Rock (geology)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Rocks" and "Stone" redirect here. For other uses, see Rocks (disambiguation) and Stone
(disambiguation).

Balanced Rock stands in theGarden of the Gods park in Colorado Springs

In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals ormineraloids. For
example, the common rock granite is a combination of the quartz,feldspar and biotite minerals. The
Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
Rocks have been used by mankind throughout history. From the Stone Age rocks have been used
for tools. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization.[1]
Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific
study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology.
Contents
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1 Classification
1.1 Igneous
1.2 Sedimentary
1.3 Metamorphic
2 Human use
2.1 Mining
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

Classification
See also: Formation of rocks

Rock outcrop along a mountain creek near Oros, Costa Rica.

At a granular level, rocks are composed of grains of minerals, which, in turn, arehomogeneous
solids formed from a chemical compound that is arranged in an orderly manner.
The aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together bychemical bonds. The types and
abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which the rock was formed. Many
rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74.3% of the Earth's crust.
This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock. The proportion of silica in rocks and
minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties.[2]
Rocks are geologically classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical
composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles, andparticle size. These physical
properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks.[3] Over the course of time, rocks
can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock
cycle. These events produce three general classes of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
The three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups. However, there are no hard and fast
boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their constituent
minerals they pass by every gradation into one another, the distinctive structures also of one kind of
rock may often be traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in
establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary selected points in a
continuously graduated series.[4]

Igneous
Main article: Igneous rock

Sample of igneous gabbro

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire) forms
through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. This magma can be derived from partial
melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is
caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a
change in composition.

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: plutonic

rock and volcanic.Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within
theEarth's crust. A common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from
magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming minerals such
as pumice or basalt.[3] The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a
sequence known as Bowen's reaction series, named after the Canadian petrologistNorman L.
Bowen. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale.[2]
About 64.7% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks; making it the most plentiful
category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, and
17% granodiorites and diorites. Only 0.6% are syenites and 0.3% peridotitesand dunites. The
oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granites and similar
rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form much of the continental crust.[5] Over 700 types of igneous
rocks have been described, most of them having formed beneath the surface of Earth's crust. These
have diverse properties, depending on their composition and the temperature and pressure
conditions in which they were formed.

Sedimentary
Main article: Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary sandstone with iron oxide bands

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of
fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths
in water (sedimentation). This process causesclastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles
(detritus) to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to chemically precipitate (evaporite) from
a solution. The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation during at moderate
temperatures and pressures (diagenesis).
Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering or earlier rocks byerosion in a source
area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water,wind, ice, mass
movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65%
(mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15%
(limestone and dolostone).[3] About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks,
with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone
and arkoses (12%).[5] Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the
influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and
may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep
slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another
layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

Metamorphic
Main article: Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic banded gneiss

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock typesedimentary rock,igneous rock or
another older metamorphic rockto different temperature andpressure conditions than those in
which the original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism; meaning to "change in
form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original
rock, known as theprotolith, transforms into other mineral types or else into other forms of the same
minerals, such as by recrystallization.[3] The temperatures and pressures required for this process
are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 C
and pressures of 1500 bars.[6] Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume.[5]
The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An
intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphisma temperaturedominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under
the ground; pressure is dominant and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial
metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role,
the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building
regions.[2]
Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that
possess a texture are referred to as foliated; the remainder are termed non-foliated. The name of the
rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are
primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas. A gneiss has visible bands of
differing lightness, with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock
includeslates, phyllites, and mylonite. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks
include marble, soapstone, andserpentine. This branch contains quartzitea metamorphosed form
of sandstoneand hornfels.[2]

Human use

Ceremonial cairn of rocks, an ovoo, from Mongolia

Mi Vida uranium mine near Moab, Utah

The use of rocks has had a huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human
race. Rocks have been used by humans and other hominids for at least2.5 million years.[7] Lithic
technology marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rocks for
theirmetal ore content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, which
has progressed at different rates in different places in part because of the kind of metals available
from the rocks of a region.[8][not in citation given]

Mining
Main article: Mining

Bay of Fires, Tasmania

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from
an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. This term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by
mining include base metals, precious metals, iron,uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock
salt and potash. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown
through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider
sense comprises extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum, natural gas, salt or even water) from the
earth.[9]

Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining processes
involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of
the desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once mining
ceases.[10]
The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during
the mining operations and for years after the mine has closed. This impact has led to most of the
world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations.[11]