f PIPELINE 7 ENGINEERING ME-437 CLASS NOTES Prof. Dr. O.Cahit Eralp Mechanical Engineering Department @ spre easrrecnscaLavensiry 3 1999XN ra Oe QFBeRKAY GONER TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I Introduction to Pipelines i Introduction 12 ‘Types of Pipelines 13 Pipeline Industry Overview 14 ‘Turkish Pipelines 15 History and Economics of Long-Distance Pipelines Chapter IL Fundamentals of Pipelines m1 Pipeline Fluids m2 Line Pipes - materials, manufacturing and coating 13 Pipeline flow - Liquids m4 Pumps for Liquid Pipelines 1s Pipeline flow - Gases 16 Compressors for Gas Pipelines 7 Other Pipeline Elements for Pipelines(nof available) Chapter HT Pipeline Economics Chapter IV Design of Pipelines TV.1 Fundamentals of Pipeline Design IV.2 _ _ Design of Oil Transmission Pipelines Iv3 Design of Gas Transmission Pipelines Chapter V Construction Practices for Pipelines Chapter VI Pipeline Operations (ot available) Vil Oil Pipelines VL2 Gas Pipelines Chapter VII Distribution Pipeline Systems VIL1 —_ Liquid Distribution Pipelines VIL2 Gas Distribution Pipelines ( not available ) Chapter VIII Other Pipelines VIIL1 Solid transportation Pipelines VIIL2 Two-Phase Pipelines VUI3 Energy Transportation Pipelines (not available ) Chapter IX Pipeline Transients 11 Liquid Pipelines 1X2 Gas Pipelines (not available )ME 437 PIPELINE ENGINEERING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINES L1 Introductory Remarks 1.2 Types of Pipelines I.3 General Operation of Petroleum Pipeline Systems 1.4 Pipeline Industry Overview r 1.5 Some Industrial Statistics b 1.6 Turkish PipelinesLi Introductory Remarks | | i Energy and transportation are the two important subjects related to the development ofp country. Water transportation by pipes exists for 5000 years (Hittites, Romans, and Ottomans). In 18%) Sainiel Van Sykel built a 2” pipeline to transport oil from a Northwestern Pennsyivania oilfield t¢ | railroad terminal 6 miles away, Nowadays, petroleum, products, gas, water or other fluids are» transported thousands of kilometres by pipelines. fi Pipelines supply: Off-shore to shore Oil or gas fields to refineries or marine terminals a Refineries or marine terminals to strategic centres or consumption centres ‘Across countries Forming supply networks Connected to distribution networks 4 Petroleum and petroleum products have gained wide spread interest with rising ener demands, especially since 1970's, Nowadays energy is identical with petroleum and its produgts, ‘Transportation reminds many people of the requirement for safety, low cost and continuity more t || ever. Thus pipeline transportation is an attractive matter, the progress and well being of the nations. Solids could be transported in a pipeline, such as grains, coal, minerals, raw material, capst and packages. ‘The “pipeline system” of today is predominantly utilised for the transportation of petrole\ products and natural gas. The vital importance of pipelines is understood when it is realised that % o energy needs are still petroleum and about the same percentage of petroleum transportation (land) is) pipelines, Q In the USA, the large majority of commercial pipelines are owned by petroleum refiny companies. In Europe, more state owned or semi-state owned pipeline companies exist. In Turk yet, BOTAS, which is a state, owned company runs the main pipeline systems. The pipeline system ir ‘Tiirkiye will-be studied in the following sections. é | : During the last few decades, gas and liquid transport by pipeline has assumed increasing importance because of the increase in the volume of products consumed § Mechanical, civil, petroleum, and chemical engineers are familiar with this topic in operatin, pipelines, but specialised pipeline engineers and specialised consultants are employed in | development and construction of pipelines, The construction of the facilities themselves is a job fe contractor and not for the company engineer. However the company engineer supervises the overal project, which means that he must be sufficiently well informed to make decisions concerning, The economic aspect of installation, ii, ‘The principal characteristios of the project, (technical) 12iii, The selection of constructor and suppliers, (contract and procurement) iv. Operation. : “The purpose of this course is to review the basics, and apply the fundamentals of engineering to the design, construction and operation of a pipeline. 1.2 Types of Pipelines a Most of the oil and gas pipelines fall in one of the three groups given below. ) Gathering lines i.) ‘Trunk (transmission) lines iii) Distribution pipelines Other pipelines, such as those needed in production fields to inject gas, water or other fluids in || to the formation to improve oil and gas recovery and to dispose salt water, or other special pipelines | will not be considered here. i ‘A classification of pipelines according to the type of fluid transmitted is: a i) ii) iii) Oil pipelines, Gas pipelines, Products pipelines, LNG pipelines, LPG pipelines, Water pipelines, COr pipelines, Coal Slurry pipelines, Two Phase pipelines, ete. iv.) Other pipelines: 1.3 General Operation of Petroleum Pipeline Systems ‘In general terms petroleum pipeline systems are operated in the following phases: 13.1 Transportation of Crude Oil from Well-head to Tank Battery (Tank-farm) ‘An average oil well produces only about 20 barrel” per day while a typical 20” pipeline i: capable of transporting about 200,000 barrels per day («32000 m’/day). ‘This. means that a singl |: pipeline is capable of carrying the output of 10,000 wells. Thus before great quantities of crude oil cat be transported in high capacity lines, to the refinery, it must first be collected in sufficient quantities. In the interest of simplicity and efficiency, shipments of oil are made in batches of severa | thousand barrels, The oil is usually moved in gathering lines from the well head to temporary storag: tanks, an accumulated in the pipeline company’s tanks until the entire shipment is ready for to the mait | pipeline. Prior to this time, some preliminary treatment is required to separate gas from the oil and tc remove water and other contaminants (sulphur). While temporarily stored in the pipeline tank battery * 1 barrel: bbl of petroleum oil at 15°C, unrefined = 1591, 6.29 bbl = Lm? 13the oil is measured (gauged), and its specific gravity and water content are determined. This can also done electronically while being transported in the pipeline. 13.2 Transportation of Crude Oil to Refinery or Marine Terminal Efficient operation of a pipeline system requires careful planning and detailed scheduling a movements, Every effort is made to operate the pipeline at capacity, and at the same time minimise th use of storage tanks, ‘The typical oil pipeline has a small number of shippers, each of which is continually receivii deliveries and adding oil to the line, The oil remains the property of shippers, and since the line myst remain full, the shipper always has a balance of cil in the line. | ‘A schedular, solicits the shippers during the last week in the month, to determine the customer's shipping needs and desires, From this information, the monthly barrel-per-day line pumping rates {__ established. Once the schedule is prepared, it is important that it is executed according to a plan. This ts | the duty of the dispatcher. The dispatcher’ post is manned 24 hours a day. By means of modern and. varied communications equipment, he is also able to monitor line pressures and rates of flow, receij and deliveries and to detect any leaks and breaks in the line that may occur : 13.3 Transportation of Oil Products from Refinery or Marine Terminal to Market From the refinery, petroleum products must be transported to areas of high market demai.) | This final movement is made in prodict pipelines, In these lines, different petroleum products from different shippers flow in adjacent batches. at ‘An interesting characteristic of pipelines is that, they enable the transportation of different products through the same line. A cylindrical or spherical device with an outer diameter almost equal: the inner diameter of the pipeline is placed between two adjacent batches of different products, « pumped with them through the pipeline. This device use as a batch separator is called pig or batch separator. It may also be called scraper, but the name scraper is more associated with those pigs t 7° has the finction of cleaning or scraping the internal surfaces of the pipeline which may probably: coroded and/or filthy. A mixed or contaminated volume of products is received at the delivery terminal, ust before and after the arrival ofthe pig, due to diffusion of different types of liquids in ef) other, This volume is usually relatively small, and may also be used after some treatment, and hell not wasted, Even when batch separators are not used very little commingling occurs. Sometimes at the delivery terminal, the interface mixture is allowed to pass, andthe stocks are drawn from the centr¢ the batch, If the adjacent batches are’similar, the commingled material will be used to upgrade lower quality product. When two dissimilar products mix, the material is placed in special tanks where it is reblended under strict laboratory procedures. A typical aycle of batches for a products Pipelin | : shown in Figure 13.1 4Se ee Figure 13.1. ‘Typical Cycle of Batches in Product Pipelines Pipelines are continuous flow type carriers and probably the least flexible of all forms of | transportation, Portions of cargoes can not be directly picked up or discharged between pump stations, except at locations where storage and dispensing facilities are also present. A further lack of flexibility is in the size of cargo, By their very nature, pipelines must handle only very large shipments. A stoppage of pumping, at or between any two stations will halt that much of fluid contained in that section. Pumping may continue from the rear until the storage capacity in front of the halted section is. | filled 1.4 Pipeline Industry Overview One of the most important links in the chain of operations that brings oil and gas (or other - | products, water) from the reservoir to the users around the world is a network of pipelines that | transports oil natural gas and other products from producing fields to consumers. This network gathers oil and gas from hundreds of thousands of individual wells, including those in some of the wolds most remote and hostile arcas and eventually distribute a range of products to individuals, residences, businesses and plants This vast gathe and distribution system comprises hundreds of thousands of kilometres of pipeline (more than Imillion km in USA), varying in size from 2” in diameter to as much as 60”, ‘Although there are pumping stations and other facilities scattered along the pipeline routes, most of the | ‘world’s oil and gas pipeline system is not visible Pipelines bring oil from Alaska and oil and gas from Siberia to’ consumers. Oil and gas produced from off-shore wells are brought to shore by pipelines often through water several hundred meters deep. il and gas pipeline systems aré remarkable for their efficiency and low transportation cost. Just | as remarkable is the technology that makes it possible to install large pipelines in areas such as artic perma-frost regions and deep water without damage to the environment and with a high degree ot safety (Figure 1.4.1), In addition to being a low cost transportation method, pipelines are energy | efficient, An energy efficient study concludes that, FE ‘Crude oil pipelines consume about 0.4%, E ‘Product pipelines consume about 0.5%, Coal trains consume about 0.8%, «Oil trains consume about 1.0%, Natural Gas pipelines consume about 2.5% ‘Oil trucks consume about 3.2%, Coal trucks consume about 5.4%, of the energy content per 1000 km. LsTanker Pipeline Barge Rail Truck 5 10 20 30 40 50 ¢/10°b-km Figure 1.4.1 Petroleum Transportation Costs In terms of energy consumption, crude-oil trunk line (transmission pipeline) consume about kd/ton-km, gathering ines consume about 300 kJ/ton-km, and product pipelines consume about / ki/ton-km, as a rough average. As the amount of energy consumed depends on the pipeline diame! ‘and flowrate, among other factors. For crude oil pipelines, energy consumption ranges from 350 k: km for a6” pipeline to 100 ki/ton-km for a 46” pipeline, A 36” pipeline can carry about 17 times n oil or gas than a 12” pipeline, but construction and operating costs do not increase at the same ratio 3 Pipelines do not provide rapid movement of ficight, but the flow is continuous, so that) | quantity moved per 24 hour period compares favourably with that of other modes of ‘transportation. Thi |- actual speed depends upon the size of pipe, viscosity, density and temperature of the fluid andi pumping pressure. It ranges 2-7 km/h for crude oils, and about ten times that for natural gas, eB Few accidents of transport nature occur in pipelines. Nevertheless, a leakage may occur cau either a certain loss or even local damages, or at least a delay in operation. Any delay is better sto’ before the emergency storage capacity at the downstream terminal is used up. Otherwise an alternativ mode of transportation need to be established. In real life practice, such accidents are very | provided that there are proper maintenance and supervision activities. ‘ From land use point of view, pipeline systems require land for pump stations and st. facilities. Since pipelines are laid about one meter below ground, they do not interfere extensively Win land use. Normal usage of the land may continue. with little or no interruption. The agriculture © activities are even encouraged above pipelines as.a measure of camouflage, especially when the | ‘have some military importance. 1615 Some Industrial Statistics f Exact details of the worlds total pipeline lengths, sizes and capacities are difficult to compile | Some of this data is regularly published in periodically published journals of the industry, such as Oi. and Gas Journal and Pipeline Industry. Here some overall numbers are given to reflect the scale of the) Industry. L In 1990 the United States pipelines delivered: >11,4*10"° bbl of crude oil and, >0.73*10"* Nm’of natural gas. ‘The investment in equipment related to these pipelines was 60*10° 8, Combined length of liquid and gas pipelines is: 750,000 km. Out of this total, Liquid pipeline companies operate > 50,000 km gathering line, > 90,000 km crude oil trunk line | > 130,000 km product line | Gas companies operate > 330,000 km of gas transmission line i > 100,000 km of field gathering line : Of the approximately 81*10°$ in property owned by all USA interstate pipeline companies . crude oil and product accounted for 2610°§. The share of investment for crude oil and products” pipelines is given in Table 1.6.1 8 ‘Table L3.1 Share of Investments in Liquid Pipelines Crude Oil Pipelines | Products Pipelines Line Pipe and Fittings 27.3% 27.44% io Pipeline Construction 40.2% 38.36% a ‘Pump Station and Equipment 21.39% 17.92% 7 ‘Land and Right of Way 2.86% 2.88% | Miscellaneous 3.25% 13.4% Right of Way and Damages 4.38% Miscellaneous 20.48% Material Labour 36.59% 38.55% Figure 1.5.1 Onshore Gas Pipeline Construction Cost* * Oil & gas Journal, 25 November 1991, p.44 LTi i ' i Miscellaneous Right of Way ee and Damages 0.01% Labour 49.13% Material 33.38% Figure 1.5.2. Offshore Gas Pipeline Construction Cost” Pump stations and equipments Miscellaneous 21,39% 8.25% : Land and Right of Way 2.86% Line pipe and fittings 27.30% Pipeline Construction 41.20% Figure 1.5.3 Investment in crude oil pipelines* Oil & gas Joual, 25 November 1991, p44 9 Oil & gas Jounal, 25 November 1991, p44 Le‘Pump stations Miscellaneous and equipments 13.40% 17.92% Land and Right of Way 2.88% Line pipe and fittings 27.44% Pipeline construction 39.36% Figure 1.5.4 Investment in products pipelines*16 Turkish Pipelines BOTAS - Boru Hatlan ile Petrol Tagima Anonim Sirketi is principally engaged in the construction, maintenance and operation of pipelines which transport crude oil, natural gas and other hydrocarbon products in Turkiye. BOTAS was established subsequent to the Iraq-Tiirkiye Crude Oil Pipeline agreement in 1973. The share holders of BOTAS are TPAO (799 %), TUPRAS, IGSAS, DITAS, POAS. ‘The company’s activities inalude, to build, to cause to build, to take over already build, 10 buy or lease petroleum, petroleum products and NG pipetine, and to purchase and to sell. crude oil and natural gas transported by the said pipeline. BOTAS is empowered to engage in a number of activities which including following: 1. To built and operate terminals or pumping stations, harbour and auxiliary facilities, ‘storage tanks, load-in facilities piers, buildings or social compounds; to built, import or acquire in otherways, rent out, sell operate, create patent rights, sell the same or buy machinery, and transport and maintain vessels and their equipment necessary for the above mentioned facilities, 2. To purchase, sell, rent out, give as collateral or pledge physical and non physical assets ‘and financial instruments so as to be able to attain its purposes and subject matter, to create on these and property of others, rights other than ownership, 3. To take out financial, commercial, economical delegations, issue long and short term debt and apply for loans, 4. To angage in broker activities pertaining to insurance and man-time agency operations, bunkering, representation and man-time trading; 5, To establish and operate pumping stations, terminals branches and agencies, and to enable these to communicate with the ships, to install telegram, telephone, teletype, radiophone and wireless facilities so as to be able to attain its purposes, 6. To provide all harbour operations and piloting, towing, mooring, loading, unloading, salvage and diving services, 7, To acquire and operate equipment and facilities that would make possible aerial inspection, 8. To esiablish commercial companies related to its topic of business, participate in companies established in Turkiye and other countries, take over established companies completely or partially and buy and sell share, engage in consulting activities, go into partnership with manufacturing companies, 9. To store and transport between countries petroleum, petroleum products and natural gas by building and/or operating pipeline facilities, 10. To engage in all commercial and industrial activities and transections necessary to finalise mentioned above. ‘The company owns : 1. Kirkuk-Yumurtaltk Iraq-Tarkiye Crude Oil Pipeline (Turkish portion) 2. Batman-Dértyol Pipeline 3. Yumurtalik - Kirikkale Pipeline 4, Turkish Natural Gas Pipeline System 5, Product pipelines transferred from Ministry of Transport 6. Others projects in progress 7. The major pipelines in Tiirkiye are given below a015 Crude Oil Pipelines 1, Iraq-Tiirkiye Crude Oil Pipeline ‘© Transports crude oil from the Kirkuk and other oilfields in Iraq to Ceyhan Marine ‘Terminal in iskenderun Bay. Botag-owns all the assets and right of way of the pipeline system which are within Turkiye. ¢ BOTAS is responsible for the operation, inspection, maintenance and repair of the section of the pipeline system in Tarkiye. ‘© The pipeline system is approximately 988 km long (345 km in Iraq and about 641 km in Turkiye ) © The pipeline is underground along more than 98 % of its route. © The existing system was constructed in two principal stages. The original pipeline which was placed in service on 1977 was constructed of 40" pipe along the entire section of the pipeline within Iraq. The section from border to a point of the pigging station near ‘Nurdag (about 902” km) is also 40”. The remaining 84 km to the marine terminal is 30" © The original pipeline has equipped with 5 pump stations, a tank farm and marine terminal facilities © The original capacity is 35x10° metric tons per annum, « The tank facm area is compriged of 7 crude il tanks each with a capacity of 135000 mm? and a relief tank of 10 000 m’. The ballast water treatment system consists of 230000 1m? ballast decomposition tanks, a 3300 m° oil accumulation tank (sloppy tank) and other operation units, © A marine terminal consisting, of berths, loading and unloading systems. Crude oil is transferred to the marine terminal by gravitational force. A 1950 m long jetty connects the berthing facilities to the shore, There are 4 berths in the jetty, 2 of them are capable of handling tankers ranging from 30 000 dwt - 300000 dwt. The other two provide facilities 15000 dwt -150000 dwt. i © A comprehensive telecommunication network facilitates communication and coordination. This network linking the pipeline was designed to carry a variety of telephone, telegraph, and pilot signal and supervision service data. At each pump station there is both a radio link receiver and transmitter unit with this, system. The pipeline operation can be automatically controlled from the main control centres in Lraq and Turkiye. Each country can control the station on its own side and if necessary the other side. The crude oil transported by BOTAS is marketed by a State Organisation of Iraq (SOMO). i.) First Expansion ‘The successful operation of ITP resulted in a new agreement in 1982 in order to increase system capacity, The first expansion commenced in 1983 to increase the delivery capacity to 46.5 mta, This expansion was completed in 1984, It included building 2 pumping stations in Iraq and 3 in Turkiye, on the existing pipeline and a total of 80 km of parallel pipeline connecting to the 30" and 40" section, By the completion of this project the capacity of the ballast water treatment system was expanded with the addition of a 35000 m* ballast decomposition tank, ii.) Second Expansion ‘After completion of the 1" expansion was proposed to increase the capacity to 70.9 mta(1985). This expansion project involved laying of a 46” pipeline parallel with the existing. pipeline ensuring a delivery capacity of 5000 m’/h for 2/3 Basra oil and 1/3 Kirkuk oil using the two pump stations in Iraq and 3 pump stations in Turkiye constructed during the first expansion, The construction commenced on December 5 1986 and commissioned on July 28 1987 with the new capacity. By late 1987 441 973 396 barrels (40 Mton/a) of crude oil per year had beon delivered with the existing system. With the completion of the second expansion project, the pipeline system had the following features: «Two pipeline transferring Kirkuk and Basra crude oil in Iraq to the tank farm, « ‘The main pipeline of 46” in parallel to the 40” existing, up to Nurdai pig station. « 5 existing pump stations installed for the first expansion were connected to the 46” pipeline connected to 4 pump stations associated with the existing system increased the capacity of the system to 7500 m°7h. © Inparallel with the existing capacity, the capacity of the ballast water treatment system ‘was increased from 1500 m°sh to 2300 m'/h. © Tnaddition to two 3200 bHP tugbout units were added. + Further new design features were incorporated into metering stations at the Turkiye rag border ‘© Modifications to the marine terminal involved the addition of S new tanks each with a capacity of 135000 m* «Two secondary activities i) Harbour services ii) Ballast water processing 2, Batman-Dértyol Crude Oil Pipeline © Operations started in January 1967 , transferred from TPAO to BOTAS in 1984 © Runs from BATMAN through Diyarbakir and Sarl Pumping stations «The pipeline is 511 km long with a diameter 18” © The crude oil produced in Adiyaman region is pumped to Sanl Pump station near Pazarcik and finally delivered to Dortyol through the feeding branch lines integrated to the main system. © This pipeline has 3 pump stations each provided with 3 mainline pumps ‘© There are three loading arms on the loading platform at the end of a 1300 m long jetty associated with Batman-Dértyol pipeline , allows berthing of maximum 60000 DWT tankers, © The tank farm includes 7 float top storage tanks each with a capacity of 23850 m’, including a ballast tank with a capacity of 6300 m* (20,500 000 barrels/a) Laterals Connecting to the Batman Dértyol Pipeline 1, Selmo-Batman Crude Oil Pipeline Capacity 2200 (16000 b/d) tons/day - connects mobil crude oil produced in the $elmo area, Batman 42 km long 6 5/8” in diameter. 2, Adiyaman Saril Crude Oil Pipeline Daily capacity 2800 tons ( 20000 b/d) 82 km long 8" to 10’in diameter. Transports TPAO crude oil of Adiyaman to Saril pump station. Operated by TPAO. 3. Sanicak-Piringlik Crude Oil Pipeline Daily capacity of 1300 tons (9300 b/d) 42 km long 6” in diameter. Transports Saricak area crude to Piringlik Pump Station. Operated by TPAO LR3. Yumurtaltk-Kuikkale Crude Oil Pipeline Central Anatolia Refinery Crude Oil Pipeline Capacity 5 M tons/a 447 km long 24" pipeline 2 tank farms, 2 pump stations, 2 terminals ‘The tank farm at Ceyhan consists of 3 float top steel tanks each with capacity of 50000 m’ (17000000 barrels) 4. New Ongoing Crude Oil Pipeline Projects Caspian-Mediterranean (Azarbaycan-Yumurtalik) Crude Oil Pipeline Project It Tiirkiye Natural Gas Pipeline System Russia-Tiirkiye Natural Gas Pipeline ‘Agreement: September 18 1984 BOTAS-Soviet Soyuz Gas Export Bidding and Contract: 1986 First stage of 842-km NG pipeline consists of a 76-km segment expanding from Malkoglar (Bulgarian Border) to Hamitabad -1987. This supplied TEK natural gas Co- generation power plant. July 1988; IGSAS; August 1988: Tek Ambarlt October 1988: Ankera domestic From then onwards several expansions are made and the total demand increased to about 15 MMm'/a The pipeline is composed of the following sections: ©___Length ‘Thickness Pipe _-_ Malkoglar-Ambarii 36" = 220km U.tmm API SL X65 Ambarli-Pendik 2x30” S4km 175mm APISL X65 -Off-shore Pendik-Demirciler 36” 33 km 1.1mm API SL X65 Demirciler-Pazarcik 24" 18 km 1L.imm API SL X65 Demirciler-Muallim 24” = 7km 7.1mm API SL X65 Muallim-Hersek 2x24” 6 km 175mm APISL X65. Off-shore Hersek Yumurtatepe 24” 49 km Timm API SL X65 Yumurtatepe-Ankara 24" 364 km TAmm API SL X65 Ankara-Gavercinlik 30" 10 km Total 842 km. Includes two submarine pipeline crossing totalling 120 km A branch line from Pendik to {GSAS Includes 11 reducing and metering stations and one compressor station at Kirklareli. The system measures the quantity and quality of the imported gas and permits the delivery to the customer, based on their needs and requirements. The pipeline is controlled from the main control centre at Yapracikk, Ankara, Consumption: 46% fertiliser plants 12% various industrial enterprises ‘= utilised by the cities for housing and commercial purpose Capacity- 14x10? Nm’ /a Operation Pressure: 75 bar Line Valves 31 offPig Stations 9 Gas Flow and Pressure Reducing Stations 1 main station at Bulgarian Border for gas quality and flow measurement and odorising. The increasing demand due to the fast penetration of natural gas to industry, power generation and domestic heating resulted in a consumption growth to about 15.4 ‘Bm’/a in 10 years. (7.3 Bm’/a in 1995). The distribution of this demand to sectors is as follows: ‘Domestic : 2 Bm*/a, Industrial : 7.4 Bm’/a, Power Generation : 6 Bm/a Thete are a number of expansion projects completed, ongoing or waiting to be started Some of these projects are given below. 11,)_ Urban Gas Distribution Systems (in service in1998) i Ankara natural gas distribution system. Low pressure system, owned and operated by EGO, i, Istanbul natural gas distribution system. Medium pressure system, owned operated by IGDAS. ii, Bursa natural gas distribution system. Medium pressure system, owned operated by BOTAS. iv, Eskigehir natural gas distribution system. Medium pressure system, owned operated by BOTAS. 2.) Main industrial projects: Fertiliser plants : IGSA$, TUGSAS. Steel mills, cement mills, glass and porcelain industry, fibre and textile industry, food industry, Organised Industrial Districts (Cerkezkdy, Késekoy Bursa, Demirtes, Inegol, Eskigehir, Sincan) 3,)_Power Plants: Co-generation : Existing 1998: Hamitabat (1700MW), Ambarli (1700MW), Istanbul-West-Doga (263MW), Trakya-Enron(STOMW), | Trakya-Unit(S570MW), Gebze _Dilovast GOOMW), Bursa (400MW): Total :5SoOMW: Planned until 2003: Alarko Kirklareli (120MW), Ambarl (25S0MW), Gebze LIL (1000H1000MW), ikitelli IJ (1000+1000MW), K-Ereglisi (104MW), Bursa (1700MW), Bursa II (2000MW), Eskigehir (1000MW), Ankara (1000MW), Aliaga LIL (1000MW), ete. Total :10650MW 4.) LNG Terminals : i, ‘Marmara Ereflisi LNG Terminal : Capacity : 6 Bm’/a ii Aliaga LNG Terminal ii, Iskenderun LNG Terminal : 5.) Expansions on the mainline : Loops, Compressor stations6.) New Pipelines in Progress i. NGTL-1 : {zmit-Karadeniz Ereglisi : Constructed : Diameter 16”-24” ii, NGTL-2 : Bursa-Can : Constructed : Diameter 8”-24” Karacabey-izmir : Construction starting, ii, | NGTL-3: Ankara-iskenderun: Construction waiting u iv. fran-Tarkiye: Engineering and construction started vy. Turkmenistan-Turkiye-Europe: Project being studied vi Russia-Tirkiye-Israel: Project being studied vii, Blue Stream Project Ukraine-Black Sea Underpass Samsun-Ankara_ being studied... ae aEdid HO APM ainjng ueyken- neg ourjadid se5 /esnjeN osnjyng auledid Sed [einen auljedid 10 apna SANITAdId S HADEALa b uJ Azerbaijan Offshore Project Caspian Sea Project L 1,200 Mi. Crude Oil Pipeline MEDIEERPAMEAN SEA ‘A Stns 403-mille pipeline willbe bultto carry 400,000 bpd of crude oll from ‘the Tengiz Flold across the Caspian Sea, Over 200 mil ‘be underwater. (Fig. 1) Misaaeut aes as: hie eer y ith an estimated four billion barrels: of recoverable crude cil reserves, several panicipants are casting a optimistic bye towards the Chirag 1 Field lo- ‘ated 75 miles offshore Azerbaijan In the Caspian Sea, A feasibility study ‘ill determine whether existing facile ties can be modified to produce oil by mid-1996, While the intial project calls for producing about 80,000 bpd of crude oll, estimates are thit the Contract area will-produce a peak of "700,000 pd by 2004, | “The contract award comes from Acerbaijan International Operating Co. (IOO ‘which announced its produc on sharing contract with Socar ‘ncerbaljan's national oil company, 15 September 1994. Parters in the feasi- bility study include: Amoco, BP. Delta~ Nimic Lukoil, Pennzoil, Ramco, Statod, ‘Turkish Petroleum, Unocal, Brown & ‘of this pipeline will ‘Root, ind McDermott. An estimated $8 billion investment is expected over the 30-year life of the development. ly productan from the Chirag 4 facility represents. significant op- portunity for Azerbaijan, the partici ating oll companies, several: adja: Cent countries Under consideration 2s potential export rqutes, and for con fractors and suppliers,” says” Art ‘Metlaffie, senior vicespresident-com- mercial, AJOC, "Azerbaijan oll fields fare a great energy resource within the ‘Caspian Sea, with good opportunities to. export to surrounding countries and the global marketplace,” ‘Socar installed a 10-pile, 20-well slot drilling/production platform three years ago in 400 ft. of water. EF- forts of the AIOC consortiums will ‘complete this project and bring the Field into production ‘Brown & Root’ work, tn adaliion 0 the comprehensive study, includes project management support for the 'KIOC integrated teas plus any subcon- {ractors’ inspection. and assessment of the Chirag 1 jacket, decks and piling System. Rockwater, Brown & Roots un- 28 -* Pipeline & Gas journai/Aujust 1995 Includes A derwater contracting firm, has per- fomned the jacket structural inspection, Projéct scope also includes tion of 20 process modules ready installed’ and 12 under.cor- struction at the Shelfprojectstroy ($PS) Fabrication Yard in Baku. At the close of the saudy, recommendations ‘will be made on appropriate use and any required remediation work on Chirag 1, inchiding possible process modifications and structura rein- forcements, all focused on achieving « eatly production. Pipeline Recommendations ‘One récominendation will include an oil’ processing scheme to mect crude expor/sale transportation coire- ria and project budget, schedule, ‘work scope, and tender document for project development. Decisions on pipeline schemes and. the: Chirag 1 Feasibility study are expected soon, "The pipeline scheme is aimed at bringing crude oil to the export mar ket via:the port of Ceyhan, Turkey, thus providing free access to the Mediterranean Sea. A-Phase One pipeline scheme would bring oil from the Tengiz Field to Tbilisi, Georgia, a distance of $90 miles (950 km.) A 30- jn,, 403-mile (650 km.) pipeline. will ‘be constructed t0-camry.an estimated,” 400,000 bpd: of crude ‘oil from the’ “Tengiz Field in Kazakhstan across the Caspian Sea to Makichiala.-An esti. mated 205 miles (330 km.) of this route would be subsea. ‘Transporting . crude oll from Makhachkala to Tbilisi would require ‘construction of another: 186-mile 200 km, pipeline. Those’ Phase 1 activities at Toilsi would accommodate early ex- port designs of an estimated 40,000 pd via an existing 20-in. diameter, 186-mile (300 km.) pipeline from Tbilist to Batumi on the Black Sea, Long-term, high-volume expor could increase 20 45,000 bpd-along this route. "To facilitate easly oilby this sum—" mer, @ separate. proposal to ALOG. calls for Chirag 1 crude oil to be cat~ fed by nail from Baku to Gachiani,jcorgla’ An exist- ing 20n. diameter pipeline at Gachiani_ would carry: crude. of through Thilisi and then to, Supsa, Georgia on, the Black “Sea toa lunker offloading. Facility., A’ 60.000 to, 80/000-dead= weight ton maker will be needed 10 provide a, perma ently" moored Floating storage unit, Tankers then could move crude olf through the Bosporus Str: Phase { of, this syscem will handle Jacket structural inspection 40,000 pd_or 2 million , tons:yr. and Phase Hf sill increase throughput 16 about 120.00) pd of 6 million cons/ye. Total est mated cost for the onshore-pipeline evited to, Chirsy 2 crude oil is $250 The early export route will jenerate revenue and. provide erucke «million for oil and gas-expor, incliding sub- sea tie-ins for continued Caspian Sea development, ® Accommodates’ the interesis of interested countries and oil companies. Platform inspection ‘Jo begin initial contract’ fulfill- ment, Kockwater, Brown & Root’ un- derwater engineering company lo- cated ia,the Aberdeen; Scotland pected the Chirag 1 platform. Data gathered from jacket structural in- speciion surveys with remotely oper sated vehicles (ROVs) formed the ba- sis for diver Inspection of the plat- form, A team of Socar divers from Azerbaijan worked in 30-meter (98 ft) depths on a 24-hr, basis to com- plete inspection ‘work in. half the scheduled time. In addition, Rockwatér personnel performed safety inspections of the diving support vessel (DSV)"*Aca- demic Tofik Isinailov.*. This is the second time Rockwater personnel have worked on the DSY, which had its saturation and air diving, systems installed by the company in 1989 during its construction in Finland. ‘The dive system’maintenance and ROV survey was completed in January oil teansportatio’-throdigh the end of 1997, until posed: pipe iv idl Ted Fe ‘and ‘vessel preparation ‘completed. in February 1985, followed by a mobilizae tion of the dive team, Air dive and ng surveys were completed this Misch, “The-hydrocarbon extraction re- ‘quirements of this lucrative province are very: similar to those ‘encoun- tered in the North Sea, 0 there are very, real opportunities for our con- ttacting companies looking to enter the Azeri.oil market." says Hamish Dingwall, head of oil and gas for. Scottish Enterprise. He believes the Rocwater contract highlights the impact that-Scottish-based oil and gas companies can have. in Acerbaljan, “Our solution offers’a phased, ‘exible construction program without the seasonal restrictions of ice in the rnomhern areas of the Black Sea," says "Tedferguson. ‘BP's Mike Harding, who heads up-a 20-man team in alliance with Statoil says, “There is norway of get~ ting large volumes of oil: out of Azerbaijan without a: pipeline, The ‘consortium is truly international. ‘eleven. companies are representing seven nationalities. A BP president works alongside vice presidents from.,Amoco, Unocal, Pennzoil, for Chirag 1 platform in the Caspian Sea were. completed in one month using the locally-based diving support vessel, Aca- ye completion Of 4. pro né.t the Mediterranean pauson, Briwn Roots dy feettor of onshore pil ane! gas for Eu rope & Africa and the Former Soviet Unida region, says that longterm, the pipeline proposal from Tengiz to the ‘Mediterranean Sea = Provides — route independent of existing pipeline infrastructure. Avoids ~ ship- ping through, the Bosporus Stet. = Provitles the shortest, distance toward achieving unrestricted tanker * movement i Provedts envi ronmentally sen te areas. induc ine nortien. por tons of the ‘Caspian Sea were Surgeon span and pri evi : winks the farge volume-25 1 tiga tangy 500.000 pel) Baku Dincne ta the asp Sex-Ceyhan Pielinethagh si Me accomnctates future demand pipeline & Gas Journal Aut 1995 i , Statoil, and’ Russia's oil company, ‘Lukoil ‘According to: Terry Adams, AOC president and former BP meniber, “I {s not just the fixtures and firings that are.new, Weare working'in @ completely’ novel environment. The ‘Azerbaijan’ partners have been work- ing in a Soviet paradigm, the foreign ‘il companies are working in a West- ‘em paradigm. With this project we hope. to forge 2 completely new paradigm.” ‘According to BP, many western investors in the former Soviet U have found the creation of such @ paradigm elusive. But the consor- tium is confident and to date, the re- lationship. with SOCAR is strong. “It has to be; says BP, in the short term itis faced with a task no less daunt- ing than its long term objective. of achieving production.of 700,000 bpd of oll.” “Only-one fifth of the afea has been explored. There is a possibility of 25 billion. bbls. of hydrocarbon le to be found in the area and it’s practically impossible to find an area which is not attractive,” says Khoshbakht Yusifvade, SOCAR's vice president. P&GJ oeCHAPTER IT FUNDAMENTALS OF PIPELINES IL.1 Pipeline Fluids 11.2 Line Pipes, Materials, Manufacturing and Coating IL3 Pipeline Flow - Liquids It.4 Pumps for Liquid Pipelines U.5 Pipeline Flow - Gases I.6 Compressors for Gas Pipelines U.7 Other Pipeline ElementsIf. 1 Pipeline Fluids 11.1 General ‘The fluids, which are within the interest of a pipeline engineer, are water, petroleum and products and natural gas. In this section mainly petroleum, products and natural gas will be Studied, as the properties of water'in mechanical engineering is more commonly known Most of the hydrocarbons encountered in pipeline engineering are of the aliphatic class swith the chemical formula “C,Hgqi2”; the lightest being methane (CHL), followed by ethane, propane and butane. These exist as gases at STP, Heavier hydrocarbons exist as liquids under these conditions. Commercial natural gas is mainly methane (Russian gas about 95-98% methane), and is normally transported as gas. However it may be commercially stored and transported in liquid phase at atmospheric pressure and -162°C, ie. at oryogenic conditions. The other gases can be transported by pipelines either in gas or liquid phase, depending on the transport temperature or pressure. divided into three basic groups. Liquid Petroleum products are more or les (). Light distillates!” gasolife and waphiti (i). Middle distillates: kerosene, diesel, heating oils Gi). Residuals, der! tale Few of the residuals can be transported by pipelines unless heat is added, since they are too viscous for economical pumping at normal ground temperatures (4-27°C). Refineries crack some of the residuals to form lighter liquids. ; bey gee Neatly all of the compounds of the hydrocarbon family are miscible in each other. Hydrocarbon fuels and products transported by pipelines are usually a mixture of more than one of these compounds. Since each of the compounds has its own physical properties, the gaseous and liquid phase relationship is governed by the laws of partial pressure. ‘There’are such a variety of hydrocarbon mixtures suitable for transportation by pipelines. Only single-phase flows will be studied in detail. The range of temperatures and pressures under whieh the fluid will remain in single phase is to be taken into consideration. In general that when the specific gravity of a gas is less than 0,65 (compared to air), and the specific gravity of @ liquid is grater than 0.65 (compared to wate) there is single phase, Two-phase flows are studied in Section VIE.11.1.2 Fluid Properties “The properties of the fluid to be transported have a significant impact on pipeline system design | tnd operation ff] Tngeneral: specific gravity, viscosity, pressure, temperature, enthalpy, entropy, ee. + Ingaseous fluids (such as natural gas), other important fluid properties are ; ‘molecular weight, super-compressibility factor, specific heats and their ratio, Joule Thompson coefficient ‘© For liquid lines the fluid properties of concern are bulk modulus of elasticity, vapour pressure, viscosity, specific gravity g || Some definitions related to these fluid properties are: : gq mi Volumetric Definitions "Gases : Gas flow is usually computed on the basis of standard (normal) m°/h : (Nm /h) ‘The definition of Nm? must include the absolute base pressure (1.033 bar = Istd atm.) and the base temperature (15°C). Liquids: Usual practice in USA : barrels/h (1 barrel = 42 US gallon = 159 1 at tatm and 15°C) In transforming custody, volumes must be corrected to a standard temperature (60°F or 15°C). i Buropean practice is to calculate flow in metric tons per hour, eliminating small ; : discrepancies in volumes, which may exist due to thermal expansion, and Q contraction, TL12.ii Specific Gravity (Relative Density) Gases: The specific gravity of a hydrocarbon gas is the ratio of the specific weight of the gas to the specific weight of dry air, both specific weights obtained under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, ‘Almost universally, this is done by field measurement with instruments, comparing a static or dynamic mass balance at or near atmospheric pressure. A more accurate specific gravity may be obtained by dividing the molecular weight of the gas by the molecular weight of air. S=p/par=M / Mair =M /28.97 S natural gas = 0.65-0.68 § cyLiquids : Gases : ‘There are several methods in use expressing specific gravity of hydrocarbon liquids. One method is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid at 60°F (15.6°C) to the specific gravity of water at 60°F (15.6°C). The temperatures are indicated as 15°C for short hand notation. ‘Another common method is “ Degrees APT « defined as: API Gravity, degrees = (140) /(Sisre 1s.) ~ 131.5 ays [API stands for American Petroleum Institute, The terminology Sis°c / 15°C means that the specific gravity of the liquid at 15°C is compared to the specific gravity of water at 15°C. A third method is “ Degrees Baume “, defined as: For liquids lighter than water, Degrees Baume = (140) / ( Sisvc s1stc) ~ 130 For liquids heavier than water, Degrees Baume = 145 - (145) /( Sise 115°) Gravity by APT and Baume scales is usually measured by special hydrometers, at existing temperatures and corrected 10 15°C by means of tables or closely approximated by charts. Specific gravities of various common liquids are ‘Sicisuk orude 78 5 Sgasotine = 0.76; Spower fuel = 0.78 Skerosene = 0.81; Stumsce ol = 0.815 Stumace ol #2 = 0.84 Flowing Temperature Since the specific volume of a gas is dependent upon pressure and temperature, the velocity of a gas flowing in a constant diameter pipeline must change when the temperature and pressure changes, The equations used in a pipeline are generally based on isothermal flow, but the small temperature differences between jnlet and exit ( ME, *MW, HV =3ME,* HY, Where: MW gas mixture molecular weight, Tbm/lbm*mol MF; mole fraction of its component Mw; molecular weight of its component, Ibm/tbm*mol HY ‘gas mixture net heating value, BTU/SCE ey Hy net heating value of its component, BTU/SCF a n= _ total number of components of gas ‘The component molecular weights and heating values are tabulated below. ‘Component Molecular Weight Heating Value(BTU/SCF) Methane 16.043 909.1 ‘Ethane 30.070 16178 f Propane 44.097 2316.1 3 T-Butane 58.124 3001.1 ‘N-Butane 58.124 3010.4 I-Pentane 72.151 3698.3, ‘N-Pentane 72151 3707.5 Hexane 36.178 4403.7 ‘Component Molecular Weight Healing Value(BTU/SCE) Heptane 100,205 5100.2 Octane 114.232 5796.7 8 Nitrogen 28.013 0.0 COz 44.010 0.0 HLS 34.076 388.16 Hydrogen 2.016 274.13 ‘Water 18.015 0.0{L12.xii Example for the Properties of Kirkuk Crude Oil and Russian Natural Gas Properties of KIRKUK Crude Oil Specific: gravit 845 Kinematic viscosit 10.7 St Viscosity 7 to 10.7 eSt “Transport temperature 8°C ‘Vapor pressure. 0:36 bara ‘Reid vapor pressure 0.29 bara. Bulk modulus 1.5. 10" bar Data Provided ‘The following data was supplied by BOTAS and relates to the composition of Russian Properties of RUSSIAN Natural Gas Methane min 85% Ethane max_ 7% Propane max 5% Butane max 2% Pentanes and Hexanes | max 1% Nitrogen mex 5% Carbon dioxide max 3% Oxygen max 0.02% Gross CV in range 8960-9200 keal/Nm° Average CV 9000 keal/Nm* Average S.G. 0.68 Sulphur content — = Hydrogen sulphide (HaS) _— max 5.0 mg/m? Mercaptan sulphur max 15-20 mg/Nm> Total sulphur +: max 100 mg/ Nm General Operation Level of Total Sulphur: 20-50 mg/N m Dew Points : For hydrocarbons not higher than 0°C under working pressure. For water not higher than minus 8 °C at the pressure of 40 bar Wn (Wobbe number) (11268 kcal/N-m') to (13680 keal/ Nem’) 1-10UL.2 Line Pipes, Materials, Manufacturing and Coating ¥L2.1 General ‘The line pipes used in transmission and distribution pipelines are selected in the design phase, based on the pressure rating of the system, For high-pressure transmission systems, steel pipes are used, where as in medium or low-pressure distribution systems plastic, ie. polyethylene and polypropylene pipes can be used. In case of steel pipes individual lengths of steel pipes are joined by welding, Plastic pipes are joined by electro-fusion or rarely by joints and adhesives. “The pipes are usually to be buried underground, so for protection against corrosion and mechanical damage steel pipes are coated by paint and/or plastic material. Pipe sizes are commercially denoted in inches. This size refers to the nominal diameter lower than outside diameter, for pipes up to 14”, From 14” onward the size refers to outside diameter, Standard pipes diameters go in fractions of an inch up to 4”, 2” increments from 6” to 20”, 6° increments from 24” onwards. Obviously sizes in between can be found or specially manufactured upon request. 11.2.2 Characteristics of Pipeline Steels ‘The properties of steels presently used in the construction of a pipeline are listed in two APT specifications, These are: SL,_—_ for normal quality steels, SLX for high strength steels. These specifications are worldwide accepted. The following table summarises - material properties, More detailed tables are given in API-5L and API-SLX standards. ‘Table 11.2.2.1 Summary of Pipeline Steel Properties APT Grade | YieldStrength | Tensile Strength | Type of seen kg/mm?/MPa /psi| ke/mm?/(MPa) | Fabrication | _SL A 21/21/3100 | _34/340 BWERW,S,DSA_ SL. B 25 /250/ 37000 42/420 BW,ERW,S.DSA 5LX x42__[ 2897290742000 4137413 FWERW,SDSA_ 5LX, XAG 31,77317 146000 93.4 7434 FWERWSDSA SLX x52 3587358752000 | 45.57 455 FWERWSDSA SLX X56 38,67 386 /56000 49.61 496 FAVERWSDSA 5LX. X60 | _41.37413 760000 37/517 SLX | X65 4487448765000 | _53.4/534 __| FWERW.S,DSA SLX x70 48.2 74827 70000 36.57 565 FWERWSDSA SLX X75 31,3 7513/7500 6157615 FW,ERW.SDSA SLX x80 34.4 7544 780000 64/664 __ | FWERW,S.DSA BW: Fumace Buit Weld ERW : Electric Resistance Weld s Seamless "%p, DSA: Double Submerged Weld FW: FlashWeld |“ %, et1.2.5 Polyethylene Pipes for Natural Gas Pipelines Plastic pipes are used throughout the world, especially in gas distribution systems. After extensive research and development MDPE (Medium Density Polyethylene) found to be very suitable for this application. The advantages of this material in pipe manufacturing dominate over its drawbacks. The main advantages are : © There is no corrosion problem. ‘¢ It is resistant to biological and zoological damages, «It is resistant to chemical reactions, thus do not degrade reacting with the gas or outside effects Easy to transport, store, weld and place in the trench hende-t. © The material is tough and elastic, thus can take small impacts without being damaged. Cheaper than steel pipes, and pipeline construction is cheaper. The polyethylene pipes are produced in two classes : SDR 11, and SDR 17. The definition of SDR (Standard Diameter Ratio) is : SDR = (Average outer diameter ) / (Minimum pipe thickness) Up to 180 mm in diameter SDR 11, above this diameter both SDR 11 and SDR 17 are used in pipes and fittings. Some mechanical properties of polyethylene pipes are : Density 940 kg/m” Bending strength 19 MN/m* Some Polyethylene pipe sizes and operation pressure limits are given below 1 Outer diameters (mm) + 20, 25, 32, 63, 90, 125, 180, 250, 315 Operating pressure (bar): 4.0 2 SDR 17 pipes Outer diameters (mm) + 180, 250, 315 Operating pressure (bar): 2.5, 2.3,2.3 “These pipes are manufactured and stored as coils up to 63mm, and for diameters above that pipes are manufactured at lengths of 6m or 12m. They are welded by several methods, most widely by electro-fusion saddle-fusion and butt-fusion and socket-fusion. Wid113 Pipeline Flow Liquids General Laws of Fluid Flow Be IL3.1 Basic Equations “The basic equations for fluid flowy are: continuity, momentum and, energy equations Continuity Equation: Simplest form of this equation is for 1 dimensional incompressible steady flow in aclosed conduit. U Between any two sections. AiVi = Az Vi2=Q ‘V = mean velocity, (with uniform velocity approximation) if compressible PAN, = DAV, = th EpA,V, = 0 ‘Momentum Equation (Newton's 2™ Law) For One dimensional pipe flow: DE, = prAgVaV, = PALViVe = th (Vag Viz) = PQ Vax ~ Vie) ‘Energy equation (1 Law of Thermodynamics) General form for incompressible pipe flow (energy per unit mass) Energy per unit weight of liquid (N- m/1N) > m of fluid column x VLR Ve seat tat 1 BY 28 If H,=H.=0= Zhe this takes the same form as Bernoulli equation - H+ H, + Dh, Energy is a scalar quantity and Energy equation is a point function i, © comparing the energy at any two points in a system, path taken is immaterial. This principle is used in network analysis When Applying Energy equation to pipeline it is convenient and instructive to show it graphically (Figure 113. 1). W-15 Q13.2 | Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines ‘The line showing total energy is Energy grade line (EGL) has a constant slope. The line connecting points of elevation plus pressure head is Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL). HGL and EGL are parallel if pipe diameter and friction factor f is constant. Figure 11.3.1 Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines eg Datum: Figure 11.3.2. The Definition of EGL and HGL in Terms of Heads 1-16Height of EGL above datum is total head, and above piezometric head (IIGL) is the dynamic head. P 7 72= piezometric head gives HGL ‘The total head hy a i, -b +a X42 ECL yo 2g [EGL is greater than piezometric head by the dynamic head term o> term. ve Thus EGL is above HGL by o> ‘The factor a: can be taken as 1, and V as the pipe average velocity. Helpful hints in drawing HGL and EGL ve ‘ 1. By definition EGL is positioned above HGL and amount a>. Thus ifthe velocity V is zero as in a lake of reservoir the HGL and EGL will coincide with the liquid surface. Head loss for flow in a pipe or channel always means that EGL will slope downward in the direction of flow. 2. The only exception to this rule occurs when a pump supplies energy (and pressure) to the flow, ie. across a pump (Figure 11.3.3). Thon an abrupt rise in the EGL (and HGL) occurs from the upstream side to the downstream side of the pump. 3. Inthe above point (2), it is noted that a pump causes an abrupt rise in the EGL (and HGL) because energy is introduced into the flow by the pump. Similarly if energy is abruptly taken out of the flow by a turbine EGL and HGL will abruptly taken out of the flow by a turbine EGL and HGL will abruptly drop (Figure IL3.4). 4, If'there is a gradual expansion such as at the outlet thus the head loss at the outlet is reduced making the turbine installation more efficient. If the outlet to @ reservoir is an ve abrupt expansion all the KE is lost (Figure IL3.5). The EGL will drop an amount >> at the outlet. 5, Ina pipe or channel where the pressure is zero the HGL is coincident with the system because P/y = 0 at these points. This fact can be used to locate the HGL at certain points in a physical system, such as at the outlet end of a pipe where the liquid discharges into the exit tank or at the upstream end where the gage pressure is zero at the reservoir surface.P Figure 113.3 The EGL and HGL Across Pumps in a Pipeline TURBINE Figure 113.4 The EGL and HGL Across Turbines in a Pipeline 6. For steady flow in a pipe that has uniform physical characteristics (D, &, Shape) along its length, the head loss per unit Iength will be constant. Thus the slope (Ah, / AL) of the EGL and HGL will be constant along the length of pipe 7. Ifa flow passage changes diameter such as in a nozzle or by means of a change in pipe size, the velocity there in will also change. Hence the distance between EGL and HGL will change (Figure If3.6). In addition, the slope on the EGL will change because the head loss per length will be larger in the conduit , with the larger velocity. U-188, If the GL falls below the pipe then P/y is negative thereby indicating sub-atmospheric pressure (Figure 113.7), There, water will vaporise and gather at the highest part of a Siphon called Air Lock, Figurell3.5 The EGL and HGL Across a Contraction Piece (Nozzle) in a Pipeline HGL&EGL Head loss. ---“ at outlet D>D Figure 1L3.6 The EGL and HGL With a Change of Diameter in the Pipeline W-19HGL&EGL: Pigp<0 Airlock at, Hat. * fea ise z=0 Figure 11.3.7 The EGL and HGL With a Possible Air Lock Example 1.3.1 ‘A pump draws water from a reservoir, where the water elevation is 159 m and forces the water ‘through a pipe of 1500 m long and 12” in diameter (0.30 m). The pipe then discharges the water into a reservoir with water surface elevation of 189 m.. If the flow rate is 0.22 m’Vs, and the v ead loss in the pipe is given by 0.01 L/D -5- determine the head supplied by the pump hp, and the power supplied to the flow, Draw the HGL and EGL for the system. Assume that the pipe is horizontal and 159 m in elevation. igo m ——— 159m ——| Pump Figure 113.8 Figure for Example 13.18 a = -s p 0 2 hy = 189-159+0,014502 GAD" 3 2x10 =30+24= 54m, Power supplied 1 206 a 54 x0.22 X10" 599 py My 13.3 Solution of Pipe Problems ‘There are basically 3 types of problems involved with uniform flow in a single pipe: 1, To determine the head loss, given the kind and size of pipe and the flowrate. 2. To determine the flow rate, given the head kind and size of pipe. 3, To determine the size of pipe needed to carry the flow given the kind of pipe, head and flow rate Example 11.3.2 Weter (T=20°C) flows at a rate of 0.05 mi¥/s in a 20 om asphalted cast iron pipe, what is the head loss per km of pipe Solution: First compute Re = VD/v where: V=Q/A 0.05 m/s ~ Guayo0m? = 59m/s ; v=1x10% m’/s Re= VD = 159 m/s x0.20m _ 5 ig x10? v 10° m’/s Moody: => £//2.9.0006 Moody, =>f =0.019 ueHead loss: (Darey-Weisbach equation) = x) vee (coven) ( saint a) hes (é 2g oe 0:20 m/ 2x981 m/s" Example 11.3.3 (In the second type of problem e/D and the value of 0.5. (Dy) (2g h; /L) are computed. Tf only a standart Moody diagram is available, then one has to solve this problem with iterations.) The head loss per km of 20 om diameter asphalted iron pipe is 12.2 m, what is the discharge of water (T= 20°C) Solution: D (0.20m)” : be 2 fgh, 7h =O fp x9.81mis* x12.2/1000m y PBR rea é 1 =4,38x 10" Moody ; > €/D = 0,0006 Moody2> f= 0.019 Darey-Weisbach equation > hy = re E 19x 1000m __V* 0.20 m 2x9.81m 122m = via 2.52 mils? V=159 m/s 11.3.4 Incompressible Explicit Equations In the foregoing discussion, methods were presented by which hg Q and D ‘can be calculated, All of these methods involve the use of the Moody diagram by utilising Colebrook- White equation, from which the Moody diagram is developed, 1 r= -0.86h C2 es 78) pam O83 FF The following equation is used for entire range of e/D , Re. og) £/P. 52452, ces (2s) Yo 7 718 |37065” Re, *| 28257“ \ Re, where fis taken as the Darcy’s friction factor, W-22f F ‘Swamee and Jain developed explicit formulas relating £, hg Q and D. It is reported that their formulas yield results that deviate no more than 3 % from those obtained from the Moody diagram for the following ranges of e/D and Re: 10° Pz US + GD O° x1.267 2 P, =10°x9,81x(~1.5)— 14.71 x 10° -13,87x10° Nim? Pp = -28.58 x 10° N/m? = 28,58 KN/m?: below atmospheric pressure. Za-Zp= 1.5m fe v 26 mis | £= 0.032 L1=50m; D=01m =; p=10° kg/m’ 11.3.6.2, Incompressible Flow through Pipes in Series When pipes of different diameters are connected end to end to form a pipeline, so that the uid flows through each pipe in turn, the pipes are said to be in series. The total loss of energy per unit weight over the whole PL will be the sun of losses for cach pipe together with any separation losses such as that might occur at the junctions, entrance, exit etc. Example 13.4 2 reservoirs A-B have a level difference Za - Zp =9 m f=0,0025 for both D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m 4) List the head losses ) Sketch HGL and find Q 1-26Solution =) Losses | i, Entrance loss - separation loss > ke = 0.5 b,=0,5 Vi2/2g q ii, Friction loss A-C n= fe YE i . a a Og a iii, Enlargement loss at C bye = (Vi-Va)" 28 e i | iv. Friction loss C-B hy, = 2 (i tl A § D=0.25 m EN a g b) Continuity equation: Ai Vis Aa Va => Di V,=D} V, ' ¥, =e i “" ¢) Energy fet - ve, fb (W.-Y) h, =Z, =h+z, + ¥ losses =Z,.+05 b+ 4 Sa atte Ai er We" D, 2g 8 yr 9 peat at a 7 D, 2% 2g [solving for Q > Q=0.158 mss i 27113.63 Incompressible Flow through Pipes in Parallel When two reservoirs are connected by two or more pipes in parallel, the fluid can flow from one to the other by a number of alternative routes. The difference of head h available to produce flow will be the same for each pipe, Since this head represents the energy per unit ‘weight of fluid that can be used to overcome resistance to flow, it will be available for each unit weight irrespective of route. ‘Thus each pipe can be considered separately, entirely independently of any other pipes running in parallel, For incompressible flow, Bernoulli equation can be applied for flow by each route and the total flow rate will be the sum of the flow rates in each pipe. Example 113.5 Ii the figure given below a system with two parallel pipes is shown. Using the data given below, Find: a) = Qu=?Q.=? Qa? b) equiv. for Qr Om d, = 0.05 m d, =0.10m 032 foreach pipe Li=1n= 100m za237h aa B 1 Vi di, Lr 2 Va, da, La L,, Z,-Ty= 5 +h 9 5b n Za = iD) 2s 0.032x100, Vp ga _ 28x10 1om= (15+ fe => Y= 13 m/s moni > 7 T5464 Qe FD Vv, F x 005" «1,73 = 0,0034m’?/s = 3.4 I/s 1-28Route2 P, hohe Dh Z,-Zy= (15 + b) Replacing two pipes by @ single equivalent pipe which will convey the same flow Qr= Qi + Qo= 0,0034 + 0,0190 = 0,0224 m°/s qj In the equivalent pipe the velocity V,: | y= 4Qr _ 40,0224 _ 0,02852 s* nD? nD? D Bernoulli equation between A+B 7 Vj fLvw Ve ( 2) aA 2-2, «(08% + )- 5+ 5) ae _ GSD + 3,2)(0,02852)" 0,032 x 100 10= (us + 2.052% 10) 2D D 241 212 D®-1.5D -3,2=0 This equation can be solved graphically or by successive approximately. An approximate answer can be obtained by omitting the 2 term, then: 241212 D’ =3,2 D=0.1058 m D=0.107m 1L.3.6.4 Resistance Coefficients for Pipelines in Series and in Parallel. Bot the friction and separation losses in a PL are functions of the mean velocity of flow V and since V = Q/A bp=KQ* n= depends on the type of flow, for turbulent flow of liquids n= 2 If separation losses are negligible r= k Q This is direction insensitive, so for directional insensitivity: h= KQiQl or, in general h= KQ\Q™ M-29ia IN Ae hr a 3 met mn For pipes in series, Q is the same for each pipe and the loss of head hn, hs ... in each pipe are additive. Total loss of head y= hy tha + ...Ro Ki Qe Q+..KnQ = (Ki tKr +... 4Ke) For several pipes connected in parallel the loss of head between A and B must be the same for each pipe. Thus, h = K,QP = Ky Qa Qe For the flow continuity ‘Total flow Q=O+Q2 tO O-4GIK,) + WK.) +...+ YOK.) ‘The set of parallel pipes can be considered as equivalent to a single pipe with a resistance coefficient K; carrying total flow Q for which: n=KQ or Q=¥(h/K) WaT = h7K, + afh/K, + yh/K, ....... fh/Ky Assuming that n= 2, 1-30| Example 11.3.6 A system of pipes conveying water is connected in parallel and in series as shown. The section DE represents the resistance of a valve for controlling the flow which has a resistance coefficient Kpg = (8000/n)” where n is the percentage of valve opening. The friction factor f is 0,024 for all pipes and about the values. = Pipe ___Length [mm] Diameter d [m] AAB 30 Ol A&B 30 0,125 BC 60 0,15 cD 15 OL CF 30 OL The head at A is 100 m at B is 40 m at F is 60 m the valve is adjusted to give equal discharge rates at E and F Neglect all losses except due to friction and valve DE. Calculate the head at C, the total Q through system, and % valve opening AL Aa F Solution 4 V7 Lf Le fL Head loss = hy == 2S =KQ’, = D 2g 3D* iu 3D5 For pipe = AAB Kaat n= 0,024 x 30/3 x 0,1° = 24000 AAB 7864 BC 3160 cD Kep = 12000 CE Kep =24000 DE Kpe = (8000/n)* First combine the resistances of pipes AA;B and AAB which are in parallel — Kaas)? + Kes) Kas * Kasse)” Kap=3181 u-31Combine Kas with Kpe to find the equivalent resistance for pipes in series Kac= Kan + Kpo= 3181 + 3160 = 6341 If Q is the total volume flow rate Loss of head between A-C hac =Ha-He =Kac = 6341 0 @ Since the discharges at E and F are equal Q=Qr-Q2 Loss between C+F : her = He - He = Ker (1/2. Q)* = 24000 Q*/4 = 600007 Q Ken=3000 D Kog=(8000/n)* E He-40m Q2 A Ha=40 me Qn Key=6000 F Bp=60m From (1) and (2) (Hy - He)/6341 = Q? = (He -Hp)/6000 6000 Ha - 6000 He = 6341 He -6341 Hy 12341 He = 6000 Hy + 6341 Hp As: Ha= 100m Hp= 60m Ho= 79.4 m From(1) 6341 Q*= Ha -He = 100-79 = 21 Q= 0.058 m'/s Loss between C and E hog = Ho ~ He, = (Ken + Kg) (1/2 Q” Tay. 40-= (12000 + (8000/n)*) (0,929 39'= 10 +53824/ 1" 29 n= 53824 n= 43% (the valve is 43% open) W-32Naslar may askime’) 113.7 Aging of Pipes a ‘Moody Diagram with the values of absolute roughness shown there, is for new clean ©) pipe. With use, pipes become rougher, owing to corrosion, incrustations, and deposition of material on the pipe walls. The speed with which the friction factor changes with time depends greatly on the fluid being handled, Colebrook and White found that the absolute roughness & increases linearly with time e=etat in which €9 is the absolute roughness of the new surface, ‘Test on a pipe is required to determine Ct, in the same neighbourhood. U-33113.8 Partially Full Pipes ~ “Slack Line” (Hydraulically Efficient Circular Channel) ‘There exists a free surface in the pipe since it is running partly full, thus on the free surface P=Patn. Flow on such pipes is governed by the same principles as apply to open channel flow. For circular pipes the area of flow corresponding to depth y is L A= 18.0 « 261, sin0 1,050) = ££ @-Jsin20) where ro is the radius of the conduit and 6 is defined by the relation te bon, Cos = 2 = L-y/t, “su re the wetted perimeter P=2r0 1 and the discharge is Q= A—R* si? a where 01 roughness coefficient =A/P hydraulic radius ina. channel slope aL KYL |: For a circular channel of given radius, slope and roughness, flowrate can be expressed as Q = KAR" in which K, known as the conveyance is constant the value which depends upon the roughness coefficient and the channel slope. For a given channel, K being constant, Qa AR’ _ Am 12 (@—1/2 sin 26)} pe C7 (AR?) d ‘Which enables conveyance for maximum discharge then y=1.88 ro V = maximum when y=1.62 to For maximum discharge dQ/d0=0 => 0 > O= 15 10 K= 1855 W-34W4t Pipe- Pump Systems 1141.1 Simple Pump in a Pipeline ‘The characteristic of a pump operating at constant speed can be expressed as: b= (Q) ‘The characteristic of a simple pipeline system is expressed as: he= KQ? ‘The solution is obtained when the system curve (or equation) (11-Q) is solved simultancously with the pump characteristic (or equation) (H-Q) The solution of these two equations or the point where two curves intersect will yield-the operating point for the system. PVs PR VE ve = ve hechagah= 24+ 2 t2,+ BK o-+b Uaese -ectneeastattereen Bettas] * 2g" D 2g For a system with one size of pipe v aL. y= CZ) +5 042K, +5) Hence, for any given Q, a certain head hp must be supplied to maintain 1-35Example 11.4.1.1 What will be the flow rate through the following system and the required pump head (pump operating point ) \Za=230m_ Pipes Liat = 100m; D= 0.4m. £=0.015; Kuy=0.5 ; Kup 70.35 Kex=1 Z.=200m Pump Characteristic is given by Hy = 60-375 PB, VE Bagh te FEM 0+0+200+h, = 0 +0 + 230 + (2% + Ke+K, +Ky] a ° D 2g, feeeag yee [eussione 2gA7 0.40 e © 2x981x 7x(04)" +05 +038 + 1] h=30+ #393. ‘Thus the “System Characteristic” is found as hh=304127Q? _; where the head is in m (meters) and the flow rate is in m’/s Solving system and pump characteristics simultaneously, one gets the operating point of the pump (and the system), Thus ; Hy=37.6m ; Q=0.24m's142 Pump Selection 1.4.2.1 Pump Selection Criteria Jn selecting a conventional pump for a system the following points should be considered + Pump efficiency is strongly dependent on the behavior of the pumping fluid + Principles of pump operations defining H-Q relations must be understood clearly before the system performance can be evaluated accurately. + General performance characteristics of commercially available pumps can be obtained from the manufacturers. Selection is made on the basis of desired Q and 1H, which are calculated in accordance with overall piping system layout. The prime mover (electric motor) is chosen from the power requirement. The overall procedure of choosing a pump for a particular application is as follows i! Obtain information on the physical and chemical properties of the liquid at the intended operating conditions, i ¢ : S, 4, Py, corrosiveness, toxicity etc, ii/ Obtain a layout of the piping systems on paper defining major flow resistances in the system. Calculate total heads for the system, iii/ Establish the capacity requirements in terms of a range, ie, define normal average capacity needs as well as system lows and peak flow required. If possible estimate the time pumps will have to operate at peak loads. iv/ Based on the above information, select the class and type of pump. A more detailed specification can be made from the examination of manufacturer data. Centrifugal pumps are more versatile and widely used through out the industry. The following advantages of centrifugal pumps should be remembered when comparing different pump classes for an application, i/ They are simple in construction and as a general nile less expensive then many positive displacement types. They are available in a wide range of materials. iJ They do not require valves for their operation. iii/ They operate at high speeds and can be coupled directly to an electric motor. In general high speeds typically mean smaller pumps and motors for a given duty. u-37iv/ They give steady deliveries. vi Depending on the application, maintenance costs are lower than for any other type of pump, vil They are typically smaller than other pumps of equal capacity. (Centrifugal pump’s advantage) vii/ Liquids having relatively high concentrations of suspended solids can be handled. ‘At the same time centrifugal pumps have the following primary disadvantages: Single stage pumps can not develop high pressures. Multistage pumps will develop greater heads but are much more expensive and multistage-pumps from corrosion resistive materials are much more costly due to their increasod complexity. As a general rule, it is better to use high-speed pumps to reduce the number of stages. iJ High efficiency operation is usually obtained over only a limited range of conditions, (especially turbine-pumps) iii/ A vast majority of centrifugel pumps commercially available are not. self- priming iv/ A non-return valve (check-valve) must be installed in the delivery or suction line, or the liquid will run back into the suction tank when the unit is not running. vi Centrifugal pumps have problems handling highly viscous fluids, They typically operate at greatly reduced efficiencies. 1.4.2.2 Pump Selection Concepts Pumps are selected to match system requirements. Systems normally operate over a range of flow conditions, due to varying, demand, changes in reservoir clevations, or changes in friction, or minor losses. For flexibility and reliability, of operation it is common to use multiple pumps in parallel. For high-pressure applications, series pumps are sometimes required. Additional pumps may also be added either in series or in parallel as demand increases. When selecting a pump, the designer has many choices from different manufacturers. One selects a pump whose design point is close to the operating point and that can operate efficiently and economically over the required operating range. 1-38Example 1.4.2.1 Using the pump characteristic curves given in Figure I.4.1, select the best impeller diameter for the following system. Pump characteristics A, B and C correspond to 3 different diameter impellers used in the same casing. Itis desired to supply : Q= 500 gpm = 1890 Vm =31.5 Vs q Static Lift Ho = 80 =244m J ap Pipeline : =6"=0.152m L=700f=213.5m f= °K 0.020 ‘System Characteristic : Hp =Ho + cQ2 913,544? Where 2.008213, = 4348.4 2*9,81°(0.152)* 2 Thus ; Hp =24.4 +4348. Q [Qin m3/s, Hp in mJ 62 Hp =24.4+1.208x10 Q [Qin I/min] 160. oe eee Operating point, Pump B 40 7 aa Amb 28} a0 {Systema i 120 i pt i 100 maf t= 5% 3 f ie E L 2h i 2 : ko 1 g aps + B NPSH : 40 dt 0: . 2% ‘bhp pet ttig Fo : t , : o 0 0 100-200-300, 400, 500 600 10 800 0 ‘Capecity (gpm) Pump rating curve and system curve Figure IL.4.1. Pump Selection, Example 1.4.2.1From system characteristics and pump characteristics A, B, C, : The operating point is selected on impeller B characteristics. Efficiency-wise A or B are both good solutions. A will supply 550 gpm (2080 I/m) B will supply 450 gpm (1710 Vin) Since neither is exactly 500 g/m (1890 V/s), a decision is required. 18 1710 Vm (450 gpm is adequate, the smaller B diameter impeller would be the economical choice. If 1890 V/s (500 gpm) is the minimum required then impeller A would be chosen. Here impeller B is selected. The efficiency is about 84.5 %. The NPSH and BHP are scaled projecting vertically downward to intersect the NPSH and BHP curves giving NPSHy = 3.15 m and BHP, = 13 HP Tn most pump systems the elevation head varies or a valve may be throttled to change the system losses and consequently the system curve. If the elevation head changes by an amount AZ, a new system curve is drawn by shifting the original system curve vertically by the amount AZ, If a valve is throttled, the value of C, characteristic curve is to be must be recalculated and the new system plotted. ‘The pump chosen here, ie. B, could operate at flows between ~1450 I/s - 2500 Vs (380-650 g/m) efficiently (with an efficiency above 80 %). Centrifugal.pumps can only operate over a limited flow range on either side of the desiga point. If the flow gets too Jow, recirculation can occur at the inlet to the impeller, resulting in rough operations as well as poor efficiency. At large flows the pump demands excessive power that may overload the motor. Also, cavitation becomes more likely, since the NPSHR increases, flowrate and efficiency drops. If the range of system requirements is too large, multiple pumps in parallel or series may be necessary. Example 114.2 Select a pump that will supply about 178 Vs (6cfs) from a low reservoir, whose water level varies between 485 m - 492 m (1615-16408). The pipe is 1800 m (600 ft) long, D= 16" (d,,), £= 0.016 ‘The required pump head (Hp) to satisfy the system System Characteristics (S ¢) can be found as H=AZ+236x10°Q° where: AZ =42 m-34.5 m, depending on the level of the reservoir. Consider a pump having pump characterstis (P g) defined by : Hp=52,5-5,56x10°Q-1,65x10Q° where Qis in [Vs], His in m. Find the discharge at the maximum AZ: AZ=42mSolution : ‘The discharge at the maximum AZ is obtained by solving the system and the pump characteristics simultaneously. Thus ; 42 3 42 42.42.3610 Q =52.5-5.56x10 Q-1.65x10 Q 42 3 4x10 Q+5.56x10 Q-10.5=0 56 +: 12,96)10 8x10% Using the same approach it can be found that, at the minimum head of 34.5 m, the flow rate increases to 202, I/s, The pump will therefore supply between 155 l/s ~ 202 Vs, depending on the water surface: elevation in the terminal reservoir. To complete the analysis, check P ¢ for the range of flows for acceptable efficiency and NPSH to be sure of no cavitation. Q= Q= 155s (Hp = 47.7 m) 1.4.2.3 Parallel Pumps ‘There are a number of reasons for placing multiple pumps in parallel. For reliability it is desirable to have more than one pump. It is common to use 3 identical pumps in parallel, each having the capability of supplying 50% of the normal flow requirement. Another option is to have four pumps each capable of supplying 33 % of the normal flow requirement. Each option provides a wider range of flows than a single pump as well as a back-up (stand-by) pump for increased reliability, Another reason for paraliel pumps is that they can be increased in number to meet future demands, A pipeline is often designed for future demands, pumps may be added as the demand increases. ‘When pumps are operated, they work against a common pressure and it is important to match the head characteristics of pumps carefully. If pumps are badly mismatched in head, one of them may not even produce any flow. The system head loss characteristics are also important because they help to determine the type of pump characteristic curve that is most suitable. It is also important that the pumps are able to operate efficiently, individually or together. In Figure U4.2 the characteristics for identical pumps in parallel are given. ‘The combined pump characteristic is constructed by adding the discharge at each head. The design head or best efficiency point "bep" of the pump occurs at the same head for all pumps, if the pamps are identical. The pump(s) should be selected so that at the most frequent system operating condition, the pump(s) will be operating as closely as possible to their design point for both single and multiple-pump operation. Pump selection is further complicated because the static lift can vary anywhere between the maximum and minimum, so there is usually a family of system head curves. u-4t2 aang kor 5 28¢ pp in pal & peepee i Figen i wm Q » oy sot © }— 0 0 wo 200 3M 400 0D 70” BOD 0B 10 HOD Capacity (gp) Parallel pomp system head curves for identical pumps. Figure 11.4.2 Pumps in Parallel for Identical Pumps In Figure 114.2, the combined pump characteristics is constructed. The actual discharge may be slightly less due to minor losses associated with the complex piping required for multiple pumps, This is adjusted by increasing C in system characteristi From the Combined pump characteristic Qe = 3400 V/s (900 gpm) at a head of H=23.4m (78 £t), The 11, NPSH and power for each pump is found by projecting back to the single pump curve along a line of constant head. Thus: = 84%, NPSHR=3.15 m(10.5) and bhp =10.SHP for each pump. If one pump was operating in the same system, its Q and H would be determined at the intersection of the single pump curve for pump C and system characteristics. Then: H=17.7m(59A) , Q=24191Vs (640 gpm) and. 68% If a single pump had to operate for long periods of time, it could operate at a more efficient point by throttling a valve to raise the system characteristics. e.g, @ flow of ~ 1900 V/s (~500 apm) which would put the pump at its best efficiency point (bep), could be obtained by creating a head loss across a valve of about 7.5 m (25 f). Normally pumps operated in parallel should either be identical or have very similar pump characteristics. Now combining a type B pump and a type C pump in parallel, combined pump characteristics is obtained by adding flows at constant head. (Figure 11.4.3), However below 28 m (93 ft) pump C can not supply water W-42Bas because the pressure is above its shutoff head (Hoc ). The combined pump characteristics merely follows P¢ B until then (28 m). Beyond that point flowrate from two pumps add, In terms of operation at heads above 28 m, if pump C were turned on and there were no check valve to prevent reverse flow, water would flow backward through C even though it would be trying to pump forward. With a check valve in the discharge pipe the valve would close and pump C would pump against a closed valve, This would rapidly overheat the pump and cause damage. One could handle this with controls that prevent pump C from operating at heads above some set value, The better solution is to match heads so this situation does not happen, 160 4 + 40 os 70% : “Lola LL be i a 2. 21-C pump in parse) i be yor 4 80- or a ee, - EF prorat a w AS. Fi ee ee Egat io aoe 20 4 sed ° eee ee a a a ee Capacity (gpm) Pk Parallel pump system head curves for mismatched pumps. Figure 11.4.3 Pumps in Parallel for Dissimilar Pumps For B+ C in parallel, Q is increased to 3742 Vs (990 gpm) , I= 24.3 m (81 f) Where; for Pump B : 2230 Vs =85% bhp =15 hp for Pump C Q= 1512 Vs n =80% bhp =12hp NPSHr = 3.0 m 431L4.2.4 Series Pumps ‘There are several situations in which pumps in series may be useful. In the example below a system with a high constant static lift, Ho = 36 m (120 ff) and high friction losses is given (Figure II.4.4) ‘The given 3 pumps A,B,C can not supply the adequate head. An obvious solution is of course, to select another type of pump that will have adequate head. The other solution is 2 B pumps in series. The combined pump characteristics is obtained by adding (doubling) the head for one pump at each flow. The combined pump characteristics intersects the System Characteristics at Qc = 2192 Vs (580 gpm) and He = 50.4m (168 ft) for', bhp and NPSHr project down at Q constant 2192 Vs (580 gpm).On the single pump characteris = 85 % (near bep) bhp = 15 HP each “NPS; =3.7 m (123 8) For this system, it would not be possible to operate one pump alone because the elevation lift Ho = 36 m> 34.5 m shut off head of B. 200 180 160 2.8 pumps 140 “oa Dyer ead eg 100 10 260-300 400-00 sO. 700 BUD 90D Capacity Capes) Pump rating curve for series pumps +7 Figure 11.4.4 Pumps in Seriesa Problem 11.4.3 Consider a PL connecting 2 reservoirs ; 2 AssumeS¢=> H=Ho+KQ — where Ho=18m K=262.4 Q [l/s] ‘The pump selected has aP¢ H-= 24-6.48 Q-131.2 Q2. 4) Find the flowrate for one pump (Q=841s H+ 214m) b) Find the flowrate for 2 pumps in series (Q= 165.5 Vs H=31.5 m) 8 c) Find the flowrate for 2 pumps in parallel (Q=100Vs H=23 m) ‘The shape of the system curve has an important bearing on pump selection for single or multiple pumps in series or parallel. 1.4.2.5 Effect of the Shape Of System Characteristics on Parallel Pump Selection Tn Figure 11.4.5, operation of 2 pumps in parallel in a system that has high friction losses and little static lift, i. e. a steep S¢ . Point A is the operating point for a single pump. Point B identifies the operating point when both pumps are b operating. Point C is the projected point for each pump with both pumps operating. ‘This is obtained by projecting left at constant head. Note that flowrate is only increased by about 30 % by using 2 pumps. It is assumed that bep lies half way between A and C. Since neither A nor C are very close to bep and flowrate is increased by 30 % , using parallel pumps in high friction systems is not very efficient2 Pamps in parallel ‘Total Dynamic Head Flow Parallel pumps in high friction loss system. Figure 11.4.5 Parallel Pumps in a High Loss System Next consider 2 identical pumps in parallel operating in a system with a large gravity lift Ho and low friction (Figure 11.4.6). For this case flowrate is almost doubled with'2 Pumps in parallel, Note that both A and C are near bep. This makes for more flexibility, since either one or 2 pumps can be operated and still have good n System Gwenn enn Flowfl Figure 11.4.6 Parallel Pumps in a Low Loss System ‘otal Dynamic Head Series pumps in bigh friction loss system. Figure 11.4.7 Series Pumps in a High Loss System In Figure 11.47 series pump operation in a high loss system is given. There point A is the operating point for single pump operation, point B is the operating point for two pump operation in series, point C is the operating point for two pump operation for each pump. For high loss system flowrate is increased about 50 % with 2 series pumps, both A and C are near the bep, Thus either one or 2 pumps can be used efficiently. This is a good application for series pumps. m-47‘Two pumps in series Series pumps in low friction loss system. Figure 114.8 Series Pumps in a Low Friction System Series pumps in low friction systems (Figure 1L4.8) flowrate is almost doubled but the pumps operate far from the bep for both single and two pump operation. This would not be a good application for series pumps Therefore: Parallel pumps are more appropriate in systems with low friction loss, systems with high friction but Series pumps are more appropriat loss m-48Example II.4.4 (METU, ME 437 Fall 93) Water is to be pumped through a pipeline at a flowrate of 90 m°/h (0.025 m*/). ‘The total head required from the pump station is 550 m. The available pumps with impeller diameter D,=0.27 m will operate at a fixed speed of 2900 rpm. i. After a minimum adjustment (reduction) to the impeller diameter of all pumps(identically) combine these pumps in the required form to give the required head, What is the impeller diameter D2? ii, Show and find the operating point of these pumps, noting H,Q.nHw and calculating the power. iii, Find the minimum suction geometric head necessary for the first pump if P=0.024¥10° Pa and P,=0.9*10° Pa. Available pumps Q=90msh=0.025mIs Din 0.27 H=550m N= 2900 spm (fixed) fromPé at Q=90myh He 100m n= 76% © NPSH=12m No. of pumps required : Hy/H*=550/100=5.5 use 6 pumps Head of each pump H required: 3 Hy =550/6=91.7 atQr=90m/h Pt (Point 1) 21 Similarity curve if diameter is to be trimmed H=KQ” K=4.56 Solving simultaneously with original pump ¢, Pt2 (Point 2) is obtained 3 H2=98m = Q2=100m Mm = m=75% NPSH=13.5mEFFICIENCY (% HEAD(m NPSH(m 120 100 60 40 08 0.6 04 02 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP FOR PROBLEM 2 0 20 40 «60 «80 ©6100 120 140160 FLOWRATE(m3/h) FLOWRATE(S/t) FLOWRATE(m3/h)Pumps operating at point 1 (Pt): Dy 3 3 Q,= 90m h=0.025 m/s m=0.75% Hy =91.7m NPSH) = Hgy = 13.5 m. Pi =H, Q/ ny u P=30kW iii) The suction geometric head, Hs =? NPSH 1 = 13.5 Py =0,024 x 105 Pa NPSH = (Pa- Pv )¥- Hs ~Dhg =13.5 a Hs =4.57m : i u : we a é 2 a-51 2 4 Similarity between Pil and Pt2 where H/D = constant. 26 m, N=2900 rpm Pa=0.9x 105 Pa 13.5 =8.93 -Hs Be wa G4 wd He pws wr ley fey [28)3ILS Pipeline Flow Gases Steady Gas Flow in Pipes and Pipeline Networks ‘The steady state flow of gas in a pipe is described by many formulae but non are universal. The effects of friction are difficult to quantify and are the main reason for variations in the flow equation. A different equation is used depending on the working pressure of the pipeline or network. JL.5.1 The General Gas-Flow Equation ‘The general flow equation for the steady flow of gas in a pipe is derived from extended Bernoulli equation for an isothermal gas (energy equation). Since pressure decreases in the flow direation, the gas density also decreases. If pipe cross-section area A is constant throughout, the continuity equation yields, prVi = paVa i.e. as pressure and gas density p decreases in the flow direction, then velocity V and thus the kinetic energy of the gas inoreases, as a result part of the total head available will be used to make up this increase. ‘As V is variable along the pipe frictional losses are to be calculated along a small clement of pipe, and to be integrated over the total length of pipe to evaluate the total head loss due to friction. Figure II.5.2.1 Control Volume for Gas flow in a Pipe 1-52Neglecting the change of density dp across the element dx, extended Bernoulli equation can be written as: a PN? aPtdn UO) oy ay ndhy pg 2g we 2g ‘The change in kinetic energy due to changes in p and V, is negligible. The head loss due to friction across the clement is given by Darey-Weisbach equation £ve D 2g dh, = Re-writing extended Bemoulli equation across the control volume of length of dx., 2 ~ #2 EY aes ah pg Dlg where dh is the elevation difference, thus, 2 ~aP ae dx+ pgdh from the continuity equation : V=p1Vilp 3 where p:Vi=G is the mass,flux. The loss of energy due to friction is converted into thermal energy, which is dissipated through the walls of the pipe to the surroundings. The temperature T: of the gas remains approximately constant and the flow is isothermal. Pip =Pi/pr hence : V= uP): and p= (PP) pr ‘Substituting in extended. Bernoulli equation ; -dp = s Eo(2) Vi dx + (2) p,gdh £ zi P’ ~pdp = 55 PPV dx + 5” piedh ‘From the equation of state Py = p1 ZRT Vi ZRT dx + Ze gdh eee ae Pap = 35 Ph ZRT ‘The value of P in the elevation term can be taken as the average pressure ( Pay ) along the pipe. 1-53From continuity equation: 1 Q P.Q SALES GOA where the subscript (-), refers to quantities at standard conditions. Le. P,=O01MPa T, = 288K aoe pi VE = 9, Ve Hence ~ pdp= ‘The gas constant R is related to that of air Ry. Consider the equation of state for the gas and for air atthe same pressure P, and temperature Ts, the compressibility factor Z = I for these conditions. For the gas: Pa=paRTy For the air Pa= PnairReir Tn air Pa! (Pvic)a = Aen G where Gis the specific gravity of the gas. i GP, Thus Pa = RE Rat, G Py °G ee Gah pap. A1(S 1, m,t ss 2 8 £GZT @ Py te Pay ag = Pee we PO RAD? Gin) &* ZRyt By integrating fromx=0;P=P, to x=L;P=Pr _(P2 st) _ 8 f£GLZT (% ») Py °C (@ 2 J 7 ® RyD> Glayh* grate Hence 16 four (By 2 , 2Pan wR, D U1, = ZRgeT 2Py *Ggh\ 5 — P? -P7)-— — D 0, = fea Ee {e ON TRE e 16 \P, SGLIZ This is the general flow equation for steady-state Gas flow. usdIf the pipe is horizontal the elevation term {2P..* G gh ((Z Rac T)} is zero and the general : 5 equation reduces to: A ; “ T, [ez-PD* Rae Q.= CRY GaLTZ where ;C = y~Gg~ = const 8 Rair[Nmkg"K"], — p[Nm?}, Dm); Lom); TK) > Qu (mss) u The derivation of General Gas Flow equation involves a number of simplifying assumptions, which are 1) Steady flow, 2) Isothermal flow due to heat transfer with the surroundings through the pipe wall, 3) Negligible kinetic energy in the pipe, 4) Constant compressibility of the gas over the length of pipe, 5) Validity of Darcy - Weisbach equation, 6) Constant friction coefficient along pipe length. A simpler form of general flow equation has been derived, which is applicable to low- u pressure systems only. The simplification involved is the conversion of the term Pj — Pp? to ; 1 Py). a bs P+P, PP-PP= +P) GQ -py= {AE *).@- Py) = 2Pay Pi“), f 8 ‘The pressures “P” here are absolute pressures Normally in low pressure systems, the gauge pressures are very small and the absolute pressures are approximately equal to the pressure P,. If Pyy is assumed to be equal to Ps, The general flow equation can be'written as aul! cB fene-20'] £GLTZ For gas in low-pressure systems, T = Tn and Z=1 Q= Ce (ee ae where C,, = ¥2C U-55TL5.2, The Flow Equations in Practice Several flow equations are in use in the gas industry. All of these equations are modifications of the general gas flow equation. The differences between them are mainly in the expressions used for f or transmission factor F where fy is the Fanning friction factor and fp is the Darcy’s friction factor. 1.5.2.1 Gas Flow Characteristics in Pipes The flow of gas in pipes can vary from very small values in low-pressure distribution systems to very large values in high-pressure transmission systems. Very small flows can reveal properties of laminar flow and very large flows are turbulent, However the majority of gas distribution systems operate in the partially turbulent region. In the laminar region the friction factor is a function Re only and is defined by the Hagen- Poiseuille equation for laminar flow For turbulent flow the friction factor depends on Re and e/D (relative roughness) For constant gas flow conditions through a pipe of specified diameter, Re is directly proportional to ‘the gas flow rate. The turbulent flow region can be split for any specified relative roughness into two parts. First in which the friction factor depends only on Re (partially turbulent region) and is described by the implicit relationship [fFrtstoenes-12 Second one is in which friction factor depends on the relative roughness of the pipe (fully turbulent region) and is described by the explicit relationship. i fi = 8logReG.7D/s) In between one may use the implicit Colebrook-White or some explicit equation like Chen equation. 1-56fl 15.2.2 Efficiency Factor ‘The actual flow of gas in a pipe can be significantly smaller than that predicted by the relevant flow equation. This is caused by extra friction or drag losses other than the losses due to viscous forces. These additional losses can be produced by weld beads, fittings, bends etc. and by dirt and rust scaling on the internal pipe wall. ‘The expressions for the friction factor that involve the pipe wall roughness can provide for the additional losses by using an effective roughness rather than an absolute value of roughness. These expressions in which the friction factor is dependent value of roughness These expressions in which the friction factor is dependent on Re can allow for the additional losses by the introduction of an efficiency factor. Re involves the assumed values for the viscosity and the density of the gas and the flow equation. will involve the assumed values of the specific gravity compressibility and temperature of the gas. In practice, all these variables depend on the conditions of flow and vary with time, Average values of these variables are assumed and any resultant errors can be absorbed in the efficiency factor. The efficiency factor will also vary with flow rate, but may be considered constant since the variations are small. In the laminar region the flows and associated pressure drops are so stnall that the the use inteoduction of the efficiency factors is not worthwhile. In the partially turbulent regi of smooth pipe law” with an efficiency factor provides a flow equation that is applicable to many practical gas distribution systems, In fully turbulent region the “rough pipe law” with an effective roughness or an efficiency factor is suitable. The efficiency factor normally varies between 0.8 and 1.0 for most gas pipes, the value 1.0 representing 100 % efficiency, i.e, that when the pipe is perfectly clean and smooth. A value of 0.8 relates to 80 % efficiency, i.e. the actual flow in a pipe will be 80 % of that flow predicted by the flow equation without an efficiency facior. However some very old iron pipes can have B = 0.7 or less ‘The efficiency factor E is introduced into the expression for the friction factor: Va7A) =E YOR) where, f= actual friction to be used in the general flow equation and {= theoretical friction factor from the appropriate equations.Alternatively the theoretical friction factor ean be used together with an efficiency factor introduced into the general flow equation. (et -P2)D* Ry £,GLTZ ~\ 16 Q decreases linearly as E decreases. Re-arranging = Coe ie where, For a given flow the term P? ~ P; is inversely proportional to FE? The term (P? ~ P?) is a good indicator of the actual physical loss of pressure along the pipe B can have @ very significant effect on the pressure drop along a pipe as shown in Fig 1L5.2.2 t Pressure Drop(% change) 80%) _- increase in pressure drop P ae for a given flow ee 40% | % decrease in flowQ for a give P eae Figure 5.2.2 __ Effect of pipe efficiency om pressure loss 1-584 is 53 Common Flow Equations 15.3.1 Lacey’s Equation This is used for low-pressure networks operating between 0-75 mb-gauge Q = 1144x104 Here; P — [mb.gauge] D{mm] Qa {nm’/h]— Lm] The value of f can be determined from Unwin’s Low-pressure formula By 0276D f= 0.0176 (1 + Alternatively a value of 0.026 for all pipes can be used for £ giving “Pole’s” equation Assuming G PrP2=KQ? swhere K=11L7x 10° L/D = 0,589, this equation, can be rearranged 115.32 Polyflo Equation This is used for medium-pressure networks operating between 0.075-7.0 bar t,) (@7-P2)D* = batt] Abate ai oot Q, = 15.14 x 10 ( ) where P [bar] D {mm] Lm] Th Quf nm?/h} The value of fis given by: i E = 10.676 (Re). E Itis usefil to reduce this equation. by introducing constants for natural gas in Re, Assuming constant physical parameters for natural gas, 11-59Re=CQD Cis a constant. then: VOTH) = 23.968 (C2) om Assuming T = 288 K G=0.589 L -P? =KQ,)s8 where K= 27.24 Pipe 115.3.3 Panhandle “A” Equation This is used for high-pressure networks operating above 7.0 bar 2) DF : AKG Q, =sission(Z | aoe here; eos aL TZ C, = 0.0684 and Pfbara] =; ~— sD fmmj;——Le(m, TEI; Qafnm’ sh The friction is factor given by VI/¥ = 13.744 (Re) “EB Using Re = C(QID) for natural gas ; [5-8 - Wed 7 D Be 007 I> = 29,886(—=") i ‘Therefore assuming Z=095, T=288K and G=0,589 2 = K Qi 13.434 -P; = KQ, where K=18.43- ae 1-60TL. 3 Weymouth Equation Used for high pressure networks > 7.0 barg ‘The Weymouth equation for the friction factor is diameter dependent only and is applicable in the fully turbulent flow region 1 on [f= E if Dim) C=41.28 Cg = 1.561 x 10% Weymouth the equation is applicable in fully turbulent pipes its application is limited to small diameter pipes where full turbulence appears sooner. It yields satisfactory results for diameters between 8” - 12” and for roughness between 50-100 um. ‘These equations are suitable for horizontal lines, For pipelines which are not horizontal, P2 has to be multiplied by e *, where ; s= 0.0684 [S H[m] e=2.718 TK] ‘The L term may have to be modified as: Le=L(e -1)/s if single slope is assumed from point 1 to point 2 Ifa series of slopes are encountered ; Let J=(e" -1)/s1 then ; Le = Lili + Lie? Jo + Ls € Iyt tL O In, where J; ~ Jp .....are calculated for the rise and fall of elevation for each successive separate sections and s1, ...8, are calculated accordingly.1153.5 Renouard (Gaz de France Co.) Formula q In deriving this the following correlation for Darcy’s friction factor is used £= 103x107 + 1.59 x Re** or; B £=0,172 Re™* ‘The later is a simplified formula for rapid calculation of pressure losses. The general differential BE formula for pressure losses can be written in the following manner, if AP is expressed in units : of pressure rather than head of fluid. Using the equation of state for non-ideal ges 9 = Fa and, Q,p=QnPn Geplpsis (This is valid for any system of consistent units ) @ PPP = K, = f PE = Ky fZe 5 This is often written asb) —_Onthe contrary, if Z can not be considered constant one of the following methods can be followed : P Iteration of the tabulated numerical values of if dp Instead of using isothermal curve Z(P) the tangent to it at the origin Z=1- AP, or more simply 1/2 = 1 + BP (Adamov’s formula) is employed yielding g where : P [bar abs.] if Qfnm s/h], TEK], Lfkm], D[mm] and K=2.18 x 10°, For medium pressure 750 mb -7 bar the quadratic formula is used. (3+ RY -(B, +B) =4391GI0'" / D** 4024530". P.(z, ~2,).G-) For low pressure this is simplified (Pr -P2) = 21.27 LQ! / D+ 0,119 x 10° (Z,-Z1) x (1 -G) a8 G (ysas/Vai) 1.5.3.6 Bureu of Mines Equation With AGA, after an experimental investigation (1956), confirmed Von Karmans theoretical expressions for turbulent flow both in smooth and rough pipes. They also.showed that the flow behaviour in the zone between these was some what unpredicable, This zone is called transition zone. 1-631L5.3.4 Effect of Altitude In low pressure distribution networks which experience significant variations in elevation, it is necessary to correct for the effect that this will have on the calculated gauge pressures with in the system, There ate two factors that influence the flow of gas in a pipeline due to altitudes. These are the variation of atmospheric pressure with respect to height, and the gravitational force acting on the gas in the pipeline, If gas is flowing uphill then the weight of the gas will contribute additional resistance against the direction of flow. This has the effect increasing pressure drop along the pipeline. ‘There will also be a reduction in Pain at the uphill end of the pipe. The reduction in Pam will in genéral be greater than that experienced within the gas itself (pair> Pio i.¢ Py BAH > PyoGAb) For this reason it is not unusual for Pyo gauge at the uphill end of pipe be higher than that at the downhill end. Conversely if the gas is flowing downhill, then the weight of the gas will have the effect of reducing resistance to the flow. This in general will contribute to an overall reduction in the pressure drop. Thus under low pressure conditions, the change in Par with respect to height is greater than that for NG. Therefore Pyo gauge at downhill will decrease in value compared with the case when altitudes are neglected. ‘This explanation holds for NG or gasses with G < 1 for LPG gasses (propone, butane G> 1 this explanation is invalid. I 4 A Summary of Flow Equations For High Pressure Gas Pipelines The general form of isothermal gas equation is : t Pi-e Q= 0.00057473-(#).D** Fle 7 where, ‘ 0.0684. AH-G TZ I-66Le=L(e8-1)/s , ifasingle slope is assumed from point (1) to point (2) . Ifa set of slopes are encountered , Let , j= (8-1/8 ‘Then , Le= Lyi + Latig + L3"i3 and, Q normal cubic meters per day at Th, and Ph Tp = base temperature , K 2 Pj = base pressure, kg/om a or bara ternal pipe diameter , millimeters transmission factor , dimensionless, let or upitream pressure, kg/em @ or bara P= outlet or downstream pressure, kg/om a or bara G= gas specific gravity , relative to dry air Te= average flowing temperature, K = length of pipeline , km Z = compressibility factor at average conditions, dimensionless AH = elevation difference (Hp - H), meters 8 = gas elevation factor , dimensionless e = natural logarithm base ‘The compressibility factor could be found by the CNGA method as follows : 1+ Simply by changing the transmission factor in the general equation one can get the result of the flow equation corresponding to different equations. + For general isothermal gas equation AL Pav where, fis the Fanning friction coefficient , ( farcy/4) + For Colebrook-White Equation F=—Alog[ sis +] Re = Reynolds number k= pipe roughness 1-67For Panhandle A Equation oc 07305 PHkE- (se 11.85 [ D E= pipeline efficiency factor (0.95 for new pipelines) For Modified Panhandle equation oc 1°" F = E -19 08 [2] D For Weymouth equation F = 6521-D* 1-68TL5.4 Example Problems on High Pressure Gas Pipelines Example 1.5.4.1 Given: D=304,8 mm (12”) L= kr y P= 1.056 bara Ty= 20°C, 293K 1¢£23.9°C, 297K P,=56.25 bara = Hi = 152.4 Fh=762m G=0.61—~ SES we se and Q=1,557,424n mi/d Find P_ including elevation change effect and by using Colebrook-White equation Solution : Since Colebrook-White equation is to be used one has to find the transmission factor (F) for the general isothermal gas equation. But F for Colebrook-White can be found either by looking at the charts or by iterating the F function consecutively. ‘Yo find F first of all the Reynolds number should be found (take 11 as 0.001164 poise and use the following formula to calculate Reynolds number) _ 50.33-0-G-P, Dew, . Re = 5033+1557424- 0.61: 1.056 ©= "304.8: 0.001164 - 293 Re= 4,854,300 | Use this value of Reynolds number and a typical value for the absolute roughness of the pipe wall such as 0.0007” (16 microns) to calculate F k 1413F 7 -sLog| =i Re | ' : After an iterative procedure one can get F as 18.694 If 1-69Then insert this into the general isothermal gas flow equation. But before that calculate the compressibility factor Z by using the CNGA. method. To use this formula one has to know the Pz value as well since the pressure term in the formula should be evaluated at average conditions, So first of all assume a P2 and calculate the average pressure . P2)=2/3P; (assumption) > P2=37.5 bara RP, 7 =3[n4n- pee] lee. = smspeensith chee Z.= 0.905, compeerstitly Rocke P+ P, | Pm = 47.5 bara. 1 Ze o 1.785-0.61, | 5.172 -10° 475-10 | 1+ = 7 3825 | AH = Hh - Th = 762 -152.4= 609.6 m iselevatton diffascece 0.0684 - 609,g- 0,61 1 s= Sood 297-0.905= ale jeer 120.7(20#%# — 1) a tt 0.09463 Tereeke evident eng and restating the general equation for Pz \ Q | Bet. |p? -| ———- -G ‘ * | oo00s7a7a{3) DF if b> p,=30.32 bara This is more than + bar different than the original assumption so repeat the same procedure (calculate Z at using this new P2 and insert the new Z into the above equation ) to get a better result : And Z=091 which gives Py = 30.15 bara, W-70Note : If we were to calculate the same outlet pressure by using the Revised Panhandle equation the transmission factor (which is not iterative ) for this case would be 20.1 and the corresponding outlet pressure becomes 34.3 bara ‘And if Panhandle A equation is used then F becomes 19.195 and Pz becomes 31.78 bara . Example 11.5.4.2 Given: Py = 56.25 bar Py = 39.44 bar Py = 1.036 bar Tr= 15.6 °C, 288.7K Ty = 15.6 °C , 288.7K G=06 L=120.7km Hy =152.4 Hy =152.4 Assume E = 0.9 (as recommenced for new pipeline) Find: Q Solution : Py = 48,34 bara (by two third rule) 0,898 (by CNGA method) Since AH=0 Le=L and e *= | then the general isothermal gas equation becomes os fr, 2.5 Pe - PP vost 3}. Flee Te 5625? - 39.44? ie - 06-2887 1207-0898 Q = 0,0057473- (282). 304.87 { Q= 758723 F By simply calculating F values corresponding to different equations one get the result according to these equations « For Weymouth equation : F = 6521-3048" F=16.91674 Q= 1283512 Qe 1,285,000 n m/day W-71+ For Panhandle-A equation : 0.6 72075 F = 0.9-11.85-| = — goes [ 3 os | 2 P= 6.76546 7 Q= 1446764 Q¥ 1,450,000 n m/d « For Revised Panhandle equation : 06 0% fiona tea nat to “noel F = 09-19.08 (261 Q ree Q= 1524378 F=15.197040' Q& 1,525,000 nm/d For Colebrook-White and general isothermal gas equations Q requires an iterative procedure because we can’t calculate Reynolds number. To start the iterations fist assume an F value (Use Weymouth’s F value for the first iteration) then calculate Q and then recalculate Q until it gives nearly the same F value. + For general isothermal gas equation : (Assume Qis same as Weymouth’s formule ) Re= 3,929,865 Using Chen’ friction coefficient formula or from the Moody diagram find fand convert it to Fr (Panning friction factor) then calculate F Fo= Naonhoayr F=18.72 Q= 1417163 Q~ 1,420,000 nm'/d For Colebrook-White equation : F=18.64 Q= 1414505 Q~ 1,415,000 n m°/day To summarize these results they are plotted on a graph as given in Figure 11.2.2 u-72$860 —_—$ 00 | 1450 Sa ‘Beothermal Gas Colebrook White 1350 Weymouth BPanhandlle A 1300 1280 Revised Panhandle 1200 180 Figure 15.2.2 A Comparison of Gas Flow Equations, for the Sample Problem, in Terms of Pipe Flow Rate 1 Example IL5.4.2 Given : Q= 1,557 400 sm'/d L=120,7km D= 304.8 mm (12”) Py= 56.25 bar Py = 1,056 bar Ty =20°C = 293 K Hy= 152m Ha = 762 m 4 4 find: P2 @ Solution: Assume P= 2/3 x 56.25 =37.5 bar Pa = 47.5 bar Z=0,0071 [= 1.164 x 10 poise x 0.1 = 1.164 x 10% Pas _50.33 x1,557400 x 0,610 x1,056 a 304.8 1,164 x10 «.293 Re =4,857, 000 F=18.6 take the smaller value D* = 2,630,721 x10° H=762-152.4 = 609.6 u-7345 206835 x 609.6610 _ 9 oon 297,2x.0,9073 _ 120.7(1.0988-1) 0,09426 7 bars 4 Transmission systems : 20-75 bars, 4 Main branch lines to distribution systems 7-20 bars), ii) Medium-pressure systems : 70 mbar 8 sp wp 2039) ap ate nye 20 cn ee OD 00 Fig 22 OPK/HPK, silection chart n=2900 1/min 1.2 Calculating tie Power Consumption 72.1 PumptnpulPower(s002.5.1)" Using the known variables and pump selection from 7.4 the powerinputis calcuiatedas follows * Hore inkgidm> fe inne? ” 2 7 : Oo ints a P inkw. oy sp r 1nd, ie ab ag 8 fr analternative requertiy usedin p By O-H 15-90-00 ce a wit) pe tokgiane 6 4 ‘The power inpul can also be established with sullicient| gccuracy tom Fig. 20, Fis intorpoatad a3 ~ 29° kW for water; the velue for ‘sulphuricacials: 4 P29 Bw 28-432 a9s4w.Fig. 23 Curvoe GPK/HPK 85-260 7.2.2 Calculating theDelver Roting (s00.26.2) ‘Taking tne pump power input P (see 7.2.1) n 10% eafoly, marginis added to the 43,3 LW at the operating point; sothe diverting must beat least 47,6 KW: '» the gelection fsa standard &5 RW motor,2 pote, IP 54 / IPAd, typo B3. ‘selection book sec the operating point temporarily changes to higher tlow, the motor mus! eccordingly be more highly rated, ne- ‘cessary up to the maximum possible power consump- tion. ‘Arecheok ol the P/n then bacomas importantes. cilirton forthebe 7.8 Catoulating the NPEH,,(see.2) ‘Toachiavecavialion-Iree operation ol the purnp the limit ‘of maximum possible suction ITH, gea ex OF the rinimurn required auction head Hype nia, MUBi Pe adhered 0. 724 vellontittiom Open/Closed Tank Hire the pump is above the liquid level ( Selected punp ls aPx 05-250, tochrica a Cotovtatton of H, p = 3500 kg/m? . Pe Vbar 2 12408. Némt Pb 0,0038.bar= 0/0038 » 108N/mn? (60% sulphuric acid wt 20°) « Hua iS {for 30 m auction pipe DN 100, Inc. filings end valves) sonas lebased on following: ve can be dlsrogerded beceuss negiigibie NeStheq = 3.3m{inlorpolated from Fig. 28 nel. 0.5 m f. sstoly margin} 8 1044-10 0,0038. i 1-18-38 | = 197, WIth Hye nay # 1.971, NPSHy ie 3.3 mtheretore HPAI oe ntanenter Giosedienk Be + Pym 1G bo = 1,8" 108 Nine plan tvat = 1017-15238 537m With Hygragy £5.97 m, NPSHy,/89.9 m therefor! TOPSHAP HSH, yeequnenentes salstied SECRET arsanrassracee SEERA ONTBESEESYS ce Sei ke eat eS RS Tn ie BESSONI API Spec SLX (Twenty Third Edition) SPECIFICATION for a HIGH-TEST LINE PIPE Issued By u AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE Production Department 8 i) e a u . Ly, | we é se TABLE LL TENSILE REQUIREMENTS 8 Yield Tensile [jerade strength strength Elongation aa min. min. min. in 2 in. (50.80 mm) 8 per cent i psi MPa psi MPa 42000289 60000 413 46000 317 63000 434 it is determined by the following formulas: 52000 358 66000 455 56000 386 72000 496 i. English formula @=625000%AF*0 . 2/U**O.9 60000 413 75000 S17 2. metric formula 65000 448 77000 534 221542. STHAEKO,2/U¥¥O.F 2x70 70000 . 482 82000 S65 A:cress section of tensile - ” specimen in2 (mm2) Us tensile strength, psi TABLE .2 DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TEST PRESSURES size Test pressure psi.min outside wall diam, weight thick. in lb/ft in Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade D w t X42 X46 XS2_ XG XEO. KES. XO 2 2.03” 6.083 760 1930 2180 2350 2520 2730 2940 2 2.64 0.109 2310 2530 2860-5000» 3000 3000 3000 2 3.00 0.125 2650 2910 + 3000-3000 3000-3000. 5000 2 3.56 0141 2990 3000 3000-3000 3000-3000 3000 2 3.65 0.154 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000-3000 3000 & 2 4.05 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 me 2 4.39 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000-3000 Q 2 5.02 3000 3000-3000 3000-3000 3000-3000 a 2 5.67 0.250 3000 3000 5000 3000-3000 5000-3000 i: 2 6.28 0.281 3000 3000 3000 3000-3000 3000-3000 : 2 9.03 0.436 3000 3000 3000 3000-3000 3000 3 9.66 0.281 3000 2000 5OO0 3000 3000 3000 3 10.25 0.500 3000 3000 3000 3000 000-3000 3000 4 3.47 0083 1050 1150, 1290 1390 1490-1620. «1740 4 4.53 0.109 1370 1500 1700 1830 1960 2130 2290 4 5.17 0.125 1580 . 1730 * 1950 2100 2250 2440 2630 4 5.81 6.141 1780 1950 2200 2370-2540: 2750-2960 4 4 2.40 9.156 1970-2150 2430 2&20- 2810 3000 3000 7.03 0,172 2170 2370 26BO «2B ~—-GODH_-—« 3000-3000 2 v “ue 1900 3000 Tes >. 168 2370o EXEo of oe fais of 5 5 5 5 5 2S a) 5 s 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 8.1 10.01 11.16 12.50 3.92 5.84 6.56 7.24 7.95 8.68 9.52 10.01 10.79 11.35 12.66 15.96 14.98 19,00 22.51 27.54 5.80 7.59 8.68 9.76 10.78 11.85 12.92 13,92 14.98 17.02 18.97 21.04 23.08 25.03 28.57 32.71, 36.39 40,05 45.35 47.06 11.35 4.4L 16.94 18.26 19.66 22.36 24.70 27.70 28.55 30.42 33.04 38.30 43.39 48.40 53.40 60.71 63.08 67.76 72.42 17.65 3000 3000 5000 3000 1020 1530 173 1910 2110 2310 2490 2690 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 860 1140 1300 1470 1620 1790 1960 2110 2280 2600 2920 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1000 1250 1500 1620 1750 2000 2220 2500 2580 2750 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1150 1730 1960 2160 2390 2610 2810 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 980 1280 1470 1660 1840 2030 2210 2390 2580 2940 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 5000 3000 3000 1130 1410 1700 1840 1980 2260 2510 2820 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1280 3000 3000 3000 3000 1240 1870 2110 2350 2570 2810 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1050 1380 1580 1790 1980 2180 2380 2570 2780 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1220 1520" 1830 1980 2130 2430 2700 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1380 3000 3000 3000 3000 1330 2000 2260 2500 2780 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1130 1480 1700 1920 2120 2340 2250 2760 2980 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1300 1630 _ 1960 2120 2290 2610 2890 3000 3000 3000 3000 5000 3000 3000 5000 3000 5000 3000 3000 1480 3000 3000 3000 3000 1440 2170 2440 2700 2980 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1600 3000 3000 3000 3000 1550 2330 2630 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1730#10 #10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Lo 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 #12 #12 *12 *12 22.87 24.63 28.04 31.20 34.24 38.23 40.48 48.24 54.74 61.15 77.03 80.10 86.18 92.28 98.30. 23.11 25.22 27.20 29.31 33.88 37.42 41.45 43.77 45.58 49.56 53.52 57.59 65.42 73.15 80.93 88.63 96.12 103.58 110.97 118.33 125.49 152.57 139.67 27.73 30.93 32.23 36.71 41.17 45.61 50.17 54.57 38.94 63.44 67.78 72.09 80.66 89.28 97.81 106.63 114.37 122.65 130.85 138.84 146.74 194.69 1250 1350 1450 1660 1850 2040 2280 2420 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1370 1480 1590 1820 2030 2230 2500 2660 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1050 1150 1250 1340 1530 1720 1910 2020 2110 2300 2490 2690 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1050 1170 1220 1400 1570 1740 1920 2090 2270 2450 2620 2790 000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 3000 1550 1670 1800 2060 2290 2520 2830 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1190 1300 1410 1520 1730 1950 2160 2290 2390 2600 2810 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1190 1330 1380 1580 1770 1970 2170 2370 2560 2770 2960 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1660 1800 1940 2210 2470 2720 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1280 1400 1520 1640 1870 2100 2330 2460 2570 2800 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 000 3000 3000 3000 1280 1430 1490 1700 1910 2120 2340 2550 2760 2980 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2000 3000 1780 1930 2080 2370 2650 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1380 1500 1620 2750 2000 2250 2500 2640 2750 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1370 1530 1600 1820 2050 2270 2510 2730 2960 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 5000 1930 2090 2250 2570 2870 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1490 1630 1760 1900 2170 2440 2700 2860 2980 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1480 1660 1730 1970 2220 2460 2720 2960 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000. 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2080 2250 ° 2420 2770 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1610 1750 1890 2040 2330 2620 2910 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 1600 1780 1860 2130 2390 2650 2920 3000 3000 3000 3000 5000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 ' 3000 | 3000 & 3000 3000 300031.75 0.188 480 920 1040 1120 1200 1300 1400 34.25 0.203 919 990 1120 1210 1290 1400 1510 5 36.91 0.219 980° 1070 1210 1300 1400 1510 1630 . 42.05 9.250 1120 1220. 1580 1490-1890 1730 “1860 47.17 0.281 1250 1370 1550 1670 1790 1940 2090 52.27 0.312 1390 1520 1720 1860 1990 2150 2320 57.52. 0.344 1540 1680 1900 2080 2190-2380 2560 62.58 0.375 1670 1830 ° 2070 2230 2390 2590 2790 67.62 0.406 1810 1980 2240 2420 2590 2800 3000 72.80 0.438 1950 2140 2420 2610 2790 3000 3000 77.79 (0.469 2090 2290 2590-2790 © 2990 3000 3000 82.77 0.500 2230 2440. 2760 2980 . 3000 3000 3000 : 92.66 0.562 2510 2750 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 102.63 0.625 2790 3000 3000-3000 3000 3000 3000 122.51 0.688 3000 3000 3000. 3000 © 3000-3000 3000 122.15 0.750 3000 3000 3000 3000. 3000 3000 3000 f 151.71 0.812 3000 30003000 3000 5000-3000 3000 Valles 0.875 3000 3000 3000-3000 3000 3000 3000 150.89 0.938 3000 3000 © 3000-3000 3000-5000 3000 160.20. 1,000 3000 3000-3000 30D 5000-3000 3000 169.43 1.062 3000 3000 3000 3000. 3000 3000 3000 178.72 1.125 3000 3000 3000-3000. 3000-3000 3000 187.95 1.188 3000 3000 3000 3000. 3000 3000 3000 196.91 1.250 3000 3000-3000 © 3000-3000 3000 3000 35.76 0.188 750 820 920 990. 1070 1150 1240 41.59 0,219 870 950 1080 1160-1240 1340. 1450 47.39 0.250 990 1090 1230 1320 1420 1530 1650 $3.18 0.281 1110 1220. 1380 1490. 1590 1730 1860 58.94 0.512 1240 1360 1530 1650 1770 1920 2060 64.87. 0.3544 1360 1490 1690 1820-1950 2110 2270 70.59 0.375 1490 1630 1840 1980 2120 2300 2480 76.29 0.406 1610 1760. 1990 2150 2300 2490 2680 82.15 0,438 1740 1900 2150 2320 2480 2690 2900 87.81 0.469 1860 2040 2500 2480 2660 2880 3000 93.45 0.500 1980 2170 2460 2640 2830 3000 $000 104.67 0.562 2230 2440 2760-2970 + 3000-3000. 3000 115.98 0.625 2480 2720 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 127.21 0.688 2730 2990 3000 3000 3000 3000, $000 138.17 0.750 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