Considerations 236
Homosexuality 237
CONTENTS xi
READING Thomas Nagel Sexual Perversion 240
Richard D. Mohr Prejudice and Homosexuality
246
Review Exercises 251
Discussion Cases 252
13 Equality and Discrimination 253
Civil Rights Laws: a Brief History 257
Racism and Sexism 258
The Principle of Equality 260
Justice 260
Social Benefits and Harms 260
Proof 261
Real Differences 261
Relevant Differences 262
Challenges to the Principle 262
Affirmative Action and Preferential Treatment 264
Consequentialist Considerations 265
Nonconsequentialist Considerations 267
READING Robert K. Fullinwider Affirmative Action and Fairness 270
Martin Luther King, Jr. Letter from a Birmingham Jail
Review Exercises 277
Discussion Cases 277
14 Economic Justice 279
Income Inequality 280
Health Care 281
Justice, Charity, and Efficiency 281
Process Distributive Justice 281
End-State Distributive Justice 282
Equal Opportunity 283
Political and Economic Theories 285
Libertarianism 285
Capitalism 285
Socialism 286
Modern Liberalism 287
John Rawls's Theory ofJustice 288
Communitarianism 290
READING John Rawls Justice as Fairness 291
Robert Nozick Distributive Justice 298
Amartya Sen The Idea of Justice 306
Review Exercises 310
Discussion Cases 310
15 Legal Punishment 312
The Nature of Legal Punishment 315
The Deterrence Argument 316
Problematic Aspects 316
274
xli CONTENTS
The Retributivist Argument 31 7
Problematic Aspects 319
Punishment and Responsibility 319
The Death Penalty 320
On Deterrence Grounds 321
On Retributivist Grounds 322
Other Concerns 323
READING Ernest Van Den Haag The Ultimate Punishment: a Defense
Hugo Bedau How to Argue About the Death Penalty 331
325
Review Exercises 338
Discussion Cases 338
16 Environmental Ethics 340
The Environment 341
Value 341
Anthropocentrism 342
Cost-Benefit Analysis 342
Human Environmental Impact 343
Ecocentrism 348
Deep Ecology 350
Ecofeminism 351
Sustainable Development 352
READING William F. Baxter People or Penguins: the Case for Optimal Pollution 355
Bill Devall and George Sessions Deep Ecology 359
Ramachandra Guha Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation:
A Third World Critique 368
Review Exercises 373
Discussion Cases 373
17 Animal Rights 375
Sentience 377
Animal Rights 378
Animal Experimentation 380
Endangered Species 382
READING Peter Singer All Animals Are Equal
385
Bonnie Steinbock Speciesism and the Idea of Equality
393
Review Exercises 400
Discussion Cases 400
18 Stem Cell Research, Cloning, and Genetic Engineering 402
Stem Cell Research 402
Legal and Ethical Issues 403
Human Cloning 405
Therapeutic Cloning 405
Reproductive Cloning 405
Ethical Issues 406
CONTENTS xili
Genetic Engineering 410
Ethical Issues
411
Genetically Modified Plants and Animals 412
Ethical Issues 413
Genetic Screening 414
The Value of Privacy 415
Screening and Conflicts of Interest 415
READING Leon R. Kass The Wisdom of Repugnance 419
Kerry Lynn Macintosh Illegal Beings: Human Clones and the Law 424
Review Exercises 431
Discussion Cases 431
19
Violence, Terrorism, and War 433
Violence 433
Terrorism 435
Ethical Issues 437
Pacifism 438
Just War Theory 439
_kis Ad Bellum 439
Jus In Bello 440
Non-Traditional Military Conflicts 441
Weapons of Mass Destruction 442
War Crimes and Universal Human Rights 443
Torture 445
READING Jean Bethke Elshtain What Is a Terrorist? 447
Michael Walzer The Triumph of Just War Theory (and the Dangers of Success)
Review Exercises 456
Discussion Cases 457
20
Global Issues and Globalization 458
Rich and Poor Nations 458
Causes 460
Some Solutions 462
Ethical Considerations 462
Globalization 464
Values 466
Free-Market Capitalism 466
Modernization 467
READING Peter Singer Famine, Affluence, and Morality 469
Herman E. Daly Globalization and Its Discontents 477
Vandana Shiva Principles of Earth Democracy 481
Review Exercises 484
Discussion Cases 485
451
xiv CONTENTS
APPENDIX HOW TO WRITE AN ETHICS PAPER 486
The Content of the Paper 486
The Paper's Structure 486
Format 487
Grammar, Spelling, and Gender 489
Types of Ethics Papers 489
A Historical Approach 489
A Problem in Ethical Theory 490
A Contemporary Moral Issue 490
Is it an Ethics Paper? 491
Structuring or Analyzing An Ethical Argument 491
Reasons and Conclusions 491
Types and Sources of Evidence 491
Types of Reasons 492
Top-to-Bottom or Bottom-to-Top Reasoning? 492
Using Analogies 493
Sample Ethics Papers 493
Notes 493
Historical Approach 494
A Problem in Ethical Theory 495
A Contemporary Ethical Issue 497
INDEX 499
