Sound Propagation

An Impedance Based Approach

Chapter 2

Acoustic Wave Equation

and Its Basic Physical Measures

Yang-Hann Kim

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

Outline
2.1 Introduction/Study Objectives
2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation
2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy
2.4 The Units of Sound
2.5 Analysis Methods of Linear Acoustic Wave Equation
2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation
2.7 Chapter Summary
2.8 Essentials of Wave Equations and Basic Physical Measures

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.1 Introduction/Study Objectives

The governing equation is the total expression of every possible wave.
This chapter explores the underlying physics and sensible physical
measures that are related to acoustic waves. Impedance plays a central
role with regard to its effect on these measures.
The final objective of this chapter is to determine rational means of finding
the solutions of acoustic wave equations.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

The simplest case is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
cos w t

This depicts the waves that can be generated

when we excite one end of the pipe, harmonically.

Dx

p
p +
dx S
x

pS
x

u
u

+u
x
t

r
0

x+D x

S : cross section area (m 2 )

u : fluid particle velocity in x - direction

r : density of fluid(kg/m3 )
Figure 2.1
Relation between forces and motion of an infinitesimal fluid element in a pipe (expressing momentum balance:
the left-hand side shows the forces and the right exhibits the change of momentum)
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

If the pipe is semi-infinitely long, then the pressure in the pipe ( p ( x, t ) ) can
be mathematically written as
p ( x, t ) = P0 cos ( kx - wt + f ) ,
(2.1)
where P0 is the pressure magnitude, and f is an initial phase.
If the pipe is of finite length L , then the waves in the pipe can be expressed
by Equation 1.67. Recall that the displacement of the string, in this case, is
(2.2)
y ( x, t ) = A sin k ( L - x ) cos wt.
However, the possible acoustic pressure in the pipe can be written as
(2.3)
p ( x, t ) = P0 cos k ( L - x ) cos wt.
Equations 2.2 and 2.3 are different simply because the displacement of
the string has to be 0 at the end, but the acoustic pressure is maximal at
x=L.
We can also predict that the driving point impedance is governed by kL
(wave number k multiplied by its length L ).
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

To understand what is happening in the pipe, we have to understand how
pressures and velocities of the fluid particles behave and are associated
with each other.
As illustrated in Figure 2.1, the forces acting on the fluid between x and

x + Dx and its motion will follow the conservation of momentum principle.

That is,
Sum of the forces acting on the fluid = momentum change.

We can mathematically express this equality as

du
pS
pS
=
r
S
Dx,
( ) x ( ) x+Dx
dt

(2.4)

(2.5)

where it has been assumed that the viscous force is small enough (relative
to the force induced by pressure) to be neglected.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

The rate of change of the velocity ( du / dt ) can be expressed by

du u u x
=
+
,
(2.6)
dt t x t
where u is a function of position (x ) and time (t ) and the velocity is the time
rate change of the displacement.
Therefore, we can rewrite Equation 2.6 as
du u
u
=
+u .
dt t
x
(2.7)
If the cross-section between x and x + Dx is maintained constant and Dx
becomes small ( Dx 0 ) , then Equation 2.5 can be expressed as

p
u
Du
u
= r +u = r
,
x
x
Dt
t

where
p = p0 + p ', r = r0 + r ',

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

(2.8)

= + u . (2.9), (2.10), (2.11)

Dt t
x

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Equation 2.11 is the total derivative, and is often called the material
derivative. As can be anticipated, the second term is generally smaller
than the first.
If the static pressure ( p0) and density ( r0) do not vary significantly in space
and time, then Equation 2.8 becomes
p '
u
= r0 ,
x
t
(2.12)
where p ' is acoustic pressure and is directly related to acoustic wave
propagation.
Equations 2.8 and 2.12 describe three physical parameters, pressure, fluid
density, and fluid particle velocity. In other words, they express the
relations between these three basic variables. In order to completely
characterize the relations, two more equations are needed.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

The relation between density and fluid particle velocity can be obtained by
using the conservation of mass. Figure 2.2 shows how much fluid enters
the cross-section at x and how much exits through the surface at x + Dx .

(r S Dx )
t

(r u S )x
x
0

(r u S )x + Dx

x + Dx

S : cross section area (m 2 )

u : fluid particle velocity in x - direction

r : density of fluid(kg/m3 )

Figure 2.2 Conservation of mass in an infinitesimal element of fluid (increasing mass of the infinitesimal volume results from a
net decrease of the mass through the surfaces of the volume).

If we apply the principle of conservation of mass to the fluid volume

between x and x + Dx , the following equality can be written.
the rate of mass increase in the infinitesimal element
= the decrease of mass resulting from the fluid that is entering
and exiting through the surface at x and x + Dx
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.13a)
9

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Expressing this equality mathematically leads to

( r S Dx ) = ( r uS ) x - ( r uS ) x+Dx .
t
(2.13b)
As assumed before, if the area of the cross-section (S ) remains constant,
then Equation 2.13 can be rewritten as
r

= - ( ru ).
t
x
(2.14)
We can linearize this equation by substituting Equation 2.10 into Equation
2.14. Equation 2.14 then becomes
r '
u
= - r0 .
t
x
(2.15)
Equations 2.12 and 2.15 express the relation between the sound pressure
and fluid particle velocity, as well as the relation with the fluctuating
density and fluid particle velocity, respectively. One more equation is
therefore needed to completely describe the relations of the three
acoustic variables.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

The other equation must describe how acoustic pressure is related to the
fluctuating density. Recall that a pressure change will induce a change in
density as well as other thermodynamic variables, such as entropy. This
leads us to postulate that the acoustic pressure is a function of density and
entropy, that is

p = p ( r, s),

(2.16)

where s denotes entropy.

We can then write the change of pressure, or fluctuating pressure, dp or p ',
by modifying Equation 2.16 as follows :
dp =

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

p
p
dr +
ds.
r s
s r

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.17)

11

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Equation 2.17 simply states that a pressure change causes a density
change ( d r) and entropy variation ( ds). It is noticeable that the fluid obeys
the law of isentropic processes when it oscillates within the range of the
audible frequency. The second term on the right-hand side of Equation
2.17 is therefore negligible.
Note that the second relation of Equation 2.18 is mostly found
experimentally. This reduces Equation 2.17 to the form
p' B
=
= c2 ,
r ' r0

(2.18)

where B is the bulk modulus that expresses the pressure required for a
unit volume change and c is the speed of sound.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

12

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

We can obtain Equation 2.18 by considering wave front propagation in a
duct. Suppose that we make a disturbance which induces a small volume
change in the one-dimensional duct as illustrated in Figure 2.21.
We now want to find the relation between the speed of sound propagation
c and other physical variables, such as pressure and density.

Figure 2.21 S is cross-sectional area of the duct, x is the coordinate that measures the distance from the disturbance, and v is
the disturbance velocity

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

13

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Conservation of mass implies the identity:
( r + d r )(c - dv) S = r cS .
(2.121)
The left-hand side simply represents the amount of mass change per unit
time due to the disturbance. The right-hand side is the mass flux of the
fluid at rest. These two have to be balanced, and can be written as
(2.122)
r dv = cd r .
We next apply Newtons second law to the fluid of interest. The force
difference will be pS - ( p + (p / x)dx) S, and the corresponding momentum
change under consideration is {(cS - Sdv) - cS }r c which neglects higher
order terms induced by d r . We can therefore write
dp = r cdv.
(2.123)
Equations 2.122 and 2.123 lead to the following relation which describes
the relation between the speed of propagation and other physical variables
of fluid:
dp
2
c =
.
(2.124)
dr
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

14

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Equation 2.124 states that the square of the speed of sound depends on
the rate of compression with respect to density, that is, the amount of
pressure requires to generate a unit change in density. Note, however,
that the change in pressure and density of the fluid also depends on
temperature or entropy. Therefore, Equation 2.124 has to be rewritten as
p p
c =
+ .
r s
2

(2.125)

For isentropic process, Equation 2.125 can be written as

c2 =

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

p
.

r sc

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.126)

15

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

For example, if the fluid can be assumed to be an ideal gas in isentropic
process, then we can obtain the relations between pressure and density
(the ideal gas law and the isentropic relation) as
p
(2.127)
= nRT ,

p
p
p
= g or
=
constant
,

g
(2.128)
r
r
r

where n is the number of moles defined as mass M ( kg ) per unit molar

mass ( kg / mol ), R is the universal gas constant (= 8.314 J / ( K mol)) in
standard air), T is the absolute temperature ( K ) and g is the heat capacity
ratio which is defined as the ratio of the specific heat capacity under
constant pressure to the specific heat capacity under constant volume.

Consequently, we can predict the speed of sound for an ideal gas as

(2.129)
c = g nRT ,
under isentropic (i.e., no change in entropy) conditions.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Tables 2.1 and 2.2 summarize the speed of sound in accordance with the
state of gas.
Table 2.1 Dependency of speed of sound on temperature

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

17

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Table 2.2 The dependency of the speed of sound on relative humidity and on frequency

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

18

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Figure 2.3 Pictorial relation between three variables that govern acoustic wave propagation ( p0 and r 0 express the mean
pressure and static density, respectively; pand r denote acoustic pressure and fluctuating density, respectively; c denotes the
speed of propagation, and u is the velocity of the fluctuating medium)

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

19

2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

If we eliminate r ' and u from Equations 2.12, 2.15 and 2.18, then we obtain
2 p ' 1 2 p '
= 2 2 .
2
x
c t

(2.19)

Based on what we have studied so far, two conclusions can be drawn.

There is an analogy between the wave propagation along a string and acoustic
waves, that is, the waves in compressible fluid.
There are definite relations between three acoustic variables, which are
illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

We now extend Equations 2.12, 2.15 and 2.19 to a three-dimensional case.
First, Eulers equation can be written as
p '
u
= r0
x
t
p '
v
= r0
(2.20)
y
t
p '
w
= r0
,
z
t
where we use ( x, y, z ) coordinate for convenience. u , v and w denote the
velocity with respect to the ( x, y, z ) coordinate system.
We may use a vector notation to express Equation 2.20, which will yield a
more compact form. This gives
r
u
(2.21)
-p ' = r 0
,
t
where
r
u = ( u , v, w ) .
(2.22)
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.2 One-dimensional Acoustic Wave Equation

Equation 2.15 can also be extended to the three-dimensional form. That is,
r '
r
= - r 0 u .
t

(2.23)

The right-hand term of Equation 2.23 represent the net mass flow into the
unit volume in space.

r
If we eliminate r ' and u using Equations 2.21, 2.23 and 2.18, then
1 2 p '
p' = 2 2
c t
is obtained, which is a three-dimensional form of a wave equation.
2

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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(2.24)

22

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

For simplicity, we consider a one-dimensional case (Figure 2.4). We
denote acoustic pressure ( p ' ) as p , and fluctuating density ( r ' ) as r .

- Dl

p0

p0 + p

ep =

1
- Dl
p

2
l

- Dl / l

Figure 2.4 Volume change and energy for a one-dimensional element (e p is potential energy density and p is p ' for convenience)

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

23

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

As illustrated in Figure 2.4, there will be a volume change of Dl S because
of the pressure difference along the element. The length of the element
will be shortened by -Dl due to the small pressure change p . The energy
stored in the unit volume, potential or elastic energy, can then be written
as
1 -Dl
p
,
2 l
where Dl has to obey the conservation of mass.

ep =

(2.25)

We therefore have

r0lS = ( r0 + r ) ( l + Dl ) S .

(2.26)

Rearranging this, we obtain

r0l = r0l + r l + r0 Dl + rDl.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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(2.27)
24

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

Note that the last term on the right-hand side is much smaller than the
others. Equation 2.27 therefore reduces to
Dl r
- = .
l
r0
(2.28)
Substituting Equation 2.28 into Equation 2.25 then gives
1 r
ep = p .
2 r0
(2.29)
Using the state equation, Equation 2.18, and changing r to p , then gives
1 p2
ep =
,
2
2 r0c
where e p denotes the acoustic potential energy.

(2.30)

The kinetic energy per unit volume can be written as

1
2

e k = r 0u 2 .
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.31)
25

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

If we assume that the dissipated energy in the fluid is much less than the
potential energy or kinetic energy, then the total energy has to be written:
1 p2
1
2
et = e p + ek =
+
r
u
0
.
2 r0c 2 2

(2.32)

Note that the potential and kinetic energy are identical if the wave of
interest is a plane wave in an infinite domain.
The next question then is how the acoustic energy changes with time. We
can see that the energy per unit volume has to be balanced by the net
power flow through the surfaces that enclose the volume of interest, as
illustrated in Figure 2.5.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

26

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

Figure 2.5 Relation between energy ( e t ) and one-dimensional intensity ( pu ) (energy in the volume S Dx and the intensity through
the surface at x and x + Dx must be balanced).

This observation can be written conceptually as

the rate of increase of energy =
the power entering through the surface at ( x = x )
- the power exiting through the surface at ( x = x + Dx ).

This can be translated into a mathematical expression as follows:

e t
S Dx = ( p u S ) x - ( p u S ) x +Dx
t
pu
=S Dx.
x
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.33)

(2.34)

27

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

Equation 2.34 can then be reduced to
e t I
+
= 0,
(2.35)
t x
where I = pu , which we call acoustic intensity or sound intensity.

If we simply extend Equation 2.35 to a three-dimensional case, then

r
e t
+ I = 0.
t

(2.36)

Two major points must be noted in relation to the expression of the

intensity.
The intensity is a vector that has direction and magnitude.
The intensity is a product of two different physical quantities.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

28

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

When we have two physical variables, the phase difference between them
has significant meaning. The phase between the force and velocity
expresses how well the force generates the velocity (response). In this
regard, the intensity can be classified as two different categories: active
intensity and reactive intensity.
To understand the meaning of the intensities in physical terms, we look
again at the simplest case: the intensity of waves propagating in a onedimensional duct.
Figure 2.6 depicts the waves in an infinite-length duct and Figure 2.7
shows the waves for a finite-length L duct.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

29

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

x
p ( x, t ) = Re P0 e - j (wt - kx ) = P0 cos(wt - kx)

u ( x, t ) =

P0
cos(wt - kx) = U 0 cos(wt - kx)
r0c

P0
p (0, t )

U0
u (0, t )

pu

( pu ) x =0,t

avg

t
P0
p (x,0)

l
U0

u (x,0)

( pu ) x ,t =0

pu

avg

Figure 2.6 The acoustic pressure and intensity in an infinite duct. Note that the pressure and velocity are in phase with each
other. Also, the active intensity pu avg (or average intensity with respect to time) is constant
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

30

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

Figure 2.7 The acoustic pressure and intensity in a duct of finite length of L . Note that the phase difference between the
pressure and velocity is 90( p / 2 ))

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

When the waves propagate in an infinite duct, the pressure and velocity
have the same phase.
It can be observed that the average intensity with respect to time pu avg is
constant, as can be seen in Figure 2.6.
The instantaneous intensity changes with regard to the position along the duct.
The excitation effectively supplies energy to the system.

If we have the same excitation at one end, the duct has a finite length of L ,
and a rigid boundary condition exists at the other end x = L, then the phase
difference between the pressure and velocity will be 90(p 2 ).
It is not possible to effectively put energy into the system.
The intensity is always zero at the nodal point of the duct x = ( n + 1) L / 4 , but it
oscillates between these points where the energy vibrates and does not
propagate anywhere.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

32

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

We now need to explore more specific characteristics of the sound
intensity, such as how to calculate and measure the intensity.
The mathematical definition of intensity can be written as
r
r
I = pu .

(2.37)

The one-dimensional expression is simply

I = pu.

(2.38)

The velocity can be obtained from the Euler equation (2.12):

p
u=-
dt.
(2.39)
r0 x
To obtain the derivative with respect to space, we may use two
microphones. This means that we approximate the derivative as
1

p p1 - p2

.
x
Dx
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.40)
33

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

The pressure ( p ) at the position of the measurement can be approximately
obtained as:
p1 + p2
,
(2.41)
2
where the pressure fluctuates in time and is therefore a dynamic quantity.
p

We now look at the intensity measurement and calculation by considering

a plane wave with a radian frequency w . The pressure can then be written
as
p ( x, t ) = P ( x ) e

- j wt +f p ( x )

(2.42)
where P ( x ) denotes the pressure magnitude which has a real value and
f p ( x ) represents the possible phase change in space.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Yang-Hann Kim

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

34

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

To obtain the velocity using the linearized Euler equation a pressure
gradient is needed, that is

df p - j (wt +f p )
p dP
=
- j
.
P e
x dx
(2.43)
dx
Equations 2.39 and 2.43 then allow us to obtain the particle velocity:
1 df p
dP - j (wt +f p )
u=P
+
j
e
.

wr0 dx
dx
(2.44)
The intensity that is generated by the real part of pressure (2.42) and the
corresponding velocity (2.44), which is in phase with the real part of the
pressure, can be obtained as
P df p

I a ( x, t ) = P cos (wt + f p ) cos (wt + f p )

wr
dx
0

1 2 df p
=P
cos 2 (wt + f p ) .

wr0
dx

(2.45)

This is normally referred to as the active component of sound intensity.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

35

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

The time average of this intensity is often referred to as a mean intensity,
or an active intensity, and can be written:
1 2 df p
I avg ( x ) = P
.

2wr0
dx
(2.46)
This intensity can effectively supply power to space.
On the other hand, the multiplication of the real part of the pressure and
the imaginary part of the velocity that has 90phase difference will
generate the following intensity:
1 dP

I re ( x, t ) = P cos (wt + f p ) sin (wt + f p )

wr0 dx

(2.47)
dP 2
=sin 2 (wt + f p ) .
4wr0 dx
We refer to this intensity as the reactive component of sound intensity.
The time average of this intensity is 0 and, therefore, there is no net
energy transport; it only oscillates.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

36

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

The directions of intensities
The direction of the active intensity is perpendicular to the wave front where
the phase is constant.
The direction of reactive intensity has to be perpendicular to the surface over
which the mean square pressure is constant.

Equations 2.45 and 2.47 are referred to as the instantaneous active

intensity and instantaneous reactive intensity in the strict sense,
respectively. However,
when we say active intensity, we are referring to a time average of the
instantaneous active intensity, that is,

2 df p
I avg ( x ) = P
.

2wr0
dx
1

(2.46)

for the reactive intensity case, we call its amplitude

dP 2
Ir ( x ) = ,
4wr 0 dx
1

(2.48)

as reactive intensity.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

37

2.3 Acoustic Intensity and Energy

The instantaneous intensity expressed by Equation 2.38 is composed of
two components : the instantaneous active intensity (2.45) and
instantaneous reactive intensity (2.47). We can therefore write them as
I ( x, t ) = I avg ( x ) 1 + cos 2 (wt + f p ) + I r ( x ) sin 2 (wt + f p ) .

(2.49)
Using a complex function, Equation 2.49 can be expressed in simpler form,
that is

-2 j (wt +f p )
I ( x, t ) = Re C ( x ) 1 + e
,

(2.50)
where C ( x ) = I avg ( x ) + jI r ( x ) . This is often referred as a complex intensity.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

38

2.4 The Units of Sound

The units that are relevant to sound can be classified into two groups:
absolute units and subjective units.
Absolute units
The unit of pressure = Pascal(Pa) = N/m2
The unit of velocity = m/sec
The unit of intensity = Pam/sec = watt/m2
The unit of energy = joule = wattsec

To understand subjective units, we need to understand how we hear. This

means that we need to study our hearing system. Figure 2.8(a) depicts the
human hearing system.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

39

2.4 The Units of Sound

Figure 2.8 The structure of the ear and its frequency band characteristics. (a) The structure of a human ear. (Redrawn with
permission from D. Purves et al., Neuroscience, 3rd edition, 2004, pp. 288 (Figure 12.3), Sinauer Associates, Inc.,
Massachusetts, USA. 2004 Sinauer Associates, Inc.) (b) External, middle, and inner ear. (c) Basilar membrane and Corti
organ. (d) The cross-section of the cochlea shows the sensory cells (located in the organ of Corti) surrounded by the cochlear
fluids. (e) Space-frequency map: moving along the cochlea, different locations are preferentially excited by different input
acoustic frequencies. (f) Tonotopic organization. (Figure 2.8(bf) drawings by Stephan Blatrix, from Promenade around the
cochlea, EDU website: http://www.cochlea.org by Re my Pujol et al., INSERM and University Montpellier.)

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2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Figure 2.8 (Continued)

Yang-Hann Kim
2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

41

2.4 The Units of Sound

Figure 2.8 (Continued)

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2.4 The Units of Sound

It is well known that humans do not hear the frequency of sound in
absolute scale, but rather relatively. Due to this reason, we normally use
relative units for the frequencies.
The octave band is a typical relative scale (Figure 2.9).
The center frequency ( f 0 ) of each band is at the geometrical center of the
band.
octave scale

f 0 = 21/ 2 f1
f 2 = 2 f1

f1

f0

f 2 = 2 f1

1/3 octave scale

f1

f0

f 0 = 21/ 6 f1
1
3

f 2 = 2 f1

1/n octave scale

f1

f0

Df = f 2 - f1 = 2 -1/ 2 f 0 = 0.7 f 0

f 2 = 21/ 3 f1
Df = f 2 - f1 = 0.23 f 0

f0 = 2
1
n

f 2 = 2 f1

1
2n

1
n

f1

f 2 = 2 f1

Figure 2.9 Octave, 1/3 octave, and 1/n octave

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Table 2.3 The center frequency of octave and 1/3 octave

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2.4 The Units of Sound

For the amplitude of the sound pressure, we use the sound pressure level
(SPL or L p ). It is defined as
2
pavg

SPL = L p = 10log10 2
p
(2.51)
ref
and is measured in units of decibels (dB); pref is the reference pressure,
pavg is the average pressure, and log10 is a log function that has a base of
10. pref is 20 m Pa(20106N/m2).
From Figure 2.10, we can see that the human can hear from about 0 dB to
somewhere in the range of 130-140 dB.
Table 2.4 collects some typical samples of sound levels that we can
encounter, providing some practical references of the sound pressure level
(SPL).

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Figure 2.10 Equal-loudness contour: each line shows the SPL with respect to the frequency which corresponds to a loudness
(phon) of 1 kHz pure sound. (Reproduced from ISO 226 (2003), Normal equal-loudness-level contours, International
Standards Organization, Geneva.)

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Table 2.4 Daily life noise level in SPL

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2.4 The Units of Sound

In order to calculate SPL, we write
1 T 2
p ( t ) dt ,

0
T
where T denotes the measurement time.
2
pavg
=

(2.52)

Equation 2.52 expresses p ( t ) as the sum of every frequency component,

equivalent to
1 T
p = Re Pm e - jwmt Re Pn e - jwnt dt.
T 0 n m
We then use the well-known relation

(2.53)

1
Pe - jwt + P * e jwt ) ,
(
2
where * denotes the complex conjugate.

(2.54)

2
avg

} {

Re { Pe - jwt } =

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2.4 The Units of Sound

If we rearrange Equation 2.53 using Equation 2.54, then we obtain
2
avg

1
=
4T

Pm Pn e - j (wm +wn )t + Pm Pn*e - j (wm -wn )t

+ Pm* Pn e

1
=
4T

j (wm -wn )t

j ( w m +w n )t

2 Re P P e - j (wm +wn )t
m n

+ 2 Re Pm Pn*e

1
@
4T

+ Pm* Pn*e

- j (wm -wn )t

{ } dt

2 Re Pm

dt

} dt

(2.55)

1
2
Pm
.
m 2
This is only valid if and only if Equation 2.55 has a maximum when n = m .
When n m , the slowly fluctuating terms with frequency (wm - wn ) are much
greater than those with a frequency of (wm + wn ) .
=

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Figure 2.11 illustrates the relation between the sound pressure level and
the mean square pressure.
P1
P2
P3
M

Fourier
transform

Pm
p

2
avg

| P2 |2
2
| P1 |2
2

1 2

SPL
| P3 |2
2

1 2

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)
SPL

1 2 3
1/3 octave center frequency (Hz)
Figure 2.11 Total mean square pressure and the mean square pressure of each frequency band
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2.4 The Units of Sound

Let us begin with two sound pressures that have different frequencies,
f1 and f 2 . According to Equation 2.51, the sound pressure level of each
individual tone can then be written as

tone1: SPL = L p1 = 10log10

tone 2 : SPL = L p2 = 10log10

p1,2 avg
2
pref
p2,2 avg
2
ref

(2.56)

(2.57)

If these two tones occur at the same time, the SPL can be written
p1,2 avg + p2,2 avg
SPL1+ 2 = L p1+2 = 10log10
2
pref

= 10log10 10

L p1 /10

+ 10

L p 2 /10

).

(2.58)

If we generalize this result to N different pure tone cases, the SPL is

SPL1+ 2+L+ N = L p1+2+L+ N = 10log10 10

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Yang-Hann Kim

L p /10
1

+ L + 10

L p /10
N

).

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.59)

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2.4 The Units of Sound

For example, if each tone has an SPL of 80dB, that is, L p1 =80dB and
L p 2 =80dB, then the sum of these two must be L p1+ 2 = 10log10 (108 + 108 ). This
simply means that the SPL increases by 3dB.
If we have two sounds of SPL 75dB and 80dB, the resulting SPL of the
sounds is 81.2dB.

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2.4 The Units of Sound

As illustrated in Figure 2.10, our hearing system depends strongly on
frequency band. Therefore, SPL has to properly consider its effect. Figure
2.12 shows typical weightings or scales : often used as dB(A,B,C)

Figure 2.12 Various weighting curves. A-weighting: 40 phon curve (SPL < 55 dB); B-weighting: 70 phon curve (SPL=5585 dB);
C-weighting: 100 phon curve (SPL > 85 dB).

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2.4 The Units of Sound

Table 2.5 Measurement standards

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

This section addresses how we mathematically predict or describe sound
in space and time.
Let us begin with the case of which we have a volume source in onedimensional infinite space. The volume velocity source makes the mass
change by the velocity excitation. That is
r
u
= - r0
+ r 0 q,
t
x
(2.60)
where q = q ( x, t ) is the volume velocity at x .

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

Substituting Equations 2.18 and 2.12 into this new mass law Equation 2.60,
we obtain the governing equation that includes the acoustic source:
2 p 1 2 p
q
=
r
.
0
2
2
2
x
c t
t
We first attempt a harmonic solution,

p ( x, t ) = P ( x ) e - jwt .

(2.61)

(2.62)

Equation 2.61 can then be written as

d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x),
2
dx
where f ( x ) represents the right-hand side of Equation 2.61.

(2.63)

Equation 2.63 is strictly only valid where the sound source exists;
otherwise a homogeneous equation is valid.

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

For example, if there is a point source at x0 , then Equation 2.63 can be
rewritten as

where d ( x - x0 )

d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x0 ) d ( x - x0 ) ,
2
dx
is a Dirac delta function, that is

(2.64)

d ( x - x ) = 1;
-

d ( x - x0 ) = 0; x x0 .

(2.65)
If the source exists only in the region L0, then we can write the governing
equation as
d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x0 ) d ( x - x0 ) dx0 .
2
L0
dx

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(2.66)

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

Expanding this equation to a three-dimensional case yields
r
r r
r
2 P + k 2 P = - f ( r0 ) d ( r - r0 ) dV ( r0 ),

(2.67)
r
r
where 0 and V0 express the source position and the volume where the
source is, respectively.
V0

We now look at how to mathematically express the boundary condition.

We first study the one-dimensional case. As already expressed (1.26), the
boundary condition can generally be written as

a 0, L P + b 0, LU = g 0, L , x = 0, L ,

(2.68)

where the subscript 0 and L represent boundary at x = 0, L .

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

To understand the boundary conditions that are expressed by Equation
2.68, let us investigate several typical cases.
First, when b = 0 , the condition takes the form
g
P= .
(2.69)
a
This type of boundary condition is generally known as the Dirichlet
boundary condition.
On the other hand, if a = 0 , then the equation becomes
U=

g
.
b

(2.70)
This type of boundary condition is called the Neumann boundary condition.

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

If g = 0 , then Equation 2.68 reduces to

a 0, L P + b 0, LU = 0

(2.71)

and
P
b
=- .
U
a
The impedance is described on the boundary.

(2.72)

More generally, the three-dimensional case of Equation 2.71 can be

written as

a P + b U = 0,

on S0 ,

(2.73)
where S0 is the surface that encloses the space of interest, as depicted in
Figure 2.13 where U is the particle velocity that is normal to the surface.

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

We will consider the problem that is governed by the inhomogeneous
governing equation and homogeneous boundary condition. That is ,
d 2P
2
+
k
P = - f ( x0 ) d ( x - x0 ) dx0
2
L0
dx

(2.66)

and

a 0, L P + b 0, LU = 0.

(2.71)

P + U =

V0
r
r

S0

2 P + k 2 P = 0

r
r0
0
Figure 2.13 General boundary
value
r
r problem ( P is complex amplitude, U is complex velocity, k is the wave number, and SS0
expresses the boundary; r and r0 indicate the observation position and boundary, respectively)
61
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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

One very well-known method for obtaining the solutions which satisfy
Equations 2.66 and 2.71 uses eigenfunctions to express the solution. This
means, especially, that we first try to find the functionY n which satisfies
d 2Y n
2
+
k
nY n = 0
2
(2.74)
dx
and also satisfies the boundary condition of Equation 2.71; that is
b dY n
a 0, LY n + 0, L
= 0.
(2.75)
j r0w dx
The function which satisfies Equations 2.74 and 2.75 is the eigenfunction
or eigenmode, and the constant kn is the eigenvalue.

To shed more light on this problem, we consider the special case when
a = 0 . In this case, we have a rigid-wall boundary condition and the
eigenmode can be found, intuitively, as:

Y n ( x ) = cos
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Yang-Hann Kim

np
.
L

2010 John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd

(2.76)
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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

If b = 0, which is the case for the pressure release boundary condition,
then the solution has to take the form
np
x.
(2.77)
L
We generally call this method, which attempts to obtain the solution by
superimposing the eigenfunctions, a modal analysis. The advantage of this
method is that a linear combination of the eigenmodes also satisfies the
given boundary condition.

Y n ( x ) = sin

For the one-dimensional case, the pressure can be written as

P ( x ) = anY n ( x ).
n =0

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(2.78)

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

The main obstacle in finding the solution by a linear combination of
eigenfunctions is finding each modes contribution, or weighting, on the
solution. In other words, we must attempt to find an (2.78) that satisfies
Equation 2.66.
For example, if we have one source at a point where Equation 2.64 is the
governing equation, then we can attempt to construct the solution as given
by Equation 2.78. The coefficients can be found by using the property of
the eigenfunctions (orthogonality condition), that is
1 L
*
Y
x
Y
(
)
( x ) dx = L md mn
m
n

0
(2.79)
L
and
1 if m = n
d mn =
,
(2.80)
0 if m n
2
1 L
Y
x
n ( ) dx = L n .

0
L
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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

Using Equations 2.66, 2.74, 2.78, 2.79 and 2.80, we can obtain the
weighting as
L
1
*
an = f
x
Y
(
)
( x ) dx,
n
2
2 0
L n L ( k - kn )
(2.81)
where * denotes the complex conjugate.
Alternatively, we can try to obtain the solution that satisfies the boundary
condition by introducing Greens function.
If we denote the sound pressure due to a unit point source at x = x0 as
G ( x | x0 ) , then G has to satisfy the equation:
d 2G
2
+
k
G = -d ( x - x0 ) .
2
dx

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(2.82)

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

Multiplying G by Equation 2.63 and P by Equation 2.82, subtracting the
former from the latter and finally integrating with respect to x lead us to
L
L
d 2G
d 2P
0 P dx 2 - G dx 2 dx = 0 (G f ( x ) - Pd ( x - x0 ) ) dx.
(2.83)
Then, integration by parts yields:
L
L
L
dG
dP
P
-G
= G f ( x ) dx - P ( x0 ).

0
(2.84)
dx 0
dx 0
Changing the variable x to x0 reduces Equation 2.84 to the form
0
0
L
dG
dP
P ( x ) = G f ( x ) dx0 + P
G

.
0
dx0 L
dx0 L
(2.85)
We now investigate how to apply Equation 2.85 when we have a unit
amplitude sound source at x = x0 , as illustrated in Figure 2.14. This specific
case reduces Equation 2.85 to
0

dG
dP
P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) + P
-G
.
dx0 L
dx0 L
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(2.86)
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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

Figure 2.14 One-dimensional and three-dimensional boundary value problems

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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

If the velocity at x = 0, L is 0 (rigid-wall boundary condition), or the pressure
is 0(pressure release boundary condition), then Equation 2.86 becomes
0

dG
P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) + P

dx0 L

or

(2.87)

P ( x ) = G ( x | x0 ) - G

dP
.
dx0 L

(2.88)
Equation 2.86 states that the sound pressure at x consists of two
components: one is a direct effect from the sound source and the other is
due to the reflection from the boundary.
Expanding Equation 2.86 to a three-dimensional form yields the integral
equation
r
r
P ( r ) = G f ( r0 ) dV +
V0

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

( P0G - G0 P ) n0 dS .
S

Yang-Hann Kim

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(2.89)
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2.5 Analysis methods of linear Acoustic Wave Equation

r
If we do not have the sound source f ( r0 ) in the integral volume V0 (Figure
2.14(b)), then Equation 2.89 becomes
r
P (r ) =

S0

( P0G - G0 P ) dS .

(2.90)

Equations 2.89 and 2.90 are referred to as Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral

equations.

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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

We will start with a one-dimensional, planar acoustic wave at position x
and time t , p ( x, t ). This can be written as
p ( x, t ) = P ( x ) e - jwt = Ae

- j (wt - kx )

(2.91)

A wave in a certain direction in space can be expressed as

rr
r
r - jwt
- j ( w t - k r )
p(r , t ) = P (r )e
= Ae
,

(2.92)

where A is a complex amplitude.

The plane wave 2.92, as the name implies, has all the same physical
r
r
properties at the plane perpendicular to k at r (Figure 2.15). Note that its
impedance at any position and time is
Z p = r 0 c.
(2.93)

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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Planes of constant phase

v
k

v
r

rr
r
p ( r , t ) = Ae - j ( w t - k r )

r
k
Figure 2.15 A plane wave ( is normal to the planes of constant phase)
0

The plane wave in an unbounded fluid propagates in the wave number

vector direction, independent of the position, frequency, wave number, and
wavelength.
Intensity, specifically the average intensity (active intensity), can be
expressed as follows :
1
1
2
I avg = Re { PU *} =
P ,
(2.94)
2
2 r0c
where U is the velocity in the direction of propagation and U = P / r0 c.
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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Therefore, the intensity (2.94) can be written as
1
2
r0c U .
(2.95)
2
The governing equation can also be written in terms of the spherical
coordinate.
I avg =

We assume that the pressure is independent of the polar and azimuth

angles and only depends on the distance from the origin ( r). Equation 2.24
then becomes
2
1 2
rp ) = 2 2 ( rp ) .
2 (
r
c t

(2.96)

Its solution will be

rp = A e

rr
- j w t - k r

where A is a complex amplitude.

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

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(2.97)
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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Equation 2.97 can be rewritten as

A - j (wt -krrr )
p ( r, t ) = e
.
(2.98)
r
To assess the velocity, consider Eulers equation in the spherical
coordinate:
u
p
= r0 r ,
(2.99)
r
t
where ur is the velocity in the radial direction.

Equations 2.98 and 2.99 allow us to calculate the velocity in the radial
direction, that is
A 1
j - j (wt -krrr )
ur =
.
1 + e
r r0 c kr
(2.100)
Therefore, the impedance at r can be written as
2

kr
p
kr
( )
Zr =
= r0c
-j
.
2
2
ur
(2.101)
1 + ( kr )
1 + ( kr )
This is the monopole radiation impedance.
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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Figure 2.16 depicts Equation 2.101.

Figure 2.16 Monopole radiation. (a) The monopoles radiation impedance where k is wave number, l indicates the Note is
noteworthy that it behaves as a plane wave, as the observation position is far from the origin. (b) Pressure and particle velocity
in near field ( kr is small), magnitude (left) and phase (right) of pressure (top) and particle velocity (bottom); arrows indicate
intensity. (c) As for (b) for far field case
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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

In the near field, the reactive part dominates the acoustic behavior in such
a way that the waves do not propagate well in the vicinity of the origin.
In the far field, the active part dominates. Therefore, the wave propagates
as if it is a planer wave.
The monopole sound source is defined by Equations 2.98 and 2.100 and
has a singularity at r = 0. This simple solution satisfies the linear wave
equation. This implies that superposition of this type of solution also
satisfies the governing wave equation. We can therefore attempt to
construct any type of wave by using the monopole. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 2.17, a graphical expression of Huygens principle.

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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Figure 2.17 Huygens principle. The wave front constructed by many monopole sound sources: (a) graphical illustration and (b)
shallow ripple tank

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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

If the two monopoles are close together with the opposite phase, then a
dipole is formed.

Figure 2.18 Dipole and quadrupole distributions and their characteristics where (r ,q ,f ) indicates an arbitrary point in spherical
coordinate, k is wave number, D represents the dipole-moment amplitude vector, and Q represents the amplitude of quadrupole:
(a) pressure of the spatial pattern of dipole sound; (b) impedence of a dipole at r ; (c) magnitude (left) and phase (right) of
particle velocity of a dipole in near field (top) and far field (bottom) (arrows indicate intensity); (d) pressure of a quadrupole
pattern in space; (e) impedance of a quadrupole at r and ( f ) magnitude (left) and phase (right) of particle velocity of a
quadrupole in near field (top) and far field (bottom) (Section 2.8.4)
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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Figure 2.18 (Continued )

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2.6 Solutions of the Wave Equation

Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based Approach

Figure 2.18 (Continued )

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2.7 Chapter Summary

We have attempted to understand how acoustic waves are generated and
propagated in a compressible fluid.
Conservation of mass and the state equation of fluid, together with
Newtons law, provide three relations between density, fluid velocity, and
pressure.
Acoustic intensity expresses the direction of acoustic power flow as well as
its magnitude.
We studied a way to measure the associated acoustic variables in
accordance with human perception.
We have investigated possible solution methods that predict how sound
waves propagate in space and time.
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