Corrosion found in the Boiler and feed

systems
Corrosion and tube failure caused by water
chemistry
Metals obtained from their oxide ores will tend to revert to that state. However , if
on exposure to oxygen the oxide layer is stable , no further oxidation will occur. If
it is porous or unstable then no protection is afforded.
Iron+O2 --- magnetite(stable and protective) + O 2----ferrous oxide
(porous)

Two principle types of corrosion

Direct chemical-higher temperature metal comes into contact with air or other
gasses (oxidation, Sulphurisation ) Electrochemical-e.g. Galvanic action ,
hydrogen evolution , oxygen absorption

Hydrogen Evolution (low pH attack)

Valency = No of electrons required to fill outer shell

Pure water contains equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions .

Impurities change the balance . Acidic water has an excess of hydrogen ions
which leads to hydrogen evolution

For hydrogen absorption to occur no oxygen needs to be present, a

pH of less than 6.5 and so an excess of free hydrogen ions is required.
The Protective film of hydrogen gas on the cathodic surface breaks down as the
hydrogen combines and bubbles off as diatomic hydrogen gas.

Oxygen Absorption(high O2 corrosion)

pH between 6- 10, Oxygen present. Leads to pitting. Very

troublesome and can be due to ineffective feed treatment prevalent in idle
boilers. Once started this type of corrosion cannot be stopped until the rust scab
is removed , either by mechanical means or by acid cleaning. One special type is

called deposit attack, the area under a deposit being deprived of oxygen become
anodic. More common in horizontal than vertical tubing and often associated with
condensers.

Boiler corrosion
General Wastage

Pitting

Common in boilers having an open feed system.

.
.
-Most serious form of corrosion on the waterside
-Often found in boiler shell at w.l.
-Usually due to poor shape
-In HP blrs found also in screen and generating tubes
and in suphtr tubes after priming.

Corrosion fatigue cracking

Cases found in water tube blrs where due to alternating cyclic stresses set up in
tube material leading to a series of fine cracks in wall. Corrosive environment
aggravates. Trans crystalline
more in depth: Occurs in any location where cyclic stressing of
sufficient magnitude are present
Rapid start up and shut down can greatly increase susceptibility.
Common in wall and supht tubes, end of the membrane on waterwall
tubes, economisers, deaerators . Also common on areas of rigid constraint such
as connections to inlet and outlet headers
Other possible locations and causes are in grooves along partially full
boiler tubes (cracks normally lie at right angle to groove ), at points of
intermittent stm blanketing within generating tubes, at oxygen pits in waterline or
feed water lines, in welds at slag pockets or points of incomplete fusion , in
sootblower lines where vibration stresses are developed , and in blowdown lines.

Caustic cracking (embrittlement) or stress corrosion

cracking

Pure iron grains bound by cementite ( iron carbide).

Occurs when a specific corrodent and sufficient tensile stress exists
Due to improved water treatment caustic stress- Corrosion cracking
( or caustic embrittlement ) has all but been eliminated.
It can however be found in water tubes , suphtr and reheat tubes and
in
stressed
components
of
the
water
drum.
The required stress may be applied ( e.g. thermal, bending etc. ) or residual
(
e.g.
welding)
Boiler steel is sensitive to Na OH , stainless steel is sensitive to NaOH and
chlorides
A large scale attack on the material is not normal and indeed uncommon. The
combination of NaOH , some soluble silica and a tensile stress is all that is
required to form the characteristic intergranular cracks in carbon steel.

Concentrations of the corrodent may build up in a similar way to those caustic

corrosion i.e.
DNB
Deposition
Evaporation at water line
And also by small leakage
Caustic corrosion at temperatures less than 149oC are rare

NaOH concentration may be as low as 5% but increased susceptibility

occurs in the range 20- 40 %
Failure is of the thick walled type regardless of ductility.
Whitish highly alkaline deposits or sparkling magnetite may indicate a
corrosion sight.
To eliminate this problem either the stresses can be removed or the
corrodent. The stresses may be hoop stress( temp', pressure) which cannot be
avoided bending or residual weld stresses which must be removed in the design/
manufacturing stage.

Avoidance of the concentrations of the corrodents is generally the

most successful. Avoid DNB , avoid undue deposits prevent leakage of corrodents,
prevent carryover.
Proper water treatment is essential.

Caustic corrosion

Takes place at high pressure due to excessive NaOH

In high temperature, high evaporation rates leading to local
concentrations nearly coming out of solution and form a thin film
near heating surface.
Magnetite layer broken down
Soluble compound formed which deposits on metal as a porous
oxide
Local concentrations may cause a significant overall reduction in
alkalinity.
If evaporation rate reduced alkalinity restored.

More in depth:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Generally confined to
Water cooled in regions of high heat flux
Slanted or horizontal tubes
Beneath heavy deposits
Adjacent to devices that disrupt flow ( e.g. backing rings)

Caustic ( or ductile ) gouging refers to the corrosive interaction of

concentrated NaOH with a metal to produce distinct hemispherical or elliptical
depressions.
Depression are often filled with corrosion products that sometimes
contain sparkling crystals of magnetite.
Iron oxides being amphoteric are susceptible to corrosion by both
high and low pH enviroments.

the iron.

High pH substances such as NaOH dissolve the magnetite then attack

The two factors required to cause caustic corrosion are;

the availability of NaOH or of alkaline producing salts. ( e.g.
intentional by water treatment or unintentional by ion exchange resin
regeneration.)
Method of concentration, i.e. one of the following;
i. Departure form nucleate boiling (DNB)
ii. Deposition
iii. Evapouration

i)Departure
form
nucleate
boiling
(DNB)
Under normal conditions steam bubbles are formed in discrete parts. Boiler water
solids develop near the surface . However on departure of the bubble rinsing
water flows in and redissolves the soluble solids

However at increased rates the rate of bubble formation may exceed

the flow of rinsing water , and at higher still rate, a stable film may occur with
corrosion
concentrations
at
the
edge
of
this
blanket.
The
magnetite
layer
is
then
attacked
leading
to
metal
loss.
The area under the film may be relatively intact.

ii),
Deposition
A similar situation can occur beneath layers of heavy deposition where bubbles
formation occur but the corrosive residue is protected from the bulk water
iii),
Evaporation
at
waterline
Where a waterline exists corrosives may concentrate at this point by evaporation
and corrosion occurs.

prevention's

Rifling is sometimes fitted to prevent DNB by inducing water swirl.

Reduce free NaOH by correct water treatment
Prevent inadvertent release of NaOH into system (say from an ion exchange
column regenerator )
Prevent leakage of alkaline salts via condenser
Prevent DNB
Prevent excessive waterside deposits
Prevent creation of waterlines in tubes- slanted or horizontal tubes are particularly
susceptible to this at light loads were low water flows allow stm water stratification.

Hydrogen attack
If the magnetite layer is broken down by corrosive action, high temperature
hydrogen atoms diffuse into the metal, combine with the carbon and form
methane. Large CH-3 molecules causes internal stress and cracking along crystal
boundaries and sharp sided pits or cracks in tubes appear.
more in depth: Generally confined to internal surfaces of water
carrying tubes that are actively corroding. Usually occurs in regions of high heat
flux, beneath heavy deposits, in slanted and horizontal tubes and in heat regions
at or adjacent to backing rings at welds or near devices that disrupt flow .
Uncommon in boilers with a W.P.of less than 70 bar

A typical sequence would be ;

NaOH removes the magnetite
free hydrogen is formed ( hydrogen in its atomic rather than diatomic state) by
either the reaction of water with the iron reforming the magnetite or by NaOH
reacting with the iron
This free hydrogen can diffuse into the steel where it combines at the grain
boundaries to form molecular hydrogen or reacts with the iron carbide to form
methane
As neither molecular hydrogen or methane can diffuse through the steel the
gasses build up , increasing pressure and leading to failure at the grain
boundaries
These micro cracks accumulate reducing tensile stress and leading to a thick
walled failure. Sections may be blown out.
This form of damage may also occur in regions of low pH
For boilers operating above 70 bar , where high pH corrosion has occurred the
possibility of hydrogen damage should be considered

High temperature corrosion.

Loss of circulation , high temperature in steam atmosphere, or externally on
suphtr tubes

Chelant corrosion
Concentrated chelants ( i,e. amines and other protecting chemicals) can attack
magnetite
,
stm
drum
internals
most
susceptible.
A surface under attack is free of deposits and corrosion products , it may be very
smooth
and
coated
with
a
glassy
black
like
substance
Horse shoe shaped contours with comet tails in the direction of the flow may be
present.
Alternately deep discrete isolated pits may occur depending on the
flow and turbulence
The main concentrating mechanism is evaporation and hence DNB
should be avoided
Careful watch on reserves and O2 prescience should be maintained

Low pH attack
Pure water contains equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions . Impurities
change the balance . Acidic water has an excess of hydrogen ions which leads to
hydrogen evolution.See previous notes on Hydrogen Evolution
For hydrogen absorption to occur no oxygen needs to be present, a
pH of less than 6.5 and so an excess of free hydrogen ions is required.
The Protective film of hydrogen gas on the cathodic surface breaks down as the
hydrogen combines and bubbles off as diatomic hydrogen gas.
May occur due to heavy salt water contamination or by acids leaching into the
system from a demineralisation regeneration.
Localised attack may occur however where evaporation causes the
concentration of acid forming salts . The mechanism are the same as for caustic
attack. The corrosion is of a similar appearance to caustic gouging

Prevention is the same as for caustic attack . Proper maintenance of

boiler water chemicals is essential
Vigorous acid attack may occur following chemical cleaning .
Distinguished from other forms of pitting by its being found on all exposed areas
Very careful monitoring whilst chemical cleaning with the temperature being
maintained below the inhibitor breakdown point. Constant testing of dissolved
iron and non ferrous content in the cleaning solution should be carried out.
After acid cleaning a chelating agent such as phosphoric acid as
sometimes used . This helps to prevent surface rusting , The boiler is then flushed
with warm water until a neutral solution is obtained.

Oxygen corrosion
Uncommon in operating boilers but may be found in idle boilers.
Entire boiler susceptible , but most common in the superheater tubes (reheater
tubes especially where water accumulates in bends and sags )
In an operating boiler firstly the economiser and feed heater are
effected.
In the event of severe contamination of oxygen areas such as the stm
drum water line and the stm separation equipment
In all cases considerable damage can occur even if the period of
oxygen contamination is short
Bare steel coming into contact with oxygenated water will tend to
form magnetite with a sound chemical water treatment program.
However , in areas where water may accumulate then any trace oxygen is
dissolved into the water and corrosion by oxygen absorption occurs( see previous
explanation )

Oxygen Absorption
in addition to notes above pH between 6- 10, Oxygen present.
Leads to pitting. Very troublesome and can be due to ineffective feed treatment
prevalent in idle boilers. Once started this type of corrosion cannot be stopped
until the rust scab is removed , either by mechanical means or by acid cleaning.
One special type is called pitting were metal below deposits being
deprived of oxygen become anodic . More common in horizontal than vertical
tubing and often associated with condensers.
The ensuing pitting not only causes trouble due to the material loss
but also acts as a stress raiser
The three critical factors are
i. the prescience of water or moisture
ii. prescience of dissolved oxygen
iii. unprotected metal surface

The corrosiveness of the water increases with temperature and

dissolved
solids
and
decreases
with
increased
pH
Aggressiveness generally increases with increased O2
The three causes of unprotected metal surfaces are
i. following acid cleaning
ii. surface covered by a marginally or non protective iron oxide such as
Hematite (Fe2O3)
iii. The metal surface is covered with a protective iron oxide such as
magnetite (Fe3O4 , black) But holidays or cracks exist in the coating,
this may be due to mechanical or thermal stressing.
During normal operation the environment favours rapid repair of
these cracks. However, with high O2 prescience then corrosion may commence
before the crack is adequately repaired.

FEED SYSTEM CORROSION.

Graphitization
Cast iron , ferrous materials corrode leaving a soft matrix structur of carbon
flakes

Dezincification
Brass with a high zinc content in contact with sea water , corrodes and the copper
is redeposited. Inhibitors such as arsenic , antimony or phosphorus can be used ,
but
are
ineffective
at
higher
temperatures.
Tin has some improving effects

Exfoliation (denickelfication)
Normally occurs in feed heaters with a cupro-nickel tubing ( temp 205 oC or
higher)
Very
low
sea
water
flow
condensers
also
susceptible.
Nickel oxidised forming layers of copper and nickel oxide

Ammonium corrosion
Ammonium formed by the decompositin of hydrazine
Dissolve cupric oxide formed on copper or copper alloy tubes
Does not attack copper, hence oxygen required to provide corrosion,Hence only
possibel at the lower temperature regions where the hydrazine is less effective or
inactive,
The copper travels to the boiler and leads to piting.

Deposits and scales found in boilers

Definition: material originating elsewhere and conveyed to deposition site; Oxides

formed at the site are not deposits.

Water formed and steam formed deposits

May occur anywhere

Wall and screen tubes most heavily fouled , superhtr has deposits
formed elsewhere and carried with the steam or carryover.
Economisers ( non-steaming) contain deposits moved from there
original site.
Tube orientation can influence location and amount of deposition.
Deposits usually heaviest on the hot side of the steam generating
tubes. Because of steam channelling, deposition is often heavier on
the top portion of horizontal or slanting tubes
Deposition occurs immediately downstream of horizontal backing
rings.
Water and steam drums can contain deposits, as these are readily
accessed then inspection of the deposition can indicate types of
corrosion. e.g. Sparkling black magnetite can precipitate in stm
drums when iron is released by decomposition of organic
complexing agents.
Superhtr deposits ( normally associated with high water levels and
foaming ) tend to concentrate near the inlet header or in nearby
pendant U-tubes
Contaminated attemperating spray water leads to deposits
immediately down stream with the possibility of chip scale carried to
the turbines.
At high heat transfer rates a stable thin film boiling can occur, the
surface is not washed ( as it is during bubble formation ) and
deposits may form
Thermal stressing can lead to oxide spalling ( the exfoliation of oxide
layers in areas such as the suphtr). These chips can pass on to the
turbine with severe results. Steam soluble forms can be deposited
on the turbine blades , If chlorides and sulphates are present ,
Hydration can cause severe corrosion due to hydrolysis.
As deposits form on the inside of waterwall the temperature
increases. This leads to steam blanketing which in turn leads to
reduced heat transfer rate , long term overheating and tube failure.

Effects on tube temperature of scale deposit

DEPOSITS
Iron oxides
Magnetite
(Fe3O4)
A smooth black tenacious , dense magnetite layer normally grows on boiler water
side surfaces.taken to indicate good corrosion protection as it forms in low oxygen
levels and is susceptible to acidic attack
Heamatite
(Fe2O3)
is favoured at low temperatures and high oxygen levels can be red and is a
binding agent and tends to hold over materials in deposition. This is an indication
of active corrosion occuring within the boiler/feed system

Other metals
Copper and Copper oxide is deposited by direct exchange with iron or by reduction
of copper oxide by hydrogen evolved during corrosion . Reddish stains of copper
are common at or near areas of caustic corrosion. Copper Oxide appears as a
black depositi. It is considered very serious corrosion risk because of the initiation
of galvanic corrosion mechanisms.
Galvanic corrosion associated with copper deposition is very rare in a
well passivated boiler. Zinc and nickel are very often found near copper
deposition , nickel being a particularly tenacious binder
Rapid loss of boiler metals can occur. Copper can appear in various
forms as a deposit in the boiler. As a copper coloured metallic deposit, usually in a
corrosion pit, as a bright red/orange tubercules on the boiler metal surface or as
a brown tear drop shaped formation.
Copper is generally an indicator of corrosion (or possible wear)
occuring in the feed pump whether in the condensate lines or in the parts of a
feed pump. A possoble cause of this is the excessive treatement of hydrazine

which decompose to ammonia carrying over with the steam to attack suc areas
as the air ejectors on condensers.
Copper oxide formed in boiler conditions is black and non- metallic.

SALTS
The least soluble salts deposit first
Calcium carbonate-effervesces when exposed to HCl acid
Calcium sulphate-Slightly less friable then CaCO3
Magnesium
contaminants

Phosphate-Tenacious

binder,

discoloured

by

Silicates-Insoluble except in hydroflouric acid E.G. Analcite

Water soluble deposits can only be retained if local concentration
mechanism is severe. Prescence of NaOH , NaPO3 Na2SO3 should be considered
proof of vapouration to dryness.
Calcium and magnessium salts exhibit inverse solubility. As the water
temperature rises their solubility reduces, at a temperature of 70'C and above
they come out of solution and begin to deposit. Feed water must be condition to
remove the hardness salts before the water enters the boiler. The purity of the
water is related to the steam conditions required of the boiler.

Hydrolyzable salts such as MgCl can concentrate in porous deposits

and hydrolyze to hydrochloric acid

Scaling mechanism examples

Calcium
Cacium Carbonate is formed by the thermal decomposition
BiCarbonate and apperas as a pale cream to yellow scale

of

Carbonate
Calcium

Ca(HCO3)2 + Heat = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Magnessium
Silicate
Tor form requires sufficient amounts of magnessium and silicate ions coupled with
a deficiency in OH- alkalinity
Mg2+ + OH- = MgOH+
H2SiO3 = H+ + HSiO3MgOH- + HSiO3- = MgSiO3 + H2SO4
Thus this rough tan scale can be prevented by the maintenace of alkalinity levels
Calcium
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

Phosphate

(hydroxyapatite)

Found in biolers using the phosphate cycle treatment method this is a tan/cream
deposit. This is generally associated with overdosing a boiler but can occur where
insufficient disperseing agent reduces the effects of blow down.
In anouther form Ca3(PO4)2Ca(OH)2 it is associated with correct
treatment control

Scales forming salts found in the boiler

Calcium Bi-Carbonate 180ppm
Slightly soluble
>65oC breaks down to form CaCO3 +CO2, remaining Calcium
carbonate insoluble in water
Forms a soft white scale
Magnesium BiCarbonate 150 ppm

Soluble in water
at more than 90oC breaks down to form MgCO3 and CO2 and then
Mg(OH)2 and CO2
Forms a soft scale
Calcium Sulphate 1200 ppm

Worst scale forming salt

> 140oC (sat. press 2.5bar) or >96000ppm will precipitate out
Forms a thin hard grey scale
Magnesium Sulphate 1900ppm

Precipitates at high temperatures and about 8 bar

Forms sludge

Magnesium Chloride 3200ppm

Breaks down in boiler conditions to form MgOH and HCl

forms a soft white scale Rapidly lowers pH in the event of sea
water contamination of the boiler initiating rapid corrosion MgCl2
+ 2H2O---> Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl HCl + Fe --->FeCl + H 2FeCl +
Mg(OH)2 ---> MgCl2 + 2FeOH This series is then repeated.
Effective feed treatment ensuring alkaline conditions controls
this problem
Sodium Chloride 32230 to 25600 ppm

Soluble <225000ppm
forms a soft encrustation
Free irons promote galvanic action
Other deposits-

Amorphous Silicon dioxide (SiO2) - trace

at high tempos and pressures (>40bar) silica can distill from the
bioler as Silicic acid and can sublime and pass over into the
steam system as a gas. Here it glazes surfaces with a smooth
layer, which due to thermal expansion crack and roughen the
surface. Troublesome on HP blading. Can be removed only by
washing with Hydroflouric acid.
Magnessium Silicate 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O (Serpentine) is
formed in water with proper treatment control

SCALE FORMATION
The roughness of the heated surface has a direct relationship to the deposit of
scale. Each peak acts as a 'seed' for the scale to bind to.
Nucleate Boiling

Scale built up as a series of rings forming multi layers of different

combinations. Much increased by corrosion products or prescience of oil, even in
very
small
quantities.
Oil also increases scale insulatory properties.
Departure form nucleate boiling (DNB) Under normal conditions
steam bubbles are formed in discrete parts. Boiler water solids develop near the
surface . However on departure of the bubble rinsing water flows in and

redissolves

the

soluble

solids

However at increased rates the rate of bubble formation may exceed

the flow of rinsing water , and at higher still rate, a stable film may occur with
corrosion concentrations at the edge of this blanket.

Dissolved solids in fresh water

Hard water

Soft water

-Calcium and magnesium salts

- Alkaline
-Scale forming
.
.
-Mainly sodium salts
- Acidic
- Causes corrosion rather than scale

Boiler water tests

Corrosion and tube failure caused by water
chemistry
Recommended ranges( Co-ordinated phosphate treatment for w/t boiler )

pH
PO4
N2H4
TDS
Cond pH
Cl
O2
Si

- 9.6 to 10.3
- 4 to 20 ppm
- 0.01 to 0.03 ppm
- < 150 ppm
- 8.6 to 9.0
- 20 ppm
- 10 ppb
- 10 ppb

Chlorides

Measure 100ml of sample water into a casserole

Add 10 drops phenol pthalein (RE 106)
Neutralize with sulphuric acid
Add 10 drops of Potassium Chromate
Titrate Silver Nitrate untill sample just turns brick red
ppm as CaCO3= (ml x 10) ppm

TDS

Measure 100ml of sample water into a casserole

Add 10 drops of phenolpthalein
Neutralise with TDS reagent (acetic acid)
Temperature compensate then read off scale in ppm.

Phosphates

Fill one 10 ml tube with distilled water

Fill one 10 ml tube with boiler water tests.
Add
0.5
ml
sulphuric
acid
(RE
131)
to
each
Add 0.5 ml Ammonium Molybdnate (RE130) to each
Add 0.5 ml Aminonapthol Sulfonic acid (RE 132) to each
Stir well between each addition
Wait 3 minutes for calorimetric compaison
Alternately Vanado-molybdnate test

Place 5 ml boiler water in 10 ml tube

Place 5 ml distilled water in other 10 ml tube
Top both to 10 ml with Vanado-molybdnate reagent
Place in colour comparator and compare after 5 mins

Hydrazine

Add 9ml distilled water to one tube

Add 9 ml boiler test water to anouther
Add 1 ml hydrazine reagent to each
Use colour comparator

Alkalinity Phenolpthalein

100 ml filtered water

Add 1 ml phenolpthalein
If pH >8.4 Solution turns pink
Add H2SO4 untill pink disapears
Ml 0.02N H2SO4 x 10 = ALk in CaCO3 ppm
Measures hydroxides and carbonates in sample, bi-carbonates do
not show up so sample should not be allowed to be exposed to the
air for too long

Alkalinity Methyl orange

Bi carbonates do not show up in the phenolpthalein sample as they

have a pH < 8.4. Bi carbonates can not occur in boiler but if
suspected in raw feed then the following test.
Take phenolpthalein sample, add 1 ml methyl orange
If yellow, bi carbonates are present
Add H2SO4 untill red
Total 0.02N H2SO4 x 10 = Total Alk in CaCO3

pH

100 ml unfiltered sealed water poured into two 50 ml glass stoppered

test tubes
Add 0.2 ml pH indicator to one ( pH indicator vary's according to
required measuring range)
Use colour comparator
Due to difficulty of excluding air, electronic pH meter preferred

Sulphite reserve

Exclude air at all stages

100 ml unfiltered water
Add 4 ml H2SO4 + 1 ml starch
Add potassium iodate-iodide untill blue colour
ml Iodate-Iodide sol x 806 / ml of sample = SO3 reserve in ppm

Ammonia in feed

Only necessary where N2H4 used in blr

Pour condensate sample into two 50 ml colour comparator tubes
Add 2 ml Nessler reagent to one
Wait 10 mins
Use colour comparator

Boiler water treatment

Alkalinity

Treatment
For pressures below 20 bar dissolved O2 in the feed does not cause any serious
problems
so
long
as
the
water
is
kept
alkaline
However cold feed should be avoided as this introduces large amounts of
dissolved O2 are present, for pressures greater than 18.5 bar a dearator is
recommended

Feed Treatment Chemicals

Sodium

Hydroxide

Calcium

Bicarbonate (CaCO3 + Na2CO3)

Magnesium

Bicarbonate

Magnesium

Chloride.

Sodium

Phosphate

Calcium

Carbonate

Calcium

Sulphate

Magnesium

Sulphate

All in this column precipitated as

hydroxide or phosphate based
sludges

All in this column form sodium

salts which remain in solution

Sodium Hydroxide

Reacts with highly corrosive MgCl2

Does not readily react with CaSO4
Strongly alkaline
Produces heat when mixed with water
Absorbs CO2 changing to Sodium Carbonate
Unsuitable for standard mixes

Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 ( soda ash )

Alkaline
At pressures above 14 bar some of the Sodium Carbonate
decomposes to form NaOH and CO 2 . Increasing on pressure
increase
Changes to Sodium Bi-Carbonate when exposed to air
Still usable but larger amounts make control difficult
Standard mix ingredient

Sodium Hexa Meta Phosphate NaPO3 (calgon)

Safe,soluble in water, slightly acidic
May be injected any where as will only react in the boiler
Suitable for LP blrs which require lower alkalinity

DiSodium Phosphate Na2HPO4 (Cophos II)

Neutral used with alkaline additive
Combines with NaOH to give trisodium phosphate
Basic constituent

TriSodium Phosphate Na3 PO4 (Cophos III)

Alkaline
When added to water decomposes to NaOH and Na2 HPO4
As water evaporated density increases and NaOH and Na 2 HPO4
recombine
Phosphates can form Phosphides which can coat metal to form a
protective barrier, with excessive phosphate levels, this coating can
be excessive on highly rated boilers operating at higher steaming
rates

Chemicals are normally added as a dilute solution fed by a

proportioning
pump
or
by
injection
from
pressure
pot.
Use of chemicals should be kept to a minimum.
Injection over a long period is preferable as this prevents foaming.
Excessive use of phosphates without blowdown can produce deposits
of phosphides on a par with scale formations.
Therefore it is necessary to add sludge conditioners particularly in the
forms of polyelectrolytes, particularly in LP blrs

Oxygen Scavengers

Hydrazine N 2 H 4

Oxygen scavenger, continously injected to maintain a reserve within

the boiler of 0.02 to 0.1 ppm and a feed water O 2 content of less than
10 ppb
At temperatures greater than 350oC , will decompose to ammonia
and nitrogen and will aid in maintaining balanced alkalinity in steam
piping.Steam volatile, neutralises CO2
Inherent alkalinity helps maintain feed water alkalinity within
parameters of 8.6 to 9.0.
Used in boiler operating above 32 bar, will not readily react with O 2
below 50oC hence risk of copper corrosion occurs with the ammonia
stripping off the continuously reforming copper oxides.
Supplied as a 35% solution

Carbohydrazide (N 2 H3)2CO
Is a combined form of Hydrazine
It is superior to hydrazine in performace and is designed to minimise
the vapours during handling
Carbohydrazide and its reaction products create no dissolved solids
Is an oxygen scavenger and metal passivator at both high (230'C)
and low (65'C) temperatures
Can be used with boilers up to 170 bar

Diethylhydroxylamine DEHA
Like hydrazine, provides a passive oxide film ( magnetite) on metal
surfaces to minimise corrosion
Contributes to pH netralisation to an extent that seperate
condensate control may not be necessary
Protects entire system-feedwater, boiler and condensate

Sodium sulphite Na2SO3

Takes the form of a soft white powder
Slightly alkaline
Will react with oxygen to form Sodium Sulphate at about 8ppm
Sodium Sulphite to 1ppm Oxygen
Use limited to low pressure boilers due to increasing TDS and
reducing alkalinity by its action

Tannins
Certain alkaline tannin solutions have a good oxygen absorbing
ability with about 6ppm tannin able to remove 1ppm oxygen.
The reaction with oxygen is complex and unreliable, no official
reserve levels exist for the maintenance of a system using tannin

Erythorbic Acid (Sur-gard) R1-C(OH)

An effective oxygen scavenger and metal passivator
It is the only non-volatile scavenger which can be used with spray
attemperation
does not add measureable solids to the boiler water
May be used in boilers up to 122 bar
Officially recognised as a Safe Substance
As with hydrazine a small amount of ammonia is created in the
boiler, it is not recommended for layup.

Polymer Treatment

Polymer is a giant molecular built up by stringing together simple molecules

E.G.
Polyelectrolytes-Formed
from
natural
Polyacrylates
Polymers
Polyamides - Polymers of amides

or

synthetic
ionic
of
acrylic

monomers
acid

Polymer treatment prevents scale formation and minimises sludge

formation. It can also loosen scale so established blrs introduced to this form of
treatment may develop leaks where previously plugged with scale. Especially in
way of expanded joints. Also can absorb trace oil
Use limited to LP blrs as no PO4 present to prevent caustic alkalinity
For auxiliary blrs this is a superior form of treatment to the old
alkaline and phosphate treatment. The correct level of alkalinity must be
maintained as too low a level neutralises the electric charge of the polyelectrolyte.
Too high causes caustic alkalinity.

Amine treatment
Compounds containing nitrogen and hydrogen.

Neutralising amines
Hydrazine N2H4
see above

Bramine ( cyclohexalamine )
(Bull & Roberts amine treatment)
Neutralising amine as with hydrazine. Used with hydrazine to
maintain feed water alkalinity within parameters. As a knock on effect will slightly
increase boiler water alkalinity.
Stable at high temperatures so is used more than hydrazine to
control the steam line alkalinity as there is less chance of copper corrosion which
occurs with the prescience of ammonia
Proper boiler water treatment eliminates sludge and scale deposits
within the boiler. However, over along period of time a film of copper and iron
oxides build up on the tube surface. Most of these oxides are transported from
oxides of corrosion within the feed system to the boiler with the condensate.
Bramine reduces this corrosion and eliminates the build up of these
oxide deposits.
Mechanism
of
function
Condensate from the condenser is very pure and slightly acidic, often referred to
as 'hungry water'. It can dissolve metals in trace amounts to satisfy this hunger.
Distilled make up water aggravates this situation containing much dissolved CO2

and
hence
being
acidic
carries
its
own
corrosion
products.
Trace amounts of bramine are introduced into the system to establish an alkalinity
level greatly reducing the effects of the hungry water.
Some of the bramine is used almost immediately, most however,
passes on to the boiler where it is then transported through boiler water, boiler
stm drum, stm lines back to the condenser. It has no effect anywhere except the
condensate system.
Bramine also has a cleaning effect and may assist in the cleaning the
film
off
the
tube
over
a
period
of
time.
Bramine is safer to handle than Bramine and will protect all metals.
Hydrazine however readily breaks down to form ammonia which
whilst protecting ferrous metals will attack those containing copper

Filming amines
Shows neutralising tendencies, main function however is to coat piping with a
molecular water repellent protective film
Injection
of
amines
May be injected between HP and LP turbines in the X-over pipe or after the
dearator.
Adding
in
X-over
pipe-reduces
corrosion
of
copper
alloys
Dearator only effective as a feed heater
Adding after dearator -Dearator correctly performing as a dearator
and feed heater. If possible the best system is to have a changeover to allow
norm inj into the X-over at sea and injection after the dearator when the turbine
shut down

Limits of density/pressure

Sludge conditioning agents

Coagulants Mainly polyelectrolytes

Prevents the precipitated sodium based particles forming soft scales
Will keep oil in an emulsion
the water must be kept alkaline

Antifoams
reduce the stability of water film around steam bubble and cause it
to collapse.
Common type polyamide is an organic compound of high molecular
weight.
In the event of severe contamination separate injection of an
antifoam is recommended

Dispersing agents
Sludge conditioners such as starch or tannin.
Prevent solid precipitates uniting to form sizeable crystals e.g.
MgSO4

Treatment in boilers (non congruent)

LP tank blrs (<14 bar)
Na2CO3precipitates
MgSO4- Sludge conditioners

salts,

provides

alkalinity

Na2CO3 can break down to form NaOH in higher rated boilers hence
initial dose with Na2SO4

Medium pressure tank blrs (<17.5 bar)

Na2CO3(3) + sodium phosphate(4) + sludge conditioners(1)

Medium to High pressure water tube <60 bar

Na2CO3 + Na2HPO4 +sludge conditioners
Oxygen scavengers also used to allow magnetite (Fe3O4) layer to form
in the boiler
Boiler operating above 42 bar require a dearator.

HP to UHP blrs (42 to 80 bar)

Due to level of decomposition of Na 2CO3 . NaOH preferred for better controllability
Na2HPO4
NaOH attacks the magnetite layer. Congruent treatment used.

Permissible limits

Shell
TEST>

PPM

Hardness CaCO3
P.alk
T.D.S.
Cl

WT

<17.5b <17,5b
<=5

<=5

WT

WT

WT

WT

<32b

<42b

<60b

<85b

<=5

<=1

<=1

<=1

CaCO3 150-300 150-300 150-300 100-150 50-100

50-80

CaCO3 <=7000 <=1000 <=1000 <=500

<=500

<=300

CaCO3 <=1000 <=300

<=150

<=100

<=50

<=30

30-50

30-50

20-30

PO4

PO4

30-70

30-70

30-70

N2H4

N2H4

--

--

--

SO3

SO3

SiO2

SiO2

--

--

Fe

Fe

--

Cu

Cu

--

pH

pH

0.1 -1.0 0.1 - 1.0 0.1 - 1.0

50-100 50-100 50-100

20-50

--

--

--

--

--

<=6.0

--

--

--

--

<=0.05

--

--

--

--

<=0.02

10.5-11 10.5-11 10.5-11 10.5-11 10.5-11 10.3-11

Limits for feed water

Cl

CL

<=10

<=5

<=1.0

<=1.0

<=1.0

<=1.0

O2

O2

----

----

NH3

NH3

----

----

----

-----

Fe

Fe

----

----

----

-----

<=0.01 <=0.01

Cu

Cu

----

----

----

-----

<=0.01 <=0.01

pH

pH

----

----

----

<=0.006 <=0.003 <=0.015 <=0.01

-----

<=0.5

8.5-9.2 8.5-9.2 8.5-9.2

Co-ordinated and congruent Phosphate

treatmentst
Alkalinity
NaOH under certain conditions dissolves boiler metal.
Co-ordinated treatment tries to avoid this by relying on the fact that
NaOH and disodium phosphate combine to form trisodium phosphate. However, a
small proportion of the NaOH always remains. Congruent treatment tries to avoid
this by making a mix so that the Na + to PO-34 ion ratio never exceeds 2.6 : 1
( Na3PO4 has a sodium to phosphate ratio of 3 : 1 )

Co-ordinated phosphate treatment

Purpose
to maintain a phosphate reserve to react with incoming hardness
To maintain sufficient alkalinity to minimise corrosion and aid in
forcing the reaction with hardness salts.

For boiler pressures above 40bar problems of caustic alkalinity caused

by addition of caustic soda as part of a feed treatment occur.
With caustic alkalinity, free hydroxides concentration in a thin film at the tube
surface destroying the protective magnetite layer and attacking the metal to form
caustic gouging craters, and intercrystaline cracking as it attacks the iron carbide
in
the
iron
grain
boundaries.
Avoiding the prescience of free hydrides is the only prevention from this form of
attack

Co-ordinated phosphate-pH control

Maintaining within the control area is achieved by the addition of Cophos III tri sodium phosphate based, and co-phos II, disodium phosphate based.
Co-Phos III is an alkaline product and in water decomposes to NaOH
and Na2HPO4 increasing concentration recombine.
Co-Phos II is much less alkaline.
Falling into the area on the co-ordinated phosphate pH diagram below
the lower dotted line means that normal treatment to bring back into the target
area is impossible.
The only way of recovering the situation is by blowing large quantities
of water out of the boiler
The ideal time for this is during trip testing when the boiler is isolated
from the plant (and hence feed water flow to the boiler is much reduced). The
flames are extinguished on the low low foxboro trip
It is also beneficial to blow down the headers at this time
Problems may arise when the mixed bed demineralisation plant is
allowed to remain in need of regeneration for a long time. The make up water is
so effected so as to lower the alkalinity of the boiler without a comparable drop in
phosphate. This becomes particularly troublesome during periods of heavy make
up, say during trip testing or heavy steaming.

Hide-out
It can be seen in high pressure boilers that as the steaming rate increases the
levels of certain salts, particularly phosphate salts, does not raise in line with
others. When the load is reduced the concentrations return to normal.

This is termed hide-out and is due to the reduced solubility of sodium

phsophate at temperatures above 250'C
When phosphate hide-out occurs there is a risk of permenant scal
deposition and/or evolution of free caustic which in turn could lead to severe
corrosion due to caustic attack
Treatment using volatile solids free chemicals such as hydrazine,
Eliminox and neutralising amines should be considered. This is termed All Volatile
Treatment (AVT)

Theory of Feed Heating

The purpose of feed heating is to increase plant efficiency. With no feed heating
steam gives up three times more heat to the cooling water as it does in doing
useful work in the turbine. Hence, if a proportion of the steam is bled off to a feed
heater it can give energy ( its latent heat mostly) to the feed and so a higher
proportion of the energy is reclaimed by the system as would have been gained
by expanding it through the turbine to the condenser Feed heating can take two
forms, one is contact heating which occurs in the Deaerator where the steam and
feed water mix and and the water directly receives heat.

Theoretical cycle with all steam expanded through

the turbine

Theoretical cycle where all of the steam used in feed

heating with 100% efficiency

This could only be possible where the turbines where fitted with a
water jacket through which the feed water flows.

Theoretical practical cycle where a portion of the

steam is bled off in stages and used for feed heating

It should be noted that although thermal efficiency increases with the

number of stages, it is governed by the law of diminishing returns and the
improvement is reduces with successive stages. Hence the cost of the increased
plant becomes a factor.
Bleeding off a portion of the steam gives the added advantage that
the steam volume that has to be accommodated in the final stages of the turbine
and condenser is reduced.

Feed system

Shown above is a typical feed water system for a modern steam

plant. Water is pumped from the main condenser by special centrifugal pumps
having an inducer to allow suction from the vaery low pressures without
vaporisation of the water. The water passes through the air ejector cooler to the
Condensate cooled evaporator. A recirculation valve is available to return some
condensate to the main condenser. The purpose of this is to increase the overall
flow though the evaporator cooler thereby increaseing water production as well as
to
ensure
a
minium
flow
through
the
condensate
pumps.
The water pass via the gland steam condenser and LP heater which in this case

are shown as a combined unit on to the Main Condenser level controller. This
prevent s the level in the condenser falling below a set level thereby causing the
main
condensate
pumps
to
run
dry.
Some times mounted after this is a deioniser and feed filter before the water is
passed
to
the
deaerator.
The deaerator is mounted as high as possible in the engineroom increaseing the
suction head for the feed pump preventing vaporisation in the suction eye of the
pump. Not shown is an automatic recirculation valve fitted to the main feed pump
outlet to ensure a minimum flow through the pump. The boiler water then passes
via the boiler water level controller to the economiser and then through to the
boiler
steam
drum.
An second supply is available for use in emergencies to the drum either vai or by
passing the economiser.
The drains tank condensate is pump via the drains tank level
controller into the main feed system.

System level Control

Control of the amount of water in the system is by level control of the deaerator.
One of the purposes of the deaerator is to act as a reserve capacity of high
quality feed for the boiler. Water may be spilled to the feed tank or made up to
the drains tank. An emergency filling valve is available for the main condenser the
use of which is avoided as it introduces large quantites of gasses into the
condenser reducing efficiency

Boiler economisers

Purpose
The purpose of the economiser is to increase plant efficiency by removing heat
that would otherwise be lost in the flue gas and use it to indirectly feed heat the
water. By heating the feed water it is also helping to prevent thermal shock as the
water enters the steam drum.

Description
The flow of water is general counterflow. The exception to this is in the radiant
heat boiler where the economiser is mounted immediately above the
superheaters. The water flow in these so called 'Steaming economisers' is then
parallel flow to decrease the tendency for the economiser to steam excessively
above the design limits and lead to steam blockage , this is why these
economisers are bare tube with no extended heating surface.
Vent and drains are fitted to header where isolating valves are fitted a
safety valve must also be added.
The modern design involves the fabrication of the header and stub
tubes which can then be heat treated. The tubes are then site welded to the
stubs.
The previous use of expanded joints has now fallen out of failure due
to the requirement of a multitude of hand hole doors with associated joints and
hence possible area of leakage. The materials used are governed the materials
susceptibility to cold end corrosion (see later notes), any metal having a surface
temperature below the dew point will tend to have acidic deposits forming on its
surface caused by the water absorbing sulphur trioxide and dioxide from the flue
gases. Some metals are more resistant to this form of corrosion at lower
temperatures, choice of material will initially depend on the minimum metal
surface temperature and is calculated as the feed water temperature that is
passing through the economiser plus 5 oC. For temperatures greater than 138 oC
solid drawn mild steel tubing is used. Fitted to these are welded on extended
surface steel fins or studs.
For temperatures between 115oC to 138oC shrunk on or cast iron gills
must be used.
The temperature should not be allowed to fall below 115oC as this
can lead to heavy fouling as well as corrosive attack.
Efficient sootblowing is absolutely essential to ensure that surface are
kept clear of combustion products which can not only lead to heavy corrosion and
a drop in efficiency , but also to the possibility of an economiser fire with
potentially disastrous consequences. With this in mind it is not unusual to find
provision for water washing, something which is carried out on a very regular
basis on a Motor ship with waste heat recovery.
If due to failure it is required to run the economiser dry then the
maximum gas inlet temperature should be limited to about 370 oC, vents and
drains should be left open to ensure that there is no build up of pressure from any
water that may be still located in the tubes.

Cast iron extended gill economiser

Inlet end

Return end

The unit is of the multiple pass 'melesco' style, the sleeves may be
slid on before the bends are welded on.
The header is made out of mild steel.

Mild steel fin extended surface economiser

Plug

Boiler feed pumps

High speed , multistage centrifugal pumps are the preferred type due to their
ability to supply large quantities of water and to provide it at steady flow avoiding
shock loads on pipe lines and valves.

Materials
Nozzle plate- Creep resistant steel
Blades-Stainless iron
Bearings-White metalled ( oil lubricated )
Turbine glands- Carbon
Turbine casing- Cast steel
Turbine wheel- Stainless steel
Shaft- Nickel Chrome steel
Wear rings- Leaded bronze
Impeller-Stainless steel or monel
Diffuser ring- Aluminium bronze
The impulse Curtis wheel ( velocity compounded ) rotates at speeds of around
7000 rpm. Velocity compounding means that there is very little pressure drop
across the stages reducing the need for fine clearances. This allows the turbine to
be
run
up
quickly
from
cold.
The balance chamber must have a diameter greater than the suction wear ring. If
the pump is designed to be supercavitating hard metal inducers are fitted which
screw into the water. Any cavitation occurs on this which is made sacrificial.
Inlet steam pressure around 60 bar, outlet around 3 bar. Expansion
down to lower pressures would require excessively large casings and would lead
to problems of centrifugal stresses due to the larger blading required.
Carbon seals are used instead of labyrinths for simplicity and to keep
the length of the unit down to a minimum. Due to the different coefficients of

expansions between the carbon and the steel a madrill must be used to set the
correct running clearance. For multistage pumps an extra end bearing is required
and hence additional packed gland.
The pump is dynamically balanced by means of the balance chamber
leak off to the suction eye, and the dam edges on the back of the impeller

Balancing of two stage pumps

Feed pumps of this type of balance are best started against either a
closed or spring loaded discharge v/v to ensure rapid build up of pressure

Bearings
Water lubricated bearings- Steel backing onto which is sintered a layer of porous
bronze impregnated with PTFE (0.025mm thick). This PTFE is transferred to the
shaft so providing very low coefficients of friction
Bearings operate at 115oC with water supplied at 5.5bar 70 oC.
Bearing
clearance0.15
mm
Max0.25mm
must
be
replaced
Danger- 0.3 mm severe damage will occur

surface.

The bearings should also be replaced if less than 75 % shows on the

Flow characteristics of controlled feed pumps

Constant speed ( electric )- Below 10% turbulence becomes so

great that the pump operates very inefficiently and must not be worked in this
range. Hence, a recirc valve must be used. At full flow pressure is only just
sufficient to feed the boiler
Pressure governed- Pressure droop designed in to give stable
control.
Flow + Speed and/or Pressure- The extra element must be added
with the flow otherwise the system becomes unstable. Characteristic can be level
or slightly rising giving low pressure at low flow rates conserving energy and
preventing water being forced at high pressures through partly open feed control
valve.

Gland
Can be operated at very low flow rates due to reduced speed

Dearators
The need for deaeration
In marine water tube boilers it is essential to keep water free of dissolved gases
and impurities to prevent serious damage occurring in the boiler
In a closed feed system the regenerative condenser removes the bulk
of the gases with a dissolved oxygen content of less than 0.02 ml/l
However, it is recommended for boilers operating above 30 bar and
essential for those operating above 42 bar that a dearator be fitted.

Purpose of fitting a Deaerator

There are four main purposes;

To act as a storage tank so as to maintain a level of water in the
system
To keep a constant head on the feed system and in particularly the
Feed pumps.
Allow for mechanical deaeration of the water
Act as a contact feed heater.

Feed water enters the dearator via the vent cooler, here the non
condensible gasses and a small amount of steam vapour are cooled. The
condensed water is returned to the system. The feed water is sprayed into the
mixing chamber via nozzles, for systems with large variations of flow, two
separate nozzle boxes may fitted with two independent shut off valves to ensure
sufficient pressure for efficient spray.
Alternatively, automatic spray valves may be fitted.

By varying the spring tension the pressure at which the nozzles open
can be set at different levels.
The water in a fine spray, and so high surface area to volume, is
rapidly heated to corresponding saturation temperature in the mixing chamber by
the heating steam. This steam is supplied from the exhaust or IP system and is at
about 2.5 bar.

The heated water and condensed steam then falls onto a series of
plates with serrated edges, the purpose of these is to mechanically remove any
gas bubbles in the water improving the efficiency of the process.
Finally the water falls into the buffer tank, before exiting to the feed
pumps; as the water is now at saturation temperature any drop in pressure (such
as in the suction eye of the impeller ) will cause vapour bubbles to form. Hence,
the deaerator must be fitted well above the feed pumps or alternatively an
extraction pump must be fitted to supply the feed pumps.
Hot water drains are led to the dearator where they are allowed to
flash into steam adding to the heating steam.
The non condensible gas outlet is limited so that there is only a small
flow of water from the drain of the cooler. This water should be discarded as it
contains not only high quantities of oxygen but also ammonia.
Requirements for efficient operation
The minimum temperature increase is 28oC
The minimum heating steam temperature is 115oC which
corresponds to a pressure of 1.7 bar; this is to prevent deposits
forming on the economiser. To prevent cold end corrosion on cast
iron protected economisers this temperature rises leading to the
common practice of using steam at 2.5 bar
The water at inlet should have an oxygen content of not more than
0.02 ml/l
With these parameters met the water at outlet should have an
oxygen level of not more than 0.005 ml/l.
A thermometer is fitted to the shell, the temperature should be kept
to within 4oC of the saturation temperature of the pressure indicated on the
pressure gauge. This can be governed by the quantity of heating steam added. If
the difference is always greater the partial pressure due to the non-condensable
gasses is high and the possibility of redissolving increases. Where fitted the valve
on the air outlet should be opened more to limit of too much steam being lost up
the vent.
The fitting of vent condensers is not universal and it is not uncommon
to see the vent led up the funnel where a small wisp of steam can be seen when
correctly adjusted.

HP feed heater
HP feed heater as fitted to cascade feed heater
system instead of economiser

The high pressure tubes are made of copper nickel or steel.

The casing is made of mild steel

For efficiency it is important that the bottom of the heater does not
become flooded.
As a large difference in pressure can be accommodated between the
feed and steam , this type of heater can be fitted on the discharge side of the
main feed pumps; in a cascade feed heating system this replaces the economiser

and the heat in the flue gas is recovered by a regenerative air heater ( Lungstrom
). This system allows the feed to be heated to a high temperature
The change in temperature is normally about 30oC
The heater, when new, must be able to withstand either or both of the
following;
2 x boiler press + 20%
125 % feed press continuously

Condensors
BASIC FUNCTION
1. Remove latent heat from exhaust stm and hence allowing the
distilled water to be pumped back to system
2. Create vacuum conditions assisting flow of exh stm and also
allowing for low saturation tempo and hence increasing recoverable
heat energy from the stm
3. Deaerate

1,Only latent heat should be removed as this increases

thermal efficiency

Eve
n when the steam is expanded to vacuum conditions some 60% of the initial
enthalpy at boiler conditions is thrown away in the condenser

3, Air must be removed from the condenser because;

-it dissolves in water

-it destroys the vacuum
-poor conductor of heat and forms a thin film on pipes
-increases under cooling due to the following circumstances

The stm quantity reduces and hence it is responsible for less of the
total pressure. Hence it is at a lower pressure ,has lower saturation temperature
and so is undercooled with respect to the actual pressure within the condenser
( that is to say the condensate should be at a higher temperature equal to the
saturation temperature at the pressure measured in the condenser.
Daltons law of partial pressure
Each constituent of a gas mix exerts a partial pressure equivalent to
that if it occupied the space alone.
Condensate falling through the lower cooler regions containing the
high air content is further cooled and re absorbs gases.

DESIGN
Must have large surface area available for cooling . Hence large number of small
diameter tubes.
Cross flow is adopted for ease of manufacture, this allied to the
change of state gives a cooling efficiency approaching that of counterflow
Taking into account tube material ,
max sea water flow rate should be maintained so as to;
a. maintain a sufficient steam/ coolant tempo difference across the
material along the tube length
b. prevent silting
Circulating system should offer no undue resistance to flow and
supply water equally to all tubes.
The tube batches should be so arranged so as to provide no
resistance to the flow of steam. There is normally a narrowing inlet space within
or surrounding the bank so as the passage area remains constant as the steam
condensers.<
Failure to provide even flow leads to ;
a. reduced efficiency

b. pockets on non-condensable gasses being formed in the tube

banks.
Allowance in the design should be made for some expanding
arrangement.

PROTECTION OF CONDENSERS
Avoid low water speeds which causes silting.
Too high a speed leads to erosion.
Cathodic protection for plates and tubes by using soft iron / mild steel
anodes.
> The effect can be increased with the use of impressed current using anodes of
larger size and different material.
Alternately coating of the tubes with a 10% ferrous sulphate solution.
Rubber bonding of water boxes.

Marine growth prevention

-chlorine dosage
-Electro chlorine generator making sodium hypochlorite ( switched
off when dosing with ferrous sulphate )

Erosion protection

-Inlet of tubes streamlined to smooth flow by expanding and bell

mouthing
- the fitting of plastic ferrules
-for aluminium-brass inserts fitted and glued

When laying up the following procedures should be carried out to prevent

damage;
-Drain sea water side
-If ferrous sulphate has been used then the SW side should be
refilled with fresh water to maintain film
-Where it is not practical to drain then the SW should be circulated
daily

CONDENSER CLEANING
Before draining ensure no special chocking arrangements are necessary to
prevent loading on springs or damage to the LP exhaust inlet gasket.
Waterside
General inspection before cleaning
Place boards to protect the rubber lining
Use water jets or balls blown by compressed air through the tubes
Only brushes or canes as a last resort
When plastic inserts are fitted work from the inlet end
Test for leaks on completion

Clean or renew the sacrificial anodes

Remove the boards and prove vents and drains clear

Steamside
Inspect the steam side for deposits, clean with a chemical solvent
where required
Examine the baffles, tube plates and deflectors
Look for vibration erosion damage of the tubes
Inspect for possible air leakage
Box up and remove chocks.

Leakage
The indications that a leak is in existence is that of high salinity measured in the
condensate and boiler combined with a rapid drop in pH.
The first aid should be the injection of sawdust followed by a shut
down at the soonest possible time.
There
are
three
methods
for
leak
detection;
Ultrasonic-Here, electric tone speakers are fitted in the steam space, and a
microphone passed down the tubes. Alternately, instead of speakers a vacuum
can be drawn with the microphone picking up air leakage.
Fluorescent-The water side is cleaned and dried, chocks are fitted
and the steam side filled with water containing a quantity of flourescene. A UV
lamp is then used on the water side.
Vacuum test- Draw a vacuum and cover the tube plate with plastic
or use the ultrasound microphone.

Regenerative condensers

With the regenerative effect the water is heated to within one degree
of the sat temperature so releasing dissolved gases which may have been reabsorbed as the drops where falling.
The dissolved oxygen content should be less than 0.02 ml/litre.
At the air ejector take off for the gasses, a cooling space is so
arranged so a to ensure that there is no reheating of the gasses which would lead
to expansion and reduce the efficiency of the process.
Drains which are led to the condenser are led to the top so the water
is reheated/dearated before extraction.
The increasing use of scoops has led to the single pass condensers
with SW velocities of 2 - 4 m/s being the ideal with minimum's to prevent silting
of 1m/s.

Material of tubes
Cheap aluminium brass has a low allowable flow speed of 5 m/s; cupro-nickel has
a higher flow of 10 m/s but is dearer and a poorer conductor of heat.

Tube fitting
This is by expanding and bell mouthing or with by ferrules and alternately fibre
and metallic packing at the other end,

Stays

Tube stays cannot be used where the tubes have been expanded at
both ends, the tubes must support themselves.

Advantages of the different designs of condenser

Underslung
This provides a short path for both the ahead and astern steam, however the
steam must turn through 90o before entering and hence there is a possibility of
increased windage losses Windage loss is where the ahead steam is picked up by
the astern turbine which recompresses it and heats it up leading to a loss of
efficiency, reduced vacuum and heating up of the astern turbine.
The length is reduced but at the cost of increased height. The fitted
support springs under the condenser carry two thirds of the weight and allow for
expansion.

Axial plane( radial flow )

Reduced height at the expense of length. The ahead and astern both exhaust in
the same direction so reducing the chance of windage.As the turbines are situate
lower and inline the alignment to the tailshaft is simpler.The big disadvantage is
that the condensate level is critical and must not be allowed to spill out.
Axial plane condenser as fitted to the Stal-Laval AP Plant

The tube pitch at the bottom of the tube stack is increased by leaving
out alternate tubes over the final three rows. This helps to encourage the
regenerating effect. A cooling pack of coarse pitched tubes is fitted within the
bellmouth for the air extraction to prevent reexpansion of any gases and removal
of vapour

The condenser is a dry bottom type with a low water level in the hot
well being maintained by the super cavitating pumps

Scoop systems
This single plane design of condenser is of the single pass type and is well suited
to use with scoop systems. This is were cooling water flow to the condenser is
supplied from an angled inlet pipe on the ships side. For this to operate the
engine has to be travelling at a certain speed to give the correct flow of water.
Below this speed the scoop must be shut off and a centrifugal main circulating
pump in use. The advantage of this system is that the main circ can be of a much
smaller size than would be required if it had to supply cooling water requirements
for full engine load conditions. In this case it would be normal to fit to pumps of
50% capacity.

Scoop System layout

Air Ejectors
FUNCTION

Air ejector units are generally of the steam jet type. Although electrically powered
units offer the advantage of ease of installation and slightly improved operating
efficiency their maintenance requirements has ensured that the most common
type on larger installations are steam powered

condenser

Their primary function is to remove non- condensible gases from the

After passing through the nozzle the high velocity stream jet entrains
air and vapour , compresses it, and the mixture passes to a condenser section
were it is cooled. The air with any uncondensed steam and vapour passing to the
second stage were further compression of the air takes place.
Depending upon the number of stages of the air ejector, the air is
now discharged to atmosphere or to a final stage and then to atmosphere.
The condensers are of the surface
condensate, in this way acting as a feed heater.

type and are cooled by

Either, two complete units or two ejectors mounted on one condenser

are used , nozzle diameters are very small typically 1.2 to 4.7 mm and are liable
to wear, abrasion and blockage.
When manouevring or at rest provision must be made to ensure that
there is adequate flow of condensate through the condenser to provide cooling .
This is achieved by means of a recirculating v/v which leads condensate from the
outlet of the air ejector condenser outlet ( and other low pressure feed heaters
such as an evapourator ) back to the main condenser. The opening of this v/v
should be limited as it leads to a loss of plant efficiency.

Electric Powered

The position of the cooler can vary; either as shown, incorporated

into the tank or on the suction side of the pump.

Feed Tank Design

A well designed feed tank should be designed to minimise the oxygen within the
feed system. This is especially important with open feed systems.

The following are taken as parameters for a well designed tank

Adequate ventilation with on or more vent pies determined by the
volume of water
Condensate enters as low as possible via a slotted sparge pipe
Cold water make up enters at highest point
Sufficient tank volume to cope with transient flows from normal
operations without necessitating spilling back to feed tanks or
overflows.
Tank to have sufficient volume of water at normal working level to
allow for 1 hours operation at maximum demand.
Take off to feed pumps to be at least 75mm from tank bottom
Tank to be located to provide head requirements at normal working
level for feed pumps

As a rule of thumb chemical reaction rates double for evey 10'C rise
in temperature. For feed system this remains true upto about 80'C for open
system. After this due to reducing solubility of oxygen the rate of corrosion
reduces. Thus steam heating on the open feed tanks have thermostats set at 85'C
or higher