PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

CHAPTER 1
1.1

INTRODUCTION

A traffic light is a collection of two or more coloured lights found at some junctions and
pedestrian crossings which indicates whether it is safe and/or legal to continue across the path of
other road users. In the United Kingdom, traffic lights are widely used both on major roads and
in built-up areas. Their numbers have increased exponentially since they were first invented in
1868.
The operation of standard traffic lights which are currently deployed in many junctions,
are based on predetermined timing schemes, which are fixed during the installation and remain
until further resetting. The timing is no more than a default setup to control what may be
considered as normal traffic. Although every road junction by necessity requires different traffic
lighttiming setup, many existing systems operate with an over-simplified sequence. This has
instigated various ideas and scenarios to solve the traffic problem.
A traffic light group is defined as a set of traffic lights which are controlled by the same
regulator, which acts as a master or coordinator. The regulator operates under a intelligent system
that allows for controlling the lights status depending on time, traffic conditions, etc. In the last
70 years, several innovations on the original concept of traffic light control have been
introduced. These innovations consist in the introduction of complex routines such as macro-and
micro-regulation, redundancy to increment the security, more efficient and economical reflectors,
etc. However, one aspect that remains the same in all the cases is the use of incandescent lights
as the lighting element. During the 80s, a new lighting technology was introduced: Light
Emitting Diodes, most commonly known as LED. LEDs can be power supplied with a dc voltage
and are able to emit light in a specified wavelength. LED technology is commonly used in
displays, panel indicators, remote controls, television screens, etc.
LED technology has experienced a great evolution in the last few years, having a lower
fabrication cost wit the possibility of having LED with different illumination colour. LEDs are
specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward. Additionally, they are housed
in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a particular
direction. The application of LEDs in traffic lights has several advantages with respect to
incandescent bulbs:
LEDs do not have a filament that burn out, so that they do not get especially hot in contrast to
incandescent bulbs;
LEDs last much longer than incandescent lamps, what means that the long term operation and
maintenance costs are significantly lower than for incandescent bulbs;
Light production process is significantly more efficient than in incandescent bulbs, where a
huge portion of the available power supply is used to heat the filament and is not directly used
in the production of light;
A large number of applications can be implemented with LEDs as traffic lighting
Elements: modification of lighting condition depending on climatic conditions, change in the
Crossing time for pedestrians, failure detection, generation of alarms, etc. Figure 1 shows a
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

comparison between the emission spectrum of LEDs and incandescent bulb as red traffic lights.
The number of LEDs used in a traffic light depends on the manufacturer. In the figure, 680 LEDs
are allocated in concentric circles. As it can be seen in the light spectrum for the red light, the
LED produces a narrower band of Proceedings of the 6th WSEAS International Conference on
Power Systems, Lisbon, Portugal, September 22-24, 2006 256 wavelengths concentrated around
the red wavelength (657 nm), which means that the light and color emitted by the traffic light
will be much brighter. Moreover, the power supply level needed for the incandescent light is 7.3
dB higher in order to obtain the same intensity. In order to implement the applications indicated,
a certain level of intelligence is required in both the traffic light and the regulator. Therefore, a
communication link must be established, so that a transceiver must be installed in both sites of
the link (traditional traffic control system is unidirectional from regulator to traffic lights,
without any response from the status of the traffic lights).
There are different transmission media than can be used. Physical layers based on radio
technology are likely to receive the disturbances provided by impulsive noise from car engines,
which is a significant interference contribution in different frequency bands. Wired technologies
such as fiber, coaxial or copper lines are not available between traffic light and regulator, so that
a significant deployment cost is required. Therefore, the use of power lines as transmission
media is foreseen as the most appropriate technology as there is no need of deploying new
infrastructure.

(a) Traffic light formed by 680 LEDs (25 W)

(b) Incandescent bulb (135 W)

Figure 1.1 Traffic light implemented with LED and incandescent bulb.
The scope of this contribution is to present a PLC-based smart traffic light control, where the
communication link is established using the power lines used to feed the traffic light groups. The
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structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 describes the architecture of the system. Section 3
details the specifications and requisites of the communication systems, and section 4 shows the
selected hardware platform and software tools used to implement the tested.
To design an intelligent and efficient traffic control system, a number of parameters that
represent the status of the road conditions must be identified and taken into consideration.

CHAPTER -2
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

2.1

WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project solar panel which gives the electrical energy (dc) & we use two relay (24v
dc) in which one relay is connected or disconnected between solar panel PLC & battery & other
relay is connected or disconnected between battery PLC & power supply. Both relay controlled
by teco PLC
One relay connected between battery & solar panel when battery charging between 20%
to 90% . when battery is charging more than 90% then relay is connected between solar panel .
Other relay is connected between solar panel & PLC battery charging is more than 90%
then solar panel is directly connected with PLC-2 which control the traffic light signal.
At the time of evening sunlight intensity goes to down. Due to this reason battery
charging percentage then relay -2 is connected between battery & PLC(traffic light controller)
but at the time of night battery discharges more than 90% then PLC(traffic light controller) is
directly connected with SMPS(switched mode power supply). Finally our aim is that 24v dc
supply always given to the PLC(traffic light controller). The project are shown in fig 2.1.

Fig -2.1
2.2

The block diagram

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

The block diagram of the project are shown in figure 2.2.

2.3

TABLE OF COMPONENT AND ITS COST

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

S. NO.

NAME OF COMPONENT

RATING

SOLER PANEL

BATTERY

21 V, 0.58A
12 V, 0.56A
24V, 7.2AH

LED

3V

LAMP INDICATER

24V

20

5
6

PLC (MICROLOGIX 1500)

PLC (TECHO)
RELAY

24V,12PIN I/O
24V
24V, DC,PLA

BREAD BORD WIRE

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Department of Electrical And Electronics Engg., Integral University, Lko

COST(RUPIES
)
PER UNIT
1250
650
1330

10000
6000
250
5/M

PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

CHAPTER-3

3.1

Basic Traffic Lights

The most basic traffic light consists of three bulbs with different coloured lenses, which
from top to bottom are red, amber and green. In the UK, the lights commonly use a sequence of
four
phases:
1. Red this indicates that traffic must stop behind the line. It is compulsory for all road users to
do so. Some traffic lights even have cameras to catch drivers breaking this law.
2. Red and Amber this combination of bulbs indicates that the lights are about to change to
green, and gives drivers time to release their handbrake and prepare to drive off as soon as they
are
allowed
to
do
so.
This
phase
was
first
introduced
in
1958.
3. Green this indicates that traffic may pass through the junction, provided that it is safe to do
so and the way is clear. Some junctions are marked with a hash of yellow lines forming a box,
which indicates that drivers must not stop on the box unless they are turning right and their exit
is
clear.
4. Amber this warns traffic that it should stop unless it is unsafe to do so. In the UK it is legal
to pass through an amber light, as the phase exists to warn drivers not yet at the junction that they
will
have
to
stop.
Traffic lights at junctions will always follow this pattern, with conflicting flows of traffic being
forced to take turns. Often the green bulb is replaced with two or more green arrows or filter
lights, which indicate that traffic turning left or right may go, while a red light remains to instruct
oncoming traffic to wait. It is now quite common for vehicles turning right to have to wait for a
separate filter light, even if the way is clear. Despite being relatively simple, filter arrows are
often 'mistaken' for an instruction to go by drivers who want to turn a different way to that
shown. Problems are also known to arise from motorists watching the other lights at junctions
and anticipating their own movement, and so shades are used to hide the lights from both drivers
and from the sun, which would reduce their visibility
It is interesting to note that the UK is one of only a few countries not to have a 'left on
red' rule, where cars are allowed to pass through a red light if it is safe to turn left; in the UK, red
lights and filter lights must always be obeyed.A recent improvement in traffic light technology
has come with the development of red, amber and green light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Arrays of
these tiny bulbs can be used to replace the existing light bulbs in traffic lights and are clearer and
more energy-efficient. It is estimated that replacing all the traffic light bulbs in the UK with
LEDs would save enough energy to power the city of Norwich.

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

3.2
Project scope
1. Construct a model of four way junction of a traffic light model.
2. Programme a ladder logic diagram to control the traffic light.
3. Combine the software part and the hardware part to simulate a traffic light system.
3.3

Hardware design

The objective of the hardware design is to develop the interface circuit between the PLC
and the elevator system and the elevator control panel, with both external and internal requests.
These requests are produced by push buttons that send continuous signals to the PLC when
activated. Each push button is connected to an LED to identify the request placed. In addition,
the four floors are represented by four LEDs, one for each level. Furthermore, an alarm switch is
installed to produce a flashing signal whenever activated. This facility was introduced to
simulate the desire for a sudden stoppage of the elevator either for reasons of safety or for
requests for a repair job to be carried out on the elevator.
In order to obtain the desired setup, we needed to find a way to capture the pulse
generated by a depressed push button. We also needed to make sure that the PLC is recognizing
these signals in order for it to correctly perform the required action. As explained below, both
issues were resolved by using set/reset flip flops and relays respectively.
The block diagram of the systems layout is shown in Fig., where both the interface
between the PLC and the elevator system with the control panel are drawn

Fig-3.1
3.7

Block diagram of the system layout.

Description of Ladder Logic

The elevator starts at level 1. It opens the door for 5 s, then checks for requests in upper
levels. The movement from one level to another is represented by a timer. The transition between
two successive levels takes 8 s. As soon as a request is serviced, the door opens for 5 s to take
passengers in, and then proceeds to the next request to be serviced. Whenever a level is passed
by, its light flashes for 1 s to indicate the current position of the elevator on its way to its required
destination. The requests whose direction (up or down) is similar to the current direction of the
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elevator are always serviced before those made in the opposite direction, regardless of which
requests were made first. The system continues to service all the remaining requests in a similar
way. Whenever no more requests are left to service, the elevator will simply remain at the level it
was last at, keeping the door open for 5 s and then closing it until a fresh request is made.
However the door is programmed to never open in between levels, and whenever the alarm
switch is activated, the alarm signal starts flashing and the elevator stops at the next immediate
destination, opens the door and freezes all requests until the alarm is set off again.
An illustrative example on the intelligent control of the elevator is explained below:
Assume the following requests: 2D, 3U, 4D, were made and the elevator is currently at
level 1. The PLC will then perform the following sequence: First, all up requests are serviced, i.e.
in this case only 3U will be serviced. Next the elevator reaches the fourth floor to service 4D,
and finally it services the remaining down requests, which in our case is 2D.
3.8

System Architecture
The architecture of the communications system must take into account the topology of
the power lines that supply power to each traffic light. In typical situations, low voltage power
lines are installed from the regulator to the traffic lights, resulting in a star topology. According
to the deployment of traffic light groups, the topology of the communication system from the
regulator to the traffic lights follows a pointto- multipoint architecture. This means that a
regulator controls several of traffic lights depending on each particular situation. In most of the
cases, a regulator controls all the traffic lights used to manage the traffic in a street crossing, as it
can be seen in Figure 2. Distances between the regulator and the traffic light groups typically
vary in a range from 70 to 400 m. In a traffic light control system, the required bit rate is low
enough to be transmitted through power lines. As well, the conditions of the propagation channel
are favourable to establish the link as typical conducted interference that appear in a PLC-based
system are not found in traffic control scenario (dedicated low voltage lines to power supply the
traffic lights are used). On the other hand, the star based topology reduces channel impairments
such as impedance mismatching, echoes and multipath propagation. There are different
architectures to implement the control system. In present traffic control systems, the intelligence
of the system is completely installed in the controller, so that the controller is in charge of
switching lights, generate alarms, etc. This is carried out by means of a power interface boards
composed of triacs and optocouplers between the traffic lights and the controller. The
architecture of the proposed system is based on the installation of a PLC modem in both the
traffic light group and in the controller. Apart from the communications tasks, the PLC modem
installed in the traffic light takes charge of the light operation. This new concept means that the
information flow between traffic light and regulator is significantly reduced, as the controller is
no longer responsible for transmitting all the control signals to the traffic lights. On the other
hand, traffic light groups will inform the controller of the current status, with special emphasis of
alarm situations (fused light, power supply failure etc.).

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Fig -3.4
4.2.5

Programming

PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then
downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in
the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a
single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays[4.3].
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based
programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is
available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic
Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such
as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control
systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured text (ST; similar to
the Pascal programming language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language)
and sequential function chart (SFC)[4.4]. These techniques emphasize logical organization of
operations.
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers,
differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs
are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line
of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

4.3

PLC compared with other control systems

Fig -4.2
4.4

Allen-Bradley PLC installed in a control panel

PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial
processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system
is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where changes to the system would be
expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with
industrial pilot devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and the design problem
centers on expressing the desired sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically highly
customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific
custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods,
customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components,
which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution, and where the non-recurring
engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For
example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing
only a few dollars in production quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of
units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies, input/output
hardware and necessary testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the
end-user would not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of
units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these controllers.
However, some specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of
custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the development cost would be
uneconomical [4.5].
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require
algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very highspeed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight
controls. Single-board computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be
chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development and maintenance
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs" running on desktop-type computers can interface with
industrial I/O hardware while executing programs within a version of commercial operating
systems adapted for process control needs.
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion control, positioning control and
torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units to be integrated with PLC so
that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a "proportional,
integral, derivative" or "PID controller". A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a
manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few
analog control loops; where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed
control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the
boundary between DCS and PLC applications has become less distinct.
PLCs have similar functionality as Remote Terminal Units. An RTU, however, usually
does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes more
powerful and cheaper,RTUs, PLCs and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in
responsibilities, and features and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 611313functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all
vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments.
In recent years "Safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone
models (Pilz PNOZ Multi, Sick etc.) or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to
existing controller architectures (Allen Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ
from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in safety-critical applications for which
PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a Safety
PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or perhaps to
manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such PLCs
typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions
designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens and so forth. The flexibility that such
systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.

4.5

PLC

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Fig -4.3

4.7

BASIC PLC OPERATIONS

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Fig -4.5

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

4.8

LOGIC 0, LOGIC 1

Fig -4.6
4.9

Different Types and uses of PLC

The Unitary PLC is typically the smallest and least expensive. It would be used in
a small machine or fixed application such as overhead door controls or a stand-alone parts
inspection system. They are not expandable so the application is limited to on-board I/O. There
are, however, some very powerful units available with built in GSM, color screens, and web
servers. Most have 1 or 2 analog I/O channels as well as a high speed input and pulse train output
for simple motion control.
The Modular PLCs start with a processor with a few or no on-board I/O. They typically
mount to a DIN rail and sometimes require a separate power supply. Additional I/O as well as
specialty modules also snap onto the DIN rail and plug into the processor or adjacent module.
Modular PLCs are used in applications where a higher I/O count is needed or when using
specialty modules such as quadrature encoders, thermocouple inputs, etc. They are also useful in
small applications that have options or upgrades available to the end user. Systems can be
expanded (within certain limits) without adding additional rack space.
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Rack style PLCs are usually more expensive, expandable, and powerful than unitary or modular
PLCs. The rack provides a power and communication backplane that greatly increases the
communication rate between the processor and the modules as well as allowing some specialty
modules to communicate with each other without the processor. In some brands, multiple
processors can be in the same rack and share the inputs. Racks also allow for redundant
processors for critical systems such as waste water pumps or fire control systems. The types of
modules available for rack systems are far more extensive than modular systems. The number of
available I/O points is also much higher in the rack systems. Around 1000 for some modular
PLCs versus over 100,000 for the same brand of rack system.
4.10 Programmable Logic Controllers
4.10.1 MicroLogix 1500 System

Fig -4.7
In a perfect world you would always know what's behind the next door. In the world of
automation, the MicroLogix 1500 controller can help you open up new possibilities and get you
to where you want to go with ease. This dynamic controller is a more powerful and expandable
addition to the MicroLogix family:

Application flexibility and versatility with Compact I/O means a small footprint and
expansion to over 100 I/O points

Large onboard non-volatile memory

Real Time Clock (RTC) capabilities allow time scheduling of control

Program portability allows user programs to be uploaded, downloaded and transported

via Memory Modules

Built in PID capabilities

Data Access Tool for data monitoring and adjustment

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Eight Latching (pulse catch) inputs

Four event interrupts

4.10.2 Performance

Approximate scan time for a typical 1K user program (includes timers, counters, etc.): 1
millisecond

Simple bit instruction execution: 0.7 microseconds

2 millisecond selectable timed interrupt (STI)

1 millisecond timers

Two 20 kHz high-speed counters each with eight modes of operation (up, down,
up/down, quadrature, etc.)

Two 20 kHz high-speed outputs (PTO or PWM with acceleration/deceleration profiles)

Rugged tongue-and-groove package design, to provide strength and system reliability

May be expanded to include up to 16 Compact I/O modules

Base Units continue to support up to eight modules (within the power budget of the base unit)
with additional expansion through expansion cables and a number of expansion power supplies.
4.10.3

Optional Features

Data Access Tool (DAT) plug-in device

Memory Module

Real Time Clock (RTC) Module

Combination Memory & RTC Module

Expansion I/O modules for discrete and analog applications with a comprehensive
selection of electrical configurations

4.10.4 Advantages of a Modular PLC over a Fixed PLC.

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Computers make life easier and more manageable, but people rarely think about the technology
that is running in the background. The traffic light signaling drivers to turn, the amusement park
ride turning in unfathomable twists, and the factory assembly line using machines in the
automobile manufacturing process all have one thing in common, programmable logic
controllers (PLCs). These digital computers can be programmed for all sorts of automated
actions, and though they come in both fixed and modular form, the modular type is the most
popular because of its advantages.

CHAPTER -5
5.1

Solar Panel

A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged,
connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger
photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications.
Each panel is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges
from 100 to 450 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same
rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt
panel.
Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most
installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar
panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.
5.2

Theory and Construction

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer
or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the
panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals.
The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Cells must
also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semiflexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to
provide a desired current capability.
Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and
at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current
characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to
overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and
installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.[1]
Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area
(such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range
of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if
illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into
different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges.
[2]
This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.
Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar panel efficiency) is around 21% in
commercial products,[3] typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The energy
density of a solar panel is the efficiency described in terms of peak power output per unit of
surface area, commonly expressed in units of watts per square foot (W/ft 2). The most efficient
mass-produced solar panels have energy density values of greater than 13 W/ft2 (140 W/m2).

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

5.3

Production

Fig -5.1
In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar PV pricing survey
and market research company PV insights reporting growth of 117.8% in solar PV installation on
a year-on-year basis. With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module
makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar panels in 2010. They actively expanded
their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to PV insights, five of
the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players. Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli
and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and most of them doubled their shipments in 2010

5.4

Mounting Systems

5.4.1

Trackers

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel at a cost of mechanical
complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt the panels as
needed for maximum exposure to the light.
5.4.2

Fixed Racks

Fixed racks hold panels stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed rack sets the angle
at which the panel is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are common.

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

5.4.3

Ground Mounted

Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames
that are attached to ground based mounting supports.
Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the
solar panel system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting
system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and
simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems.

Roof mounted
Roof mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames
attached to roof based mounting supports.
Roof based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails
for attaching the panel racking or frames.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the
panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method
allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on
the roof structure.

Fig -5.2

Fig -5.3

Technicians installing photovoltaic panels A roof mounted solar panel system installed on a
on a roof mounted rack.
sloped roof using pole mounts and rails.

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5.5

Photovoltaics (PV)

Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials
exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light
and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can
be used as electricity.
The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, in 1839, who
found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to
light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which
photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first
photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery and
was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the
space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard
spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was established,
and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology
gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.

Fig -5.4
The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell.
Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, used in the
microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form
an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the
solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity
can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support structure
or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain
voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced is directly dependent on how
much light strikes the module.

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Fig -5.5
Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general the larger area of a module
or array, the more electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce
direct-current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in both
series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any
required voltage and current combination.
Today's most common PV devices use a single junction, or
interface, to create an electric field within a semiconductor
such as a PV cell. In a single-junction PV cell, only photons
whose energy is equal to or greater than the band gap of the
cell material can free an electron for an electric circuit. In
other words, the photovoltaic response of single-junction
cells is limited to the portion of the sun's spectrum whose
energy is above the band gap of the absorbing material, and
lower-energy photons are not used.
One way to get around this limitation is to use two (or more)
different cells, with more than one band gap and more than
one junction, to generate a voltage. These are referred to as
"multijunction" cells (also called "cascade" or "tandem"
cells). Multijunction devices can achieve a higher total conversion
Fig-5.6
efficiency because they can convert more of the energy spectrum of light to electricity.
As shown below, a multijunction device is a stack of individual single-junction cells in
descending order of band gap (Eg). The top cell captures the high-energy photons and passes the
rest of the photons on to be absorbed by lower-band-gap cells.
Much of today's research in multijunction cells focuses on gallium arsenide as one (or all) of the
component
cells.
Such cells
have
reached
efficiencies
of
around
35%
under concentrated sunlight. Other materials studied for multijunction devices have
been amorphous silicon and copper indium diselenide.
As an example, the multijunction device below uses a top cell of gallium indium phosphide, "a
tunnel junction," to aid the flow of electrons between the cells, and a bottom cell of gallium
arsenide
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Fig -5.7

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CHAPTER 6

6.1

Battery :-

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored

chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile")
in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell cell in 1836,
batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales
each year, with 6% annual growth.[15]
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to
be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed
to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used
to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby
power fortelephone exchanges and computer data centers.

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6.1.1

History

Fig -5.1
The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest
type of battery, a voltaic pile.
In strict terms, a battery is a collection of multiple electrochemical cells, but in popular
usage battery often refers to a single cell. For example, a 1.5-volt AAA battery is a single 1.5volt cell, and a 9-volt battery has six 1.5-volt cells in series. The first electrochemical cell was
developed by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1792, and in 1800 he invented the first
battery, a "pile" of many cells in series.[16]
The usage of "battery" to describe electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748
described multiple Leyden jars (early electrical capacitors) by analogy to a battery of
cannons. Thus Franklin's usage to describe multiple Leyden jars predated Volta's use of multiple
galvanic cells. It is speculated, but not established, that several ancient artifacts consisting of
copper sheets and iron bars, and known asBaghdad batteries may have been galvanic cells.
Volta's work was stimulated by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani, who in
1780 noticed that dissected frog's legs would twitch when struck by a spark from a Leyden jar,
an external source of electricity. In 1786 he noticed that twitching would occur during lightning
storms. After many years Galvani learned how to produce twitching without using any external
source of electricity. In 1791, he published a report on "animal electricity." He created an electric
circuit consisting of the frog's leg (FL) and two different metals A and B, each metal touching the
frog's leg and each other, thus producing the circuit AFLBAFLB...etc. In modern terms,
the frog's leg served as both the electrolyte and thesensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He
noticed that even though the frog was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the
metals.

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Within a year, Volta realized the frog's moist tissues could be replaced by cardboard soaked in
salt water, and the frog's muscular response could be replaced by another form of electrical
detection. He already had studied the electrostatic phenomenon of capacitance, which required
measurements of electric charge and of electrical potential ("tension"). Building on this
experience, Volta was able to detect electric current through his system, also called a Galvanic
cell. The terminal voltage of a cell that is not discharging is called its electromotive force (emf),
and has the same unit as electrical potential, named (voltage) and measured in volts, in honor of
Volta. In 1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many voltaic cells in series, piling them one
above the other. This voltaic pile gave a greatly enhanced net emf for the combination, with a
voltage of about 50 volts for a 32-cell pile. In many parts of Europe batteries continue to be
called piles.
Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells
were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes
were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael
Faraday showed in 1834. According to Faraday, cations (positively charged ions) are attracted to
the cathode, and anions(negatively charged ions) are attracted to the anode.
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages
fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. Later, starting with
the Daniell cell in 1836, batteries provided more reliable currents and were adopted by industry
for use in stationary devices, in particular in telegraph networks where they were the only
practical source of electricity, since electrical distribution networks did not exist at the
time. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not
handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile.
These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the
nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a
paste, made portable electrical devices practical.
Since then, batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for a variety of
purposes.
6.1.2

Principle of Operation

Fig -6.2
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A voltaic cell for demonstrate on purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt
bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode;
the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by
the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between
half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.[17]
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have
emfs
and , then the net emf is
; in other words, the net emf is the difference
between the reduction of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or
across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would
perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and
the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to
the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and
NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other
hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

6.1.3

Categories and types of Batteries

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Fig -6.3
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an AAA cell,
an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032 and
LR44).
Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages.
[31]

Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to

electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily
restored to the battery by electrical means.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition[18].

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical
reaction. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active
materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

6.2

Primary Batteries

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that
have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative
power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.[19]
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Common types of disposable batteries include zinccarbon batteries and alkaline batteries. In
general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries
do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 ).
6.3

Secondary Batteries

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by
applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This battery is notable in that it
contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area
be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during
overcharging. The leadacid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can
supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use
common where a large capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the weight and
ease of handling are not concerns[20].
A common form of the leadacid battery is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver
a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve
regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery), popular in the automotive industry as a replacement
for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte,
reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries have the electrolyte
immobilized, usually by one of two means:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage.
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass
matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and
are, therefore, useful in appliances such as mobile and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd),nickel
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. By far, Li-ion has the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios,
and medical equipment. NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established commercially.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which
allows charging an AA cell through a USB connector, and smart battery packs with state-ofcharge monitors and battery protection circuits to prevent damage on over-discharge. Low selfdischarge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be recharged prior to shipping.

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6.4

Battery Cell types

There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes
applied and design chosen. The variation includes galvanic, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow
cells and voltaic piles.

6.4.1 Wet Cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid
covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the
air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for
electrochemistry. It is often built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for
demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary
cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary
batteries such as the Daniel cell were built as open-topped glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet
cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston
cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used
in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or
large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used
instead. These applications commonly use leadacid or nickelcadmium cells.
6.4.2 Dry Cell

"Dry cell" redirects here. For the heavy metal band, see Dry Cell (band).

Fig -6.4
Line art drawing of a dry cell:
1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7.
chemical mixture.
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A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow
current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling as it
contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet
cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top, and
needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Leadacid batteries did not achieve the safety and
portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell battery is the zinccarbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the
dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since
both use the same zincmanganese dioxide combination).
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the form of a cylindrical
pot, with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte
is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space
between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of
ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolarizer. In some more
modern types of so-called 'high-power' batteries (with much lower capacity than standard
alkaline batteries), the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.
6.4.3 Reserve cell

A reserve battery is stored in unassembled form and is activated, ready-charged, when its internal
parts are assembled, e.g. by adding electrolyte; it can be stored inactivated for a long period of
time. For example, a battery for an electronic fuse might be activated by the impact of firing a
gun, breaking a capsule of electrolyte to activate the battery and power the fuses circuits.
Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long
storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.
6.5

Battery cell performance

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry current drain, and temperature.
6.6

Battery capacity and discharging

Fig -6.5.A device to check battery voltage.

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A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can store. The more electrolyte and
electrode material there is in the cell the greater the capacity of the cell. A small cell has less
capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, and they develop the same open-circuit
voltage.
Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the
discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the
allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. The available capacity
of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged. If a battery is discharged at a
relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected[21].
The capacity printed on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the constant
current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a specified terminal
voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 Ah will deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room
temperature. However, if discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower capacity.
The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is
approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law:

where
is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.
For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included.
Internal energy losses and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte cause
the efficiency of a real battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate,
the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates, but if the rate is
very low, it will partly self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its
efficiency.
Installing batteries with different Ah ratings will not affect the operation of a device (except for
the time it will work for) rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are
exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can result in delivery of less total energy, as
happens with alkaline batteries.[31] For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour
discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

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CHAPTER -7

7.1

Solar Tracking Systems

Global warming has increased the demand and request for green energy produced by
renewable sources such as solar power. Consequently, solar tracking is increasingly being
applied as a sustainable power generating solution.
Solar Tracking System is a device for orienting a solar panel or concentrating a solar
reflector or lens towards the sun. Concentrators, especially in solar cell applications, require a
high degree of accuracy to ensure that the concentrated sunlight is directed precisely to the
powered device. Precise tracking of the sun is achieved through systems with single or dual axis
tracking.
A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various payloads
toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices.
In flat-panel photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of
incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of
energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating capacity. In standard
photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that trackers are used in at least 85% of commercial
installations greater than 1MW from 2009 to 2012.
In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP)applications
trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics in
concentrated solar applications accept the direct component of sunlight light and therefore must
be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator
applications because such systems do not produce energy unless oriented closely toward the sun.

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7.2

Basic concept

Fig -7.1
The effective collection area of a flat-panel solar collector varies with the cosine of the
misalignment of the panel with the Sun.
Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the solar
energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder - the diffuse portion is the blue sky
on a clear day and increases as a proportion on cloudy days. As the majority of the energy is in
the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the sun to be visible to the panels as long as
possible.
7.3

Trackers

Even though a fixed flat-panel can be set to collect a high proportion of available noontime energy, significant power is also available in the early mornings and late afternoons when
the misalignment with a fixed panel becomes excessive to collect a reasonable proportion of the
available energy. For example, even when the Sun is only 10 above the horizon the available
energy can already be around half the noon-time energy levels (or even greater depending on
latitude, season, and atmospheric conditions).
Thus the primary benefit of a tracking system is to collect solar energy for the longest
period of the day, and with the most accurate alignment as the Sun's position shifts with the
seasons.
In addition, the greater the level of concentration employed the more important accurate
tracking becomes, because the proportion of energy derived from direct radiation is higher, and
the region where that concentrated energy is focused becomes smaller.

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7.3.1

Single Axis Tracking Systems

Solar panels with single axis tracking systems. The panels can turn around the centre
axis. LINAK can provide the actuators that tilt the panels.

Fig -7.2

7.3.2

Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT)

Fig -7.3
The axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to the
ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single axis tracker can be
shared between trackers to lower the installation cost.
Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry
means that keeping all of the axis of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for
appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another.

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Appropriate spacing can maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, this being
dependent upon local terrain and shading conditions and the time-of-day value of the energy
produced. Backtracking is one means of computing the disposition of panels.
Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of
rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis
of rotation.
In single axis horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings
mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north-south line. Panels are mounted
upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through
the day.
7.3.3

Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT)

The axis of rotation for vertical single axis trackers is vertical with respect to the ground.
These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Such trackers are more
effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers.
Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize
land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of the shading
over the course of a year.
Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle with
respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric
around the axis of rotation.

7.3.4

Dual Axis Tracking Systems

Dual axis tracking is typically used to orient a mirror and redirect sunlight along a fixed
axis towards a stationary receiver. But the system can also gain additional yield on your PV cells.
LINAK can provide you with quality actuators that

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Fig -7.4
7.3.5

Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT)

Fig -7.5
Single axis trackers with roughly 20 degree tilt at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, USA. The
arrays form part of the Nellis Solar Power Plant. Credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman
Larry E. Reid Jr.
All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted
single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease
the elevated ends height off the ground.
Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary losses and to optimize land utilization.
With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axis of rotation at
any density. However, the packing parallel to their axis of rotation is limited by the tilt angle and
the latitude.
Tilted single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the
axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around
the axis of rotation.

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7.3.6

Multi-mirror concentrating PV

Fig -7.6

Reflective mirror concentrator units

This device uses multiple mirrors in a horizontal plane to reflect sunlight upward to a high
temperature photovoltaic or other system requiring concentrated solar power. Structural
problems and expense are greatly reduced since the mirrors are not significantly exposed to wind
loads. Through the employment of a patented mechanism, only two drive systems are required
for each device. Because of the configuration of the device it is especially suited for use on flat
roofs and at lower latitudes. The units illustrated each produce approximately 200 peak DC
watts.
A multiple mirror reflective system combined with a central power tower is employed at
the Sierra Sun Tower, located in Lancaster, California. This generation plant operated by Solar is
scheduled to begin operations on August 5, 2009. This system, which uses multiple heliostats in
a north-south alignment, uses pre-fabricated parts and construction as a way of decreasing startup
and operating costs.

CHAPTER-8
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8.1

Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming

in from one circuit and re-tran

smitting it to
another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations.
Fig -8.1
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".
8.2

Basic Design and Operation

Fig -8.2
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8.3

Simple Electromechanical Relay

Fig -8.3
Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core,
an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive
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relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting
of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed
to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to
the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull
on the armature during the AC cycle.[8.1]
A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. Anoptocoupler (a lightemitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.
8.4

Types Of Relay

8.4.1

Latching Relay

Fig -7.4 Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved
with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an
over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the
coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil
turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and the
relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a
current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.
8.4.2

Reed Relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts
inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against
atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under
the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger
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relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and
voltage ratings. In addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick
'on' even when no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the
solenoid's magnetic field will fix the problem.

Fig -8.5
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals
where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where
the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be
mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury,
these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.
8.4.3

Polarized Relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Centurytelephone exchanges to
detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

8.4.4

Machine tool Relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of
contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of

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automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC)
mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer
circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard
method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to
carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which
energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic,
which is commonly used in Programmable logic controllers.
8.4.5

Ratchet Relay

This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil
to retain its operation.
8.4.6

Contactor Relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are
made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.[8.2] Such devices are often used for motor starters.
A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot
melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with
the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor
relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief
concern.
8.4.7

Solid-State Relay

Fig -7.6

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A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. Every solid-state device has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited
the amount of current a given SSR could handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is a
function of the material used to make the device. Solid-state relays rated to handle 100 to
1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they
may be falsely triggered by transients.
8.4.8

Solid State Contactor Relay

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat
sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals
from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
8.4.9

Buchholz Relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oilfilled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer
if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
8.4.10 Forced-Guided Contacts Relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together,
so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will
be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check
the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts",
"captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
8.4.11 Overload Protection Relay(used in Project)
Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the
motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings.[3] One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element
in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic
strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed
to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
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Relays are used to and for:

Amplify a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating

power. Some special cases are:

A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire
Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types

of modems or audio amplifiers,

Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of

an automobile,
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

Fig -8.7

Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different

potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage

switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting

normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or)
function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay
logic networks.
The application of Boolean Algebra to relay circuit design was formalized by Claude
Shannon in A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits

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8.5

Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical

elements in digital computers. See electro-mechanical computers such asARRA

(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to

nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels
of radioactive waste-handling machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of

contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic
field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape
slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.
Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to isolate any second battery in cars,

4WDs, RVs and boats.

Switching to a standby power supply.
Relay Application Considerations

Fig -8.8
A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone switching
system.

Fig -8.9
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Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and5XB
switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many
different factors:

Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old

style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.
Rating of contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up

to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

Voltage rating of contacts typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive

types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 Vperating lifetime, useful
life - the number of times the relay can be expected to operate reliably. There is both a
mechanical life and a contact life; the contact life is naturally affected by the kind of load
being switched.
Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for

switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few
milliamperes
Coil current - including minimum current required to operate reliably and minimum

current to hold. Also effects of power dissipation on coil temperature at various duty
cycles.
Package/enclosure open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation
environment - minimum and maximum operating between circuits, explosion proof,

outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board assembly
Operating temperatures and other environmental considerations such as effects of

humidity and salt

Assembly Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB

post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.

Mounting sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount,

enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment

Switching time where high speed is required
"Dry" contacts when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be

needed such as gold-plated contacts

Contact protection suppress arcing in very inductive circuits

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Coil protection suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current
Isolation between coil contacts
Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration some relays used

in aerospace applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more

Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
Regulatory approvals
Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.

There are many considerations involved in the correct selection of a control relay for a particular
application. These considerations include factors such as speed of operation, sensitivity,
and hysteresis. Although typical control relays operate in the 5 ms to 20 ms range, relays with
switching speeds as fast as 100 us are available. Reed relays which are actuated by low currents
and switch fast are suitable for controlling small currents.
As for any switch, the current through the relay contacts (unrelated to the current through the
coil) must not exceed a certain value to avoid damage. In the particular case of highinductance circuits such as motors other issues must be addressed. When a power source is
connected to an inductance, an input surge current which may be several times larger than the
steady current exists. When the circuit is broken, the current cannot change instantaneously,
which creates a potentially damaging spark across the separating contacts.
Consequently for relays which may be used to control inductive loads we must specify the
maximum current that may flow through the relay contacts when it actuates, the make rating; the
continuous rating; and the break rating. The make rating may be several times larger than the
continuous rating, which is itself larger than the break rating.
8.6

Derating Factors
Control relays should not be operated above rated temperature because of resulting
Type of load

% of rated value

Resistive

75

Inductive

35

Motor

20

Filament

10

Capacitive

75

increased degradation and fatigue. Common practice is to derate 20 degrees Celsius from the
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maximum rated temperature limit. Relays operating at rated load are also affected by their
environment. Oil vapors may greatly decrease the contact tip life, and dust or dirt may cause the
tips to burn before their normal life expectancy. Control relay life cycle varies from 50,000 to
over one million cycles depending on the electrical loads of the contacts, duty cycle, application,
and the extent to which the relay is derated. When a control relay is operating at its derated
value, it is controlling a lower value of current than its maximum make and break ratings. This is
often done to extend the operating life of the control relay. The table lists the relay derating
factors for typical industrial control applications.
8.7

Undesired Arcing

Without adequate contact protection, the occurrence of electric current arcing causes
significant degradation of the contacts in relays, which suffer significant and visible damage.
Every time a relay transitions either from a closed to an open state (break arc) or from an open to
a closed state (make arc & bounce arc), under load, an electrical arc can occur between the two
contact points (electrodes) of the relay. The break arc is typically more energetic and thus more
destructive.
The heat energy contained in the resulting electrical arc is very high (tens of thousands of
degrees Fahrenheit), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with the
current. The extremely high temperature of the arc cracks the surrounding gas molecules
creating ozone, carbon monoxide, and other compounds. The arc energy slowly destroys the
contact metal, causing some material to escape into the air as fine particulate matter. This very
activity causes the material in the contacts to degrade quickly, resulting in device failure. This
contact degradation drastically limits the overall life of a relay to a range of about 10,000 to
100,000 operations, a level far below the mechanical life of the same device, which can be in
excess of 20 million operations.[8.3]
8.8

Protective Relays

For protection of electrical apparatus and transmission lines electromechanical relays

with accurate operating characteristics were used to detect overload, short-circuits, and other
faults. While many such relays remain in use digital devices now provide equivalent protective
Function

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Fig -8.10
Railway Signaling
Part of a relay interlocking using UK Q-style miniature plug-in relays.
Railway signaling relays are very big and cumbersome compared to the mostly small voltages
(less than 120 V) and currents (perhaps 100 mA) that they switch. Contacts are widely spaced to
prevent dangerous flashovers and short circuits over a lifetime that may exceed fifty year.BR930
series plug-in relays are widely used on railways following British practice. These are 120 mm
high, 180 mm deep and 56 mm wide and weigh about 1400 g, and can have up to 16 separate
contacts, say 12 make and 4 break contacts.
Since rail signal circuits must be highly reliable, special techniques are used to detect and
prevent failures in the relay system. To protect against false feeds,double switching relay
contacts are often used on both the positive and negative side of a circuit, so that two false feeds
are needed to cause a false signal. Not all relay circuits can be proved so there is reliance on
construction features such as carbon to silver contacts to resist lightning induced contact welding
and to provide AC immunity.Opto-isolators are also used in some instances with railway
signalling, especially where only a single contact is to be switched.

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CHAPTER- 9

9.1

Lamp Indicator

An indicator lamp is a warning device used to alert drivers of potential problems with their
vehicles. Functions such as oil pressure, water temperature and the voltage are all typically wired
into dashboard indicator lamps. When there is a potential problem or a dangerous reading from a
engine sensor, the indicator lamp will illuminate. Many vehicles have both full-functioning
gauges that show the reading of the function as well as an indicator lamp. Typically, loweroptioned and base-packaged vehicles will possess only the indicator lamp system.
For every function of the automobile engine, a sensor exists to transmit readings back to
the dashboard. This system of warning lights and function indicators allows the driver to have an
understanding of how the engine is operating. The sensors are programed to send a signal to
the indicator lamp in the case of a non-standard sensor reading. When this signal is sent, the
warning light illuminates, telling the driver there is a problem. The situation can then be
assessed, and the driver can determine if immediate service is warranted or if the vehicle can
continue on and be serviced later.
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Although rare, an occasional faulty sensor can trigger a reaction from a warning lamp.
When this happens, it can typically only be detected through testing of the sensor itself. While a
mechanical gauge is triggered by the actual component being measured, such as water
temperature or oil pressure, the indicator lamp uses electrical senders that measure the function
against a go, no-go parameter engineered into the sensor. This type of system is not as accurate
as the mechanical gauge, though it is more easily understood by the average driver.
Many automobile operators have no idea what their proper engine oil pressure or
temperature should be before it is considered overheating. Most drivers, on the other hand, do
understand that a problem exists when a warning light is illuminated on the vehicle's dashboard.
Theindicator lamp typically has the engine's function displayed inside the illuminated light
when the lamp marked "Temp." is illuminated, the driver understands that the vehicle's
temperature is presenting a problem. When developing the warning system, it was understood
that a driver must posses some mechanical ability or knowledge to decipher the readings of the
mechanical gauges. Designers reasoned, however, that everyone could understand that there was
a problem with the vehicle if a bright red light suddenly came on within the dashboard.

9.2

LED 24V Indicator Lamp

Fig -9.1
9.3

FOLED 24V Indicator Lamp:

Color: red,green,yellow,blue,white
3V--380V
widely used in Household appliances and Lighting system....

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

Fig -8.2

LED 24V indicator lamp

LED 24V indicator lamp(indicator light)
CE,ROHS cert
panel cutout:22.3mm
used for machinery equipment, machine tools

CHAPTER- 10

10.1

Light-Emitting Diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical
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electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough
for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of
many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Fig -10.1

10.2

Technology

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The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n
junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side,
or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the
junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
recombine by a non-radioactive transition, which produces no optical emission, because these
are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.

Fig 10.2 The inner workings of an LED

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances
in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light
in a variety of colors.

Fig -10.3

I-V diagram for a diode

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LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial
LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much
light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light
extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and
development

10.3

Types

Fig -10.4
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color
10.4

Miniature

Fig -10.5
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm
to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink.
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[83]

Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a
natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density
and need for a heat sink.

10.5 High-Power
Solid-State Lighting and LED Lamp

Fig -10.6 High-power light-emitting diodes (Luxeon, Lumileds)

High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an
ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.
[84][85]
Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for
heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One
HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a
powerful LED lamp.

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CONCLUSIONS
By using PLC, control of the solar photovoltaic based battery charging could be
effectively implemented. The power consumption could be reduced by the connected load, which
are driven by the grid supply as it uses LEDs for lighting purposes. The SPV panel size could be
reduced.
Nowadays, most of the control system operation in industries used PLC as a controller to
control the process. It is used for process control, transportation, domestic appliances etc. Using
the PLC to control traffic light can reduce the use of hard-wired relays and other external
components. PLC has an internal function such as timer and counter making it become
sophisticated but simple for use. It also provides flexibility of control that based on the
programming and can execute simple logic instruction which being used in ladder diagram.
An Intelligent Traffic Light using PLC to control a cross-junction has been successfully
developed. The PLC program (ladder logic diagram) for implementing three mode of traffic light
operation; Normal Mode, Emergency Mode and Night Mode, have been designed completely
and can be operated effectively together with the model of emergency sensor (switch) for the
Emergency mode and the IR sensor circuit that has been developed especially for the Night
mode..
All the testing of the response to incoming emergency vehicle, instant green light during
the night and the normal mode of operation has been done successfully. It was repeatedly tested
to operate for continuously long time. In past period, the system had been performing well
without any error. As such, it can be concluded that the system performance is reliable to
response to change on time regarding on traffic volume and approaching emergency vehicle as
wished-for. The change from one mode to another is achieved automatically.

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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

REFERENCES:
1. Maher, Michael J. Real-Time Control and Communications. 18th Annual ESD/SMI
International Programmable Controllers Conference Proceedings, 1989, p. 431-436.
2.

Kinner, Russell H., P.E. Designing Programable Controller Application Programs Using
More than One Designer. 14th Annual International Programmable Controllers
Conference Proceedings, 1985, p. 97-110.

3.

W. Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, Fifth Edition, Newnes, 2009 ISBN 978-185617-751-1,

4.

Keller, William L Jr. Grafcet, A Functional Chart for Sequential Processes, 14th Annual
International Programmable Controllers Conference Proceedings, 1984, p. 71-96
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5.

Gregory K. McMillan, Douglas M. Considine (ed), Process/Industrial Instruments and

Controls Handbook Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1999 ISBN 0-07-012582-1 Section 3
Controllers

6.

Mason, C. R.. "Art & Science of Protective Relaying, Chapter 2, GE Consumer &
Electrical". Retrieved October 09, 2011
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Kenneth B. Rexford and Peter R. Giuliani (2002). Electrical control for machines (6th
ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-7668-6198-5.

8.

"Lab Note #105 Contact Life - Unsuppressed vs. Suppressed Arcing". Arc Suppression
Technologies. April 2011. Retrieved October 09, 2011
.

9.

Zocholl, Stan (2003). AC Motor Protection. Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories,

Inc.ISBN 0972502610, 978-0972502610.

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Department of Electrical And Electronics Engg., Integral University, Lko

PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

10. MyOKDB Engineering; How to Configure PLC; January 2011
11. Automation Direct: What Is a PLC?
12. Texas Instruments: Programmable Logic Controller Solutions
13. -Purdue University; College of Technology; PLC Fundamentals; T.E. Kostek; August
2009
14. -Texas A&M University; Engineering Technology and Industrial Distribution;
Programmable Logic Controllers
15. - "battery" (def. 4b), Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2009). Retrieved 25 May
2009
16. - Asimov, Isaac. [1] Retrieved 3 May 2009.

17. "battery" (def. 6), The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, the
Unabridged Edition (2nd edition), 1996 ed.
18. Buchmann, Isidor. Can the leadacid battery compete in modern times?. Battery
University. Retrieved 2 September 2007.
19. What's the best battery?. Battery University. Retrieved 26 August 2008

20. Battery Capacity Techlib. Retrieved 10 April 2007.

21. battery myths vs battery facts free information to help you learn the difference.
Retrieved 10 August 2007.
22. www.datatranslation.com/.../Evolution-of-virtual-Instrumentationpdf\
23. http://www.eeherald.com/section/design-guide/dgni100003.html
24. http://www.scientific-computing.com/features/features.php?feature id
25. www.wikipedia.org
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PLC CONTROL TRAFFIC SIGNALING SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL

26. www.google.com
27. www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/

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Department of Electrical And Electronics Engg., Integral University, Lko