Crystal Structure
All metals are crystalline solids (special atomic arrangements
that extend through out the entire material)
Amorphous solids: atoms are arranged at random positions
(rubber)
Crystal structure: atoms form a repetitive pattern called lattice.
Crystal lattice: arrays of points (atoms) arranged such that each
point has an identical surroundings.
Crystal
lattice
*Unit cell: The smallest building
block of the crystal lattice
Unit
cell
Lattice parameters: parameters that completely defines the unit cell
geometry.
There are seven possible combinations of a,b,c and ,, that give
rise to seven crystal systems
* There are 14 types of unit cell that stems from 7 crystal systems:
Most common types of unit cell
Simple cube
Number of atoms per unit cell : 8 (corner atoms) x 1/8 =1 atom / unit cell
Face center cubic (FCC)
CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE
Number of atoms per unit cell : 8 (corner atoms) x 1/8 + 6 (face atoms) x
1/2 =4 atoms / unit cell
Body Center Cube
BCC
CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE
Number of atoms per unit cell : 8 (corner atoms) x 1/8 + 1 (interior atom) =
2 atoms / unit cell
Hexagonal close packed (HCP)
crystal structure
c/a = 1.63
For most HCP metals
Number of atoms per unit cell :
12 (corner atoms) x 1/6 + 3 (interior atoms)
A sites
+ 2 (face atoms) x 1/2= 6 atoms / unit cell
B sites
A sites
Atomic radius versus lattice parameter:
(Look for the close packed directions in the unit cell)
Close packed direction: Directions in the unit cell in which
atoms are in continuous contact.
* FCC ( close packed directions are the face diagonals)
2 a = 4R
a = 4R/ 2 = 2 2 R
a
2
*BCC (close packed direction are body diagonals )
3 a = 4R
3
a = 4R/ 3
2 a
* SC (close packed direction is any edge of the cube)
a= 2R
a
R=0.5a
l
k d di
ti
HCP (close packed directions are the edges and the
diagonals of the upper and lower faces)
a=2R
Atomic packing factor (APF)
APF =
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
(No.of atoms/unit cell) * volume of each atom
Volume of unit cell
Simple Cube
atoms
unit cell
APF =
volume
atom
4
(0.5a)3
1
=0.52
3
a3
volume
unit cell
BCC
atoms
volume
4
3
( 3a/4)
2
unit cell
atom
3
APF =
volume
3
a
unit cell
FCC
=0.68
atoms
volume
4
( 2a/4)3
4
unit cell
atom
3
=0.74
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
THEORETICAL DENSITY,
# atoms/unit cell
= nA
VcNA
Volume/unit cell
(cm3/unit cell)
Atomic weight (g/mol)
Avogadro's number
(6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mol)
Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister
crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10-7cm)
Vc = a3 ; For FCC, a = 4R/ 2 ; Vc = 4.75 x 10-23cm3
Result: theoretical Cu = 8.89 g/cm3
Compare to actual: Cu = 8.94 g/cm3
ALLOTROPY: Ability of the material to have more than one
crystal structure depending on temperature and pressure.
e.g. Pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature
which changes to FCC at 912 C.
Example: Determine the volume change of a 1 cm3 cube iron
when it is heated from 910C, where it is BCC with a lattice
parameter of 0.2863 nm, to 915 C, where it is FCC with a
lattice parameter of 0.3591.
VBcc= a3 = (0.2863)3
Vfcc= (0.3591)3
On the basis of equivalent number of atoms: 1 fcc unit cell has 4
atoms, while 1 bcc unit cell has 2 atoms
Volume change = V fcc 2V Bcc = 0.046307 2 (0.023467 x100
2 VBcc
= -1.34 %
2 (0.023467)
Iron contracts upon heating
Determine the volume change in cobalt when it transforms from
HCP at room temperature to FCC at higher temperatures.
Crystrallographic points:
First put the three axes (X,Y,Z) at one of the corners.
Coordinates of a point is given as a fraction of length a (x-axis),
fraction of length b (y-axis) and fraction of length c (z-axis)
Example:
Directions in unit cell:
1. Subtract the coordinates of the tail point from the coordinates
of the head point.
2. Clear fractions by multiplying or dividing by a common factor
and reduce to lowest integers.
A direction and its multiple is
identical, [100] is identical to
[200], the second was not
reduced to lowest integer.
Changing the sign of all
indices produces a vector that is
opposite in direction.
Parallel vectors have same
indices
[110]
Equivalent Directions:
Directions along which spacing of atoms is the same are
considered equivalent directions, they create family of
directions.
<100> : [100] [ 100], [010] [010], [001] [001]
Directions having the same indices with out regard to order or sign
are equivalent: [123] is equivalent to [213]
Example: Sketch the following directions: [111], [121], [110]
Hexagonal
crystals:
*Planes in Unit cell
1. Identify the intercept of the plane with the three axes in terms
of a, b and c
2. Take the reciprocal of these numbers.
3. Clear fractions by multiplying or dividing by a common factor.
Intercepts: 1 1 1
Reciprocal: 1 1 1
Plane: (111)
Intercept: 1 1
Reciprocal: 1 1 0
Plane : (110)
Intercept: 1
Reciprocal: 1 0 0
Plane: (100)
If the plane passes through the origin, then the origin point
has to be shifted by one lattice parameter to another corner.
Example:
Equivalent planes
Intercept: 1 1
Reciprocal: 1 0 1 0
Intercepts: 1 1 1
Reciprocal: 1 0 1 1
Plane: (101 1)
Linear density: No. of atoms
Magnitude of the direction
Linear Packing: Length occupied by atoms
Magnitude of the direction
Example:
Calculate the linear density and linear packing factor
Choose which would be a possible slip direction :
[100], [110] and [111] in FCC unit cell.
[100]
1/2
1/2
r
a
L.D= 1/a = 1/ 2 2 r
L.P= 2r / 2 2 r = 0.71
[110]
1/2
r
1/2
r
1
2r
L.D= 2 / 2 a
L.P= 4r/ 2 2 2 r= 1.0
Length of burgers vector is 2 a /2
2 a
the face diagonal
[111]
1/2
r
1/2
3 a
L.D= 1 / 3 a
L.P= 2r/ 3 2 2 r= 0.4
In FCC unit cell any face diagonal is highly packed with
atoms referred to as close packed direction.
Planar density: No. of atoms
Area of plane
Planar Packing: Area occupied by atoms
Area of plane
Example: Calculate the planar density and planar packing factor
Choose which would be a possible slip plane :
(100), (110) and (111) in FCC unit cell.
1/4
1/4
a
1/4
1
a
P.D = 2/ a2= 2/ 8r2
P.F=2 r2 / 8r2 = 0.79
1/4
1/2
1/6
No. of atoms= 3x 1/6 +3x 1 / 2
= x base x height
P.F=2 r2 / 4r2 3= 0.9
1/4
1/2
1/4
a
1/4
P.D = 2/ 2
a2=
2/ 8 2
r2
1/2
1/4
2 a
P.F=2 r2 / 8 2 r2 = 0.56
(111) Plane in fcc is the slip plane because it has the highest atomic
packing density
Example
Solidification of a polycrystalline metal
liquid
Nuclei for
crystallites
nucleation
Growth
Grains are formed
liquid
nucleation
growth
Grain with different
lattice orientations
Different grains have different orientations of atoms separated by
grain boundaries.
Anistropy: Properties depend on crystallographic direction.
Isotropic: Properties are independent of directions.
POLYCRYSTALS
Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
1 mm
Adapted from Fig. K,
color inset pages of
Callister 6e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld.
Each "grain" is a single crystal.
If crystals are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
Crystal sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
SINGLE VS POLYCRYSTALS
Single Crystals
E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
Callister 6e.
(Source of data is
R.W. Hertzberg,
-Properties vary with
direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials,
3rd ed., John Wiley
and Sons, 1989.)
E (edge) = 125 GPa
Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomlyequiaxed
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.
elongated
200 m
Adapted from Fig.
4.12(b), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.12(b) is
courtesy of L.C. Smith
and C. Brady, the
National Bureau of
Standards,
Washington, DC [now
the National Institute
of Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
