Physics HSC Notes Gavan Huang

9.2 SPACE

9.2.1 Gravita,onal Fields

o g = ( F / mO )
Gravita1onal eld vector equals force vector over mass of a=racted object.
o Gravita1onal eld is always towards the centre of mass of the object.
g of Earth is 9.8ms-2
o F = (Gm m / r2) in kilograms and meters. (G = 6.672 x 10-11)
A O
G is gravita1onal constant, mA is mass of a=rac1ng object, e.g. Earth, mO is
mass of a=racted object, e.g. humans, r is distance between centres of
gravity of the objects.
Force equals gravita1onal constant mul1plied by mass of a=rac1ng object
and mass of a=racted object, all over the distance between the centres of
gravity squared.
Solving both equa1ons simultaneously, we get:
g = GmA / r
o This shows gravita1onal a=rac1on is independent of the
object being a=racted, e.g. a marble and a truck will
experience the same accelera1on when dropped towards
the Earths surface.
o Weight the force ac1ng on an object due to a gravita1onal eld.
F = ma, therefore, weight = mass * gravita1onal eld vector
o The Earths Gravity
Gravity eld lines are towards the centre of mass, and closely packed lines
represent stronger gravity.
Gravity eld vector represents the accelera1on due to gravity.
Varia1ons in Gravity
Thickness of the Earths crust, area on Earth (poles are closer to
centre than equator), centrifuge eect caused by spinning of the
Earth reduces accelera1on due to gravity most at the equator, and
none at the poles.
As al1tude increases, distance away from centre increases, so gravity
decreases.
o Equa1ons
F = (GmPmO) / r2 g = (GmP) / (rP+ al1tude)2 W = mg

Gravita1onal Poten1al Energy

o The energy of a mass due to its posi1on within a gravita1onal eld.
On Earth, we use GPE = mgh, as it is the energy required to li\ an object to a
height.
o On a planetary scale, inverse square rela1onship means gravity decreases the further
out we go, so we have a dierent deni1on.
o The work done to move an object from innity distance away to a point in
gravita1onal eld.
At innity, GPE is 0, and at any other point, GPE is nega1ve.
The dierence in an objects GPE between two points is equivalent to the
work done in order to move that object from the rst point to the second
point.
An object needs to be supplied with its GPE to completely escape from a
gravita1onal eld.
Due to this, GPE is binding energy; it locks a system together because
things cannot escape unless supplied with energy.
o GPE = -(Gm1m2) / r + al1tude

An object needs to be supplied with its GPE to completely escape from a

gravita1onal eld.
Due to this, GPE is binding energy; it locks a system together because
things cannot escape unless supplied with energy.
GPE = -(Gm1m2) / r + al1tude

9.2.2 Projec,le Mo,on, Satellites, Rockets and Launches

o A projec1le is any object in free fall, with the only force ac1ng on it is gravity.
Air resistance is disregarded for simplicity.
This means that there are no horizontal forces ac1ng on the projec1le, and
so its horizontal velocity must remain constant. This is like a puck on an air
hockey table.
Iner1a causes the projec1le to follow a direc1on and maintain it.
Iner1a and gravity together make the trajectory parabolic.
o The path of a projec1le is the trajectory, and its horizontal length is the range.
A stroboscope with a camera produces quick ashes and snapshots a
projec1le at dierent points in its trajectory.
o Height is dened as posi1ve, so gravity is dened as nega1ve.
o Components of Velocity
Projec1le velocity is comprised of a horizontal component and a ver1cal
component.
The horizontal component does not change throughout the
trajectory.
Velocity is tangen1al, and is found by using Pythagoras with ver1cal and
horizontal veloci1es as sides.
The angle of projec1on can be calculated using trigonometry.
Also, if the angle is known, velocity components can be calculated.
o Equa1ons of Projec1le Mo1on
vx = ux sx = uxt vy = uy + ayt sy = uyt + (ayt2)/ 2 v2y = u2y +
2aysy
uy = u.sin ux = u.cos
If EQUAL nal and ini1al eleva1ons: t = 2uy / g sx = (sin2.u2) / g sy = (sin2
.u2) / 2g
o The ver1cal velocity at the top of the trajectory is zero.
Time intervals on either side of this top point are symmetric.
The nal ver1cal speed is equal to the ini1al ver1cal speed, but unlike
horizontal velocity, it changes in between.
o Galileos Projec1le Mo1on
Horizontal and ver1cal components are independent, horizontal mo1on is
constant, ver1cal mo1on is inuenced by gravity.
It is a misconcep1on that heavier objects are accelerated more than lighter
ones.
Galileo realised this, and tried experiments to prove it.
He rolled balls down polished inclined planes, to reduce eects of air
resistance.
When astronauts went to the Moon, they dropped a feather and a hammer
at the same height. There is no air on the Moon to oer resistance, and both
objects hit the surface simultaneously.

Escape Velocity
o The ini1al ver1cal velocity of a projec1le in order to escape the gravita1onal eld of a
body.
The object needs to be supplied with kine1c energy equal to its posi1ve GPE.
The velocity required to reach innity such that when it does, there
is no KE le\.
Calculated by lejng kine1c energy equal posi1ve GPE, and simplifying from
there.
v = (2GM / r)
Only depends on mass of planet and its radius.
o Newtons Concept
Newton reasoned that the faster a cannonball was red, the longer its
trajectory.
He then reasoned that there must be a speed at which when red, the
cannonball would travel all around the Earth and come back to its star1ng
point (orbit).
Finally, he deduced that if it was red faster than this speed, it would leave

Newtons Concept
Newton reasoned that the faster a cannonball was red, the longer its
trajectory.
He then reasoned that there must be a speed at which when red, the
cannonball would travel all around the Earth and come back to its star1ng
point (orbit).
Finally, he deduced that if it was red faster than this speed, it would leave
the Earth.

G-Force and Apparent Weight

o G-Force is a scale of gravity which involves mul1ples of the weight of the astronaut
on Earth.
It is used to explain forces on astronauts during launch as it is independent of
the mass of astronauts.
G force = (arocket + 9.8) / 9.8 (taking downwards as posi1ve)
o Apparent Weight
The normal force resis1ng your weight.
On Earth, the normal force is equal to your weight, so you feel 1g.
Accelera1ng upwards in a rocket, the rocket pushing up on you has
more force than your weight, so your apparent weight is greater than
your real weight, making you feel more than 1g. In space, nothing is
resis1ng your weight, so you feel 0g (weightlessness).
G-force is just apparent weight over absolute weight.

Uniform Circular Mo1on

o Circular mo1on of an object around a centre, with the object moving at a uniform
orbital speed.
At each point in its mo1on, the object has a tangen1al velocity.
The changing velocity (direc1on) symbolizes accelera1on, and therefore a
force.

The force is centripetal force, and it acts towards the centre.

Includes fric1on in a car turn, gravity in orbit, electrosta1c in electron orbits
etc.
Centripetal keeps the object in a circular mo1on, preven1ng it from going o.
FC = mv2 / r aC = v2 / r
Eccentricity
Measure of how much the shape of an orbit deviates from a circle.
e = 0: circular. 0 < e < 1: ellip1cal. e = 1: parabolic. e > 1: hyperbolic.
Planetary orbits are ellip1cal, with the sun at one focus.
Large radius is semi-major axis, small radius is semi-minor axis.
Perihelion is closest point to Sun; aphelion is furthest point from Sun.
Orbital Velocity
VOrbital = ( GmP / (rP + al1tude) ) T = 2r / VOrbital T = 2(r + al1tude)
/ VOrbital
Note that the orbital speed of a satellite does not depend on its mass.
Keplers Laws
Each planet moves in an ellip1cal orbit, with the Sun as one focus.
A line from the Sun to a given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal 1mes.
As a planet moves closer to the Sun, it moves faster.
The ra1o of the square of the period to the cube of semi-major axis is
constant.
Keplers Third Law
T2 / rmaj3 = 42 / GM, where M is the mass of the central body.
Calculated by lejng v = both 2r / T and ( GmP / (rP + al1tude) )

Rocket Launches
o The downward momentum of exhaust gas provides the upwards impulse to propel
the rocket.
o Conserva1on of momentum means that impulse of an object equals the nega1ve of
the impulse of the applied force, and using Newtons third law, the force of the gases
equals the upward force on the rocket.
o Air force pilots have vision problems at around 4g, and 8g causes unconsciousness.
3g was considered the highest possible g-force which was s1ll safe.
However, astronauts can survive 20g in launch if:
They are lying down (keeps blood in brain), face upwards (eyes dont

o
o

o
o

Conserva1on of momentum means that impulse of an object equals the nega1ve of

the impulse of the applied force, and using Newtons third law, the force of the gases
equals the upward force on the rocket.
Air force pilots have vision problems at around 4g, and 8g causes unconsciousness.
3g was considered the highest possible g-force which was s1ll safe.
However, astronauts can survive 20g in launch if:
They are lying down (keeps blood in brain), face upwards (eyes dont
pop out) and on a body contoured couch (maximum body support).
The path to a des1na1on planet which is most ecient, is that which is most
tangen1al, not necessarily the shortest. not en1rely sure.
Earths Mo1on
Rockets launched eastwards at the equator are launched with the rota1on of
the Earth, adding 1700km/hr.
The Earth orbits around the sun at 107,000km/hr and this extra speed can be
harnessed for intra-Solar System rockets.
The 1mes when the Earth is in the right posi1on for op1mum launch extras
are called launch windows.

Rockets
o Structure of Rockets
Solid Propellant one chamber with aluminum powder, ammonium
perchlorate and an iron oxide catalyst, which form chains when ignited,
crea1ng energy.
Liquid Propellant two chambers, one with liquid hydrogen and the other
with liquid oxygen. There needs to be a pump to mix the liquids.
o Types of Orbit
Low Earth Orbit spy satellites, space shu=les, Hubble telescope.
Between 250km and 1000km, high enough to avoid destruc1ve
atmospheric fric1on. Satellite orbital periods between 90min and 5
hours.
They are also lower than Van Allen Belts: belts of trapped radia1on
due to the magne1c eld of the Earth. Aects lives and electrical
equipment.
Geosynchronous Orbit communica1ons satellites.
Period of the orbit is 24 hours. If over the Equator, it is a
geosta1onary orbit, which means that it remains over the same
point throughout its orbit.
o Approximately 35,800km height.
o Placed at the edge of the Van Allen belts.
Low Al1tude Polar Orbit
LEO around the poles (along longitude)
Langrangian Point Orbit
An area in space where the gravita1onal eld of two objects interact
such that a satellite can maintain a stable orbit.
L1, a Langrangian point a hundredth of the way to the Sun, orbits the
Sun with the same period as the Earth, always being in the same
posi1on rela1ve to the two. Good for solar wind observing satellites.
o Orbital Decay
If a satellite slows down, it loses al1tude.
Total energy = -GmM/2r, and so if it loses energy, r must decrease.
Orbital Decay is the loss of al1tude caused by fric1on in the atmosphere
slowing the satellite down. As it goes lower, decay occurs faster, and under
250km, the satellite has only a few hours le\, in which it undergoes severe
fric1on and could vaporize.
o Re-Entry
Astronauts wan1ng to come back to Earth will re rockets in the same
direc1on in order to slow themselves down and lose al1tude.
This must be very precise in order to achieve op1mum re-entry
angle. Too shallow and the spacecra\ will just skip o the
atmosphere. Too steep and the spacecra\ may burn up due to
intense fric1on.
o For the Apollo re-entry, this op1mum angle was 5.2 - 7.2.
Modern cra\ are built with wings to oer some degree of control for
re-entry.
Extreme heat is caused by fric1on conver1ng the spacecra\s huge kine1c
energy into heat.

atmosphere. Too steep and the spacecra\ may burn up due to

intense fric1on.
o For the Apollo re-entry, this op1mum angle was 5.2 - 7.2.
Modern cra\ are built with wings to oer some degree of control for
re-entry.
Extreme heat is caused by fric1on conver1ng the spacecra\s huge kine1c
energy into heat.
Using Intercon1nental Ballis1c Missiles, researchers found the nose
could reach temperatures ho=er than the surface of the Sun.
It was found that blunt-noses were the best shape for re-entry, as
blunt noses colliding with the atmosphere creates a shockwave of air
which absorbs much of the heat.
The blunt nose was then protected from heat using a ceramic or
berglass covering which vaporized as re-entry was occurring.
o Modern space shu=les re-enter with their underbelly using
the blunt-nose principle, and are covered with insula1ng 1les
of berglass and 90% air. This provides excellent heat
insula1on while keeping mass low.
The porous nature of these 1les means water can
seep through, meaning they must be re-
waterproofed before each ight. This is thought to
have caused the disintegra1on of the heat 1les
during the Columbia disaster in 2003.
G-Forces are huge on the way down as well as the way up.
A greater angle will cause greater decelera1on and more g-force.
o Must be kept under 20g. Same strategies are used in re-entry
as launch, and when re-entering, astronauts s1ll have to lie
upwards, as the g-force is s1ll directed upwards.
Ioniza1on Blackout
Heat from fric1on causes nearby atoms to ionize, forming a layer
around the spacecra\. This prevents all radio signals, preven1ng
communica1on between ground sta and the spacecra\. This
cannot be helped.
Surviving Landing
Early Russian cra\ were slowed down by parachute and astronauts
jumped o when it was slow enough and parachuted down to Earth.
Early American cra\ used to use parachutes to slow down and so\
land in the ocean, but now they use a series of parachutes and air
aps to make a landing.
o Space shu=les have limited maneuverability, and have only
one chance at a landing.

Wernher von Brauns Contribu1ons to Space Travel

Built the rst prac1cal rocket engine.
First to experiment using liquid fuels.
Created the rocket which launched the rst satellite of the Western World.
Considered the recovery of rocket parts in space launch vehicles to reduce
the cost of building new units.
Realized the detrimental eect of ns, developed cylindrical rockets, and
reduced the diameter of rockets, in order to increase aerodynamic capability
and fuel eciency.
Engineered the Saturn V which landed the rst men on the Moon.

9.2.3 Law of Universal Gravita,on

o Gravita1onal Field
A region in space where a mass experiences a force. They are found around
masses.
It is an a=rac1on force between two masses; they will be drawn together.
There is always a point between two masses when gravity is equal in both
direc1ons, causing a zero gravity point to occur.
o Both masses in the system exert an a=rac1on force on the other mass. In the case of
a planet and a satellite, the planet is so much more massive that the eect of the
satellite is not felt.
This follows from F = ma.
o Newtons Law of Universal Gravita1on

There is always a point between two masses when gravity is equal in both
direc1ons, causing a zero gravity point to occur.
Both masses in the system exert an a=rac1on force on the other mass. In the case of
a planet and a satellite, the planet is so much more massive that the eect of the
satellite is not felt.
This follows from F = ma.
Newtons Law of Universal Gravita1on
Every object in the universe a=racts every other object with gravita1onal
force.
Directly propor1onal to their masses, inversely propor1onal to their
distance2.
F = Gm1m2 / d2
It is an inverse square law, so when distance doubles, force quarters.
On Earth, strength of gravity is aected by al1tude, posi1on on Earths
surface, area on Earth (e.g. equator or poles) and type of material under the
Earth.
Universal Gravita1on and Space Travel
Can be used to derive equa1ons on orbital veloci1es and gravita1onal
poten1al energy.
Responsible for weightlessness and also causes the slingshot eect.
Stability of the force enables accurate calcula1ons, e.g. calcula1ng launch
windows.
The expenses and huge engines of rockets are for overcoming the
gravita1onal force.
The constant for Keplers Third Law is derived by equa1ng two dierent
deni1ons for orbital velocity: v = (GM / r) and v = 2r / T.
Slingshot Eect
An increase in velocity gained by a spacecra\ by entering the gravita1onal
eld of a planet as it ies past it. It requires li=le expenditure of fuel.
Also known as the gravity-assist maneuver.
Non-contact elas1c collision between a spacecra\ and a planet resul1ng in
rota1onal kine1c energy from the planet being transferred to the spacecra\
as kine1c energy.
This means that the planet actually loses a negligible bit of velocity.
The closer a spacecra\ gets to a planet, the more the gravita1onal force and
the greater the speed increase.
Maximum gain is twice the planets orbital speed, when the
spacecra\ and planet approach each other head on.
The speed of the spacecra\ rela1ve to an observer on the planet does not
change, but rela1ve to the Sun, it does.
This is because if the planet is moving le\ at U, and the spacecra\
moves right at v, the spacecra\ rst appears to be moving towards
the planet at U + v, and when it swings behind the planet and does a
U-Turn, it gains the velocity of the planet too, and it moves at 2U +
v (2U more than it was before), but s1ll at U + v rela1ve to the
planet, as the planet is also moving at U in the same direc1on.
Entering the gravita1onal eld of a planet from a dierent angle
results in a velocity gain using the same principle, but it would
always be less than 2U.
A reverse slingshot eect can be used to decelerate a spacecra\.
The slingshot eect also changes the direc1onal velocity of the spacecra\.

9.2.4 Special Rela,vity

o It was assumed that since waves need a medium to propagate through, light must
have travelled through a physical medium, which was named aether.
It lled all of space, had extremely low density and was perfectly transparent.
It permeated all ma=er and was also permeable to material objects.
Had great elas1city to support and propagate light waves.

9.2.4 Special Rela,vity

o It was assumed that since waves need a medium to propagate through, light must
have travelled through a physical medium, which was named aether.
It lled all of space, had extremely low density and was perfectly transparent.
It permeated all ma=er and was also permeable to material objects.
Had great elas1city to support and propagate light waves.
o Proper1es of aether MODEL: it explained light wave travelling; it was hypothesized
and not proved; it was labeled defunct a\er Special Rela1vity.
o Finally accepted that the aether didnt exist and light was a special wave requiring no
medium.
o

Michelson-Morley Experiment
Aim was to detect rela1ve mo1on between Earth and aether.
A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley reasoned that just as you know you are
moving in a boat by watching water rush past you, the Earth must leave an
aether wind as it travelled at 30km/s through the aether.
A boat going against the current 2km and back with the current 2km will
nish a\er a boat going perpendicular to the current back and forth 2km
each.
They used this principle, shining one light ray into the aether wind and
reec1ng it back, and ring another ray perpendicular to the aether wind
and also reec1ng it back. They then rotated the apparatus 90 and did it
again. Both rays would end up in a telescope, where 1me dierence would
be observed. The apparatus was suspended on mercury to reduce external
eects.
The telescope uses interference to detect shi\s and it is called an
interferometer
Presence of an aether wind would cause a shi\ in interference
pa=erns when the 90 rota1on results are interposed.
No such interference occurred (which was large enough to be
a=ributed to the Earths mo1on), and the presence of aether was
only accepted because people felt it needed to be there. In 1905,
Einstein showed otherwise.
Null results were obtained, and no conclusion could be drawn.
The failure of this experiment divided scien1sts, and made the scien1c
world more open minded, and many scien1sts readily accepted Einsteins
Special Rela1vity.

Iner1al Frames of Reference and Principle of Rela1vity

Galileo proposed that all steady mo1on is rela1ve and cannot be detected
without reference to an outside point.
If you are travelling in a plane, it might be hard to no1ce you are
travelling unless you look out the window.
Rela1vity applies to iner1al frames of reference- at rest, or moving at a
constant velocity
Within an iner1al frame of reference, there is no experiment possible which
can determine your velocity.
Accelera1on can be detected, but it also cannot be measured.
As light was a constant speed rela1ve to the aether, it would be possible to
work out your speed and direc1on by measuring the speed of light.
This is a viola1on of the principle of rela1vity.

A Constant Speed of Light

If you are in a train travelling at the speed of light, would you see your own
reec1on?
If the aether model was correct, light would not be able to keep up
with the train, so you would not see your reec1on. This means that
the principle of rela1vity would be violated; as if your reec1on
wasnt visible, you knew exactly what velocity you would be
travelling at.
But if the principle of rela1vity was adhered to, then an observer on
the pla{orm would see light travelling at 2c!
Einstein concluded there was no aether, the principle of rela1vity was true,
and both observers would see light travelling at the same speed. As S = D/T,
Einstein reasoned that both people would experience dierent concep1ons
of distance and 1me.

But if the principle of rela1vity was adhered to, then an observer on

the pla{orm would see light travelling at 2c!
Einstein concluded there was no aether, the principle of rela1vity was true,
and both observers would see light travelling at the same speed. As S = D/T,
Einstein reasoned that both people would experience dierent concep1ons
of distance and 1me.

Special Rela1vity
Laws of physics are the same in every iner1al frame of reference, everyone
experiences the same value of c, independent of their mo1on, and the
aether is superuous.
Space1me
Newtonian physics made 1me absolute, and speed and distance
rela1ve.
Einstein changed this, making speed absolute and 1me and distance
rela1ve.
This led to space and 1me being merged into a space1me
con1nuum.
o Events now have a four dimensional posi1on in a frame of
reference.
Lorentz Transforma1on
Galilean transforma1on equa1ons:
o x = x vt, y = y, z = z, t = t, showing that distance observed
is rela1ve.
o Works quite well in everyday mo1on, as nothing even gets
remotely close to the speed of light.
Lorentz Transforma1ons, abiding with special rela1vity:
o x = x vt / (1 v2/c2), y = y, z = z, t = (t vx/c2) / (1-
v2/c2)
o These were made prior to special rela1vity, and were
actually aimed to model light transmission in aether.
o The deni1on for space (x) depends on 1me (t) and vice
versa.
This supports the single concept of space1me.

Theory and Evidence of Rela1vity

Einsteins ideas conicted with the classical science of Newtonian physics.
His mathema1cal predic1ons were strong but he couldnt jus1fy it through
experiments.
In 1955, atomic clocks were synchronized and one own around the
world, and on return, it showed an earlier 1me than the one le\ on
Earth.
This example has inuenced scien1sts never to disregard any theory, as we
just may not have the means of proving it yet, and in the future it may turn
out to be correct.
The Meter

Used to be a part of the Earths arc passing through Paris, and also dened as
the length between two marks on a bar, which were replicated and
distributed around the world.
Now, the meter is dened as 1/299,792,458 of the distance light travels in
one second in a vacuum, as the speed of light is always constant.
Also, a second is dened as the 1me for 9,129,631,770 oscilla1ons of
a caesium-133 atom.

Rela1vity of Simultaneity
Einstein claimed that when we state the 1me of an event, we are making a
judgment about simultaneous events.
If we say the bell rings at 8:52, we are saying that 8:52 on the clock
and the bell ringing are simultaneous events.
Rela1vity of simultaneity is that events are not necessarily
simultaneous in all frames of reference.
A train carriage is travelling at close to the speed of light, and a lamp is
switched on in the middle of the carriage. The front and back doors are light
operated. When the lamp is switched on, the person inside the train sees
both doors open at the same instant, as light takes the same amount of 1me
to travel from the lamp in the middle to both doors. An observer on the
pla{orm, however, sees it dierently. A\er the light has been emi=ed, the

simultaneous in all frames of reference.

A train carriage is travelling at close to the speed of light, and a lamp is
switched on in the middle of the carriage. The front and back doors are light
operated. When the lamp is switched on, the person inside the train sees
both doors open at the same instant, as light takes the same amount of 1me
to travel from the lamp in the middle to both doors. An observer on the
pla{orm, however, sees it dierently. A\er the light has been emi=ed, the
train has moved, making the back door closer to the point of emission. The
observer on the pla{orm sees the back door open before the front door.
Rela1vity of Time
A lamp on the ground of the train shines a ray up to a mirror on the ceiling,
and back down again.
A person in the train sees the light ray take 2L/c seconds, where L is the
height of the carriage.
A person outside the train sees the train move while the rays are travelling,
and so the path is not straight up and down, but is diagonal.
This means the 1me seen by the observer is 2(L+a)/c, meaning that
1me goes slower for the observer on the pla{orm.
This phenomenon is called 1me dila1on and if you are moving then you will
experience 1me dila1on.
t = t / (1 v2/c2)
v
o
to is 1me taken in frame of reference (proper 1me), tv is 1me taken
as seen by the frame in rela1ve mo1on.
Moving clocks run slow.
Time dila1on has actually been measured using atomic clocks.
Proper 1me, the 1me taken by the observer in the frame of reference, is
ALWAYS less than 1me experienced by an external observer, unless they are
travelling at the same velocity, in which case it is equal 1me, as they are
rela1vely at rest with each other.

Rela1vity of Length
Length contrac1on is observed in the same direc1on as velocity.
If the lamp 1me scenario is changed to make it from the front wall to the
back wall, the person inside the carriage sees the light travel 2M distance,
where M is the length of the carriage. However, since the train moves while
light is being emi=ed, the person on the pla{orm sees light take longer to
reach the front wall and shorter to reach the back wall.
Lv = Lo (1 v2/c2)
As 1me dila1on, this works both ways, i.e. the person in the train will see the
length of the pla{orm contract too.
If a 0.99c spaceship sailed past Earth, we would see a ying speck,
and people in the spacecra\ would no1ce a 1ny dot (Earth) zooming
past them.
This only works when length is being measured parallel to direc1on of
rela1ve mo1on.
The proper length is always greater than the observed length.

Rela1vity of Mass
As the speed of an object increases, its mass rela1ve to a dierent iner1al
frame increases. At speeds close to c, mass becomes so huge, and 1me
dilates such that a force has even less 1me to act, that further accelera1on is
not possible, resul1ng in nothing bearing mass being able to out-speed light.
m = m / (1- v2/c2)
v
o
When velocity gets extremely high, the force being applied must also add
energy in the form of kine1c energy, but as well as this, it also increases
mass.
Einstein saw this equivalence and redened energy as E + mc2.
k
o At rest, E = mc2. This is called an objects rest energy.
Small amount of mass yields a large amount of energy, as seen in a
nuclear bomb

Rela1vis1c Space Flight

Travelling at our current maximum speeds, even our closest star would take
43,393 years to reach, and anything further is even longer.
Using a light sail space cra\ may allow us to reach speeds of up to 0.1c,
reducing the travel 1me to 40 years. However, when accommoda1ng for
1me dila1on (can also be done using length contrac1on), it takes 39 years

Rela1vis1c Space Flight

Travelling at our current maximum speeds, even our closest star would take
43,393 years to reach, and anything further is even longer.
Using a light sail space cra\ may allow us to reach speeds of up to 0.1c,
reducing the travel 1me to 40 years. However, when accommoda1ng for
1me dila1on (can also be done using length contrac1on), it takes 39 years
292 days.
Rela1vis1c (> 0.1c) space ight can harness eects of 1me dila1on
and length contrac1on.
Travelling at 0.9c would reduce the 1me taken to travel to Proxima Centauri
to around 20 days (for the people on the spaceship), due to huge 1me
dila1on. Of course, to people on Earth, it would appear to have taken a bit
more than 4 years.
However, the energy costs required are enormous. At 0.9c, mass is extremely
large, and there is very li=le 1me to provide a force, and so the energy
required accelera1ng such a mass in such a short period of 1me is almost
inconceivable.

SPACE PRACS
Pendulum Swing
o We attached a 1m string to a clamp, and a clamp to a retort stand. We then
attached a 50g mass to the end of the string, and let it hang over the edge of a
table.
This is essentially a make-do pendulum.
o We then raised the pendulum to an angle of around 45 to the vertical, and let
it fall.
o We timed how long it took to do 10 swings, and divided it by 10 to get the
average time for one swing.
We repeated this 3 times and averaged out our period T for one swing.
Gravity was then calculated using.
T is in seconds, l is in metres.
o We then repeated the experiment for lengths 95cm, 90cm, 85cm and 80cm, and
averaged all our results for g to get a final result.
Our average g was 9.71ms-2, and the discrepancy could be attributed to
human calculation error in timing the swing accurately.

Analysing Projectile Motion

o We attached a ruler to a clamp on a retort stand, and inclined it downwards, so
that it acted as a downward ramp.
We then placed an inclined board underneath the ruler such that the
incline was perpendicular to the incline of the ruler so that when
something was rolled down the ruler, it would travel down the ruler, get
to the end and fall of onto the inclined board, and travel across the
board (due to the velocity it has gained from travelling down the ruler)
as well as down the board (due to its natural incline).
On the inclined plane, we placed graph paper, and on the graph paper
we placed carbon paper.
o We then rolled a steel ball bearing down the ruler. After travelling down the
inclined plane, it left a carbon imprint of its path on the graph paper.
o Because horizontal velocity is constant, we divided each unit of graph paper as
1 unit of time, and measured consecutive distances travelled down the y-axis
every time unit.
o We found that the distance travelled each time increased (i.e. by 0.2cm first,
then by 0.3 cm, then 0.4cm).
o Due to this increasing distance travelled each time interval, this means that
velocity in cm/time was increasing. Therefore, we identified the existence of a
vertical acceleration and the vertical component of projectile motion.
Because our time interval was not in proper units, we could not
calculate the vertical acceleration value.

then by 0.3 cm, then 0.4cm).

o Due to this increasing distance travelled each time interval, this means that
velocity in cm/time was increasing. Therefore, we identified the existence of a
vertical acceleration and the vertical component of projectile motion.
Because our time interval was not in proper units, we could not
calculate the vertical acceleration value.

Inertial and Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

o We held a string with a small mass attached to the end, such that it formed a
sort of pendulum.
o We then walked at a constant speed in a straight line. We observed that the
pendulum hardly swung at all. It did swing a little bit, as it is basically
impossible to walk at an absolutely constant velocity.
o However, when we purposely sped up, or stopped abruptly, or turned around,
the pendulum swung in a way to oppose our motion.
o The first scenario was an inertial frame of reference, and so to someone
witnessing ONLY the pendulum, they would not be able to tell what speed the
holder was moving at, or if it was moving at all.
o The second scenario was a non-inertial frame of reference, and so to someone
witnessing the pendulum, they could deduce in what direction the holder was
accelerating, and with the correct technology could hypothetically determine
the magnitude of acceleration.

9.3 MOTORS AND GENERATORS

9.3.1 Motors
o The motor effect is the action of a force acting on a current carrying conductor
when it is placed in an external magnetic field.
o Since charged particles produce their own magnetic field, these two fields
interact, causing a force on the charged particles (in the case of current, they
are electrons).
The force can be found by using the right hand push rule. The thumb
points in the direction of conventional current (against electron flow),
the fingers point in the direction on the magnetic field (north to south),
the pushing with the palm gives the direction of the force on the current
carrying conductor. From this, if the current is flowing parallel to the
magnetic field, there is going to be no force. F is proportional to sin@,
where @ is the angle between the conductor and the magnetic field.
Greatest force when they are perpendicular.
o In a uniform magnetic field, charged particles follow a circular path, as there is
a constant force. If it enters the field at a slight angle, it follows a helical path.
o A conductor with flowing charged particles is also affected by the motor effect,
and this force can be found using the right hand push rule.
o Factors Affecting Magnitude of Force
Proportional to current in conductor, I.
Proportional to strength of magnetic field, B.
Proportional to length of the conductor in the magnetic field, L.
Proportional to sine of angle between conductor and magnetic field,
sin@.
o Therefore, F = BIL sin@.
The force is at a maximum when the conductor is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, as @ = 90, and sin@ = 1. It is zero when the conductor
is parallel to the magnetic field, as @ = 0, and sin@ = 0.
o Forces Between Parallel Conductors

sin@.
o Therefore, F = BIL sin@.
The force is at a maximum when the conductor is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, as @ = 90, and sin@ = 1. It is zero when the conductor
is parallel to the magnetic field, as @ = 0, and sin@ = 0.
o Forces Between Parallel Conductors
Two current-carrying conductors parallel to each other and a finite
distance apart will experience a force due to interacting magnetic fields.
Using right hand grip rule, we find that they attract if the currents are
going the same way, and they repel if the currents are going in opposite
directions. They are either repelled or attracted with the same
magnitude force, in opposite directions.
The strength of the magnetic field, B = k I/d, where k = 2.0 x10-7, I is
the current in amperes and d is the perpendicular distance between the
wires in metres.
Equating this with F = BIL sin@, gives the equation of the force of one
conductor on the other: F/L = kI1I2 / d, where I1 and I2 are the currents
in the conductors, and L is the length of the conductor in the magnetic
field. Force per unit length is usually asked for (N/m).
Note the force on the other conductor (if there are only two),
will be equal and opposite.
There can be more than two parallel conductors, in which case
the force of each on the other must be added to find the net
force on each.
o Torque
Torque is the turning effect of a force acting on an object.
Anything that turns in any direction (up, down, left, right etc)
has been subject to torque, e.g. turning on the tap.
It is the product of the tangential component of the force and the
distance away from the axis of rotation, and also depends on the angle
at which the force is applied.
= Fd sin@
This shows that the further away from the point of rotation, the
less force that needs to be applied to make the system turn.
o This is why long spanners are more efficient than shorter
ones.
Torque is maximum when the force is applied perpendicular to
the line joining the point of force and the pivot axis.

DC Electric Motors LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK

o An electric motor transforms electrical potential energy into rotation
mechanical energy.
o A current is passed through a coil in a magnetic field, producing two
interacting magnetic fields which cause the coil to experience torque.
o Anatomy of a Motor
Motors consist of the stator (part which doesnt move) and the rotor
(part which moves).
Two magnets or electromagnets provide a constant magnetic field.
These are attached to the casing of the motor, and form the stator.
The rotor consists of a conductor coil wound onto a ferromagnetic
frame called an armature. The armature is attached to an axle, and
together they allow for the rotational energy to be harnessed easily.
The force on each side of the coil is F = nBIL sin@, for a coil with n
loops of wire.
This is why real motors have many coils to increase the force
on each side of the armature.
Commutators
A commutator is a device which switches the direction of the
current. If the current was all in one direction, the rotor would
spin back and forth through half a cycle. When the current is
switched every half cycle, it allows the rotor to continuously
turn in one direction.

on each side of the armature.

Commutators
A commutator is a device which switches the direction of the
current. If the current was all in one direction, the rotor would
spin back and forth through half a cycle. When the current is
switched every half cycle, it allows the rotor to continuously
turn in one direction.
DC Motors also have a split ring commutator as part of the
rotor. It consists of a split metal ring, with each end of the
conducting coil going into one half of the ring. Carbon brushes
make contact with the split ring commutator as it rotates, and
this supplies the EMF to the coil. When the coil turns half a
revolution, the brushes are now in contact with the other half of
the split ring, and therefore the current supplied to the circuit is
reversed.
The brushes are made of graphite, as it conducts electricity and also is a
lubricant for less frictional effects on the rotor.
The direction of the coils movement can be found using the right hand
push rule, as the direction of field is known, and the direction of current
is known.
o The motor operates by each side being pushed in the same rotational direction,
and therefore the rotor rotates. When the coil becomes perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the force is 0, but momentum allows it to swing a bit more. In
this time, the current reverses due to the split ring commutator, and the rotor
continues to rotate in the same direction.
The force on each part of the coil is constant; only the torque changes,
as the angle changes through rotation.
o Magnetic Field in a DC Motor
Can be provided by permanent magnets or electromagnets.
Electromagnets can be used by having a soft iron core with coils of
wire wrapped around it. The same current used for the armature coil
can be used for the electromagnet.
Electromagnets are much stronger, and can be turned on and off.
o Increasing Force and Efficiency of a DC Motor
Done by increasing the width of the coil, using more than one coil, and
increasing the force.
Using more than one coil will require more splits in the split
ring. This method creates a larger average torque throughout the
revolutions.
When the torque on one coil is lower, the torque on the other
coil is higher, so overall, there is no period where the total
torque on the coil is low.
The force can be increased by increasing current in the coil, increasing
magnetic field strength and using a soft iron core within the armature.
Also using radial magnetic fields means the coil is at right angles with
the magnetic field more often, thus increasing the time at which torque
is maximum.
o Torque in a DC Motor
= nBIA cos@, where @ is the angle between the plane of the coil
and the magnetic field, and A is the area of the coil.
To get the force on one side of the coil, just divide by 2.
o Galvanometer LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK
Measures magnitude and direction of DC current. It is a needle
attached to a spring, attached to the coil which carries the current to be
measured. As the coil undergoes torque, the needle rotates till it
counterbalances the torque with the restoring force of the spring. There
is then a linear scale which the needle points to which corresponds to
the amount and direction that the needle turns. Switching off the
current brings torque to 0, and the unbalanced restoring force returns

attached to a spring, attached to the coil which carries the current to be

measured. As the coil undergoes torque, the needle rotates till it
counterbalances the torque with the restoring force of the spring. There
is then a linear scale which the needle points to which corresponds to
the amount and direction that the needle turns. Switching off the
current brings torque to 0, and the unbalanced restoring force returns
the pointer to 0. Radial magnetic field provides uniform torque
throughout the coils movement, ensuring a linear scale.
o Loudspeakers LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK
Converts electrical energy to sound energy.
Consists of a circular south pole inside a circular north pole. Note these
poles can be interchanged, it doesnt really matter. A coil is in the space
between the two poles. This is called the voice coil. When the voice
coil carries current, it is forced to vibrate in and out of the central pole
by the motor effect. The voice coil is placed against a speaker cone,
which creates sound waves as the coil vibrates. To create louder noises,
the magnitude of current is increased to increase the magnitude of
vibrations. To create different pitches, the frequency at which the
direction of current changes is altered.
9.3.2 Electromagnetic Induction
o Michael Faraday
After Oersted discovered the relationship between electrical current
and magnetic fields, many scientists tried to produce electricity using a
magnetic field.
Faraday was the first to discover electromagnetic induction.
Faraday observed that when he coiled two coils around a block of
wood, one connected to a galvanometer and one connected to a battery,
when the battery coil was switched on or switched off, the
galvanometer received a slight, momentary reading.
When it was continuously off, or when current was continuously
flowing, there was no reading; only when it was switched on or off.
He also wound two coils on either end of an iron ring, very much like a
transformer nowadays. He connected one coil to a battery, and the other
to a galvanometer. Again, when the battery was switched on, the needle
momentarily moved, even more now because the iron core
concentrated the magnetic field. When it was switched off, it moved in
the opposite direction.
He also showed that passing a magnet in and out of a coil continuously
produced a constantly changing current in the coil. The direction
changed when he moved the magnet in and out, and also depended on
what pole was moved in and out. The magnitude of current changed
depending on how fast he moved the magnet.
Faraday therefore concluded that a changing magnetic field induces a
current.
o Electromagnetic Induction
Creation of Electromotive Force (EMF) in a conductor when it is in
relative motion to a magnetic field, or when it is in a changing
magnetic field. EMF = Blv.
This EMF is known as induced EMF, and creates induced
current.
o Magnetic Flux
Represented diagrammatically by using flux lines.
Closer field lines are stronger, spread out field lines are weaker.
Magnetic Flux is the total amount of magnetic field passing through an
area.
Measured in Weber (Wb) and is given the symbol B.
B = BA, where B is strength of magnetic field (T), A is area

 Represented diagrammatically by using flux lines.

Closer field lines are stronger, spread out field lines are weaker.
Magnetic Flux is the total amount of magnetic field passing through an
area.
Measured in Weber (Wb) and is given the symbol B.
B = BA, where B is strength of magnetic field (T), A is area
(m2), and B is perpendicular to A.
The strength of a magnetic field is known as magnetic field density, and
it is the amount of magnetic flux passing through a unit of area.
Measured in Tesla (T) or Wb/m2 and given the symbol B.
Magnetic flux passing through an area is reduced when it doesnt pass
perpendicular to the area. It is 0 when it is parallel to the chosen area.
o Generating a Potential Difference
Faraday proposed that changing magnetic flux, i.e. changing flux lines
in a given area, which in this case is the inside of the coil, produces a
proportional EMF.
The induced EMF in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate
at which magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with
time.
= - nB / t (n is the amount of turns in the coil)
o Change in magnetic flux is just final flux - initial flux.
The negative sign shows that the EMF resists the change which
caused it, in accordance with Lenzs law and the conservation
of energy.
A changing EMF can be a result of changing magnetic flux or
changing area
o Lenzs Law
Lenz gave a way to predict the direction of an induced current.
An induced EMF always gives rise to a current that creates a magnetic
field that opposes the original change in flux through the circuit. An
induced current resists motion.
This is because of conservation of energy. Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; only converted to different forms.
If it didnt oppose the original change, then it would produce a
magnetic field which would make it stronger and stronger, all the way
to infinite energy, which is not possible. Because it opposes the change,
it produces a magnetic field which makes it weaker till it becomes 0. Of
course, when magnetic flux is constantly changing, the current will
constantly change to resist the force, so a continuous current is
produced.
When a north pole is moved next to an end of the solenoid, the
magnetic flux passing inside the coil area changes and an EMF is
induced. The current will be such that the end to which the north pole is
brought becomes the north pole of the solenoid, such that it repels the
external north pole moving closer. This is why, to produce a larger
current, more energy is needed to fight the magnetic repulsion and push
the north pole closer to the solenoid. Using the right hand grip rule, the
direction of current flow in the solenoid can be found.
When a loop is moved out of a magnetic field, the current produced
replenishes the flux that was once inside the loop.
For example, a loop is in a field of dots, and is moved out to no
field. The current produced will replenish the dots in the centre,
and using the right hand grip rule, the current flows
anticlockwise.
Back EMF
Because when a motor turns, there is a changing flux in the
area; EMF is induced to resist the change. The current is in the
opposite direction to the supply current, so this induced EMF is
called back EMF, as it resists supply EMF.
o Back EMF limits the maximum current in the coils and
therefore the maximum speed of the motor for any

 Back EMF
Because when a motor turns, there is a changing flux in the
area; EMF is induced to resist the change. The current is in the
opposite direction to the supply current, so this induced EMF is
called back EMF, as it resists supply EMF.
o Back EMF limits the maximum current in the coils and
therefore the maximum speed of the motor for any
particular supply EMF.
The faster the coil rotates the more back EMF, as more flux is
being cut per second.
When back EMF equals supply EMF, net EMF is zero, and
there is no current and therefore no force on the coil. This
makes the armature rotate at a constant speed.
A large supply current can burn out the motor due to short
circuiting. As the motor continues to turn, back EMF helps to
cut down a high net current, so the motor is safe. If the motor is
overloaded and turns too slowly, back EMF is reduced, and if
net current goes too high, the motor could burn out.
o To stop the motor burning out when it is initially started
(as back EMF will be 0 for an instant), it is connected to
a resistor to reduce current. The resistor then drops to
0 as the motor starts to produce back EMF.
o Need for External Circuits
A conductor moving through a magnetic field will experience induced
EMF, and electrons will move to one end, making the ends positive and
negative. While still moving, the rod will continue to experience EMF,
but nothing else will move, because the electrostatic force is in
equilibrium with electrostatic force. This means that a conductor
experiences a momentary current.
If the conductor was connected to the other end via an external circuit,
the electrons could flow from the negative end to replace the deficiency
at the positive end, and a continuous current would flow.
o Eddy Currents
Induced currents can also occur in metal objects and sheets.
An eddy current is any current that is induced due to relative motion
between the conductor and magnetic flux.
On solid metal sheets, eddy currents are circular, whirling currents. It is
as if the current is a loop in a magnetic field, and the direction of the
eddy current can be found the same way as the direction of current in a
loop by using Lenzs Law.
The free valence electrons in metal sheets experience a force
when in relative motion to magnetic flux. They move to resist
the change in flux, by trying to negate this change. This is how
the direction of eddy currents can be found.
Switching Devices
Eg. Metal detectors. A very high frequency AC current is
supplied to a coil. When a metal object is brought near the coil,
it gets induced eddy currents due to the magnetic field. This
produces a magnetic field, which interacts with the coils
magnetic field, placing a load on the coil. The frequency of the
current lowers, and if it falls below a certain threshold, an alarm
is switched on.
Eddy currents can be useful, like in generators, induction cooktops and
electromagnetic braking.
They can also be a nuisance, such as in motors and transformers, eddy
currents are induced in iron cores, and cause even more back EMF and
lose energy due to heating effects.
Eddy currents can be limited by placing lamination sheets in
iron cores. This reduces the size of the eddy currents, as instead
of large currents flowing along the whole core, there can only
be smaller ones in each laminated part.

currents are induced in iron cores, and cause even more back EMF and
lose energy due to heating effects.
Eddy currents can be limited by placing lamination sheets in
iron cores. This reduces the size of the eddy currents, as instead
of large currents flowing along the whole core, there can only
be smaller ones in each laminated part.
Electromagnetic Braking
As a metal wheel rotates through a magnetic field, eddy currents
are produced in the wheel, and interact with the external field to
reduce the wheels motion, as per Lenzs Law.
As the wheel slows down, the eddy currents reduce in
magnitude, and the slowing effect is less. This allows for much
smoother braking. Electromagnetic braking can be used in
trains and trams with electromagnets being on the tracks, as
well as in rollercoasters.
Disadvantage doesnt work well at low speeds.
Induction Cooktops
Eddy currents increase the temperature of metal as the moving
charges and atoms collide.
Induction heating is very bad in motors, but is useful in
cooktops and furnaces
An AC coil produces an alternating magnetic field. On top of
this, is a ceramic plate, which heats up only a little bit, making
it much safer to be around. The magnetic field induces eddy
currents in any metal container placed on the ceramic plate.
This then heats up the container, thus cooking the contents.
o Gas cookers lose much heat to the atmosphere, being
43% efficient, but induction cookers are 80% efficient.
They are also much safer.
Induction Furnaces
The edge of the furnace is a coil encased in a material with an
extremely high melting point. The alternating current in the coil
produces magnetic fields which induce eddy currents in the
metal. This heats up the metal, and makes it melt. It also
produces a stirring effect in the liquid metal, making the
production of alloys much easier. They are cleaner and more
efficient than flame furnaces.

9.3.3 Generators and Power Distribution

o Societys dependence on electricity nowadays is enormous. Our society is
dependent on the efficient production and transmission of electrical energy.
o In 1800, Volta invented the electric battery, which supplied electricity as
current rather than static.
Two different metal electrodes placed in an electrolyte solution, usually
an acid, produces a current flow.
o Generators
Transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It consists of a coil of wire forced to rotate in a magnetic field.
As the coil rotates, the flux changes, as the area perpendicular to the
magnetic field changes.
This induces an EMF and creates a current, which is transferred
via the terminals to be distributed.
Apart from input and output energies, motors and generators have the
same structure. However, they use different principles.
Common methods of providing mechanical energy are using steam or
water to turn turbines connected to the axles on armatures.
o Anatomy of Generators

via the terminals to be distributed.

Apart from input and output energies, motors and generators have the
same structure. However, they use different principles.
Common methods of providing mechanical energy are using steam or
water to turn turbines connected to the axles on armatures.
o Anatomy of Generators
Consist of a stator, which is the casing and the magnets, which can
either be permanent magnets or electromagnets. Also has the rotor,
which is the current carrying coil.
The coil is wrapped on an armature which contains a central axle.
Radial magnets provide the magnetic field, split ring commutators are
used for DC generators, and brushes are used.
o The direction of current at any given time can be found by using right hand
push rule.
Curves for electromotive force and magnetic flux are trigonometric.
The curve for magnetic flux is the derivative of the curve for
electromotive force (i.e. sine and cosine).
Note that a generator just with coil and magnets will produce AC
current. To produce DC, a commutator is needed, and for a one-phase
generator, there will be still be instants when EMF is zero, as DC will
just be absolute value of AC.
o Effectiveness of Generators
The effectiveness of generators is increased by increasing the speed of
the rotor. As the speed increases, the period decreases by the same
factor, and amplitude and frequency increase by the same factor.
Amplitude is what determines the magnitude of current.
Also winding the coil onto an iron core armature concentrates the
magnetic field to increase induced EMF, and by increasing turns on the
coil, which behaves like a number of individual coils connected in
series.

AC Generators LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK

o AC generators are just a coil in a magnetic field, with no commutator, as the
current produced is naturally alternating every half cycle.
o The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings, which rotate with the armature.
The graphite brushes make contact with the slip rings as they rotate,
transferring current to the load.
o Which way does current flow?
This can be found using right hand push rule, as force on coil and
magnetic field is known, and direction of current can then be worked
out.
Also can be found using Lenzs law, as when more flux enters the area
of the coil, the induced current produces a field to oppose this flux, and
then the direction of current can be found using right hand grip rule.
Similarly, if less flux is in the area, then the current flows to increase
the flux to what it was.
For polarity of terminals, first find direction of current at the instant.
Then, the terminal from which current is coming out of is the positive
terminal, as it is conventional current.

DC Generators LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK

o DC Currents always flow in the same direction, although magnitudes can vary.
o DC generators have a similar setup to AC generators, although they use a split
ring commutator to make the current flow in one direction, whereas an AC
generator uses slip rings.
o A DC generator will have unsmooth, jumpy current flow, as the current will be
fluctuate between high and zero at the frequency of the rotors rotation. To

o DC Currents always flow in the same direction, although magnitudes can vary.
o DC generators have a similar setup to AC generators, although they use a split
ring commutator to make the current flow in one direction, whereas an AC
generator uses slip rings.
o A DC generator will have unsmooth, jumpy current flow, as the current will be
fluctuate between high and zero at the frequency of the rotors rotation. To
compensate for this, more coils can be used, where each coil is equally
separated. This requires more splits in the split ring commutator, but one coils
zero EMF will be superimposed over another coils maximum EMF, producing
smoother, more powerful current. This is called increasing the phases of the
motor, i.e. two phase, three phase.
o DC generators are used over AC generators where things like batteries require
recharging.

Advantages and Disadvantages of AC and DC Generators

o AC
Produces AC current which can be transformed, is more useful for
household appliances, has fewer moving parts and is cheaper and easier
to maintain, and is more efficient than DC, as it produces less friction,
heat and noise.
Produces back EMF which reduces the net current that is induced, and
requires heavy insulation to minimize the high frequency
electromagnetic radiation that comes with AC current interfering with
other electrical equipment.
o DC
Dont need as much insulation, as DC has no high frequency
electromagnetic radiation, and even though they produce back EMF,
they can compensate for this, as they have no power loss due to
induction to adjacent lines and metal structures.
DC current cannot be transformed, and are not as reliable due to
sparking and wear across the split ring commutator.

Power Stations
o As power station generators produce typical outputs of 22kV, they have a
different setup. The rotor is a DC supplied electromagnet, and provides the
external magnetic field and rotates 50 times a second. The stator has a pair of
coils mounted at opposite ends on an iron armature, and this carries the AC
output to the load.
o These generators are often three phase, with three pairs of coils with each coil
60 apart. This increases the efficiency and output of the generator system.

Power Losses in Transmission Lines

o Power stations are located large distances from cities and homes, and
electricity is transferred using power lines.
o Power loss occurs due to the natural resistance of power lines, which is
amplified by their enormous length.
o Power loss = I2R, so to reduce power loss, current must be reduced. This
occurs by using step up transformers to increase voltage to very high amounts,
thus making current very small during transmission.
o The voltage is stepped down again as the current gets closer to homes and
factories etc.
o When doing calculations involving transmission lines, the initial current is
determined by the voltage at which power is transmitted, and the power at
which electricity is generated, not by the resistance of the wires (P = VI).
When this initial current is found, then the resistance of the wires can be used
to calculate voltage drop across the wires and the power loss.

Impacts of AC Generators
o Society
Positive People can live in the country as power can be transmitted,
and there is no need to live next to power plants. Skilled job
opportunities in mass production have increased. New machines can

Impacts of AC Generators
o Society
Positive People can live in the country as power can be transmitted,
and there is no need to live next to power plants. Skilled job
opportunities in mass production have increased. New machines can
create cheaper products for improved living and leisure. Enabled use of
low voltage communications (phones) and high voltage leisure systems
(TV). Also allowed the use of handheld systems for better access to
data and news etc.
Negative Much less unskilled jobs has increased unemployment and
welfare payments, pollution from fossil fuel plants has caused asthma
and other health problems, causing expenses and reduced quality of
life. 50Hz current can also cause electrocutions. People also think that
magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation from power stations can
cause health problems, and tend to live away from them, but there is no
evidence for this.
o Environment
Negative Removal of natural habitats in order to build enormous
power plants has destroyed ecosystems and removed wildlife habitats
and vegetation. Power lines are aesthetically unappealing, and also
pose a threat to flying animals. Gas pollution has led to thermal
pollution, acid rain and air pollution due to sulphur and nitrogen
releases, as well as contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Pollution also affects waterways and affects marine life.
Hydroelectricity dams have also lead to flooding of forests and towns.

Competition Between Westinghouse and Edison

o Edison wanted to supply electricity using DC current. Westinghouse was an
advocate for AC current.
o Edison had a DC system for city lighting, requiring a generator every 1km. He
strongly advocate against AC current, saying it was too dangerous at any
voltage over 250, and he electrocuted many animals to prove his point.
o AC Current was used for the electric chair, and Edison endorsed this, hoping
people would turn against the domestic use of AC after seeing it being used for
executions.
o Westinghouse supported AC because of more efficient transmission over long
distances, and fewer generators would be needed.
o Westinghouse quoted lower prices to power the Chicago World Fair and the
Buffalo Street Railway, and the results impressed people.
o Westinghouse eventually won out.

Protection and Insulation of Transmission Wires

o Lightning strikes the top most object it reaches. A shield conductor, which is a
pair of wires carrying no current, is the highest wire as to attract the lightning
strike.
o An earthing cable runs from the top of the power towers to the Earth, and is
used to conduct any lightning strikes straight down to the earth.
o The towers themselves are metal and run deep into the earth, so if they are
struck, it conducts the voltage straight into the Earth, keeping the current
transmitting wires safe.
o In dry air, sparks can jump 1cm for every 10 kV potential difference. In wet
air, the jump is even higher. To prevent sparking, suspension insulators
separate transmission cables from the metal towers. They are a chain of
ceramic disks curved downwards, so that the bottoms of the disks do not get
wet or dirty. Water and dirt can serve as a conducting line, so it is important
that the insulators are free from these.
o Power towers are also a fair distance apart to prevent sparking between towers.

9.3.4 Transformers
o Transformers are devices which increase or decrease AC voltage.

wet or dirty. Water and dirt can serve as a conducting line, so it is important
that the insulators are free from these.
o Power towers are also a fair distance apart to prevent sparking between towers.
9.3.4 Transformers
o Transformers are devices which increase or decrease AC voltage.
o They increase the voltage for the transmission of current across long power
lines with minimal power loss. They decrease voltage when power comes to
homes and industries. They can also increase or decrease voltage for specific
appliances, like phones or TVs.
o Transformers consist of a primary coil and a secondary coil, both wrapped
around a laminated soft iron core. A current flows in the primary coil, and
produces a magnetic field, which induces a current in the secondary coil. This
can only work with AC, as there is a constantly changing flux, unlike DC.
o Depending on the number of turns in the secondary coil relative to the primary
coil, the voltage will be stepped up or down in proportion.
o Step-Up Transformers increase output voltage, Step-Down transformers
decrease output voltage.
More loops in the secondary coil steps up the voltage, and less loops in
the secondary coil steps down the voltage.
o Transformers are designed such that nearly all the flux produced from the first
coil threads passes through the second coil.
For a 100% efficient transformer, Np / Ns = Vp / Vs, where N is number
of turns.
o Conservation of Energy
When voltage increases, there has to be some sort of trade off,
otherwise this would violate the conservation of energy.
You cannot get more energy out of a transformer than you put into it.
Some energy will always be lost due to eddy currents forming
in the iron core and heating up, but they are reduced due to
lamination of the core. The output energy is therefore always a
little bit less than input energy.
Assuming a 100% efficient transformer, PP = PS. This means VPIP =
V S IS .
Therefore, NP/NS = IS/IP, as now it is inversely proportional.
o Reducing Heat Loss in Transformers
Eddy currents are induced in the iron core of the transformer, and make
it heat up. This creates energy loss due to thermal resistance of the
metal. Furthermore, resistive heating of the wires causes heat loss too.
This is reducible by using a coolant.
To reduce this, instead of using an iron block, many iron layers with
laminations are attached to each other, so the magnetism threads the
whole way, but eddy currents are forced to form in small amounts on
each layer, as opposed to filling the whole core.
Also, ferrites can be used for the core, which are complex compounds
of iron, oxygen and other metals. These are good transmitters of
magnetic flux but are poor electrical conductors, so eddy currents are
reduced.
Preventing Overheating
Heat vents, dark coloured casing, having transformers above
ground, providing a circulating coolant to the system.
o The Need for Transformers in Power Transmission
Power loss due to heating in transmission lines is given by I2R, and the
lower the voltage, the higher the current. Therefore, if electricity is
transmitted at 240V, there would be massive energy loss.
In NSW, voltage is therefore stepped up from 23,000V at power
generators to 330,000V for transmission, reducing power loss
exponentially.

o The Need for Transformers in Power Transmission

Power loss due to heating in transmission lines is given by I2R, and the
lower the voltage, the higher the current. Therefore, if electricity is
transmitted at 240V, there would be massive energy loss.
In NSW, voltage is therefore stepped up from 23,000V at power
generators to 330,000V for transmission, reducing power loss
exponentially.
But households and industries cannot use such high voltages, as it
would be both useless and deadly.
Terminal stations step down voltage to 66,000V, then
substations further step this down to 11,000-22,000V. Finally,
pole transformers reduce this to 240V for households and 415V
for industry.
Power substations not only step down voltage, they can also split the
distribution of voltage, and disconnect itself from the transmission grid
if needed.
o Transformers in the Home
Some household appliances do not operate on 240V supply.
Transformers are therefore needed to change this voltage. For example,
TVs run on 30,000V, and phones run on 12V.
TVs and most appliances requiring stepping up have internal
transformers, but any plug point which is in the shape of a big
box means that it is equipped with a transformer.
o Impact of Transformers on Society
Transmission of energy to remote places is much more efficient, and
the lifestyle of people in these areas has changed dramatically.
More AC electricity is available to households and consumers,
increasing leisure activities and quality of life, and machine efficiency
in production.
Work appliances at home such as power tools, stoves, washing
machines etc have saved time and money for households.
9.3.5 AC Motors
o Because AC motors work on current at a precise frequency, they are often used
where precise speeds are required, such as in electric clocks.
o Anatomy of AC Motors
Exactly the same as a DC motor, except instead of the split ring
commutator, the AC motor uses slip rings. Each slip ring is connected
to one end of the current carrying coil. The slip rings rotate with the
armature, and make contact with the brushes from where current is
supplied.
AC motors complete one revolution per cycle of AC current. Australian
motors revolve 50 times a second.
Most AC motors have a cylindrical rotor, which is the iron armature
supporting the coils. The stator also has a core of laminated soft
ferromagnetic material.
AC motors can be single phase or polyphase.
o Universal Motor
Single phase motors that can run on DC or AC currents. They consist
of stator electromagnets connected in series to the rotor commutator.
This means that when DC flows, the commutator switches direction to
allow full turns. When AC flows through it, when the commutator
switches the i.e. keeping it all in the one direction, the rotor still turns
fully, as it is now the flux from the electromagnets which is alternating
every half turn.
o AC Induction Motors
A current is induced in the rotor coil from the changing stator magnetic
field, and this current produces its own magnetic field which interacts
with the original magnetic field, producing torque.
This is why there cannot be DC induction motors, as the magnetic flux

o AC Induction Motors
A current is induced in the rotor coil from the changing stator magnetic
field, and this current produces its own magnetic field which interacts
with the original magnetic field, producing torque.
This is why there cannot be DC induction motors, as the magnetic flux
would not change.
The stator is usually a pair of electromagnets on opposite sides of the
casing, each carrying AC current and producing an alternating
magnetic field.
The simplest induction motor is the squirrel cage motor.
It resembles the wheel people use to exercise their pet mice or
squirrels. There is no current supplied to the rotor, it gains
current only by induction; there is no contact. Squirrel cage
motors are the most common induction motor, and are found in
power drills, vacuum cleaners and hair dryers.
o Advantages and Disadvantages of Induction Motors
Advantages reliable (no contact between parts as there are no
brushes or commutators), simple and cheap, can be used in many
different industries, economical and efficient, self-starting, quiet
running.
Disadvantages they have a low power factor for light loads, meaning
mechanical power produced is low compared with electrical power
consumed. They are fixed speed machines (this can be changed by
connecting the axle to a gearbox), the starting torque is very low, so
heavy loads take a while to get moving, and the speed drops when the
load is increased.
o Structure of Induction Motors LEARN DIAGRAM IN BOOK
Stator
The stator is a cylindrical casing with pairs of electromagnets
opposite each other and equally spaced. Three-phase has 3 pairs
of magnets, each magnet 60 apart, and each pair one sixth of
the cycle out of phase with each other. This creates an evenly
rotating (or alternating for single phase) magnetic field, as every
half cycle, the current alternates for each pair of electromagnets.
Three phase induction motors are connected to three phase
supply lines, which supply this out-of-phase AC current.
The magnetic field rotates or alternates at 50 times per second.
Squirrel Cage Rotor
Consists of a number of aluminium or copper conducting bars,
joined together at the ends with end rings, to complete the
circuit. It resembles a cylindrical cage.
These bars and rings are encased within a laminated soft iron
armature to concentrate magnetic field and increase induced
current.
The armature is mounted onto a shaft which passes out the end
of the motor.
Operation of AC Induction Motors
The magnetic field rotating creates relative movement between
the rotor and the magnetic flux. This induces a current in the
rotor, which creates a magnetic field.
Using the right hand push rule, the torque can be found to
always push the rotor in the same direction as the rotating
magnetic field, i.e. the rotor and the magnetic field rotate in the
same direction.
Slip
o If the rotor and the magnetic field rotate at the same rate,
then there will be no relative movement, and the motor
would not run.

magnetic field, i.e. the rotor and the magnetic field rotate in the
same direction.
Slip
o If the rotor and the magnetic field rotate at the same rate,
then there will be no relative movement, and the motor
would not run.
o When operating under a load, the rotor slows down to
spin slower than the magnetic field. This difference in
speed is called slip speed.
o When working under a load, and the rotor slows down,
the greater relative speed means more flux will be cut,
and the induced current and torque will increase,
bringing the motor back to its speed again.
Power
o Power is the rate of doing work, and work is done when
energy is transferred from one type to another,
o Induction motors are low power, as they produce less
mechanical energy compared to the input electrical
energy. This is due to the lost energy used in
magnetizing the working parts and creating induction
currents.
o They are unsuitable for use in heavy industry, as the
power loss will be economically hefty, but they are very
suited to domestic appliances where loss of power is not
significant.

o Energy Transformations and Transfers

Electrical energy is converted into many different types of other
energies.
It can be converted to heat energy, sound energy, light energy, kinetic
energy, gravitational potential energy and mechanical energy, just to
name a few.
Other output energy that is not useful could also accompany the
production of the useful energy, e.g. light energy with heat
energy.
In a hair dryer, electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy
from the motor. Some is converted into heat energy due to eddy
current energy loss. The mechanical energy is converted to sound and
kinetic energy of air particles. This air passes through a heating
element, where electrical energy is converted into light energy and heat
energy.

MOTORS AND GENERATORS PRACS

Demonstra1ng the Motor Eect

o We got a power pack and connected two leads to the DC points of the power pack.
Then we got a resistor and connected it two the end of one lead, and connected
another lead to the other end of the resistor. Finally, using alligator clips, we clipped
the remaining two ends to a 1x5cm aluminium strip. We then used two permanent
magnets to create a magne1c eld perpendicular to the aluminium strip.
o We switched on the power pack, and no1ced the strip vibra1ng rapidly in small
oscilla1ons. This was due to the motor eect.
o We found that strengthening the current or magne1c eld made the vibra1ons more
vigorous, and weakening them made the vibra1ons less no1ceable. Also, changing
the direc1on of current or the magne1c eld made the oscilla1ons in the vibra1ons
go in the other direc1on.

Induc1ng a Current and Producing an Alterna1ng Current

o We got a magnet and moved it in and out of a solenoid rapidly. The solenoid was
connected to a galvanometer, and it registered an alterna1ng current, due to
Faradays Law of Induc1on.
o When the magnet was moved at a further distance from the solenoid, the current
was much less. When it was moved so close as to be inside the solenoid, the current

Induc1ng a Current and Producing an Alterna1ng Current

o We got a magnet and moved it in and out of a solenoid rapidly. The solenoid was
connected to a galvanometer, and it registered an alterna1ng current, due to
Faradays Law of Induc1on.
o When the magnet was moved at a further distance from the solenoid, the current
was much less. When it was moved so close as to be inside the solenoid, the current
was much larger. When a stronger magnet was used, the current increased in
magnitude. When we changed the direc1on of rela1ve mo1on, the current oscillated
the other way. Also, just moving the magnet through in one direc1on created a
current in one direc1on, which stopped when the magnet stopped.

Modelling a Transformer
o We connected a solenoid and a resistor in series to a power pack, from the AC
terminals.
o Next to this solenoid, we placed another solenoid with more coils such that they
were as close as possible, but not touching. We then connected this solenoid to a
voltmeter.
o We turned the power pack on to 4 volts. We no1ced that the voltage shown on the
voltmeter was 6 volts, showing that the magne1c eld of the rst solenoid induced
an EMF in the second solenoid, and stepped it up because there were more coils. In
actual fact, there were around 3 1mes more coils on the secondary solenoid, but
there wasnt 3 1mes the voltage due to not all the ux being used to induce EMF in
the secondary solenoid.

Modelling an AC Induc1on Motor

o We got a spike, and balanced a thin circular sheet of aluminium (diameter 5cm) on it.
We then hung a magnet 1cm above the sheet using a retort stand and some string.
We made sure the magnet was nearly perfectly balanced. We then spun the magnet
clockwise, and a\er a few seconds, the aluminium sheet started to spin in the same
direc1on, indica1ng that a current had been induced and was interac1ng with the
external magne1c eld, crea1ng mo1on. When the magnet was spun counter
clockwise, the sheet spun counter clockwise as well.
o This is the same principle as an AC Induc1on motor, except that the spinning
magne1c eld is caused by three pairs of electromagnets arranged in a circle around
the rotor (in this case, the sheet).

9.4 IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION

9.4.1 Cathode Rays
o Geissler developed a way to make a very precise vacuum in a tube, called the
Geissler Tube,
o Julius Plucker was able to seal two electrodes at either end of the tube. He then
connected each end to a high voltage source, and found that the vacuum tube
conducted a current.
He also noticed fluorescence on the glass at the anode end of the tube.
Note, the cathode is negative and the anode is positive.
Fluorescence is the emission of light from a material when it is
struck by particles or radiation.
o When electrons strike an atom at high voltage, they
excite electrons in the shells, moving them to higher
energy levels. As these electrons fall back to their
original energy levels, they emit a flash of light unique
to the element, called scintillation.
o Our eyes perceive the brightest band which is emitted.
This invisible ray causing fluorescence and conducting current must

excite electrons in the shells, moving them to higher

energy levels. As these electrons fall back to their
original energy levels, they emit a flash of light unique
to the element, called scintillation.
o Our eyes perceive the brightest band which is emitted.
This invisible ray causing fluorescence and conducting current must
have originated at the cathode, hence the term, cathode rays.
The vacuum tube with electrodes was called a cathode ray tube
or discharge tube
o Discharge Tubes
At different pressures, discharge tubes were found to create different
effects.
At higher pressures, there are gas particles for the electrons to hit, so
there is fluorescence as well as striations, or parallel bands of bright
glowing. Between striations, there are dark spaces.
At lower pressures, striations become thinner and dark spaces increase.
Eventually, striations disappear and fluorescence is all that is left.
Positive particles coming out the other end of the cathode are called
canal rays, and also cause fluorescence on the glass at the cathode.
At the electrodes, there is a characteristic glow due to coronal
discharge.
o Cathode Rays: Waves or Particles
The Germans believed that cathode rays were a wave, and the British
believed that they were particles. For all practical purposes, the British
were correct, but the electron can in fact act as both a particle and a
wave.
Maltese Cross Tube
Cathode Rays are blocked by a metal barrier, and they travel in
straight line, because they produced a sharp edged shadow on
the glass. The rays also cause fluorescence.
Fluorescent Screen Tube
Cathode Rays are charged, as they are deflected by a magnetic
field. This means they are particles, as waves cannot be
charged. They travel in straight lines, as a narrow beam was
formed through the slit in the screen.
Paddle Wheel Tube
Cathode rays have momentum, as they make the paddle wheel
move, and they therefore have mass, so they are particles.
Electric Plate Tubes
Rays travel in straight lines and are unaffected electric fields, so
they are therefore uncharged. This could have meant they were
waves. The reason that no deflection was seen was that the
technology of the time was not good enough to produce a large
enough deflection. When we did the prac, we could see the
deflection due to our superior technology.
Another factor supporting the wave model was that cathode rays could
pass through metal strips without affecting them. However, this was
solvable by modifying the model of the atom. Electrons are so small
that they pass through the large empty space of atoms without affecting
them.
J. J. Thomson found a way to see the deflection in cathode rays by an
electric field. He found that as the cathode rays ionized gas particles,
the ions were attracted to the opposite electric plate, forming a layer of
ions over them, and essentially cancelling out the charges, allowing the
cathode rays to travel in a straight line. Thomson evacuated the
chamber of these ions, and tried it again, this time noticing a deflection.
They were attracted to the positive plate, so they were negative
particles.
o Electric Fields on Cathode Rays
Electric Fields are regions in space where a charged particle

chamber of these ions, and tried it again, this time noticing a deflection.
They were attracted to the positive plate, so they were negative
particles.
o Electric Fields on Cathode Rays
Electric Fields are regions in space where a charged particle
experiences a force.
Represented by field lines from positive to negative. Force on a
particle is equal to the strength of the field multiplied by the
charge on the particle. Felec = q*E.
o A uniform electric field has equally space lines, and the
closer that field lines are together, the stronger the field.
Field lines are always perpendicular to wherever they
start and end.
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.
On an isolated positive charge, the field radiates outwards. On
an isolated negative charge, the field comes into the particle.
Oppositely charged plates produce an electric field from the positive
plate to the negative plate. It signifies the path a positive test charge
would follow if placed in the electric field.
It is uniform between parallel plates, and the strength of the electric
field is given by
E = V/d or E = F/q. The strength is measured in
N/C or V/m.
Conventional current flows from positive to negative (big line to small
line on the circuit diagram), and so the positive plate has a high electric
potential compared to the negative plate. This difference in potential is
the voltage, and the distance between them is also factored when
calculating the strength of the electric field.
If cathode rays are directed through an electric field, they are attracted
to the positive plate, as they are negative particles, and go opposite to
field lines. Charged particles in an electric field follow a trajectory, and
projectile motion equations apply to them.
Also, W (work) = qV = (mv2)/2
o Magnetic Fields on Cathode Rays
A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnet experiences a
force.
Moving charges create their own magnetic field, and when moving in
an external magnetic field, these interacting fields create the force on
the particle.
The force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is Fmag = Bvqsin,
where B is the magnetic field strength, v is the velocity of the particle,
q is the charge of the particle, is the angle between the planes of B
and v, and F is the force in Newtons.
This means if the charge is not moving, or if it is moving parallel to the
magnetic field, there will be no force.
When cathode rays move through a magnetic field, right hand push rule
is used to give the direction of the force. The thumb points in the
opposite direction to the velocity of the cathode rays, as the thumb
corresponds to conventional current, which is positive ion movement,
so for negative particles, it is the opposite way.
The path of a charged particle in a magnetic field is circular, as the
force is always perpendicular. This means that if we equate magnetic
and centripetal force, we get an equation for the radius of the path: r =
mv / qBsin.
o Charge to Mass Ratio of an Electron
Thomson used deflected cathode rays using an electric field, and
straightened their path using a magnetic field. He equated the two
forces and found the velocity of the rays to be v = E / B, considerably
slower than the speed of light.
He accelerated the cathode rays by using two anodes with slits,

o Charge to Mass Ratio of an Electron

Thomson used deflected cathode rays using an electric field, and
straightened their path using a magnetic field. He equated the two
forces and found the velocity of the rays to be v = E / B, considerably
slower than the speed of light.
He accelerated the cathode rays by using two anodes with slits,
placed at an interval down the tube, called a collimator.
He then deflected them using the magnetic field only, and measured the
radius of deflection.
He knew the potential difference between the two charged plates, and
their distance apart, because he set them up. He then calculated electric
field strength using E = V/d.
Finally, he equated Fmag = Bqv and Fcent = mv2/r, and found that q/m =
v/Br, and therefore q/m = E/B2r, where E, B and r were all quantities
that he knew.
Thomson had found the charge to mass ratio of cathode rays, which he
knew to be particles. If either the mass or the charge was found, the
other could be calculated. He showed that their charge to mass ratio
was 1800 times more than the hydrogen ion, indicating its small mass.
The charge to mass ratio was 1.76 x 1011 C/kg.
He assumed the charge on the particle to be the same as the hydrogen
ion (which is true), and very accurately calculated the mass of the
particle.
He assumed these were the particles responsible for electricity, and
called them electrons
o Applications of Cathode Rays
Parts of CRTs
An electron gun, which is a cathode which when heated,
releases electrons through thermionic emission, and a
negatively charged cylinder to focus the beam. A positively
charged anode is required further down the tube to accelerate
the cathode rays to the required speeds to create the required
fluorescence.
Two sets of electrically charged plates and/or magnetic fields to
deflect the cathode rays to the required part on the screen and to
scan the beam up and down the screen. The two sets are for
vertical and horizontal control.
A collimator, like a screen with a small slit in the middle, blocks
out stray electrons and narrows the cathode ray to a single
beam.
A screen covered with a phosphor, which is a material that
fluoresces when hit by electrons.
A casing, usually thick glass, to contain the apparatus in a
vacuum.
Television
There are there electron guns, each stimulating a different
colour in the phosphor
A television image is made of 625 pixels horizontally. Each
pixel is made out of three dots- red, blue and green, and these
dots can be seen through a magnifying glass. When electrons
strike each pixel, they stimulate a colour of red, blue or green,
and the colours on a television are combinations of all these
colours.
Electrons are directed to their respective pixels using a
magnetic field and electric field.
Electrons sweep across the screen, drawing in the odd
numbered lines, and coming back for the even numbered lines.
Each scan takes one fiftieth of a second, so the brain doesnt
process this flickering.
The phosphorescing material on the screen glows for longer
after the excitement of electrons, to minimize screen flicker.
The beams pass through a shadow mask to control the

Electrons sweep across the screen, drawing in the odd

numbered lines, and coming back for the even numbered lines.
Each scan takes one fiftieth of a second, so the brain doesnt
process this flickering.
The phosphorescing material on the screen glows for longer
after the excitement of electrons, to minimize screen flicker.
The beams pass through a shadow mask to control the
brightness of each beam.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
A CRO displays a real time graph of voltage versus time.
The cathode rays are deflected using a vertical and horizontal
electric field, and sweep across the fluorescent screen.
Both sets of plates are connected to the voltage source to be
measured.
The horizontal plates control the timebase, which is the
frequency at which electrons sweep across the screen. The
timebase can be controlled by the operator using a button on the
control panel.
o This calibrates the time axis.
o The electron beam sweeps one way for the time axis,
and is blocked on its way back so it doesnt retrace
itself. This is called blanking.
The vertical plates then cause the beam to move up and down,
drawing out a voltage line on a scale that is already shown on
the screen.
The horizontal voltage is a sawtooth wave, controlling the
display on the x-axis. The sudden drop can be seen by slight
breaks in the graph every so often. The vertical voltage is in
synchronization with the input voltage.
9.4.2 Reconceptualization of Light
o Hertzs Experiment
James Clerk Maxwell studied Faradays experiments with electricity
and magnetism, and predicted that oscillating charges should produce a
wave with oscillating electric and magnetic fields at right angles to
each other, which travelled through space at the speed of light.
He predicted that light was therefore this electromagnetic
wave due to the similarity in velocities, but he could not prove
it.
Hertz used an antenna that produced alternating current at a high
frequency, and needed a receiver which could tune in to that frequency,
exactly how our FM radios work.
His transmitter was a pair of metal rods placed end to end with
a small gap between them. A huge potential difference was
applied across these rods, causing a spark to jump across them.
The current oscillated back and forth across the gap, causing
electromagnetic waves.
o He could change and calculate the frequency by
analysing the dimensions of the rods he was using.
His receiver was a metal loop with a gap in it, which had to
have a natural oscillating frequency matching the frequency of
the transmitter. This could be determined by setting the
dimensions of the loop and its gap.
o He found that when the current oscillated in the first
loop, that even when the second loop was placed a
kilometre away, a spark would jump across its gap, even
though it was just a metal loop not connected to
anything.
o He concluded some invisible wave carried energy from
the first to the second coil.
o He also found that these waves were blocked by metal,
and that UV light from the sun caused the spark to be

though it was just a metal loop not connected to

anything.
o He concluded some invisible wave carried energy from
the first to the second coil.
o He also found that these waves were blocked by metal,
and that UV light from the sun caused the spark to be
stronger.
o In principle, Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect
without exploring it further; he only realised from his
UV experiment that light and electricity must be
connected in some way.

Radio Waves Prac

A spark generator was set up at the front of the room using an
induction coil.
An old radio was then placed at the back of the room, and tuned
until the frequency of the spark was picked up by it.
After witnessing the production, transmission and receiving of
radio waves, we then moved the radio closer and further away
from the spark generator and found that the buzzing went
louder and softer due to the interference patterns.
Measuring the Speed
Hertz could find the speed of his radio waves by a number of
methods.
He formed a standing electromagnetic wave by reflecting the
produced waves off a zinc plate. By moving his receiver across
this standing wave, he found a strong spark was produced at the
antinodes, and at the nodes, no spark was produced.
o Antinodes are the point of biggest separation between
standing wave amplitudes. Nodes are when both
patterns in the standing wave are at zero amplitude.
The distance between spark and no spark was therefore half a
wavelength, and he also knew the frequency of the light from
the frequency of the spark jumping, so he could use the
fundamental wave equation to work out velocity: .
Other Things
Hertz showed that changing the frequency changed the
wavelength inversely proportionally, so the speed of these
waves was always constant, like light.
He showed that these waves could be refracted just like light.
He showed that the electric and magnetic fields had a unique
direction in space, called polarization. He did this by showing
that if the secondary gap was aligned to the electric field, a
spark was produced, and if it was at right angles, no spark was
produced.

Blackbodies and a New Theory of Light

direction in space, called polarization. He did this by showing

that if the secondary gap was aligned to the electric field, a
spark was produced, and if it was at right angles, no spark was
produced.

Blackbodies and a New Theory of Light

o When an object is heated, its temperature rises and it starts to emit colours
from the spectrum, first becoming dull orange and red, then becoming white
hot and then eventually becoming blue.
They found that the wavelengths these hot materials emitted did not
depend on the material themselves, but only on the temperature.
They also found that as temperature increased, the most intense
wavelengths emitted shifted to smaller values, i.e. from red to blue.
Also as temperature increased, the intensity of the dominant
wavelength increased.
o An object that absorbs all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum is
called a black body absorber. An object that emits all wavelengths of the
spectrum is a black body emitter.
The Sun is a near perfect blackbody (absorbs all electromagnetic light
which hits it), and so its temperature can be calculated by matching its
dominant wavelength (yellow-orange) to a pre-calibrated set of
blackbody curves.
o A black object is not a perfect blackbody, as some radiation will always be
reflected. A perfect blackbody would be a cavity with a small hole through
which radiation would enter. All radiation would then get reflected on all walls
of the cavity and continually get reflected until it is absorbed. A perfect
blackbody emitter would be the same cavity, but heated.
Physicists attempted to formulate mathematical relationships for
blackbody radiation using electromagnetic wave theory and
thermodynamics (movement of heat), called the classical theory.
They assumed the walls of the cavity were made from tiny
oscillators that would emit electromagnetic waves.
This explanation worked for larger wavelengths, but then predicted an
infinite intensity at the UV spectrum, called the UV catastrophe.
o Max Planck found a way around this, as in 1900 he proposed that the emitters
in the blackbody wall could only have energies given by E = nhf, where n is a
positive integer, h is Plancks constant and f is the frequency of emitted light.
The emitters can only absorb or emit energy in jumps, called quanta,
and this will lead to these atoms changing energy state. Energy states of
emitters will differ by a factor of hf.
Classical physics stated that energy would be absorbed
continuously, whereas Planck defied this and stated that energy
was absorbed in jumps.
o This is the birth of quantum physics.
o Einsteins Contribution to Quantum Theory
Planck restricted his quantised energy theory to blackbody emitters
only. Einstein extended this to light, stating that it was not a wave, but
made out of discrete bundles of energy called photons, which behaved
as particles.
Photons would be localised in a small volume of space, and
would remain localised as it moved away from the source.
Therefore, light could be shown as a wave of perpendicular electric and
magnetic fields, but also as particles.
These particles would have quantised energy E = hf, and have
speed c = f.
o Also then, .
Intensity would now be determined by number of photons as
opposed to strength of the electric field.
The photon idea was then used by Einstein to explain the photoelectric
effect.
His contribution was very important, as Plancks ideas were radical and

o Also then, .
Intensity would now be determined by number of photons as
opposed to strength of the electric field.
The photon idea was then used by Einstein to explain the photoelectric
effect.
His contribution was very important, as Plancks ideas were radical and
were only theoretical, so quantum theory was not readily accepted.
When Einstein proved the photoelectric effect using quantum
theory, scientists opened up to it more and saw its validity.

The Photoelectric Effect

o Hertz realised that UV light made the spark in his secondary loop easier to
produce. He found this by placing glass and then quartz in front of the loop.
Glass blocks UV light, and the spark was weak when glass was there. When
quartz was there, the spark was strong again, as quartz lets UV through. He
concluded that UV had an effect on current, but could not explain it.
o The photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal
when light is shone on it.
Einstein ironically used this to show light as a particle, whereas Hertz
aimed to prove it was a wave.
o Scientists shone light on a photocathode in evacuated quartz tubes, and
cathode rays were produced. Electrons leaving a cathode due to the
photoelectric effect are called photoelectrons.
These electrons then travelled towards the anode, and registered a
current.
o Odd Facts
When the frequency of the light shone drops below a certain frequency,
no electrons will be emitted, no matter how intense the light is. This is
called the cut-off frequency, and is different from metal to metal.
For example, for metal A, blue light will free electrons, but red
light will not. For metal B, no visible light can free electrons;
UV is needed.
Classical theory states that electrons will absorb energy
continuously, so if you wait long enough, they will always be
able to gain enough energy to be ejected.
Increasing intensity of light increased the number of electrons emitted
(and therefore the current) but had no effect on the electrons kinetic
energy. Increasing the frequency increased the electrons kinetic energy.
For example blue light made electrons move faster than red light (this
also increases current as rate of flow of charge has increased).
There is no delay between light shining and current forming.
Classical theory predicted that you would have to wait a bit for
energy to be absorbed by electrons.

o Einstein stated that an electron is ejected when it absorbs a photon with energy
= hf.
Work is required to separate an electron from metal, and this minimum
energy required is the Work Function. It depends on the type of metal.
Einstein then stated that hf = Kmax + W, so Kmax = hf W.
This means that when f <= W/h, then kinetic energy is zero, so
the electron will not be emitted. This explains the cut-off
frequency.
He also said that increasing intensity will increase photons, so more
electrons will absorb a photon, thus increasing liberated electrons and
therefore photocurrent.
One photon releases one electron, given the photon is higher than
threshold frequency.
Photon theory also accounts for the absence of delay, as the electron
absorbs a clump of energy all in one go, and not over time as classical
theory stated.
o Stopping Voltage

 One photon releases one electron, given the photon is higher than
threshold frequency.
Photon theory also accounts for the absence of delay, as the electron
absorbs a clump of energy all in one go, and not over time as classical
theory stated.
o Stopping Voltage
When no voltage is applied to the phototube, a current still flows.
However, when a certain negative potential is applied to the
photocathode, it can stop the electrons in their path, and bring current
to zero. The stopping voltage is then used to work out the maximum
kinetic energy of the electrons, using Kmax = eVstop, where e is the
charge of an electron.
o Applications of Photoelectric Effect
The evacuated tube for initial experiments is called a photocell, but
currents produced were much too small to be used commercially.
A photomultiplier tube was then produced, which had specially coated
surfaces, called dynodes between the anode and the cathode.
Because they were between the cathode and anode, electrons
would get attracted towards successive dynodes and collide
with them.
An electron colliding with a dynode would then release more
electrons, and then these electrons would collide with the next
dynode releasing even more electrons, and finally the anode
would receive a large amount of electrons, and register a large
current.
o This makes the photomultiplier tube very sensitive to
extremely low levels of light.
The photomultiplier tube is used in astronomy, nuclear physics and
medicine.
Positron Emission Topography A chemical attaches itself to
tumour cells and emits two gamma photons. These photons are
picked up by a ring of photomultipliers around a patient, and
are converted to electric signals by the photomultipliers. A
computer then calculates the time difference between gamma
photons and maps out the tumour in the body.
Night vision devices. Also semiconductors if we broaden our
definition of photoelectric effect to mean light electricity (this
is because electrons in the semiconductor dont actually leave
the solid).
This effect is the basis for photovoltaic cells (solar panels).
o Einstein, Planck and Politics
Einstein was a pacifist, and believed that politics and science should be
separate, and that science should be used for the betterment of
humanity.
Einstein was not taken seriously during WWII, and received
harsh criticism from anti-Semitic physicists. He fled to the USA
when WWII was imminent.
Politics can limit science, as how Einsteins discoveries while in
Germany remained unrecognized by the world due to antiGerman attitudes, but after he defected to America, they
awarded him the Nobel Prize.
Politics can also aid science, as Einsteins choice to defect
caused him to participate in weapons development, which led to
his invention of the atomic bomb.
Planck believed that science should be pursued in order to know more,
and believed that it was up to governments to decide what would
happen with scientific discoveries.
Planck and many other scientists signed a manifesto to support the
German War regime. Einstein and a few other scientists signed a
counter manifesto opting for peace.
Planck was pressured to join the Nazi party and to research for

and believed that it was up to governments to decide what would

happen with scientific discoveries.
Planck and many other scientists signed a manifesto to support the
German War regime. Einstein and a few other scientists signed a
counter manifesto opting for peace.
Planck was pressured to join the Nazi party and to research for
the Nazi regime
9.4.3 Semiconductors and the Electric Revolution
o Conduction is just the movement of charge. Even gas can be made to conduct
electricity, such as a lightning strike, where atoms are ionized to create moving
charged particles.
Ionization is the removal of electrons from the valence shell of an
atom. Energy needs to be supplied for this to occur, but once it does,
the electron is free to move. We can say that the valence electron is in
the valence energy level, but once it receives enough energy, it can
become free to conduct, and can move to a higher conduction energy
level.
We can show this on an energy level diagram.
The first diagram is the valence (bottom) and conduction (top)
energy bands for one electron. When many atoms are placed
together to form a solid (20th powers of 10 etc), we have many
of these bands close together. Due to the exclusion principle, no
two electrons can have exactly the same energy level, so the net
result is that we get so many lines for valence and conduction
on our energy diagram, separated by such tiny lengths, that it
just resembles a large band. This is represented in the second
diagram.

The empty space between valence and conduction bands is

called the forbidden energy gap. No electron can have energy in
this gap.
This gap represents the energy to be supplied to the material in
order to have it conduct a current.

o Electrical conduction occurs because some electrons in the solid have gained
enough energy to be in the conduction band, and are no longer localised to an
atom; they are now shared between atoms and move freely.
In a solid, ions are not free to move, so only electrons carry charge.
o For a conductor, the valence bands and conduction bands overlap. For an
insulator, the forbidden energy gap is very large, and for a semiconductor, the
gap is there, but small.

gap is there, but small.

o In a conductor, we cannot differentiate between valence and conduction, so we

say that it already contains free electrons. In an insulator, none of the electrons
can ever gain enough energy to cross the extremely large forbidden energy
gap. However, in a semiconductor, some electrons might be able to gain
enough energy to cross the gap into the conduction band.
A large number of electrons can drift from atom to atom in conductors,
compared with a much smaller amount for semiconductors, compared
with nearly nothing for insulators.
Most conductors will have around 1022 electrons/cm3, and most
semiconductors will have 1015/cm3. N-doped semiconductors will have
around 1017/cm3.

Semiconductors
o Semiconductors are all group IV elements.
o Most semiconductors have energy gaps of less than 5eV.
Silicon is 1.14, Germanium is 0.67 and diamond is 5.4eV.
Electrons in semiconductors jump the gap by obtaining thermal energy.
This can be provided by heating the semiconductor.
At absolute zero, there is no thermal energy, so the
semiconductor will behave as an insulator.
o Electrons and Holes
When an electron moves to the conduction band, it leaves an absence in
the valence band, called a positive hole. When a potential difference is
applied, electrons move towards the positive end, and fill in these
holes. This results in the apparent motion of the hole towards the
negative end.
So now free electrons moving to the positive end and valence electrons
moving to fill in holes both contribute to electric current.
The charge on a hole can be thought of as equal and opposite to
an electron.
o Modelling a Semiconductor
Electron movement in a doctors surgery, there is a line of patients
(electrons) sitting on a chair. When the doctor comes (positive
potential), one electron moves out of the line, and then creates a vacant
chair (hole), which all the electrons shuffle into one by one.
An n-doped semiconductor would have an extra person pushing
all the other ones along, till the first one gets dislodged out of
their seat.
o Germanium and Silicon
The first semiconductors were germanium, and they were extremely
rare and expensive and lost some conducting properties at high
temperatures.
The reason was that no other semiconductor of a suitable purity could
be obtained at lower costs.
When a cheap method of purifying silicon was discovered, it
replaced germanium as the main semiconductor material, as it
was much cheaper and more abundant.
o Doping
At normal temperature, the average electron has 0.026eV energy, and
the energy gap for silicon is 1.14eV. This means that only extremely
few electrons are going to be that much above the average to actually
jump the gap and conduct.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one with no impurities, but the energy

o Doping
At normal temperature, the average electron has 0.026eV energy, and
the energy gap for silicon is 1.14eV. This means that only extremely
few electrons are going to be that much above the average to actually
jump the gap and conduct.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one with no impurities, but the energy
gap in a semiconductor can be lowered by doping it with other atoms.
Semiconductors where conduction is mostly by impurities are
called extrinsic.
Doping involves adding a group 5 element to the silicon lattice in a 1 in
200,000 concentration to make n-doped silicon, or adding a group 3
element in the same concentration to make p-doped silicon.
N-doped will have one extra electron in a conduction level, and
p-doped will have an extra hole which other valence electrons
can fill. Both help conducting electricity.
Electrons in the conduction are more mobile than electrons in the
valence band, so n-doped semiconductors conduct slightly better than
p-doped semiconductors.
All doped semiconductors are neutral, they are not charged.
o N-Doped
These impurities are called donor impurities. On an energy band
diagram, the donor level is a chain of electrons just under the
conduction band.
Four of the valence electrons bond in the silicon lattice, the other is
free.
o P-Doped
These impurities are called acceptor impurities. On an energy band
diagram, the donor level is a chain of holes just above the valence
band.
Three of the electrons bond in the silicon lattice, and a hole exists in the
fourth place.

Semiconductor Devices
o P-N Junction
These are used in nearly all electronic devices like microprocessors,
remotes etc.
Involves a continuous semiconductor crystal where the doping abruptly
changes from n-type to p-type.
This forms the simplest electronic device, the diode.
o It allows current in only one direction (electrons in n fill
up holes in p).
o This CONEVNTIONAL current flows from the p to the
n.
The electrons in the n side want to diffuse into the p-side, and vice
versa for the holes.
Diffusion is a property of all randomly moving particles, and
involves them moving from areas of high concentration to
lower concentration.
o The energy for diffusion comes from thermal energy, so
at absolute zero, diffusion does not occur and p-n
junctions will not operate.
In the diffusion region, the movement of these electrons and holes
results in the formation of a current. Also, the p-side gets more
negative, and the n-side gets more positive, so an electric field forms.
This eventually stops the flow of charge.

o The energy for diffusion comes from thermal energy, so

at absolute zero, diffusion does not occur and p-n
junctions will not operate.
In the diffusion region, the movement of these electrons and holes
results in the formation of a current. Also, the p-side gets more
negative, and the n-side gets more positive, so an electric field forms.
This eventually stops the flow of charge.
The resulting diffusion region consists mostly of electrons that
have lost energy and fallen into holes, so essentially nothing to
conduct. This is the depletion region.
o The depletion region acts as two oppositely charged
plates creating an electric field with no charge in it.
When positive and negative terminals are connected to the p and n
sides respectively, it creates an opposing field to the depletion region,
thus allowing more current through.
Called forward bias, and has the effect of reducing the depletion
region width.
A very thin junction means that electrons may have enough
energy to flow through the external circuit and back in again.
When the negative and positive terminals are connected to the p and n
sides respectively, it creates a reinforcing field to the depletion region,
and actually causes a slight reverse current to form.
This is reverse bias, and has the effect of increasing the
depletion region width.
o Rectifiers
Uses a diode to convert AC to DC current. An AC current is applied to
the p side, and the output from the n side is only the positive part of the
input.
A capacitor smooths out the positive AC to make a slightly
jerky DC current.
o Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
A current through a forward biased diode will cause recombination of
some electrons and holes. As these electrons lose energy, they fall to a
lower energy level and emit quanta of light.
The energy of the photon is equal to the energy lost by the
electron.
By controlling the size of the energy gap in the diode, they can control
the wavelength of light produced.
In car AC buttons etc the light is visible, but in remotes it is
infrared.
o Solar Cells
Basically a p-n junction. Photons strike valence electrons in the p side,
and then they move to the conduction band, then they move to the n
junction due to the depletion region electric field, and because the solar
cell is an extremely thin junction, the electrons can pass through the nside and into the external circuit.
They then travel through the external circuit, and back into the
p-junction, so the process can repeat.
o Control of Current
Diodes can allow amounts of current in one direction, but they cant
control the amount.
For electronics to continue further, more control of current was needed.
Thermionic Devices
A vacuum tube where the cathode is heated and electrons can
leave it and are accelerated towards the anode.
Lee De Forest then inserted another metal grid between the
cathode and the anode, such that only electrons could pass
through it.
o This device is called the triode.
o He found that by placing a potential difference on the
grid, the electrons could be stopped, accelerated even
more, or controlled somewhere in between.

cathode and the anode, such that only electrons could pass
through it.
o This device is called the triode.
o He found that by placing a potential difference on the
grid, the electrons could be stopped, accelerated even
more, or controlled somewhere in between.
This can be used to amplify current and voltage, and the
invention of the triode and thermionic devices (valves)
pioneered the electronics revolution.
Shortcomings of Thermionic Devices
They were very large (compared to 5mm2 integrated circuits),
less efficient due to heat energy being used, limited life, more
expensive to produce due to vacuum tube, less reliable, easily
breakable, take time to warm up, and require large voltages to
run as an amplifier.
o More portable valves were soon invented, but they
needed 12-D batteries to power them.
The transistor, invented by William Shockleys team, addressed
all these issues.
Transistors
Most common is the bipolar transistor, which is an n-p-n
junction. The ends are called the emitter and the collector, and
the p in the middle is called the base.
Initially, no charge can flow due to the depletion regions
between each junction.
o If a positive potential is applied to the base with respect
to the emitter, it weakens the field, and allows some
electrons to pass. When the electrons enter the base,
they are accelerated towards the collector due to the
electric field that is already there.
o Because the junction is so thin, these electrons pass
through into an external circuit.
Depending on the size of the applied voltage, the
size of the current produced can be controlled.
The current supplied to the base to create the potential
difference is much less than the current it lets through, so
transistors are current amplifiers.
Bipolar transistors can also be p-n-p.
Transistors, compared to valves, are smaller, use less power, are
more robust, have longer operating times, are cheaper, require
less maintenance, can be mass produced, and yet they perform
an equivalent job.
o Impact of Transistors
Transistors have allowed the improvement and development of
technologies such as cars, radios, phones, games, music, movies,
changes in lifestyles, ease of transport, uses in medicine, and basically
any electronically sophisticated areas.
Also, we have increased dependence on computers due to the invention
of transistors. People aer spending too much time on computers,
causing health problems, unskilled work availability has decreased, and
people are too reliant on micro-processing devices, i.e. when computers
fail, then individuals and businesses can hardly function.
9.4.4 Superconductivity
o A crystal is a 3D regular arrangement of atoms. One type is the cube crystal
which is repeated over and over, such as that of NaCl. There are 14 types of
crystal arrangements.
o Metals have a crystal lattice structure.
Interference occurs when diffraction at two different locations results in
waves that overlap. The slits or edges which cause this diffraction are

o A crystal is a 3D regular arrangement of atoms. One type is the cube crystal

which is repeated over and over, such as that of NaCl. There are 14 types of
crystal arrangements.
o Metals have a crystal lattice structure.
Interference occurs when diffraction at two different locations results in
waves that overlap. The slits or edges which cause this diffraction are
called the diffraction grating, and when light is passed through a
diffraction grating and projected on a screen, alternating bands of light
and no light are produced, representing constructive and destructive
interference.
When multiple slits are used, the bands can get extremely thin,
and wavelength of light can be accurately measured if the slits
are comparable to the wavelength.
Max von Laue realised that the hypothesized crystal structure of atoms
was the right grating he needed to analyse X-ray diffraction.
It was successful, and he qualitatively showed that crystals
consisted of a regular array of atoms.
The actual distance between atoms was first verified by the Bragg
father and son (son was Australian born) team. They used x-ray
diffraction. They found the distance between atoms by using simple Xray diffraction to first find the geometry of the lattice, then used its
density to calculate the spacing between atoms.
Then, using Braggs law, they could accurately work out the
wavelength of the X-rays.
o Conduction
Conduction in a metal is just the sea of delocalized valence electrons
moving through the crystal lattice, unimpeded by the lattice itself.
Quantum physics states that in an absolutely perfect crystal,
there should be no resistance, as electrons would behave like
waves while travelling through it.
o Resistance
Resistance is when electrons collide with the lattice, and therefore lose
energy.
It can occur by deformities in the lattice, impurities in the lattice, or by
lattice vibrations.
Above 0K, all lattices will have natural vibrations called
phonons. An electron colliding with a phonon will contribute to
resistance.
o Discovery of Superconductors
Certain materials, when cooled to a certain temperature, have their
resistance drop abruptly to zero. This means that electrons are
conducted without losing any energy whatsoever.
It was discovered by Heike Onnes in 1911, while studying the
resistance of mercury after being cooled by liquid helium
(4.2K).
The temperature to which the superconductor material has to be cooled
to, in order for it to actually be a superconductor, is called the critical
temperature.
Superconductors under TC consist of electron pairs unaffected
by resistance.
It was an unexpected discovery, as most physicists believed that as
temperature decreased, phonons would decrease, so resistance would
keep decreasing, but never hit zero. Furthermore, this critical
temperature was much higher (comparatively) than absolute zero.

o Examples of Superconductors
Mercury Metal element TC = 4.15K
Nb3Ge Compound TC = 23K
YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) Ceramic TC = 92K
o Type I and Type II
High magnetic fields will negate the superconducting state of a
material.
The character of the transition from superconducting to normal
distinguishes the types.
Type I at a certain critical magnetic field intensity, the
superconductor suddenly starts to behave like a normal conductor, and
gains an internal magnetic field.
Type II they have two critical magnetic field intensities. At the first
one (BC1), a partial internal field forms, but superconducting properties
are still maintained. At (BC2), it starts to behave like a normal
conductor.
o Magnetic Levitation
Meissner Effect
When an external magnetic field is applied to a superconductor
and an ideal conductor under their critical temperatures, the
field penetrates the interior of the ideal conductor, but the
superconductor creates an equal but opposite field which
completely cancels out the first one, so it has no interior field.
Switching off the field will induce eddy currents in the ideal
conductor due to Lenzs law, but in the superconductor, it just
returns to its original state of no magnetic field inside or outside
it.
Magnetic Levitation
When a permanent magnet is placed over a superconductor, it
induces eddy currents in the superconductor. Because of the
Meissner effect, an exact opposite field is created. This field
causes a repulsive force due to interacting magnetic fields,
which balances out the weight force of the magnet. Since net
force is zero, the magnet hovers over the superconductor.
o However, the magnet must be thrust at the
superconductor first. Why?
Vortex States and Flux Pinning
Extremely stable levitation occurs in type two superconductors,
between BC1 and BC2.
In this state, the superconductor has filaments of normal
conductor regions with swirling electric currents, called
vortices.
o The rest of the material is still superconducting, and an
external magnetic field can penetrate only through these
vortices.
When the magnet is thrust at the superconductor, and if it is
strong enough to create a field between the critical strengths,
then the vortex state is created.
o The magnetic field produced by these vortices together

o The rest of the material is still superconducting, and an

external magnetic field can penetrate only through these
vortices.
When the magnet is thrust at the superconductor, and if it is
strong enough to create a field between the critical strengths,
then the vortex state is created.
o The magnetic field produced by these vortices together
is equal and opposite to the magnetic field which created
it, so the magnet levitates.
Impurities and defects in the crystal lattice prevent motion of
the vortices, known as flux pinning. This only occurs in Type II.
o This is why the magnet is so stable. The
superconductors magnetic field is pinned, so the
magnets levitation is also pinned.
Due to these phenomenon, physically moving the magnet
parallel to the surface of the superconductor, warming it to
above TC or applying an external field greater than BC2 will all
stop the levitation.
o However, moving the magnet perpendicular to the
surface of the semiconductor will result in its levitation
again, as if the superconductor has remembered that the
magnet was there.

o Cooper Pairs and BCS Theory

John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and J. Robert Schrieffer came up with a
microscopic theory of superconductivity, and why resistance doesnt
occur in them.
Two electrons in the superconductor are able to form a bound pair
called a Cooper pair, and it is basically a pair of electrons which
experience an attractive force.
The way this works, is that the first electron moving will cause positive
lattice ions to be attracted to it. This is like a mini-phonon (it does not
propagate through the whole lattice), and forms a denser area of
positive charge.
Another electron is then attracted to this denser positive charge,
forming the Cooper pair.
The separation of the two electrons must be initially many ions
wide for the Cooper pair to form, as if they were too close, then
electrostatic repulsion would push them away.
As the first electron moves away from the dense positive charge it
created, it is then attracted to another area of dense positive charge, and
becomes the second electron for another Cooper pair. This then leads to
Cooper pairs being constantly created and destroyed in
superconductors, and thus every electron is attracted to every other
electron in a complex interaction.
Just one of these electrons colliding with the lattice will cause
all the electrons to start colliding, so it actually only takes a
small amount of energy to destroy superconducting state, called
the energy gap.
Each electron in the Cooper pair has opposite spin.
o Applications of Superconductors
Advantages
No heat loss when current is passed through them, so current
can flow indefinitely.
No thermal pollution or gas emissions associated with their use.
Disadvantages
Must be maintained at low temperatures using cryostats.
High temperature superconductors are quite brittle, so most uses
these days are still on alloys which can be ducted into wires.
Unfortunately, these still require the extremely expensive liquid
helium.
Applications

Must be maintained at low temperatures using cryostats.

High temperature superconductors are quite brittle, so most uses
these days are still on alloys which can be ducted into wires.
Unfortunately, these still require the extremely expensive liquid
helium.
Applications
Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Provides a 2D
image of a persons body. An extremely strong field is needed,
and normal electromagnets would produce huge amounts of
heat if used, and would require a large power supply.
Superconductors need the power supply only for a short period
of time, and only need to be cooled.
o Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices
(SQUIDs) can be used to detect magnetic fields from the
brain (10-13T) and heart (10-10T).
Research Accelerating high energy particles in particle
accelerators like the LHC at CERN. Also for clean nuclear
fusion, where plasmas of deuterium and tritium undergo fusion,
thus creating energy. This type of fusion has no wastes.
Power superconducting wires in generators will greatly
reduce the amount of power lost due to heating.
Superconducting transmission lines will have no heat loss. We
could transmit at whatever current we wanted, and we could do
away with transformers. Our current energy production depends
on the demand for electricity. Excess energy nowadays is used
to pump water to high levels to produce electric energy from
this GPE later, although around 1/3 of it is wasted.
o With superconductors, any excess energy produced can
be stored inside a superconducting power ring for an
indefinite time, and can be retrieved at any time. Night
time power can be retrieved from a superconducting
storage area which has an excess of the energy produced
by solar cells during daytime possibly the most energy
efficient and environmentally friendly scenario!
Computers Capacity of microprocessors is limited by energy
loss due to heat. If superconductors are used, the predicted
increase in speed of information transfer would be 250 times
faster.
Maglev Trains
Superconductors cooled by liquid helium are mounted on the
underside of the train. The guideway (track) has conventional
electromagnets which repel the train from the back, and attract
it from the front. The train levitates at a 10mm height above the
track, and would not need any engine.
o Electromagnets can be used, but superconductors will be
more efficient.
It relies on normal pole repulsion, not the Meissner effect. The
top speed for a superconducting train is 581km/h.
Problems for use include the strong magnetic field in the train
preventing people with pacemakers from travelling, and also
long guideways of electromagnets are expensive to run.

Magnetic Levitation Practical

o We watched a YouTube demonstration on the levitation of a magnet.
o The demonstrator poured liquid nitrogen on a superconductor sitting in a
ceramic plate to cool it to below its critical temperature. He then placed the
magnet over the superconductor, and slightly thrust it towards the surface. The
magnet could then levitate over the superconductor without support.
If he nudged the magnet, it would still levitate. If he changed the angle
of the magnet, it would still levitate.
o He then physically lifted the magnet away, and the superconductor actually
followed the magnet upwards as if held by invisible strings. He then placed the

magnet over the superconductor, and slightly thrust it towards the surface. The
magnet could then levitate over the superconductor without support.
If he nudged the magnet, it would still levitate. If he changed the angle
of the magnet, it would still levitate.
o He then physically lifted the magnet away, and the superconductor actually
followed the magnet upwards as if held by invisible strings. He then placed the
system on a separate table, away from the liquid nitrogen in the ceramic plate.
As the superconductor heated up again, the magnet slowly and
smoothly started falling towards the superconductor and eventually
softly landed on its surface.

9.8 FROM QUANTA TO QUARKS

9.8.1 Atomic Timeline and Atomic Models
o Democritus (5th century BC) proposed the atom was the limit to which one
could divide matter.
o Dalton (1801) proposed that matter is comprised of one atom, elements
contain only one atom, different elements contain different atoms and
compounds contain more than one type of atom.
o Becquerel (1896) noticed that certain elements emitted radiation, and
suggested that the atom was divisible.
o JJ Thompson (1904) plum pudding model, with electrons embedded in a
positive sphere. Based on his earlier experiments and discovery of the electron.
o Ernest Rutherford (1911) planetary model of the atom.
o Niels Bohr (1913) Rutherford-Bohr model which addressed some
shortcomings of the Rutherford Model.
o Louis de Broglie (1924) Introduced wave-particle duality which allowed for
stable electron orbits.
o James Chadwick (1932) discovered the neutron, the final component of the
atom.

Rutherford-Bohr Model
o Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden fired alpha particles at extremely thin gold
foil. They found that while most passed straight through, some were deflected
from their path, and 1 in 8000 actually got knocked backwards.
They then proposed a new model of the atom over Thompsons model,
and stated that atoms were mostly empty space, and they contained a
tiny central nucleus which was positive (hence deflection of alpha
particles), and electrons randomly orbited this nucleus.
o Rutherford proposed the nucleus was 10-15 m in diameter. Einsteins analysis of
Brownian motion later showed that the atom was 10-10 m in diameter and the
nucleus contained 99.9% of the mass. This meant that each linear dimension of

and stated that atoms were mostly empty space, and they contained a
tiny central nucleus which was positive (hence deflection of alpha
particles), and electrons randomly orbited this nucleus.
Rutherford proposed the nucleus was 10-15 m in diameter. Einsteins analysis of
Brownian motion later showed that the atom was 10-10 m in diameter and the
nucleus contained 99.9% of the mass. This meant that each linear dimension of
the nucleus was 100,000 times smaller than that of the atom.
Limitations
The model failed to explain what the nucleus was made of, how the
orbiting electrons are arranged, and why these electrons dont spiral
into the nucleus.
Quantized Energy
To model a blackbody spectrum, Planck formulated his theory of
energy of vibrations of atoms only being in discrete amounts, E = nhf,
where f is the frequency of light emitted and n is the quantum number,
and is a positive integer.
Einstein took this one step further, and applied it to light, stating that
vibrational energy of particles could only change by a multiple of hf,
and therefore light also obeyed the equation E = hf. These discrete
packets of light were later named photons.
Spectral Analysis
Absorption spectra when white light is passed through a cool gas,
the electrons of atoms absorb certain wavelengths depending on the
element, and become in the excited state. They then release a photon in
a random direction to come back to ground state. The net effect is that
certain wavelengths will be depleted from the original white light
continuous spectrum. These will appear as a series of dark lines when
seen through a spectroscope.
Emission Spectra opposite of absorption, produced when a gas is
already excited and emits photons of certain wavelengths. This can be
seen as coloured lines on a black background through a spectroscope.
The emission spectrum is what is seen during flame tests etc.
Emission spectra are like the fingerprint of atoms, and the visible
spectrum of hydrogen was analysed heavily due to it being the simplest
atom.
Johann Balmer did a detailed study on the visible emission
spectrum for hydrogen- the Balmer series.
Johannes Rydberg generalised Balmers analysis to the
equation:
o , where nF is the final state of the electron and nI is the
initial state of the electron.
o R is the Rydberg Constant, which is 1.097 x 107.
The Balmer series of emission is from other shells to shell 2, so
nF in the Balmer series is always 2, and nI = 3,4,5...
o nI cannot be 1, as this obviously must be an absorption.
Others such as Lyman then discovered spectral lines for nF = 1,
and over 8 years, found the remaining lines in the Lyman series.
o For the Lyman series, because of the large energy drop
to shell 1, emitted light is ultraviolet.
Note that when jumping a small amount of shells, the energy is
less, so wavelength is more. So therefore the longest
wavelength emitted in a certain series is when nF + 1 = nI.
Bohrs Postulates
Bohr saw Balmers equation and was able to link it to Einstein and
Plancks theory of quantised light.
He proposed that electrons were the emitters and absorbers of the light
in blackbodies and in any material, and that quanta of light were
absorbed with electrons moving between discrete energy levels.
Bohr used quantization of energy and angular momentum to come up
with three postulates:
Electrons exist in stable orbits called stationary states. The
lowest stationary state (closest to nucleus) is called ground
state.

in blackbodies and in any material, and that quanta of light were

absorbed with electrons moving between discrete energy levels.
Bohr used quantization of energy and angular momentum to come up
with three postulates:
Electrons exist in stable orbits called stationary states. The
lowest stationary state (closest to nucleus) is called ground
state.
Electrons absorb specific quanta of energy when they jump to a
higher stationary state, and emit specific quanta of energy when
they fall to a lower state. This is a sudden, not continuous
process, in contradiction to classical physics.
Angular momentum of electrons is quantized.
o where n is the quantum number.

Bohrs Explanation of Balmer Series

The energy of the emitted photon will be equal to the energy
difference between the two energy states.
o i.e. EPhoton = Ei - Ef
o The energy of this photon is equal to hf.
Bohr then explained the Balmer series by stating that electrons
were arrange in shells of stable orbits which were quantized, i.e.
only certain distances were shells; there was no in-between.
He stated that nf and ni were integer values corresponding to
these shells.
Also, quantisation of angular momentum was used to derive an
expression for energy levels: En = E1 / n2
Therefore, E = (E1 / ni2)- (E1 / nf2)
o hf = Ei [(1/ni2) (1/nf2)]
o hc / = Ei [(1/ni2) (1/nf2)]
o 1 / = (-Ei / hc) [(1/nf2) (1/ni2)], where Ei / hc is
equivalent to the Rydberg Constant.
o Note that E1 will be negative, as Einfinity is zero, because it
is binding energy. This is similar to the mechanics for
GPE.
o Also, this principle will apply to any atom, its just the
Rydberg constant only applies for hydrogen.

o Hydrogen Spectra Prac

We excited an evacuated tube with only hydrogen gas using a high
voltage, and then viewed the tube through a spectroscope. The
experiment was done in a dark room.

o Hydrogen Spectra Prac

We excited an evacuated tube with only hydrogen gas using a high
voltage, and then viewed the tube through a spectroscope. The
experiment was done in a dark room.
We saw a red line, a turquoise line, a blue line, and two purple lines.
Each pair of consecutive lines was closer together than the last; given
that red was the first.
o Rutherford-Bohr Atom
Small positively charged nucleus containing most of the mass, with
electrons orbiting the nucleus in circular paths. They are only at certain
quantized energy levels, and they do not radiate continuous energy by
classical theory. They absorb or emit quanta of light when the change
energy levels.
Limitations
It was a mix of classical and quantum physics. It was extremely
successful, but this issue needed to be addressed for complete
credibility.
It could not prove why the electrons were in stable orbits and
not losing energy.
Spectra of larger atoms hydrogen could be explained as it
was the simplest atom. But the spectral lines of larger atoms
could not be explained by Bohr, because the increased number
of valence electrons obviously interacted with each other in
some way that he could not explain.
Relative intensity some spectral lines were much thicker
than others, indicating that a certain wavelength was emitted
more than others. Bohr could not explain these sharp, primary
and diffuse lines.
Fine and Hyperfine Lines Analysis of spectral lines found
that there existed lines that looked like one, but were actually
separated by 0.1-0.5nm. Further analysis found even finer lines,
called hyperfine lines which were 0.001nm apart. Bohr could
not explain these, as they related to magnetic moment and spin,
which came later.
Zeeman Effect When placing a sodium flame in a very
strong magnetic field, Pieter Zeeman found that the single
spectral lines split into three. Extremely strong magnetic fields
even made these split lines split further. These are the normal
and anomalous Zeeman effects respectively. Bohrs model
could explain the normal effect, but not the anomalous one.
9.8.2 From Classical Mechanics to Quantum Physics
o The deterministic view of matter was slowly being cast aside by the 1920s to
make way for quantum theory- a universe ruled by probabilities.
o Particle-Wave Duality
Louis de Broglie equated E = mc2 and E = hf to come up with the
equation for photon momentum:
After the Braggs showed how X-rays behaved like particles and waves,
De Broglie began to consider this wave-particle duality as natural
symmetry.
Rearranging his momentum equation: shows that matter also has a
wavelength.
He had no scientific evidence for this, so it wasnt readily
accepted.
o Diffraction and Interference
All waves have the ability to bend around corners with the property

He had no scientific evidence for this, so it wasnt readily

accepted.

o Diffraction and Interference

All waves have the ability to bend around corners with the property
called diffraction. For example, if water waves are propagated from a
source, and then an object is placed impeding the wavefronts, instead
of forming a shadow zone, the waves bend around the object and
eventually enter the shadow zone.
Diffraction is when a single point on a wavefront acts as a source of
waves. The two most common are edge and slit diffraction.
Diffraction will only occur when the slit is comparable to the
size of the wavelength.
Interference is when waves travelling in the same medium superimpose
on each other. It occurs when diffraction occurs at more than one point
on a wavefront.
Constructive interference is when waves strengthen each other.
Destructive interference is when waves cancel each other.
o Confirming De Broglies Hypothesis
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer used electron scattering to prove
the existence of electron waves.
When theyre vacuum tube with nickel in it exploded, it let oxygen in
and it oxidised the nickel. This process had to then be reversed by
heating it to high temperatures. This allowed the nickel to anneal and
crystallize. They found that after firing electrons at this new nickel,
different results were observed. They realised that it must be due to the
crystallization that occurred.
They soon realised that they found areas of constructive and destructive
interference in electron scattering patterns, and therefore, diffraction of
electrons must have occurred.
This proved the wave-particle hypothesis and verified the validity of
De Broglies equation.
At the same time, George P Thompson was firing electrons through
thin gold foil and also noticed diffraction rings, so both teams had
actually independently verified De Broglies hypothesis.
o Stability of Electron Orbits
De Broglie stated that electrons would not lose energy if they orbited
the nucleus in a standing wave pattern.
This means they orbited with a whole number of wavelengths,
i.e. n = 2r. Manipulating this equation provides support for
Bohrs postulate of quantization of angular momentum.
In this equation, n is the quantum number of the electron, and
actually represents what shell it is in.
For example, shell 2 means that 2 wavelengths of the electron
fit into the Bohr orbit, shell 3 fits 3 wavelengths.
o Any electron which is in such a position that it cannot
orbit with a whole number of wavelengths in a standing
wave will therefore lose energy.

The standing wave stable orbits of electrons with quantum numbers 1,2,3,4....

o Further Atomic Theory Developments

Erwin Schrodinger synthesised the work of De Broglie, Planck,
Einstein and Hamilton and formulated the Schrodinger equation, which
provides the wave function.
The wave function contains all measurable information about a
particle. The square of the wave function is the probability
density, which is the likelihood of finding a given particle at a
given place at a given time.
o This probability physics quickly replaced the
deterministic view of classical physics.
Werner Heisenberg Introduced matrices to particle-wave theory. He
then used these matrices to formulate the uncertainty principle, which
states that the more you know about the position of a particle, the less
you know about its momentum and vice versa.
He did this by showing that to know the position of a particle,
you need to first see it by bombarding it with high energy
photons. This would then transfer energy to the particle, and
though you would have located it, it would now be recoiling
and you would not know anything about its momentum and
energy.
Uncertainty principle:
o The first two terms represent uncertainty of position and
momentum.
This meant scientists needed to be careful about the accuracy of
their results when they involved extremely precise
measurements of a particles properties
Another implication of the uncertainty principle is the existence
of virtual particles which seethe in and out of existence.
Wolfgang Pauli proposed that each electron had 4 quantum
numbers: principle (shell), angular momentum, spin and magnetic
moment. These quantum numbers would be like the ID for each
electron in the atom.
His three propositions: each electron in the atom would have 4
quantum numbers; no two electrons in the same atom could
have the exact same quantum numbers, at least one had to be
different (exclusion principle); a neutrino was also emitted in
beta decay.
This helped solve issues with the structure of the periodic table
and electron orbital patterns (2,8,18,32... 2n2).
9.8.3 The Neutron and Nuclear Physics
Section 1: Components of the Nucleus
The nucleus is comprised of two elementary particles called protons and neutrons (both
baryons), collectively referred to as nucleons. The nucleons have different properties. A
proton mass is 1.673 x 10-27 kg, whereas a neutron is a bit heavier, at 1.675 x 10-27 kg. In
atomic mass units, however, they both have 1 mass unit. A proton has a charge of +1, whereas
a neutron has zero charge. They are generally taken to be stable particles, but a free (not in a
nucleus) neutron has a half life of 10.3min, and it is speculated that all protons have an
average half life of 1032 years, but this has not been ascertained due to the nature of this length
of time and the difficulty in observing decay from such a small particle.
Section 2: Conservation Laws and Chadwicks Discovery of the Neutron
Ernest Rutherford first predicted the existence of a neutral particle with the same mass of a
proton, and he named this the neutron. In 1930, Bothe and Becker found a highly penetrating

nucleus) neutron has a half life of 10.3min, and it is speculated that all protons have an
average half life of 1032 years, but this has not been ascertained due to the nature of this length
of time and the difficulty in observing decay from such a small particle.
Section 2: Conservation Laws and Chadwicks Discovery of the Neutron
Ernest Rutherford first predicted the existence of a neutral particle with the same mass of a
proton, and he named this the neutron. In 1930, Bothe and Becker found a highly penetrating
radiation similar to gamma rays being produced when beryllium was bombarded with alpha
particles. They knew there was too much energy for it to be just gamma rays, so they
concluded a new type of particle must have been involved. In 1932, Joliot and Curie then
performed a similar experiment and let the radiation hit paraffin. They observed that protons
got dislodged out of the paraffin. Using the laws of conservation of energy and momentum,
they deduced that if the radiation was gamma, then the gamma rays had to be of energy
50MeV. This could not be so, as the energy of the incident alpha particles were only 5MeV!
Two weeks after Joliot and Curie published their paper concerning the possible violation of
conservation of energy; Chadwick saw it and performed his own experiment of bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles. This time he observed the deflection of hydrogen and nitrogen
nuclei when exposed to this new radiation, and applied laws of conservation of energy and
momentum to try and determine the nature of the radiation. He deduced that it had a mass
1.15 times the proton, so it was probably a particle and possibly a neutron. Many physicists
at first didnt believe that these laws of conservation would apply to nuclear processes, and
one staunch anti-believer was Bohr, who refused to accept Chadwicks deductions for another
four years (1936).

Section 3: Transmutations
A nuclear transmutation is the changing of an element or isotope into a new one with different
chemical and physical properties. It can be a result of natural radioactive decay, or by
bombarding isotopes with high energy particles. Two forms of nuclear transmutations are
nuclear fission, where a larger nucleus is split into smaller particles, and nuclear fusion, where
two smaller particles are fused together to form a larger nucleus.
Section 4: Describe Nuclear Transmutations due to Natural Radioactivity
Radioactive decay or emission is a natural process involving transmutations. In 1903, Ernest
Rutherford and Frederick Soddy theorized that radioactive emission was a result of
radioactive transformations. The parent atom would split into two, and emit an alpha () or
beta () particle, accompanied by energy as gamma radiation, and leave a daughter atom with
different physical and chemical properties to the parent atom. A nuclide is a particular nucleus
with certain numbers of protons and neutrons. A nuclide is an isotope of another nuclide if
they both have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. Alpha decay involves a
helium nucleus being emitted, and always decreases atomic number by 2, and mass by 4 amu.
However, beta decay involves the conversion of a nucleon to its opposite plus another lepton
(commonly a neutron proton + electron), and so it could increase or decrease atomic
number by 1, but its mass will remain constant. Beta decay can be electron emission (neutron
to proton, electron and antineutrino), positron emission (proton to neutron, positron and
neutrino) or electron capture (proton and electron to neutron). When the nucleus just has too
much energy, it falls to a lower energy state and emits accompanying gamma radiation.
Section 5: Fermis Initial Observation of Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus, and it occurs naturally every day in
radioactive substances such as Uranium-238. After the discovery of the neutron by James
Chadwick, Fermi set out to bombard many elements with them to see the results. He showed
that high energy neutrons could collide with the nucleus and knock out a proton, but at low
energies, the neutron would spend more time in collision with the nucleus, and could be
absorbed into it. When the latter occurred, the nucleus was often unstable, and split into twonuclear fission. Fermi bombarded many new elements with neutrons and found that many
times, electron emission beta decay occurred. He predicted that if he bombarded uranium with
neutrons, he could produce new elements. He did this, and found product nuclides with new

that high energy neutrons could collide with the nucleus and knock out a proton, but at low
energies, the neutron would spend more time in collision with the nucleus, and could be
absorbed into it. When the latter occurred, the nucleus was often unstable, and split into twonuclear fission. Fermi bombarded many new elements with neutrons and found that many
times, electron emission beta decay occurred. He predicted that if he bombarded uranium with
neutrons, he could produce new elements. He did this, and found product nuclides with new
chemical and physical properties, and he assumed he had fused particles to create transuranic
elements. However, in reality he had caused artificial nuclear fission, and the new nuclides he
produced were unstable isotopes of already known elements such as barium, radium and
lanthanum.
Section 6: Pauli, the Neutrino and Beta Decay.
Alpha radiation was found to have set kinetic energies all the time. However, a pressing
conundrum of the time was that after such extensive study of beta radiation, an entire
spectrum of energy values of beta particles could be detected. Many would have relatively
small kinetic energies, most would be around 2-3MeV and some would even go up to 11MeV,
as shown in the diagram below.

Wolfgang Pauli set out to find why different beta particles of the exact same transmutation
had different energy levels. He concluded that there must be another particle which
accompanies the release of the beta particle, and that it must be neutral to conserve charge,
and that it would hardly interact with matter. This particle would only be discovered
experimentally in 1953, and it is called the neutrino. Pauli reasoned that the energy released in
beta decay would be shared by the beta particle and the neutrino, so that the kinetic energy of
the neutrino in a particular transmutation would be equal to the maximum possible kinetic
energy of a beta particle minus the actual kinetic energy of the beta particle. This would
explain why the energy of the beta particles had so much variance.
Section 7: Radiation from a Wilson Cloud Chamber
A Wilson Cloud Chamber is a device used to detect charge radiation, such as alpha and beta.
It consists of an enclosed chamber which is super saturated with alcohol vapour, with a clear
Perspex cover on top, a black metal plate on the bottom, and under the metal plate, there is
often dry ice and foam insulation. A radioactive source is connected into the chamber. Before
turning it on, the Perspex is rubbed to charge it with static and attract dust particles that may
affect the detection of radiation. Then the source is switched on, and within a few minutes,
streaks should be visible against the black plate, showing that a charged radioactive particle
has gone through. It works by the charged particles ionizing the atoms in the super saturation.
Because of the nature of the system, the vapour then begins to condense on these ions, thus
creating a cloud which follows the path of the charged particle as a trail.
Section 8: Electrostatic and Gravitational Forces
The electrostatic force is the force of repulsion between two protons in the nucleus, and
gravitational force is the force of attraction between all nucleons in the nucleus. From
calculations, we can determine that the electrostatic force is around 1.239 x 1036 times
stronger than the gravitational force. Of course, this is not because the electrostatic force is
unimaginably strong; the gravitational force is just extremely weak because the mass of the
particles is so small. The electrostatic force contributes much more than the gravitational
force between nucleons. The strong nuclear force explains why protons remain together in
atoms. Neutrons and protons dont have electrostatic forces between them, as the neutron is
uncharged.
Section 9: The Strong Nuclear Force
The strong nuclear force was needed to explain why protons in the nucleus were not repelled
from each other due to the electrostatic force of repulsion between them. The strong nuclear

atoms. Neutrons and protons dont have electrostatic forces between them, as the neutron is
uncharged.
Section 9: The Strong Nuclear Force
The strong nuclear force was needed to explain why protons in the nucleus were not repelled
from each other due to the electrostatic force of repulsion between them. The strong nuclear
force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces of nature, the others being
electromagnetic force, gravitational force and weak nuclear force. Through experiments
between 1930 and 1950, certain characteristics of the strong nuclear force have been
identified. The strong nuclear force is independent of charge, so neutrons and protons
experience it the same way. It can only act over short distances, around 1 x 10-15 m, or the
diameter of a nucleus, as otherwise, the nucleus would attract random nucleons that would be
floating around. The force also only acts between adjacent nucleons, found through observing
nuclear stability. The force is at a maximum around 1.3 x 10-15 m apart, and under 0.5 x 10-15
m, the force quickly becomes quite repulsive. The strong force is operated by two particles,
and is therefore in two parts. The first is the gluon, which glues quarks together in all
hadrons. This is the first part of the force, called the residual strong force. The second part
holds nucleons together, and it involves adjacent nucleons that are close enough to participate
in meson transfer. Mesons are hadrons comprised of two quarks (unlike baryons which have 3
quarks). The mesons which are continuously transferred between adjacent particles, sort of
like a ping pong ball being hit back and forth, keeps nucleons together, but only at these small
distances.

Section 10/11: The Mass Defect and Calculating Mass Defect

In his famous equation, E = mc2, Einstein created an equivalence between mass and energy.
Essentially, they were the same thing. When nucleons bond together to form a nucleus, they
radiate some energy. This energy must have come from the nucleons, so they must have lost
mass in the process, as energy is the same as mass. This means that the combined mass of all
the individual components of the nucleus is greater than the mass of the whole nucleus. This
difference in masses is called the mass defect, and can be calculated using E = mc2. Mass
defect can also be thought of as the binding energy of the nucleus, or the energy that is
required to split the nucleus back up into its constituent particles. Also, when a large nucleus
splits up into smaller ones, kinetic energy and gamma radiation is produced, which removes
some mass from the system, and the daughter nuclei therefore have a combined mass of less
than the parent nuclei. 1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg = 931.5 MeV.
Section 12: Fermi s 1942 Controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction
A nuclear fission chain reaction is where the released neutrons from one fission could strike
another nucleus and split it, which would release more neutrons, and this would keep
repeating. It would just need to be kick-started, and there would need to be an adequate
amount of the material there to actually sustain the reaction (critical mass).
In 1942, in a basement squash court in Chicago, Enrico Fermi and his team set out to find
whether or not a chain reaction using neutron bombardment could occur. He used 6 tonnes of
uranium metal and 40 tonnes of uranium oxide in an atomic pile and set off a neutron
bombarding chain reaction to produce energy using nuclear fission. He used caesium rods and
350 tonnes of graphite bricks to absorb some of the high-energy neutrons to control the
reaction. The cadmium rods could be inserted or removed to control the rate of reaction. His
primitive nuclear reactor produced 0.5W of energy. Fermi went about the experiment by
withdrawing cadmium rods 15cm at a time and monitoring the radiation count inside the
reactor, with each withdrawal increasing the radiation count. However, to create a chain
reaction, the radiation count could not slowly reduce- it had to remain constant so it would be
self-sustaining. Fermi actually announced at a certain point in the experiment that the next
withdrawal would cause a self-sustaining reaction, and after it did, Fermi stopped the
experiment, because he had achieved a fission chain reaction.
Section 13: Controlled and Uncontrolled Reactions
Any nuclear chain reaction requires fuel capable of fission, an amount of this fuel which will
produce sufficient neutrons to cause new fission, called the critical mass, and neutrons that
can be absorbed by the fuel nuclei. Fermi calculated that each single neutron bombardment
would need to release an average of 2.5 neutrons in order to create a chain reaction.

Section 13: Controlled and Uncontrolled Reactions

Any nuclear chain reaction requires fuel capable of fission, an amount of this fuel which will
produce sufficient neutrons to cause new fission, called the critical mass, and neutrons that
can be absorbed by the fuel nuclei. Fermi calculated that each single neutron bombardment
would need to release an average of 2.5 neutrons in order to create a chain reaction.
A controlled reaction regulates the amount of available neutrons by the use of neutron
absorbing materials and control rods. An uncontrolled reaction has no regulation, and the
production of neutrons goes unchecked, often resulting in a large explosion and the release of
huge amounts of energy in short periods of time. The effect of uncontrolled fission chain
reactions is evident in atomic bombs.

9.8.4 Applications of Nuclear Physics and our Understanding of Matter

o Fission Reactors
Nuclear reactors are used to generate electricity and supply neutrons
for research purposes and industrial purposes such as making
commercially useful isotopes.
o Uses of Nuclear Reactors
Generate electricity using mass defect, create commercially significant
radioisotopes such as Cobalt-60 in medical sterilization, produce
neutrons for neutron scattering probing experiments, research purposes
to find new isotopes and elements.
o Components of a Nuclear Fission Reactor
A uranium fuel nuclear fission reactor has six components: fuel rods,
core, moderators, control rods, coolant and radiation shielding.
Fuel Rods filled with uranium oxide pellets. Rods are located in the
centre of the reactor, called the core.
Core houses all the constituents of the reactor.
Moderator slows down neutrons, and improves the chance of them
being captured by nuclei. Usually water, heavy water or graphite. Does
not control reaction rate.
Control Rods usually cadmium or boron. Located between fuel rods,
and are adjustable. They absorb neutrons and are adjusted so that the
reaction rate becomes constant.
Coolant huge amounts of heat are generated in the reactor, so
coolant transfers this heat away from the core of the reactor.
Alternatively, the heat can be used to make steam to run turbines,
producing electricity by nuclear means.
Radiation Shielding the core produces huge amounts of gamma
radiation and neutron radiation, so the walls of the core are made of
dense concrete and lead and graphite is also placed in the reactor to
absorb and reflect radiation. This is to protect workers and the
environment, as well as prolong the working life of the reactor.
o Radioactive Isotopes
All radioisotopes have a constant half life, which is the time taken for
half the radioactive material in the substance to decay. This may range
from fractions of a second to billions of years for different isotopes.
Radioisotopes can occur naturally, or can be produced in particle
accelerators and reactors. Fission reactors can irradiate atoms with
neutrons, whereas cyclotrons can irradiate atoms with protons or ions.
Both change the n:p ratio.
ANSTO operates Sydneys only reactor and accelerator; the
OPAL at Lucas Heights, and the National Medical Cyclotron at
the RPA.
Radioactive Tracers
Can be integrated into a molecule and allow the molecule to be
tracked, as it will emit radiation.

ANSTO operates Sydneys only reactor and accelerator; the

OPAL at Lucas Heights, and the National Medical Cyclotron at
the RPA.
Radioactive Tracers
Can be integrated into a molecule and allow the molecule to be
tracked, as it will emit radiation.
Can be used in biological systems to map where certain
chemicals travel in the body.
Also can be used industrially, e.g. to map sewage dispersion in
the ocean.
Medicine
Medical radioisotopes generally have short half lives for
diagnosis, and longer half lives to target diseased organs and
tumours.
Radiopharmaceuticals radioisotopes are attached to
molecules which congregate at certain parts of the body.
Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals deliver constant small doses of
radiation to assess the functioning of organs, whereas
therapeutic radioisotopes generally deliver a target dose once
absorbed by a particular organ. Technetium-99m can be used
with a gamma camera for biological radioactive tracking.
Radiotherapy radiation is directed to an area of diseased
tissue. When the source is external, it is teletherapy.
Brachytherapy is when the radioactive source is implanted, e.g.
for prostate cancer treatment.
Positron Emission Topography A radioisotope is latched
onto a molecule which congregates at a certain organ. The
radioisotope emits positrons which annihilate with electrons,
producing two gamma photons which are detected with a
computer, and then the location and activity of the target is
imaged.
Engineering
Iridium-190 can be used to measure the thickness of materials,
and other radioisotopes including cobalt-60 can be used for
checking structural integrity of bridges and imaging internal
structures in aircraft.
Agriculture

Specific chemicals are taken up by specific parts of the plant.

Phosphorus-32 or nitrogen-15 can be added to fertilizer in order
to measure how much fertilizer is being taken in by the plant.
Radioactive heavy elements such as those of mercury can be
used to see how many harmful toxins could end up in our food
sources.
Food Irradiation
Increases shelf life and makes some food safer to eat.
Exposure to gamma rays by cobalt-60 can kill disease-causing
bacteria.
o The food can never come into contact with the
radioisotope itself, otherwise it could become
radioactive.
o The Manhattan Project
The Manhattan project comprised of sub-projects including Fermis
atomic pile in Chicago, a plutonium reactor in Washington, a uranium
reactor in Tennessee, and the Los Alamos facility in New Mexico to
test atomic bombs.
The Los Alamos facility produced an untested U-235 bomb
named Little Boy, and produced a tested Pu-239 bomb called
Fat Man.
o Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima on 6/8/45, and Fat
Man on Nagasaki on 10/8/45.
o This had such a powerful impact on the world that
WWII ended instantly.

named Little Boy, and produced a tested Pu-239 bomb called

Fat Man.
o Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima on 6/8/45, and Fat
Man on Nagasaki on 10/8/45.
o This had such a powerful impact on the world that
WWII ended instantly.
The Manhattan project was started due to the fear that Germany might
have been researching into atomic weapons too, but the reality was that
Germany only did research into conventional weapons, and did not go
near nuclear technology.
The aftermath involved the Soviet Union testing atomic bombs, and
tensions between USSR and the West increased, culminating in the
Cold War, which ended in the early 1990s with the dissolution of
USSR.
Nowadays, USA, Britain, Russia, France, China, Israel, India, Pakistan
and North Korea all possess nuclear weapons. There is a worldwide
arsenal of around 20,000 nuclear weapons.
However, the technology developed during the Manhattan Project has
led to other peaceful nuclear endeavours.
There are 440 nuclear power plants worldwide supplying 15%
of the worlds total energy needs.
There are also over 200 nuclear reactors which produce
commercially useful radioisotopes.

o Neutron Scattering research for engineering, mining, plastics, biology and

pharmaceuticals.
Neutrons produced from a nuclear reactor can be scattered through a
diffraction grating to produce interference patterns. This is because
neutrons have a particle-wave duality, and the de Broglie wavelength of
a thermal neutron is comparable to the spacing between atoms.
It can therefore be used to learn about structures of different
substances.
Neutrons have a magnetic moment, so they can be used to study
magnetic materials.
The energy of neutrons is similar to vibrational energy of atoms in
solids and liquids, so neutron scattering can be used to measure the
motion of atoms.
Neutrons are neutral, and penetrate deeper into matter than charged
particles.
Scatter well off protons, unlike X-rays, so are more suited to probe
structure of solids, and hydrogen structures like H-bonds.
Neutrons interact strongly with nuclei, so scattering can be used to
study isotopes of lighter elements.
Neutron scattering is a non-destructive technique.
Unfortunately, a nuclear reactor is required to produce these neutrons.
The reactor at ANSTO has 8 neutron scattering beams.
o Enriching our Understanding of Matter
Prior to particle accelerators, scientists witnessed particles such as
positrons and muons by observing cosmic rays from atmospheric
balloon equipment.
Accelerators
Source of charged particles, evacuated tube or chamber where
particles can travel without colliding with air molecules, a
mechanism to accelerate and control trajectory of particles.
The beams of accelerated particles can be fired at stationary
targets or beams travelling in the opposite direction.
o Fixed collisions result in secondary beams of particles,
and moving collisions, such as protons and antiprotons,
can result in particles breaking apart or annihilations,
resulting in huge amounts of energy.
Electrostatic Accelerators
Cockroft-Watson accelerator and the Van de Graaf accelerator

targets or beams travelling in the opposite direction.

o Fixed collisions result in secondary beams of particles,
and moving collisions, such as protons and antiprotons,
can result in particles breaking apart or annihilations,
resulting in huge amounts of energy.
Electrostatic Accelerators
Cockroft-Watson accelerator and the Van de Graaf accelerator
Early Van de Graaf accelerators were just scaled up Van de
Graaf generators capable of accelerating particles across
potentials of 1.5MV.
o Modern VdG generators are smaller and have potentials
of 20MV.
Linear Accelerators
Long series of cylinders with increasing lengths. Each cylinder
is connected to an alternating power supply, which alternates
for all cylinders at a given frequency.
o As the ion is attracted into one cylinder, the polarity
switches, and it is then repelled out of it and attracted to
the second cylinder. This process repeats, constantly
accelerating the particle.
This is why the cylinders have to increase in
length, because the particle needs to be in the
cylinder when the polarity changes, and at
increasing speeds, more volume is required.
The Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre is the longest in the
world, at 3.2km.
Cyclotron
A compact, circular accelerator. Comprises of two D-shaped
metal plates (dees), separated by a small gap and connected to
an alternating power supply. There is a strong magnetic field
perpendicular to the plates.
An ion is attracted to one plate across the gap, and then circles
around it due to the magnetic field. Polarity is then reversed,
and the ion is attracted to the other plate across the gap, and
then circles back around again. This process is repeated and the
ion continuously gains speed, and therefore the radius of its
circular path increases, and it traverses a spiral.
o On the end of one of the dees, there is an exit point,
where the ion leaves the semicircular plate and travels
outwards in a straight line.
There is a limit of 20MeV energies for the particles, as any
more and the relativistic mass increase will cause the particles
to become out of phase with the alternating source.
ANSTO operates a cyclotron at the Royal Prince Alfred
Hospital in Sydney.

Synchrotron
A ring shaped evacuated tube, with a series of magnets along it,
and one or more alternating power sources, producing an
electric field in that region of the tube.
o The magnets (usually superconductors), keep the
particle in its circular path, and the alternating power

 Synchrotron
A ring shaped evacuated tube, with a series of magnets along it,
and one or more alternating power sources, producing an
electric field in that region of the tube.
o The magnets (usually superconductors), keep the
particle in its circular path, and the alternating power
source accelerates the particle whenever it passes it.
The LHC at CERN has a circumference of 27km. It has 1232
superconducting magnets, and has accelerated opposing proton
beams at 7TeV each, resulting in a 14TeV collision. This means
that the protons collided at 3m/s less than the speed of light.
Particle Detectors
Records the explosion of particles as a result of accelerated
collision.
Consists of various sub-detector parts:
Tracking Devices
o Detects and reveals the trajectory of the particles. This
provides information about the particles momentum.
Early detectors included cloud chambers, but now
computers are used to reconstruct the path.
o Muons are commonly detected this way.
Calorimeters
o Stops and absorbs particles in order to measure their
energy level.
o Electromagnetic calorimeters are positioned close to the
collision, and measure energy of light particles like
electrons and photons.
o Hadronic calorimeters measure energies of heavier
particles made of quarks (hadrons), including protons,
neutrons, pions (a meson).
o Calorimeters cannot stop muons or neutrinos.
Particle Identification Detectors
o Identifies the type of particle using either Cherenkov
radiation (emitted when a particle travels faster than the
speed of light in that medium) or transition radiation
(emitted when a charged particle crosses the boundary
between certain materials).
o The Standard Particle Model
In 1964, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig proposed quarks as the
constituents for the family of particles called hadrons.
Hadrons would be divided into mesons (a quark and anti-quark
pair) and baryons (three quarks).
In 1967, the electro-weak theory (unifying electromagnetic and weak
forces) was proposed, and in 1969 the first evidence of quarks was
observed.
In 1970-1973, the Standard Model was formulated, and since then,
every single component of the model has been identified except for the
Higgs boson and graviton.
The Higgs boson is the hypothetical particle that gives other
particles mass.
The graviton is a boson which causes gravity.
o Components of the Standard Model
Quarks 12 types.
Six varieties or flavours of quarks. The charge quarks in
increasing mass are up, charm and top. The charge quarks in
increasing mass are down, strange and bottom.
o Proton is up/up/down, and neutron is up/down/down.
First generation is up/down, second generation is
charm/strange, third generation is top/bottom.
Quarks also have a colour charge, which is red, blue or green.
There are also anti-quarks, which are and in charge, and have
colours of antired, antiblue or antigreen.

o Proton is up/up/down, and neutron is up/down/down.

First generation is up/down, second generation is
charm/strange, third generation is top/bottom.
Quarks also have a colour charge, which is red, blue or green.
There are also anti-quarks, which are and in charge, and have
colours of antired, antiblue or antigreen.
o Hadrons all have integer charge, and have their colours
becoming white, either by a colour and corresponding
anticolour in mesons, or by all three colours present in
hadrons.
Quarks cannot exist as discrete particles, only as composite
hadrons.

o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg
Leptons 12 types.
There are the -1 charge leptons and the neutral leptons. The -1
charge in increasing mass are: electron, muon and tau. The
neutral particles in increasing mass are electron neutrino, muon
neutrino and tau neutrino.
o Antileptons have a charge of +1 or 0.
1st generation is electron/electron neutrino, 2nd generation is
muon/muon neutrino, and 3rd generation is tau/tau neutrino.
Bosons 5 types
Force particles, which transmit the fundamental forces of
nature.
Gluons for strong force; photons, W+, W-, Z0 for electroweak
force; gravitons for gravitational force; and Higgs boson for
mass (not explicitly a force).
Bosons have integer spins whereas quarks and leptons have
non-integer spins.