GENERAL
ARTICLE
Chemistry of Natural Dyes
P a d m a S l/ankar
Nature expresses itself in a wide spectrum of colours all around
us. The alchemy of colours started from an early time. Indians
have been forerunners in the art of natural dyeing. The advent
of synthetic dyes caused rapid decline in the use of natural dyes,
which were completely replaced by the former within a century.
Earlier understanding of dyeing techniques and their applications was empirical and was not backed by scientific reasoning.
Natural dyeing had developed essentially as a folk art. However,
in recent times the dyeing technique is interpreted on sound
scientific principles, and the interaction between the dye and
the dyed material is well understood. From our recent work, we
have tried to explain the nature of bonding in certain dyes by
looking at their structures and using metal ions for chelation.
Padma S Vankar is at the
facility for ecological and
analytical testing in lIT,
Kanpur.
Sources of Natural Dyes
There are primarily four sources from which natural dyes are
available.
Specialised plant and animal sources: Many plants and some
animals have been identified as potentially rich in natural dye
contents, and some of them have been used for natural dyeing
for quite some time. Various parts of plants like roots, stems,
barks, leaves, fruits and seeds may contain colouring matter
which can be exploited. Normally natural dyes are extracted
from the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits of various plants,
dried bodies of certain insects and minerals. Some plants may
have more than one colour depending upon which part of the
plant one uses. The shade of the colour a plant produces will
vary according to time of the year the plant is picked, how it was
grown, soil conditions, etc. The minerals in the water used in a
dye bath can also alter the colour. Some natural dyes contain
natural mordants.
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By.products (especially lac dye): The lac industry gives lac dye
as a by-product, which is extracted from the effluent. Similarly,
from Cassia tora, used in gum manufacturing, a brown dye is
obtained as a by-product.
Chemical synthesis: This involves synthesis of dyes with molecular structures identical to those of natural dyes. We have
tried to make such synthesis environmentally less hazardous by
using microwave technology.
Tissue or cell culture by DNA transfer biotechnology: Certain
fungi such as Drechslera and Trichoderma produce anthraquinone
derivatives as secondary metabolites. As anthraquinones are a
very important class of dyes, exploiting the fungi would be
advantageous over their chemical synthesis. If genetic modifications can be achieved, it is possible to develop fungi that produce
substituted anthraquinones.
Classification of Dyes
Dyes are classified based on their structure, source, method of
application, colour, etc. We briefly describe below two types of
classification.
Based on Chemical Structures
Indigoid dyes: This is perhaps the most important group of
natural dyes, obtained from Indigofera tinctoria.
Anthraquinone dyes: Some of the most important red dyes are
based on the anthraquinone structure. They are obtained both
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GENERAL I ARTICLE
from plants and insects. These dyes are characterised by good
fastness to light. They form complexes with metal salts and the
resultant metal-complex dyes have good wash fastness.
Alpha-hydroxy-napthoquinones: The most prominent member
of this class of dyes is lawsone or henna, obtained from Lawsonia
inermis.
Flavones: Most of the natural yellow colours are hydroxy and
methoxy derivatives of flavones and isoflavones.
Dihydropyrans: Closely related to flavones in chemical structure, are substituted dihydropyrans like the one shown here.
Anthocyananidins: Carajurin obtained from Bignonia chica.
Carotenoids: In these the colour is due to the presence of long
conjugated double bond. Annatto and saffron are examples of
this.
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Based on colour
Various natural dyes could present all the colours of the visible
spectrum. The natural colour and hue of a dye can be altered by
treating with metal salts. If the dye is of plant origin, the colour
may vary depending on the soil properties, part of the plant,
season of harvesting, cultivation practices, etc (Table 1).
Red colour: Most red dyes are found in roots or barks of plants
or camouflaged in the bodies of dull grey insects. Unlike the
wide abundance of yellow, the sources of red colour are limited.
Cochineal is an important red dye and it is the brightest ofaU the
available natural red dyes. Manjith and Kusumbar among the
vegetable sources and lac and Kermiz among the animal sources
give red colours.
Yellow colour: Yellow is the liveliest and perhaps the most
abundant colour in nature. The plants which yield yellow dyes
outnumber those yielding other colours.
Mordants
Dyes do not combine directly with the material they are inTable 1. Sources of Different Coioured Dyes.
Colour
Botanical Name
Parts used
Mordant
Carthamus tinctorious
Caesalpinia sappan
Rubia tinctorium
Coccus lacca (insect)
Flower
Wood chips
Wood
Twigs inhabited
by these insects
--Alum
Alum
Stannic chloride
Bougainvillea glabra
Solidago grandis
Tectona grandis
Tagetes species
Nyetanthesar bortristis
Flower
Flower
Leaves
Flower
Flower
Tin
Alum
Alum
Chrome
Chrome
Red Dyes
Safflower
Caesalpina*
Maddar
Lac*
Yellow Dyes
Bougainvillea*
Golden rod
Teak
Marigold
Parijata
Table I continued...
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GENERAL
Colour
J ARTICLE
Botanical Name
Parts used
Mordant
Indigo
Woad
Suntberry
Pivet
Indigofera tinctoria
lsatis tinctoria
Acacia nilotica
Ligustrum vulgare
------Alum and iron
Water lily
Nymphaea alba
Leaves
Leaves
Seed pods
Mature berries
after frost
Rhizomes
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous sulphate +
acid/neutral
Alum
Chrome
Iron
Blue Dyes
Iron and acid
Black Dyes
Lac*
Coccus lacca (insect)
Alder
Rofblamala
Custard apple
Harda
Alnus glutinosa
Loranthus pentapetalus
Anona reticulata
Terminalia chebula
Twigs inhabited
by these insects
Bark
Leaves
Fruit
Fruit
Caesalpina*
Bougainvillea*
Caesalpinia sappan
Bougainvillea glabra
Wood chips
Flower
Balsam*
Marigold
Black berries
Impatiens balsamina
Tagetes species
Rubus fructicosus
Flower
Flower
Berries
Ocimum sanctum
Bougainvillea glabra
Leaves
Flower
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous sulphate
--Ferrous sulphate
Brown Dyes
Green Dyes
Tulsi*
Bougainvillea*
Convallaria majalis
Urtica diocia
Ferrous sulphate
Alum + Base and Ferrous sulphate+Acid
Flower
Alum and Ferrous
sulphate
Leaves and stalk Ferrous sulphate
Leaves
Alum
Bougainvillea*
Bougainvillea glabra
Flower
Balsam*
Dahlia
Annatto
Impatiens balsamina
Dahlia species
Bixa orellana
Flower
Flower
Seeds
Canna*
Lily
Nettles
Orange/Peach Dyes
Stannous chloride +
Acid; Alum + base
Tin
Alum / chrome
* The sources marked with an asterix have been used by us for the first time for dyeing cotton fabric mainly by
utilising ultrasonic energy in the dye bath. We have even attempted to dye synthetic fabric terrycot with lac dye.
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tended to colour. Natural dyes are substantive, requiring a
mordant to fix to the fabric, and prevent the colour from either
fading with exposure to light or washing out. These compounds
bind the natural dyes to the fabric. They are of three types.
Metallic mordants: Metal salts of aluminium, chromium, iron,
copper and tin are used.
Tannins: Myrobalan and Sumach are the commonly used tannins
employed as mordants in the dyeing of textile fibres.
Oil mordants: Oil mordants are used mainly in the dyeing of
turkey red colour from maddar. The main function of the oil
mordant is to form a complex with alum used as the main
mordant. The sulfonated oils, which possess better metal binding capacity than the natural oils due to the presence of sulfonic
acid group, bind to metal ions forming a complex with the dye to
give superior fastness and hue.
Limitations of Natural Dyes
Tedious extraction of colouring component from the raw material, low "colour value and long dyeing time push the cost of
dyeing with natural dyes considerably higher than with synthetic dyes. In case of sappan wood, prolonged exposure to air
converts the colourant brasiline to brasilein, causing a colour
change from red to brown. To overcome this drawback we used
a sonicator, and found that the dye extraction was much faster.
Some of the natural dyes are fugitive and need a mordant for the
enhancement of their fastness properties. Some of the metallic
mordants are hazardous.
Some of the
natural dyes are
fugitive and need a
mordant for the
enhancement of
their fastness
properties.
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Bonding
Natural dyes work best with natural fibres such as cotton, linen,
wool, silk, jute, ramie and sisal. Among these, wool takes up
dyes most easily followed by cotton, linen, silk and then the
coarse fibres such as sisal and jute. Nearly all of them require
some sort of a mordant. The trick is to choose the right dye from
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the right source that gives not only beautiful tones, but colourfast
shades as well.
The chemistry of bonding of dyes to fibres is complex. It
involves direct bonding, H-bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Mordants help binding of dyes to fabric by forming a
chemical bridge from dye to fibre, thus improving the staining
ability of a dye along with increasing its fastness properties.
Mordants form insoluble compounds of the dye within the fibre.
The presence of certain functional groups in suitable positions
in the dye molecule causes its coordination to the metal ion.
Generally, two hydroxy groups or a hydroxy group with a
carbonyl, nitroso or azo group in adiacent positions are responsible for coordination. The mordant dyes produce a wide range
of hues of remarkable resistance to wet treatments, but the
shades lack brilliancy.
An example is the chromium-alizarin complex. A chromium ion
can combine with alizarin by covalency and co-ordinate valency
to form the 'Lake'. Chromium, being trivalent, combines with
three molecules of alizarin.
The fibres made of proteins, such as wool and silk, retain the dye
through hydrogen bonding between the polypeptide linkages
and the dye. An example of alizarin is given to show the nature
of bonding with Nylon-6, which also has peptide linkages.
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Improving the Quality of Natural Dyes
Poor light fastness of some of the natural dyes is attributable to
photooxidation of the chromophore. We have tried to prevent/
minimize such photooxidation by forming complex of the dye
with transition metal. We have improved the washing fastness of
natural dyes by treatment with eco-friendly mordants such as
alum, stannic chloride, stannous chloride and ferrous sulphate.
We have also used tannins with mordants. Treatment with
metal salts alters the light absorption characteristics of tannins
in addition to making them insoluble in water with the fabric
acquiring washing fastness.
As research in the direction of overcoming the limitations of
natural dyes continues, we may conclude by saying that natural,
eco-friendly dyes are certainly welcome.
Address for Correspondence
Padma S Vankar
Incharge
Facilih/for Ecological and
Analytical Testing(FEAT)
Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur 208 016, India.
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Suggested Reading
[1] M L Gulrajani, Introduction to NaturalDyes, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, 1992.
[2] M L Gulrajani and Deepti Gupta, Natural Dyes and their Application to
Textiles, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, 1992.
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