MAE 3344 Manufacturing

HW#1 Solutions

1.3 Explain the difference between a unit cell and a single crystal.
The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice structure of a particular metal is a unit
cell. A single crystal can have many unit cells.
1.5 Define Anisotropy. What is its significance?
Anisotropy is a property of crystals that exhibit different behavior when tested in different directions. An
example of anisotropy can be seen in a material that might elongate in one direction but contract in
another direction. The importance of this property is that a material could have higher strength in one
direction and weaker in another direction. By knowing this, a machinist could take advantage of this
property.
1.7 What is strain hardening and what effects does it have on the properties of metals?
Strain hardening is an increase of shear stress to overcome entanglements and impediments results in
an increase the overall strength and hardness of the metal. The effect of strain hardening on metals
properties is an increase in strength. As the deformation of the metal increases, the strength increases
as well.
1.12 What is a slip system and what is its significance?
A slip system is the combination of a slip plane and its direction of a slip. The significance of the slip
system allows prior knowledge of how a metal will react under shear stress.
1.29 Explain why the strength of a polycrystalline metal at room temperature decreases as its grain size
increases.
Strength increases as more entanglements of dislocations occur with grain boundaries (Section 1.4.2 on
p. 47). Metals with larger grains have less grain-boundary area per unit volume, and hence will not be as
able to generate as many entanglements at grain boundaries, thus the strength will be lower.
2.9 Describe the differences between brittle and ductile fracture?
Ductile fracture happens after plastic deformation whereas brittle fracture happens with little or no
plastic deformation. Brittle fracture happens at low temperature and high rate of deformation. Ductile
fracture happens on the plane where shear stress is maximum.
2.14 Describe the differences between elastic and plastic behavior?
Elastic behavior of a material is when a material is under a load and released, it returns to its original
shape. Plastic behavior is when the material under a load reaches the yield stress and when the load is
released the material does not return to the original shape.

2.21 Why does the fatigue strength of a specimen or part depend on its surface finish?
Because a minute external or internal cracks develop a preexist flaws or defects in the material, these
cracks then propagate over time and eventually lead to total and sudden failure of the part.
2.50 Select an appropriate hardness test for each of the following materials, and justify your answer:
(a) Cubic boron nitride
(b) Lead
(c) Cold-drawn 0.5%C steel
(d) Diamond
(e) Caramel candy
(f) Granite
Figure 2.15 on p. 73 is a useful guide for selecting hardness tests.
(a) Cubic boron nitride is very hard, and useful data can be obtained only from the Knoop and Mohs
tests. The Mohs scale is qualitative and does not give numerical values for hardness, so the Knoop test is
preferable.
(b) Lead. As shown in Fig. 2.14, lead is so soft that only the Brinell and Vickers tests yield useful data.
Recognizing that lead is very soft, the lightest loads in these tests should be used. Consider the expected
results in this test if a typical value of hardness is 4 HB or 4 HV. For the Brinell test, Fig. 2.13 suggests
that the expected indentation for a 500 kg load is:

Therefore, solving for d,

Mechanical Behavior and Manufacturing Properties of Materials 16 Note that this dimension is almost
the same as the diameter of the indentor, and makes the usefulness of the test highly questionable. For
the Vickers test, the expected indentation test, using the lowest allowable load of 1 kg, is:

This is much more reasonable, suggesting that the Vickers test is the best alternative for lead.
(c) Cold-drawn 0.5% steel. From Fig. 2.15, all of the hardness tests are suitable for this material. As
discussed in Problem 2.26, the best choice for this material will depend on a number of factors.
(d) Diamond. The hardness of diamond is difficult to obtain. The hardness of diamond is really
determined by extrapolating the hardness on the Mohs curve to another scale in Fig. 2.14. The hardness
of diamond is usually quoted as 8000 to 10,000 HK.
(e) Caramel (candy). This would be an interesting experiment to perform, but the result will be that
none of the hardness tests can be used for this material because it is far too soft. Also, the hardness of
caramel is strongly temperature-dependent and that it creeps, so that hardness measurement may be

meaningless.
(f) Granite. The hardness of granite varies according to the source, but it is approximately around
apatite on the Mohs scale. Thus, various hardness tests can give valuable information on granite. Note,
however, that in inspecting granite surfaces, one can see various regions within which there would be
hardness variations. The particular hardness test selected will depend on various factors, as discussed in
part (c) above.
3.14 Describe the significance of structures and machine components made of two materials with
different coefficients of thermal expansion.
The structural fit of the machine components will depend on the thermal expansion coefficient. For
instance, if two materials with different thermal expansion coefficients are assembled together by some
means and then heated, the structure will develop internal stresses due to uneven expansion. If these
stresses are high enough, the structure will warp, bend, or buckle in order to balance or relieve the
stresses; it will possibly retain some internal (residual) stresses as well. If prevented from warping, the
structure will develop high internal stresses which can lead to cracks. This is not always detrimental;
shrink fits are designed recognizing that materials may have different coefficients of thermal expansion,
and some machine elements such as thermocouples and temperature probes are based on a mismatch
of thermal expansion coefficients.
4.3 What are the conditions for obtaining (a) substitutional solid solution and (b) Interstitial solid
solution?
(a) 1. The two metals must have similar crystal structures.
The difference in their atomic radii should be less than 15%.
(b) 1. The solvent atom must have more than one valence electron.
The atomic radii of the solute atom must be less than 59% of the atomic radius for the
solvent atom.
4.9 What is tempering? Why is it performed?
Tempering is heat process by which hardness is reduced and toughness is improved. It is performed in
order to improve the mechanical properties of material.
4.14 What is the purpose of annealing?
The purpose of annealing is to return cold-worked or heat treated alloys to their original properties. It
is also used to relieve residual stresses in manufactures parts, improve machinability and dimensional
stability.
4.22 Describe the characteristics of (a) an alloy, (b) pearlite, (c) austenite, (d)
martensite, and (e) cementite.
i. Alloy: Composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. The
alloy may be a solid solution or it may form intermetallic compounds.
ii. Pearlite: A two-phase aggregate consisting of alternate lamellae of ferrite and ce-

mentite. The closer the pearlite spacing of the lamellae, the harder the steel will
be.
iii. Austenite: Called gamma iron, it has a face-centered cubic structure. The fcc
structure allows for higher solubility of carbon in the crystal lattice. This structure
also possesses a high level of ductility, which increases the steel's formability.
iv. Martensite: Forms by quenching austenite. It has a body-centered tetragonal (bct)
structure, and carbon atoms in interstitial positions impart high strength to the
structure. It is very brittle and hard.
v. Cementite, also known as iron carbide (Fe3C). Cementite is a hard and brittle phase.
4.24 How does the shape of graphite in cast iron affect its properties?
The shape of graphite in cast iron has the following basic forms:
(a) Flakes: Have sharp edges which act as stress raisers. The shape makes cast iron low in tensile
strength and ductility, but it still has good compressive strength. The flakes also act as vibration
dampers.
(b) Nodules: Spheroids formed by graphite when magnesium or cerium is added to the melt. This
form has increased ductility, strength, and shock resistance over flakes, but the damping
capacity is reduced.
(c) Clusters: Much like nodules, except they form from the breakdown of white cast iron upon
annealing. Clusters have properties similar to flakes.
(d) Compacted flakes: Short thick flakes with rounded edges. This form has properties that are
between nodular and flake graphite.