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Earth:

Its Structure and Composition

A Written Report

[this was originally done in ms publisher, sorry for some

inconsistencies, for comments please do send me an email @

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your comments are most welcome]

 Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Geographical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Structure of the Solid Earth . . . . . . . . . 7

Earth’s Shape and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Earth’s Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Introduction

Earth is made up of four basic parts: the atmosphere, the

hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere. The atmosphere

is made up of the gases that surround the planet. The

hydrosphere consists of the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers,

and air. The lithosphere is the rocky surface of Earth both on

land and under the oceans. The biosphere encompasses all living

things on Earth. The actions and interactions between these

components are what make the Earth a constantly changing entity.

Weather changes, rain falls, soil washes away, and plants take
in carbon dioxide and release oxygen, all through the properties

of solids, liquids, and gases.

On this paper, lithosphere will be greatly addressed. It

will include earth’s geographical coordinates, structure, shape

and size, and divisions.

Earth’s Geographical Coordinates

The Earth is not a sphere, but an irregular shape approximating

an ellipsoid; the challenge is to define a coordinate system

that can accurately state each topographical point as an

unambiguous tuple of numbers.

Latitude and longitude

Latitude phi (φ) and Longitude lambda (λ)

Latitude (abbreviation: Lat., φ, or phi) is the angle from a

point on the Earth's surface to the equatorial plane, measured

from the center of the sphere. Lines joining points of the same

latitude are called parallels, which trace concentric circles on

the surface of the Earth, parallel to the equator. The north

pole is 90° N; the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of

latitude is designated the equator, the fundamental plane of all

geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe

into Northern and Southern Hemispheres. e at the north and south

poles.

20

Earth’s Shape and Size

Speculations …….

• Once believed that the Earth is flat and that ships could sail

over the edge.

• View persisted into the Middle ages and was an issue in

recruitment for Columbus.(The Flat Earth Society)

• The Flat Earth Society still alive and well and describe

the Earth as “being a disk with a circumference of about 78225

miles and a diameter of 24900 miles. The sun and moon are both

disks about 32 miles in diameter …and are about 3000 miles

above the Earth, and the stars about 100 miles above the sun and

moon. The Flat Earth Society also maintains that the Earth is

accelerating upward at a rate of 9.8 m/s², thereby simulating

gravity. This upward momentum is caused by the "Universal

Accelerator", a vague term used by the Society to describe a

force that originated at the Big Bang and caused the Earth to

speed upwards. Gravity cannot exist on a flat Earth since the

disc shape would eventually collapse on

itself. However, other planetary bodies such as the moon and the

sun have gravitational pulls, causing the gravitational force on

an object to decrease as it increases in altitude. This also

allows spacecraft to orbit."

Historical perspective

• Early Greek view was that the world was surrounded by Oceanus,

origin of all rivers.

• Anaximander (600 B.C.) – cylindrical earth surrounded by

celestial sphere.

Longitude (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) is the angle east

or west of a reference meridian between the two geographical

poles to another meridian that passes through an arbitrary

point. All meridians are halves of great circles, and are not

parallel. They converge at the north and south poles.

A line passing to the rear of the Royal Observatory,

Greenwich (near London in the UK) has been chosen as the

international zero-longitude reference line, the Prime Meridian.

 Places to the east are in the eastern hemisphere, and places to

the west are in the western hemisphere. The antipodal meridian

of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E.

In 1884, the United States hosted the International

Meridian Conference and twenty-five nations attended. Twenty-two

of them agreed to adopt the location of Greenwich as the zero-

reference line. San Domingo voted against the adoption of that

motion, while France and Brazil abstained. To date, there exist

organizations around the world which continue using historical

prime meridians before the acceptance of Greenwich and the ill-

attended conference became common-place.

The combination of these two components specifies the

position of any location on the planet, but does not consider

altitude nor depth.

Degrees: a measurement of angle

There are several formats for writing degrees, all of them

appearing in the same Lat, Long order.

DMS Degrees:Minutes:Seconds (49°30'00"N, 123°30'00"W)

DM Degrees:Decimal Minutes (49°30.0', -123°30.0'), (49d30.0m, -

123d30.0')

DD Decimal Degrees (49.5000°,-123.5000°), generally with 4-6

decimal numbers.

Geodesic height
 To completely specify a location of a topographical feature

on, in, or above the Earth, one has to also specify the vertical

distance from the centre of the sphere, or from the surface of

the sphere. Because of the ambiguity of "surface" and

"vertical", it is more commonly expressed relative to a more

precisely defined vertical datum such as mean sea level at a

named point. Each country has defined its own datum. In the

United Kingdom, the reference point is Newlyn. The distance to

Earth's centre can be used both for very deep positions and for

positions in space.

Cartesian coordinates

Every point that is expressed in spherical coordinates can

be expressed as an x y z (Cartesian) coordinate. This is not a

useful method for recording a position on maps but is used to

calculate distances and to perform other mathematical

operations. The origin is usually the center of the sphere, a

point close to the center of the Earth.

The Earth is not static as points move relative to each

other due to continental plate motion, subsidence, and diurnal

movement caused by the Moon and the tides. The daily movement

can be as much as a metre. Continental movement can be up to 10

cm a year, or 10 m in a century.

A weather system high-pressure area can cause a sinking of 5 mm.

Scandinavia is rising by 1 cm a year as a result of the melting
of the ice sheets of the last ice age, but neighbouring Scotland is
only rising by 0.2 cm. These changes are insignificant if a local datum is
used, but are significant if the global GPS datum is used.
Expressing latitude and longitude as linear units
On a spherical surface at sea level, one latitudinal second
measures 30.82 metres and one latitudinal minute 1849metres, and
one latitudinal degree is 110.9kilometres. The circles of
longitude, meridians, meet at the geographical poles, with the
west-east width of a second being dependent on the latitude. On
the equator at sea level, one longitudinal second measures
30.92metres, a longitudinal minute 1855metres, and a
longitudinal degree 111.3kilometres. At 30° a longitudinal
second is 26.76, at Greenwich (51° 28' 38" N) is 19.22metres,
and at 60° it is 15.42.

Geostationary coordinates

Geostationary satellites (e.g., television satellites) are

over the equator at a specific point on Earth, so their position

related to Earth is expressed in longitude degrees only. Their

latitude is always zero, that is, over the equator.

Samson, Dr. Scott A.

GIS Notes is published by the Geospatial Extension unit of the

GeoResources Institute at Mississippi State University.

Toomer, G. J

Ptolemy's Almagest.
Princeton University Press, 1998.

(Originally published by Duckworth, 1984.)

UAF Geophysical Institute (ATEP ©2008)

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

http://www.sciencenews.org/

http://www.gri.msstate.edu/

21

• Pythogoras (582-507 B.C.) believed the Earth was a sphere,

which was considered the most harmonious geometric shape.

• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) described observations that supported

the theory that the

Earth was a sphere. These included (1) the fact that the shadow

of the moon is

circular in lunar eclipses (2) constellations were higher in the

sky as one traveled

south.

Observations that suggest the Earth is a sphere

• Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after sunset.

• Ships disappear below the horizon as they sail across ocean.

• The moon looks like a disk. Is the Earth the same shape?

• The Earth casts a circular shadow during lunar eclipses.

Quantitative approach to computing the radius of the Earth

Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.)

Estimated size of Earth from observations that the elevation of

the sun varied with position on the Earth’s surface in Egypt.

Measurement 1: Angular distance Aswan - Alexandria

On the summer solstice, the sun was overhead in Aswan, since it

illuminated a deep well. On the same day, the sun was at an

angle of 7° 14’ to the vertical in

Alexandria.

Measurement 2 : Distance on ground Aswan – Alexandria

The distance Aswan-Alexandria was estimated at 5000 stadia = 925

km

Combining these measurements, can show that the circumference

Earth’s Division

Human beings have always imagined what it would be like to

journey to the center of the Earth. There are many books and

movies about characters who have adventures that take them to

the Earth’s core, or even all the way to the other side of

world! It’s fun to pretend that we can tunnel to other side, but

scientists have proven that humans will never be able to dig

through the center of the Earth. The Earth has three very thick
layers, and the center is so hot that humans could never survive

there.

Layers of the Earth

The Core

The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is made up

of two parts: the inner core and the outer core. At the very

center of the Earth is the inner core. It is solid, and is made

up almost entirely of iron. The inner core remains solid because

it is under an extreme amount of pressure. It is about 1200

kilometers thick.

Inner Core

This layer is solid.

Pressure – 45000000 pounds/sq.inch, Inner Core’s pressure is

3000000 million greater than the sea level.

It consists of the metals nickel and iron and is also better

known with the name of NiFe.

14

The Earth’s Layers

18

Its temperature is 9,000 degree Fahrenheit.

 It is 800miles thicker, 4000 miles beneath the crust.

The core is composed mainly of iron and nickel. In the inner

core, iron and nickel are solid. Although the inner core is

very hot, pressure from the weight of the rest of the Earth

doesn’t allowed the material to melt.

Outer Core

Thickness – 1400 miles.

This is consists of liquid due to the high temperatures like

4000oF – 9000oF.

It is located 1800 miles beneath the crust.

This layer consists of nickel and iron and is better known as

NiFe{Nickel & Ferrous(Iron)}.

Because less weight is exerted on the outer core, the pressure

is less there, so iron and nickel present here are in

liquid state.

The Mantle

The middle layer of Earth is called the mantle. At 2900

kilometers deep, it is the thickest layer of the Earth. Like the

core, the mantle has two layers, the upper and lower mantle.

Because of its thickness, the mantle is where most of the

Earth’s heat is located. The average temperature of the Earth’s

 mantle is about 1000 degrees Celsius. At this temperature, the

mantle remains a solid, but is flexible

15

like plastic. When a heavy load like an ice cap pushes on

the mantle, it can flex and move out of the way to make room.

Once the load lessens, the mantle can return to its original

position.

This layer is semi liquid

It consists of magnesium, iron, and silicon

Width – 3000 Km.

It is more solid closer to the surface

The mantle is composed of hot iron-rich silicate rocks.

Flow in the mantle occurs as convection currents; hot material

in the mantle rises, cools and then sinks.

Mantle is elastic which means it behave in plastic manner.

Thickness – 1800 miles

The Crust

The top layer of the Earth is called the crust. The crust is the

layer upon which we live and build our cities. The crust is the

layer that can sustain life, yet it is the thinnest layer of the

Earth. If you measure the thickness of the Earth’s mantle on a

continent, it would be between 35 and 75 kilometers thick. If

measured from the deepest basins of the ocean, the mantle is

only 5 to 10 kilometers thick. It is made up of brittle minerals

like calcium and sodium. Because it is very cold compared to the

mantle and core, the crust is easily cracked and broken.

However, the crust is also where we find valuable resources like

oil, water, and gas.

16

Non-spherical Earth

It was soon realized that the Earth was not a perfect

sphere. Jean Richer (1620- 1682) was a French astronomer who

made observations in 1671 from the island of Cayenne in French

Guyana. In addition to measuring the distance of planet Mars

from Earth, he also noted that a pendulum swung slower on

Cayenne Island than in Paris. He deduced that this was because

gravity was weaker on Cayenne, which implied that Cayenne was

further from the centre of the Earth than Paris.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) suggested that the Earth was an oblate

spheroid because it rotates - somewhat flattened at the poles.

A debate followed about whether this was true, because

measurements were not very accurate. Surveys in Peru (equator,

1735-43) and (equator, 1735-43) showed that flattening occurred

as suggested. The deformation is now described by the

International Reference Ellipsoid. This is the shape the Earth

would have if it’s composition was uniform. A number of

ellipsoids have been defined as data quality has improved.

13

The Earth is round (based on Ptolemy)

We find that the phenomena at eclipses, especially lunar

eclipses, which take place at the same time [for all observers],

are nevertheless not recorded as occurring at the same hour (that

is at an equal distance from noon) by all observers. Rather, the

hour recorded by the more easterly observers is always later

than that recorded by the more westerly. We find that the

differences in the hour are proportional to the distances between

the places.

The hour at each place is determined by the position of

thesun or stars. So this phenomenon shows that the sun

and stars rise at an earlier hour for those in the east,

In proportion to the distance east.

 This must happen if the earth curves uniformly east

west.

It wouldn't happen if the earth didn't curve uniformly

east-west.

12

Proofs that the Earth is round (all of which were known to

Aristotle):

A. Aesthetical evidence: the sphere is the most beautiful shape.

B. Astronomical evidence:

1. If Flat: stars would rise and set simultaneously for all

longitudes.

2. If Concave: rising stars would be seen first at western

latitudes.

3. East-West convexity: the same lunar eclipse observed in

different locations, but not at same

local times.

4. North-South convexity: circumpolar stars not the same

for all; new stars appear if travel

north or south.

5. 3D sphere: Earth's shadow always curved during lunar

eclipse.
 6. Macrocosm-microcosm analogy: Circumpolar stars (and

rising and settings of other stars)suggest that the universe is

spherical.

C. Terrestrial evidence: Ships "hull down." Terrestrial

landmarks seen first from the mast.

D. Theoretical evidence: According to gravity, earthy objects

tend on all sides

11

of the Earth = 360

*925/7.23 = 46058 km. Correct value = 40030 km. Error = 15%

Jean Picard (1620-1682)

Measured the length of ~1 degree of latitude in France in 1669-

70 and obtained a value of 6329 km for the radius of the Earth.

Polar radius known to be 6357 km which is an error of 0.4%.

Another approach - the double sunset

• A seated observer watches the sunset over the horizon (A) at

the Equator. As soon

as the sun sets, he jumps to his feet and enjoys a few extra

seconds of sunlight

before the sun sets again (B).

10

(a)

(b)
Ellipsoid Semi-major axis Semi-minor axis b Inverse flattening (1/f)
reference a

GRS 80 6,378,137.0 m ͌6,356,752.314140 m 298.257222101

WGS 84 6378137.0 m ͌6,356,752.314245 m 298.257223563

This is the layer that we live on.

The thickness ranges from 5 thick miles under the oceans to 25

miles thick under the continents.

The crust is composed of two rocks; granite and basalt.

It is also known as SiAl (Silicon & Aluminium).

Continental Crust

Continental Crust: The crust under the continents

Thicker than oceanic crust, 20-45 miles thick

Composed of mostly granite

Older than oceanic crust

Density is 2.7 g/cm3

Oceanic Crust

Oceanic Crust: Crust under the oceans.

Thinner than continental crust, 4-7 miles thick.

Composed mostly of basalt.

Younger than continental crust.

 Density is 3 g/cm3.

Basalt is much denser than the granite. Because of this the

less dense continents ride on the denser oceanic plates.

17

Summing Up

With special instruments, scientists have been able to

create detailed maps of the Earth’s layers. By measuring

temperature, sound waves, and other factors, earth scientists

are able to find fossil fuels, element deposits, and even

underground lakes! New technologies even allow scientists to

study the changes deep in Earth’s core. We may never be able to

journey to the center of the Earth, but each day scientists make

discoveries that help us understand more about the planet upon

which we live.

19

Structure of the Solid Earth

Geologist today have a fairly clear model of earth’s

structure from its surface to its very center. Since the cenetr
is nearly 6,000 kms. from the surface, most of this model is

based on indirect evidences.

Consider the model that the geologists describe. At its

center is a spherical inner core, 200 kilometers in diameter.

The inner core is made up of solid iron and nickel. Surrounding

the inner core is the outer core about 2250 kilometers thickmade

of liquid iron and nickel. Then comes a 2900 kilometer-thick

layer of heavy rocks rich in compounds of iron and, magnesium

and silicon. This layer called the mantle reaches almost the

earth’s surface. The manthle is covered by alayer of lighter

rocks called the crust. The crust ranges in thickness from about

10 kilometers below the ocean basins to about 65 kilometers

below the continents. Mines and well go deep into the crust, but

none have reached the mantle.

5
References

Credits to the following:

Adamchuk, Viacheslav and Thomas, Shana

Agote, Rhodora et. Al, Instructional Material in Physical

Science

Anderson, Don L. Theory of the Earth. Boston: Blackwell

Scientific Publications,

1989.

Birch, F. (1952) Elasticity and constitution of the Earth's

interior, J. Geophys. Res., 57, 227-286.

Chelsea House Publications | 2008 | ISBN: 0791096777

Clayton, R. W. and R. P. Comer (1988) Reconstruction of mantle

Condie, K. C. (1982) Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, 2nd

ed., Pergamon, New York, 3 10 pp.

Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus (Oxford University Press,

1991).
A readable biography of Columbus by a noted Columbus scholar.

Jeffrey Burton Russell, Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and

Modern Historians (Praeger Paperback, 1997)