Yarn is the fundamental unit of fabric.

Yarn contains a lot of

properties (variables) which can affect dyed fabric finished quality.
Carded and combed yarns of same GSM have many different
properties because of different manufacturing process. Combed
yarn is of superior quality and carded yarn is of inferior quality.
The main purpose of this project is to find out or investigate
carded and combed yarn effect on dyed fabric finished quality
such as Color fastness properties(Rubbing, Wash, Perspiration, K/S
value).

Introduction:
Dyeing is an ancient art. It was practiced during the Bronze Age in
Europe. Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products
like fibers, yarns and fabrics. Primitive dyeing techniques included
sticking plants to fabric or rubbing crushed pigments into cloth.
Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and
particular chemical material. After dyeing, dye molecules have
uncut chemical bond with fiber molecules. The temperature and
time controlling are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly
two classes of dye, natural and man-made.
The primary source of dye, historically, has generally been nature,
with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. Since the
mid-18th century, however, humans have produced artificial dyes
to achieve a broader range of colors and to render the dyes more
stable to resist washing and general use. Different classes of dyes
are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the
textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and
cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, while nylon and protein
fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes, and
polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a
range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern synthetic
reactive and direct dyes.

Objectives:
The aim of the present work is to investigate the qualitative
difference between Carded fabric and Combed fabric after dyeing.
This project serves the following objectives:
To know about dyeing and dyes,
To know about Carded fabric,
To know about Combed fabric,
To know about the scouring process of cotton,
To know about the dyeing process by using reactive dye.
To know about the recipe using for different shade,
To know about colorfastness properties such as rubbing,
wash, perspiration,
To know about K/S value,
To evaluate those result,
To find out the comparative qualitative difference between
Card and Combed fabric.

Dyeing:
Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like
fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing operations are used at various
stages of production to add color and intricacy to textiles and

increase product value. Textiles are dyed using a wide range of

dyestuffs, techniques, and equipment. Dyeing is accomplished by
dissolving or dispersing the colorant in a suitable vehicle (usually
water) and bringing this system into contact with the material to
be dyed.
In order to understand the art and history of dyeing, we must first
understand the process of dyeing itself. According to Websters
dictionary, Dyeing is the process of coloring fibers, yarns, or
fabrics by using a liquid containing coloring matter for imparting a
particular hue to a substance. In other word, dyeing is the
process of imparting color to textiles or other materials whereby
the coloring matter becomes an integral part of it and not easily
altered.

History of Dyeing:
Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back
to the Neolithic period. The earliest surviving evidence of textile
dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at atalhyk
in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly from

ocher, an iron oxide pigment derived from clay), were found. In

China, dyeing with plants, barks, and insects has been traced
back more than 5,000 years. Early evidence of dyeing comes from
Sindh province in Pakistan, where a piece of cotton dyed with a
vegetable dye was recovered from the archaeological site at
Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).The dye used in this case was
madder, which, along with other dyes such as indigo, was
introduced to other regions through trade. [5] Natural insect dyes
such as Tyrian purple and kermes and plant-based dyes such as
woad, indigo and madder were important elements of the
economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-made
synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dye
was William Perkin's mauveine in 1856, derived from coal tar.
Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural
pigment to be duplicated synthetically in 1869, a development
which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown
madder.The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes
followed quickly, and by the 1870s commercial dyeing with
natural dyestuffs was disappearing. Dyes are applied to textile
goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing from dye
pastes. Methods include direct application and yarn dyeing.

2600 BC Earliest written record of the use of dyestuffs in

China
715 BC Wool dyeing established as craft in Rome
331 BC, Alexander finds 190 year old purple robes when he
conquers Susa, the Persian capital. They were in the royal
treasury and said to be worth $6 million (equivalent)

327 BC, Alexander the Great mentions "beautiful printed

cottons" in India
236 BC, An Egyptian papyrus mentions dyers as "stinking of fish,
with tired eyes and hands working unceasingly
55 BC, Romans found painted people "picti" in Gaul dyeing
themselves with Woad (same chemical content of color as indigo)
2ND and 3RD Centuries AD, Roman graves found with madder
and indigo dyed textiles, replacing the old Imperial Purple
(purpura)
3rd Century, papyrus found in a grave contains the oldest dye
recipe known, for imitation purple - called Stockholm Papyrus. It is
a Greek work.
273 AD, Emperor Aurelian refused to let his wife buy a purpuradyed silk garment. It cost its weight in gold.
Late 4 TH, Century Emperor Theodosium of Byzantium issued a
decree forbidding the use of certain shades of purple except by
the Imperial family on pain of death
400 AD, Murex (the mollusk from which purpura comes)
becoming scarce due to huge demand and over harvesting for
Romans. One pound of cloth dyed with Murex worth $20,000 in
terms of our money today (Emperor Augustus source)
700's, a Chinese manuscript mentions dyeing with wax resist
technique (batik)
925, the Wool Dyers' Guilds first initiated in Germany
1188, the first mention of Guilds for Dyers in London
1197, King John (of Magna Carta fame) persuaded Parliament to
regulate dyeing of woolens to protect the public from poor quality
goods
1200's, Rucellia, of Florence, rediscovered the ancient art of
making purple dye from lichens sent from Asia Minor (similar to
Orchils?)
1212, the city of Florence had over 200 dyers, fullers and tailors.
A directory of weavers and spinners was published as well.
1290, the only blue dye of the period, Woad, began to be raised
extensively in Germany. The 3 major dyes were now: woad,
madder and weld.
1321, Brazilwood was first mentioned as a dye, source from East
Indies and India. (the country of Brazil was named for the wood
found there, not vice versa)

1327-1377, Edward III, "Royal Wool Merchant" offered protection

to all foreigners living in England and to all who wanted to come
to help improve the textile industry.
Early 15th, Century Cennino Cennini of Padua, Italy described
the printing of cloth (block printing) in his treatise called Method
of Painting Cloths by Means of Moulds.
15th Century, Aztecs under Montezuma conquered the Mayans.
11 Mayan cities paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton
blankets and 40 bags of Cochineal (insect dye) each.
1429, the 1st European book on dyeing Mariegola Dell'Arte de
Tentori was published in Italy
1464, Pope Paul II introduced the so-called "Cardinals' Purple"
which was really scarlet from the Kermes insect. This became the
first luxury dye of the Middle Ages just as Imperial Purple (Murex)
had been for the ancient world.
1472, Edward IV incorporated the Dyers' Company of London
1507, France, Holland and Germany begin the cultivation of dye
plants as an industry
1519, Pizarro and Cortez find that there is cotton in Central and
South America. They send back brightly printed fabrics showing
that the Indians knew about block printing prior to the Conquest.
Cochineal from Mexico and Peru now being shipped back to Spain.
1614, dyeing cloth "in the wood" was introduced in England:
logwood, fustic, etc.
1630, Drebbel, a Dutch chemist, produced a new brilliant red
dye from cochineal and tin. It was used at Goblein (Paris) and the
Bow Dyeworks (England)
1631-33, The East India Co. began importation of calico from
Calicut, India to England. At first they thought the fabric was
linen, not cotton.
Mid-1600's, English Logwood cutters in Honduras lead a
dangerous life (danger from Spaniards, hurricanes, swamps,
disease) in the Bay of Campeachy, but could get very rich
1688, James II, of England, prohibited exportation of un-dyed
cloth from England to help bolster the home industry for English
dyers over that of the Scottish dyers.
1689, the first calico printworks was begun in Germany at
Augsburg and was later to grow into a large industry
18th Century - English dyehouse gets contract to dye the

Buckingham Palace Guards coats with cochineal. This contract

continued into the 20th Century still using cochineal.
1708, William III signed a law prohibiting the importation of
printed silks, this only made calicos and silks more popular
1716, There were now more than 30 laws in England prohibiting
the importation of calico and cotton; prints became more popular
than ever. 1727 A method of bleaching linen with kelp (seaweed)
was introduced in Scotland
1733, Fly shuttle invented by John Kay, England
1745, Indigo begins to be grown in England, after the Revolution
when it became cheaper to import from the East Indies
1766, Dr. Cuthbert Gordon patents Cudbear (derived from his
mother's name) Cuthbert was prepared from a variety of lichens.
Only one of 2 natural dyes ever credited to an individual (other is
quercitron to Bancroft)
1769, Arkwright's spinning frame in England (aka the Spinning
Jenny)
1774, Swedish chemist, Scheele, discovered chlorine destroyed
vegetable colors by observing a cork in a bottle of hydrochloric
acid
1774, Prussian Blue and Sulphuric acid available commercially.
Prussian blue formed from prussite of potash and iron salt
(copperas). Actually one of the early chemical dyes.
1775, Bancroft introduced the use of quercitron bark as a natural
dye. One of only 2 natural dyes whose discoverer is known, it
yields a yellow, brighter than fustic, and is from the inner bark of
No. American oak.
1786, Bertholet, France, recommended chlorine water for
commercial bleaching. Other oxidizing agents began to be used,
too: hydrogen peroxide, sodium peroxide and sodium perborate.
1785, Bell, England, who had invented printing from plates,
developed roller printing
1788, Picric acid available (yellow dye and disinfectant) could be
dyed from acid dyebath on wool
1790, Acid discharge of mordant printing developed
1794, Three Frenchmen set up first calico printing
1796, Tennant developed bleaching process
1797, Bancroft develops a process for steam fixation of prints
1798, Oberkampf (in Jouy, France) pleased Napoleon by showing

him a roller printer made from a cannon Napoleon had seized

from the Pope. This began the famous Toiles de Jouy production.
1802, Sir Robert Peel brought out a resist method, he had
purchased the idea for from a commercial traveller for equivalent
of $25. It consisted of a wax or other resist on the background,
actually a batik technique done on large scale.
1823, Mercer discovered chromate discharge of indigo
1825, Mathias Baldwin (later of locomotive fame) began the first
American production of engraved metal rollers for calico printing
which were used in the Philadelphia area and could produce 300
yds of fabric per day.
1834, Runge, a German chemist, noticed that upon distilling coal
tar, aniline would give a bright blue color if treated with bleaching
powder. This helped to pave the way to the development of
aniline (basic) dyes 22 years later.
1844, John Mercer discovered that treating cotton with caustic
soda (lye) while under tension improved its strength, luster,
dyeability, absorbency. The process was called "mercerization".
1856, William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic
dye stuff "Mauve" (aniline, a basic dye) while searching for a
cure for malaria and a new industry was begun. It was a brilliant
fuchsia type color, but faded easily so our idea of the color mauve
is not what the appearance of the original color was.
1858, Griess discovered diazotisation and coupling on/in the
fiber
1858-59, Magenta (fuchsin) discovered by Verguin the 2nd basic
dye and more widely used than Mauve
1861, Methyl violet, basic dye, by Lauth
1862, Hofmann's Violet, Hofmann was one of the great dye
chemists of all time
1862, Bismarck Brown developed by Martius and Lightfoot, first
soluble azo dye
1863, Aniline Black, developed by Lightfoot, a black produced by
oxidation of aniline on the cotton fiber.
1866, Methyl Violet, basic dye
1868, Graebe and Liebermann, German chemists, produced
alizarin (synthetic madder). this was the first time a synthetic
substitute for a vegetable dye had been manufactured.

W.H.Perkin also synthesized it about the same time, but

independently.
1872, Methyl Green by Lauth and Baubigny, still in use, basic
dye
1873, Cachou de Laval, 1st sulphur dye, a brown, by Groissant
and Bretonniere, France
1875-76, Caro and Witt prepared Chrysoidine, 1st important
member of azo class of dye
1876, Caro, an important dye chemist, discovered Methyl Blue,
an important
1877, Malachite Green, basic dye by Dobner and Fisher
1878, Biebrich Scarlet invented, a very pure red acid dye,
rivalling cochineal in brightness
1878, von Baeyer synthesized synthetic indigo. It was not
marketed until 1897
1880, Thomas and Holliday, England, synthesized the first azo
dye formed on the fabric by coupling. Vacanceine red formed by
treating fabric with napthol and then dipping in a diazolized
amine, a very fast category of dyes.
1884, Congo Red by Bottiger, first of the direct cotton dyes
1885, Benzopurpurine, early direct dye by Duisberg, bright and
highly substantive
1885, Para Red dye brought out by von Gallois and Ullrich. (B
napthol and nitraniline)
1885-89, Chardonnet, France, made the first successful rayon
and showed it at the Paris Exposition of 1889.
1887, First azo mordant dye, Alizarin Yellow GG
1887, Rhodamine B (brilliant red-violet) basic dye
1890, Direct Black BH, first direct black
1891, Diamine Green B, first green azo dye
1891, Chardonnet built his first commercial plant at Besancon
for manufacturing rayon, by the Chardonnet process.
1891, Direct dye-Sky Blue FF, important blue for many years,
good light fastness
1893, 2nd Sulphur dye, Vidal Black
1895, Viscose method of making rayon invented by Cross and
Bevan, England was begun. This is now the most common process
for manufacture of rayon.
1898, Direct Black E, a black dye of major importance

1900, When Mozaffer ed Din became Shah of Persia one of his

first edicts was to prohibit the use of analine dyes for rugs. All
analine dyes were seized and publicly burned. Penalties included
jail and fines equal to double the value of the merchandise.
1901, Rene Bohn patented his invention of Indanthrene Blue RS,
the first anthraquinone vat dye, a category of dyes with extremely
good fastness to light and washing
1901, Bohn developed 2nd vat dye, Flanthrene a yellow
1902, Thesmar, Baumann, Descamps, and Frossard brought out
hydrosulfite and sulfoxylateformaldehyde.
1905, Thio-indigo Red, by Freidlander, 1st indigoid dye
1908, Hydron Blue, a rival to indigo, developed by Cassella
1914, USA importing 90% of its dye stuffs, a problem during
WWI, as many came from Germany.
1915, Neolan dye, 1st metallized chrome dye, dyed from strong
acid bath
1921, Bader developed soluble vat colors, the Indigosols.
1922, the AATCC (American Assoc. of Textile Chemists and
Colorists) formed its first subcommittee to study washfastness of
printed and dyed cottons, formulate testing procedures, standards
of fastness.
1924, Indigosol 0, by Baeyer and Sunder, 1st commercial
indigosol dye
1928, Dupont began the fundamental research that would lead
to discovery of nylon
1936, First pair of stockings knit with a new synthetic fiber from
DuPont called "nylon" for which Carothers received the patent.
1938, Nylon formally introduced to the public
1948, Textiles became second largest industry in USA. The
average consumer consumption per capita of fibers: 27 lbs
cotton, 6.3 lbs rayon, 4.9 lbs wool.
1951, Irgalan dyes introduced by Geigy, 1st neutral premetallized dyes (did not require a lot of acid as Neolans did)
Cibalans are the same type.
1950, Dupont introduced first commercial availability of Orlon, a
new acrylic "wool substitute"
1951, DuPont announced that a plant in N.Carolina would begin
to manufacture Dacron polyester.
1951, A new acrylic, Acrilan. was introduced by Chemstrand

Corp.
1953, Cibalan Brilliant Yellow 3GL, a dye which lead the way to
discovery of the fiber reactive dyes was introduced
1954, Celanese Corp announced first commercial production of
an American triacetate, Arnel.
1956, ICI in England introduced Procion, first range of fiber
reactive dye - this dye was to have a major impact on industry as
well as textile artists around the world
1956, Eastman Kodak introduced Verel, a modified acrylic
1956, American Cyanamid introduced a new acrylic, Creslan
1956, One person working out of every 7 in the USA received his
income from work performed in textile or apparel industries!
1957, CIBA introduces Cibacrons, a new range of reactive dyes
and the first to compete with ICI's Procion series
1958, Eastman Kodak introduced Kodel polyester.
1964, First permanent press finishes used
1968, DuPont introduces Qiana, a fancy nylon with "silk" feel and
drape
1968, For the first time manmade fibers topped natural fibers for
US consumption. 5 billion pounds vs 4.6 billion pounds, the use of
polyester was growing the most quickly.
1970s, Late in the 70s, CIBA-Geigy introduced Cibacron F series

Dyes :
A natural or synthetic substance used to add a color to or change
the color of something.
A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate
to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an
aqueous solution, and requires a mordant to improve the fastness
of the dye on the fiber.
Both dyes and pigments appear to be colored because they
absorb some wavelengths of light more than others. In contrast
with a dye, a pigment generally is insoluble, and has no affinity
for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with an inert salt
to produce a lake pigment, and based on the salt used they could
be aluminum lake, calcium lake or barium lake pigments.
Essential qualities of dyes are fastness, color, low cost, and
uniformity. They must also be water soluble, substantive
(attractive) to the textile substrate, and reactive with the textile
fibres. The color of a dye depends on its chemical bonds: its pi
bonds, multiple bonds and unsaturated groups. Dyes are
classified according to their method of application, or sometimes
according to their chemical constitution. How they interact with
their substrate depends on the nature of the substrate. Generally,
cellulosic and proteinaceous fibres are Hydrophilic. Fibres from a
synthetic source tend to be hydrophobic. The types of dyes that
can be used with each type of fibre are shown below. The fibre
types are in blue, and the dye classes in red.

Types of Dyes:
By definition Dyes can be said to be colored, ionizing and
aromatic organic compounds which shows an affinity towards the
substrate to which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a
solution that is aqueous. It is a soluble, colored substance that
has an affinity for a fiber or other substance, meaning that it will
adhere to the surface. Dyes can be made from plant, animal, and
mineral substances.

Classification of dyes:
Classification based on the source of materials
Natural dyes
Synthetic dyes.
Dyes according to the ionic nature
Cationic dyes
Anionic dyes
Non-ionic dyes
Industrial Classification of the Dyes
Reactive
Azoic
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Mordant
Acid
Solvent
Sulphur

 Vat

The substances that makes the Dyes color:

Which is explained by the presence of a substance called
Chromophore in the dyes. By definition dyes are basically
aromatic compounds. Their structures have aryl rings that has
delocalised electron systems. These structures are said to be
responsible for the absorption of electromagnetic radiation that
has varying wavelengths, based upon the energy of the electron
clouds.
It is actually because of this reason that chromophores do not
make dyes colored. Rather it makes the dyes proficient in their
ability to absorb radiation. Chromophores acts by making energy
changes in the delocalised electron cloud of the dye. This
alteration invariably results in the compound absorbing radiation
within the visible range of colors and not outside it. Human eyes
detects this absorption, and responds to the colors.
Another possibility is that if the electrons are removed from the
electron cloud, it may result in loss of color. Removing electrons
may cause the rest of the electrons to revert to the local orbits. A
very good example is the Schiff's reagent. As sulphurous acid
reacts with pararosanilin, what happens is that a sulphonic group
attaches itself to the compound's central carbon atom. This
hampers the conjugated double bond system of the quinoid ring,
and causes the electrons to become localised. As a consequence
the ring ceases to be a chromophore. As a result, the dye
becomes
colorless.
To conclude chromophores are the atomic configurations which
has delocalised electrons. Generally they are represented as
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. They can have alternate
single and double bonds.

The way that color of the Dyes be altered:

Modifiers can altered the color of the dyes. Color modifiers like
methyl or ethyl groups can actually alter the color of dyes. They
do so by altering the energy in the delocalised electrons. It has
been found that by addition of a particular modifier there is a
progressive alteration of color. An example can be given for
methyl violet series.
The following steps explains what happens to the colour of
the
dyes
when
modifiers
are
added.
Step A: When no methyl group is added the original dye
Pararosanil as it is called is red in colour.
Step B: As Four Methyl groups are added the reddish purple dye
Methyl Violet is got.
Step C: With the addition of more groups a purple blue dye
Crystal Violet is obtained. It has in it six such groups.
Step D: Further addition of a seventh methyl group the dye that
is got is called Methyl green.
The substance that gives the Dyes Solubility and Cohesiveness:
Auxochromes has also the ability to intensify colors. It is a group
of atoms which attaches to non-ionising compounds yet has the
ability to ionise. Auxochromes are of two types, positively charged
or negatively charged. Auxocromes give the dyes solubility and
cohesiveness.

-OH
-

CH 3

-NHR -Cl

NO2
NH 2

-Br

NR 2
SO3 H

-COOH

Carded yarn:
The yarn which is made from short staple and lower quality fibre
are called carded yarn. Mainly the card name card come from a
machine of spinning section. Carding is an operation, that
occurred in spinning section. The yarn which is formed by carding
operation called carded yarn.
Some points of carded yarn:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Low cost
Harder hand fillings
Strength low.
It is use to produce normally low quality fabric.
Dyeing and knitting wastage is very high.

Process flow chart of Card yarn:

Input
Output

Process/Machine
Bale management

Bale
Lap
sliver
Sliver
Drawn sliver
Sliver
Drawn sliver
Sliver
Roving
Roving

Blow room
Carding machine

Lap
Carded

1st draw frame

2nd draw frame
Simplex/ Roving frame
Ring Frame

Yarn

Combed yarn:
The yarn which is made from finest and longer fibre we called
combed yarn.This types of yarn is very fine for fabric production .
Some points of combed yarn are given below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Quality of this types of yarn is very smooth.

Even very soft yarn.
The strength is higher than carded type yarn.
Price is higher than carded yarn.
Softness is higher than carded yarn.
It produces high quality fabric.

Process flow chart of Combed yarn:

Input
Output

Process/Machine
Bale management

Bale
Lap
sliver
Sliver
sliver
Sliver
Mini Lap
Lap
Sliver
Sliver
Sliver
Sliver
Roving
Roving

Blow room
Carding machine

Lap
Carded

Pre-comb Drawing
Lap former
Combing

Combed

Post-comb Drawing
Simplex/ Roving frame
Ring Frame

Yarn

Sample preparation :
Same GSM of combed and carded fabric was collected from
knitting mill considering other properties. We took 3 types of
fabric, a. Single jersey, b. Rib, and c. Fleece.
The samples were delivered for dyeing. . Dyeing process was
done in same dyeing condition and same dyeing recipe for same
fabric structure. We used Reactive dye for dyeing those
samples.

Single jersey: Single Jersey is a knit fabric used predominantly for

clothing manufacture. In single jersey fabric, all face loops are
present in one side and all back loops are present in other side of
the fabric. One set needle is used to produce single jersey fabric.
And this fabric has curling tendency.

Rib: It is the derivatives of double jersey. Back side and face side
appearance is same. And this fabric has no curling tendency. Two
sets needle is use to produce Rib fabric. Rib fabric is more
compact than single jersey.

Fleece: It is the derivatives of single jersey. It contains all the

properties of single jersey. But this fabric is more compact than
single jersey and Rib fabric.

Reactive dye: A dye, which is capable of reacting chemically with a

substrate to form a covalent dye substrate linkage, is known as
reactive dye.
Here, the dye contains a reactive group and this reactive group
makes covalent bond with the fibre. This covalent bond is formed
between the dye molecules and the terminal OH group of
cellulosic fibres.
Reaction
Reactive dye + Fibre
Dye-----Fibre
PH>9

Scouring of cotton fabric:

Scouring is the process by which all natural and adventitious

impurities such as oil, wax, fat, etc. are removed to produce
hydrophilic and clean textile material. It is the vital process of wet
processing.

Recipe for scouring of cotton fabric:

Caustic soda- 2 g/l
Soda ash-3 g/l
H 2 O2 - 3 g/l
Stabilizer- 1.5 g/l
Wetting agent-1 m/l
Sequestering agent-1 m/l
Anti foaming agent-1 m/l
Time 60 min
Temperature- 95
M : L 1 : 10

Recipe for dyeing:

Reactive dye- 1%, 3%, 5% and 1%(combined color)

ELBO Yellow 3RS 1%

BEZ Blue VRSP 3%
ELBO Red 313SN 5%
Combined color- 1%
For Fleece, Y : R : B= 1 : 2 : 3
For Rib, Y : R : B=3 : 2 : 1
For Single jersey, Y : R : B= 1 : 3 : 2
Common salt- 40 g/l
Soda ash- 10 g/l
Wetting agent- 0.5 g/l
Sequestering agent- 1 g/l
Leveling agent 1 g/l
Time 60 min
Temperature - 60
M : L 1 : 10

Recipe for hot wash:

Detergent- 5 g/l
Soda ash- 2 g/l
Distilled water- enough water

Time 15 min
Temperature - 95
M : L= 1 : 50

Recipe calculation:
Stock solution(1%): 1gm dyes + 100 ml water
Dyes-

shade sample wt
ml
stock solution

Others reagents-

reagent total liquer

ml ,gm
1000

Equipments Needed For Dyeing:

Dyed Carded and Combed Sample:

Sample name

Sample

Fabric name: Fleece Card

Color name: Yellow
Shade %: 1

Fabric name: Fleece Combed

Color name: Yellow
Shade %: 1

Fabric name: Rib Card

Color name: Blue
Shade %: 1

Sample name

Fabric name: Rib Combed

Sample

Color name: Blue

Shade %: 1

Fabric name: Single jersey Card

Color name: Red
Shade %: 1

Fabric name: Single

Combed
Color name: Red
Shade %: 1

Sample name

Fabric name: Fleece Card

Color name: Yellow
Shade %: 3

jersey

Sample

Fabric name: Fleece Combed

Color name: Yellow
Shade %: 3

Fabric name: Rib Card

Color name: Blue
Shade %: 3

Sample name

Fabric name: Rib Combed

Color name: Blue
Shade %: 3

Sample

Fabric name: Single jersey Card

Color name: Red
Shade %: 3

Fabric name: Single

Combed
Color name: Red
Shade %: 3

jersey

Sample name

Fabric name: Fleece Card

Color name: Yellow
Shade %: 5

Fabric name: Fleece Combed

Color name: Yellow

Sample

Shade %: 5

Fabric name: Rib Card

Color name: Blue
Shade %: 5

Sample name

Fabric name: Rib Combed

Color name: Blue
Shade %: 5

Fabric name: Single jersey Card

Color name: Red
Shade %: 5

Sample

Fabric name: Single

Combed
Color name: Red
Shade %: 5

jersey

Sample name

Fabric name: Fleece Card

Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue
Shade %: 1
Y:R:B=1:2:3

Fabric name: Fleece Combed

Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue
Shade %: 1
Y:R:B= 1:2:3

Fabric name: Rib Card

Sample

Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue

Shade %: 1
Y:R:B=3:2:1

Sample name

Fabric name: Rib Combed

Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue
Shade %: 1
Y:R:B=3:2:1

Fabric name: Single jersey Card

Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue
Shade %: 1
Y:R:B= 1:3:2

Fabric name: Single jersey

Combed
Color name: Yellow, Red, Blue
Shade %: 1
Y:R:B=1:3:2

Sample

Color fastness test

Color fastness to rubbing: The test is designed to determine the
degree of color which may be transferred from the surface of
colored textile to a specific Crock meter test cloth for rubbing (dry
& wet state).
Test procedure:
- 14cm 5cm sample is taken.
- Locked the specimen on the base of crock meter to make
flat,
- 5cm 5 cm, white rubbing cloth to the finger of crock
meter,
- Lower& covered finger on to the sample, turn hand crank &
10 complete turns made(one turn/sec),(10 10s)
- A wetted fabric with 100% take up & drying before
evaluation.
Evaluation :
Compare the contrast between the untreated & treated white
rubbing cloth with the staining grey & rate from 1 to 5 and
changing in the tested specimen with changing gray scale. This
visual assessment is done in color matching cabinet under
standard light, D65 (Artificial Day light).
Interpretation of grades:

5- Excellent
4- Good
3- Fair
2- Poor
1-Very poor

Method: ISO 105/12

Test report for rubbing:

Fabric
type

Fleece
Color:
Yellow

Rib
Color:
Blue

Shade
percenta
ge

Card /
combe
d

Assessments
Grade for
changing
Dry
Wet

Grade for
staining
Dry
Wet

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

1/2

4/5

3%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

5%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

1%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

1/2

4/5

3%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

Combe
d

2/3

3/4

5%

Fabric
type

Single
jersey
Color:
Red

Shade
percenta
ge

S/j
Y:R:B=
1:3:2

1/2

4/5

Combe
d

2/3

3/4

Card /
combe
d

Assessments
Grade for
changing
Dry
Wet

Grade for
staining
Dry
Wet

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

3%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

5%

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

Combe
d
Card

1/2

4/5

Combe

1/2

4/5

Fleece
Y:R:B=
1:2:3
Rib
Y:R:B=
3:2:1

Card

1%

Graphical representation of rubbing test:

Rubbing test result

7
6
Card 1%

5
Grading

Combed 1%

Card 3%

Combed 3%
Card 5%

Combed 5%

1
0

Fleece

Rib
Fabric Type

S.jersey

Rubbing test result for combaine color

3.5
3
2.5
Fleece

2
Grading

Rib

1.5

S. jersey

1
0.5
0

Card

Combed
Fabric Type

Color fastness to wash: Fastness to washing is one of the

important dyeing properties to the consumers. There is a variety
of testing procudure to some extent. Washing is important criteria
for wet processing because its vary from one country to another.
Test procedure:
- 10cm 4 cm sample is taken,
- This sample is attached with same size multi fibre fabric &
scoured and bleached cotton fabric by sewing.
- Abrasive action accomplished by low liquor ratio.

Reagents :
Detergent
Sodium carbonate
Distilled water
Evaluation : Compare the contrast between the untreated & treated
sample with the changing gray scale & staining of color in the

adjacent multi fabric with staining gray scale. This visual

assessment is done in color matching cabinet under standard
light, D65 (Artificial Day light).
Interpretation of grades:

5- Excellent
4- Good
3- Fair
2- Poor
1-Very poor

Method : ISO 105:CO3

Test result for Wash:
Fabri
c
type

Fleec
e
color
:
Yello
w

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

aceta
te

cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

4/5

2/3

1/2

4/5

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

1/2

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

3/4

2/3

3/4

1%

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

2/3

1/2

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

2/3

1/2

1/2

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

2/3

1/2

Com
b

3/4

2/3

1/2

Rib
color
:
Blue

Fabri
c
type

S/j
color
: Red

Flee
ce
Y:R:B
=
1:2:3

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

Aceta
te

Cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

2/3

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

1/2

4/5

4/5

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

4/5

4/5

3/4

Com
b

1/2

4/5

4/5

2/3

Rib
Y:R:B
=
3:2:
1

1%

S/j
Y:R:B
=
1:3:2

Card

2/3

3/4

Com
b
Card

3/4

1/2

4/5

4/5

3/4

4/5

2/3

1/2

4/5

Com
b

Graphical representation of wash test:

Washing test result for changing gray scale

7
6
Card 1%

5
Grading

Combed 1%

Card 3%

Combed 3%
Card 5%

Combed 5%

1
0

Fleece

Rib
Fabric Type

S.jersey

Washing test result for changing gray scale for combaine color
3.5
3
2.5
Fleece

2
Grading

Rib

1.5

S. jersey

1
0.5
0

Card

Combed
Fabric Type

Graphical representation of wash test:

Washing test result for staining gray scale

7
6
Card 1%

5
Grading

Combed 1%

Card 3%

Combed 3%
Card 5%

Combed 5%

1
0

Fleece

Rib
Fabric Type

S.jersey

Washing test result for staining gray scale for combaine color
3.5
3
2.5
Fleece

2
Grading

Rib

1.5

S. jersey

1
0.5
0

Card

Combed
Fabric Type

Color fastness to perspiration: The garments which in contact with

the body where perspiration is heavy may suffer serious local
discoloration. This test is intended to determine the resistance of
color of dyed textile to the action of acid & alkali perspiration.

Test procedure:
- 10cm 4 cm sample is taken,
- This sample is attached with same size multi fibre fabric &
scoured and bleached cotton fabric by sewing.
- Wet is solution, liquor ration 50:1, leave for 30 mins.
- Pour off excess solution, place between two glass/acrylic
plates (12.5 kpa) & place in oven for 4 hrs.

Reagents:
Name of reagents
L-Histidine monohydrochloride monohydrate (
C6 H 9 O3 N 3 HCl. H 2 O
)
Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Disodium hydrogen

alkali

Acid
0.5 gm

0.5 gm

5.0 gm
2.5 gm

5.0 gm
2.2 gm

orthophosphate di-hydrate
Na2 HPO4 2 H 2 O
(
)
Distilled water
H
P

1000 ml
8.0

1000 ml
5.5

Evaluation : Numerically rate the color change & staining of each

test specimen under lighting using the gray scales for color
change & color staining.
Interpretation of grades: 5- Excellent, 4- Good, 3- Fair, 2- Poor, 1-Very
poor

Method: ISO 105 E04

Test result for perspiration test (Acid medium):
Fabri
c
type

Fleec
e
color
:
Yello
w

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

aceta
te

cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

5%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

Rib
color
:
Blue

Fabri
c
type

S/j
color
: Red

4/5

1%

Com
b
Card

3%

Com
b
Card

4/5

2/3

4/5

4/5

4/5

1/2

4/5

4/5

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

4/5

2/3

4/5

4/5

4/5

Com
b

1/2

4/5

4/5

4/5

4/5

4/5

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

Aceta
te

Cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

1/2

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

4/5

4/5

1/2

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

Flee
ce
Y:R:B
=
1:2:3
Rib
Y:R:B
=
3:2:
1

1%

S/j
Y:R:B
=
1:3:2

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

4/5

1/2

4/5

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

4/5

4/5

Com
b

1/2

4/5

4/5

Graphical representation of perspiration test (Alkali medium):

Perspiration test result for changing gray scale

7
6
Card 1%

5
Grading

Combed 1%

Card 3%

Combed 3%
Card 5%

Combed 5%

1
0

Fleece

Rib
Fabric Type

S.jersey

Perspiration test result for changing gray scale for combaine color
3.5
3
2.5
Fleece

2
Grading

Rib

1.5

S. jersey

1
0.5
0

Card

Combed
Fabric Type

Test result for perspiration (Alkali medium):

Fabri
c
type

Fleec
e
color
:
Yello
w

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

aceta
te

cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

5%

Com
b
Card

Rib
color
:
Blue

Fabri
c
type

S/j
color
: Red

2/3

3/4

1%

Com
b
Card

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

4/5

3/4

4/5

5%

Com
b
Card

Com
b

Shade
percenta
ge

Card/
comb
ed

Assessments
Grade
changing

for

Color staining to multi-fibre fabric

Aceta
te

Cotto
n

Nylo
n

Polyest
er

Acryli
c

Wool

1%

Card

1/2

4/5

3%

Com
b
Card

2/3

3/4

2/3

3/4

5%

Com
b
Card

Com
b
Card

Flee
ce
Y:R:B
=
1:2:3
Rib
Y:R:B
=
3:2:
1

1%

S/j
Y:R:B
=
1:3:2

1/2

4/5

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

1/2

4/5

Com
b
Card

1/2

4/5

1/2

4/5

Com
b

Graphical representation of perspiration test (Alkali medium):

Perspiration test result for changing gray scale

7
6
Card 1%

5
Grading

Combed 1%

Card 3%

Combed 3%
Card 5%

Combed 5%

1
0

Fleece

Rib
Fabric Type

S.jersey

Perspiration test result for changing gray scale for combaine color
3.5
3
2.5
Fleece

2
Grading

Rib

1.5

S. jersey

1
0.5
0

Card

Combed
Fabric Type

Result and discussion:

In rubbing test:
Maximum fabric has no change in changing and staining scale at
dry state. Those values are graded as excellent according to the
grading system. But there are a little changes at wet state. And
those values are graded as good to fair according to the grading
scale.
Colorfastness to rubbing of single jersey fabric have some
changes both dry and wet state. This changes have done for both
Carded and Combed fabric and for 3% and 5% shade. Those
values are graded as good to fair according to the grading scale.

In wash test:
Color staining to multifibre fabric have done mainly for Acetate,
cotton and wool fabric. Those values are graded as good to fair

according to the grading scale. There are small staining in Nylon

fabric for Rib fabric(both carded and combed fabric and 3% and
5% shade). Color staining for Polyester and Acrylic is excellent.
Color changes is also done for all the fabric. And those values are
graded as good to fair according to the grading system.

In perspiration test:
In acid solution, color staining to multifibre fabric have done
mainly for Cotton and Nylon fabric. But this staining is not so
much. It can be graded as good to fair. In Rib fabric(Both carded
and combed fabric and 3% and 5% shade), color staining have
done for all most all the fabric. And those values are also graded
as good to fair.
Color changing is also done for all most all the fabric . And also it
can be graded as good to fair.
In alkali solution, color staining to multifibre fabric have done
mainly for Cotton fabric. It can be graded as good to fair. In Rib
fabric(Both carded and combed fabric and 3% and 5% shade),
color staining have done for Nylon and wool fabric. And those
values are also graded as good to fair.
Color changing is also done for all most all the fabric . And also it
can be graded as good to fair.

Color fastness of combined color of 1% shade is much better than

the single colors of all shade in case of all the shade. In case of
shade variation, there were a small changes between different
shade percentage. Color fastness of 1% shade is better than both
3% and 5% shade.

Advantage:

Disadvantage:

Conclusion:
The analytical result reveals that carded fabric can easily be used
in place of combed fabric. Because there are not so many
differences between carded fabric and combed fabric. For this,
production cost will be decreased because carded fabric
production cost is generally lower than combed fabric. This study
work was analyzed a few number of fabric properties. The result
of our simple bar diagram shows that using carded fabric and
combed fabric have a little change occur in terms of color
fastness to wash. There is a little effect on color fastness to
rubbing and perspiration both acid and alkali medium.
Combed fabrics are stronger, less hairy and more uniform than
carded fabrics. That is why, combed fabrics shows better result on
color fastness to rubbing, wash and perspiration than carded
fabrics
In case of shade variation, there were a small changes between
different shade percentage. Color fastness of 1% shade is better
than both 3% and 5% shade.

References:
[1] J.E. Booth Principles of Textile Testing, India: CBS publishers and Distributors,
1996, pp.209-235
[2] David. J. Spencer Knitting Technology, Cambridge: Woodhead, 2008, pp.1-61
[3] Klein. W. Manual of Textile Technology, UK: The Textile Institute, 2008, pp, 286289.
[4] D.B. Ajgaonkar Knitting Technology, New Delhi: Universal Publishing
Corporation, 2006, pp.180181
[5] E.R. Trotman Dyeing and chemical Technology of Textile Fibres, London:
Charles Griffin and
Company Ltd., 1975, pp, 616-626
[6] Munden, D.L. The Geometry and Dimensional Properties of Plain Knit Fabrics
Journal of the Textile
Institute 50, 1959.T448-471.
[7] Banerjee, P.K. and Alaiban, T.S. Geometry and Dimensional Properties of Plain
Loops, Made of Rotor
Spun Cotton Yarns Textile Res. J. 58(5): 287-290 (1988).