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Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
kinetic energy, p. 39
gravitational potential energy, p. 40
work, p. 42
sign convention for work, p. 43
power, p. 44
internal energy, p. 53
heat transfer, p. 54
sign convention for heat
transfer, p. 54
adiabatic, p. 55
first law of thermodynamics, p. 58
energy balance, p. 59
thermodynamic cycle, p. 70
power cycle, p. 71
refrigeration cycle, p. 72
heat pump cycle, p. 72
c KEY EQUATIONS
E 5 U 1 KE 1 PE
1
KE 5 KE2 2 KE1 5 m1V22 2 V212
2
PE 5 PE2 2 PE1 5 mg1z2 2 z12
E2 2 E1 5 Q 2 W
#
#
dE
5Q2W
dt
W5
(2.27) p. 53
Change in total energy of a system.
(2.5) p. 39
Change in kinetic energy of a mass m.
(2.10) p. 40
Change in gravitational potential energy of a mass m at
constant g.
(2.35a) p. 59
Energy balance for closed systems.
(2.37) p. 60
Energy rate balance for closed systems.
(2.12) p. 42
Work due to action of a force F.
(2.13) p. 44
Power due to action of a force F.
(2.17) p. 46
Expansion or compression work related to fluid pressure.
See Fig. 2.4.
s2
F ? ds
s1
#
W5F?V
W5
V2
p dV
V1
Thermodynamic Cycles
Wcycle 5 Qin 2 Qout
h5
Wcycle
Qin
Wcycle 5 Qout 2 Qin
Qin
Wcycle
Qout
g5
Wcycle
b5
(2.41) p. 71
Energy balance for a power cycle. As in Fig. 2.17a, all
quantities are regarded as positive.
(2.42) p. 72
Thermal efficiency of a power cycle.
(2.44) p. 72
Energy balance for a refrigeration or heat pump cycle. As in
Fig. 2.17b, all quantities are regarded as positive.
(2.45) p. 73
Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle.
(2.47) p. 73
Coefficient of performance of a heat pump cycle.
c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT
1. Why are aerodynamic drag coefficients of Formula One
race cars typically much greater than for ordinary
automobiles?
2. What are several things you as an individual can do to
reduce energy use in your home? While meeting your
transportation needs?
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Chapter 3 Evaluating Properties
c apply the closed system energy balance with property data.
c evaluate the properties of two-phase, liquidvapor mixtures
using Eqs. 3.1, 3.2, 3.6, and 3.7.
c estimate the properties of liquids using Eqs. 3.113.14.
c apply the incompressible substance model.
c use the generalized compressibility chart to relate pyT data
of gases.
c apply the ideal gas model for thermodynamic analysis, includ-
ing determining when use of the ideal gas model is warranted,
and appropriately using ideal gas table data or constant specific heat data to determine Du and Dh.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
phase p. 92
pure substance p. 92
state principle p. 92
simple compressible system p. 92
pyT surface p. 94
phase diagram p. 96
saturation temperature p. 96
saturation pressure p. 96
py diagram p. 96
Ty diagram p. 96
compressed liquid p. 97
two-phase, liquidvapor mixture p. 98
quality p. 98
superheated vapor p. 98
enthalpy p. 106
specific heats p. 117
incompressible substance model p. 119
universal gas constant p. 122
compressibility factor p. 122
ideal gas model p. 128
c KEY EQUATIONS
x5
mvapor
mliquid 1 mvapor
y 5 11 2 x2yf 1 xyg 5 yf 1 x1yg 2 yf2
u 5 11 2 x2uf 1 xug 5 uf 1 x1ug 2 uf2
h 5 11 2 x2hf 1 xhg 5 hf 1 x1hg 2 hf2
y1T, p2 < yf1T2
u1T, p2 < uf1T2
h1T, p2 < hf1T2
(3.1) p. 98
Quality, x, of a two-phase, liquidvapor mixture.
(3.2) p. 103
(3.6) p. 107
(3.7) p. 107
Specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of a twophase, liquidvapor mixture.
(3.11) p. 118
(3.12) p. 118
(3.14) p. 119
Specific volume, internal energy, and enthalpy of liquids,
approximated by saturated liquid values, respectively.
Ideal Gas Model Relations
py 5 RT
u 5 u1T2
(3.32) p. 127
(3.36) p. 128
h 5 h1T2 5 u1T2 1 RT
u1T22 2 u1T12 5
Ideal gas model.
(3.37) p. 128
T2
cy1T2 dT
(3.40) p. 131
Change in specific internal energy.
u1T22 2 u1T12 5 cy1T2 2 T12
(3.50) p. 135
For constant cy.
cp1T2 dT
(3.43) p. 131
Change in specific enthalpy.
h1T22 2 h1T12 5 cp1T2 2 T12
(3.51) p. 135
For constant cp.
T1
h1T22 2 h1T12 5
T2
T1
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Chapter 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy
The use of mass and energy balances for control volumes at
steady state is illustrated for nozzles and diffusers, turbines, compressors and pumps, heat exchangers, throttling devices, and
integrated systems. An essential aspect of all such applications
is the careful and explicit listing of appropriate assumptions. Such
model-building skills are stressed throughout the chapter.
The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter exercises has
been completed you should be able to
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margins
throughout the chapter and understand each of the related
concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below is particularly important in subsequent chapters.
c list the typical modeling assumptions for nozzles and diffusers, turbines, compressors and pumps, heat exchangers, and
throttling devices.
c apply Eqs. 4.6, 4.18, and 4.20 to control volumes at steady
state, using appropriate assumptions and property data for
the case at hand.
c apply mass and energy balances for the transient analysis of
control volumes, using appropriate assumptions and property
data for the case at hand.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
flow work, p. 173
energy rate balance, p. 174
nozzle, p. 177
diffuser, p. 177
turbine, p. 180
compressor, p. 184
conservation of mass, p. 164
mass flow rates, p. 164
mass rate balance, p. 164
one-dimensional flow, p. 166
volumetric flow rate, p. 167
steady state, p. 167
pump, p. 184
heat exchanger, p. 189
throttling process, p. 195
system integration, p. 196
transient analysis, p. 199
c KEY EQUATIONS
AV
#
m5
y
(4.4b) p. 166
Mass flow rate, one-dimensional flow (See Fig. 4.3.)
dmcv
#
#
5 a mi 2 a me
dt
i
e
(4.2) p. 164
Mass rate balance.
#
a mi
(4.6) p. 167
Mass rate balance at
steady state.
#
#
dEcv
V 2i
V 2e
#
#
5 Qcv 2 Wcv 1 a mi ahi 1
1 gzi b 2 a me ahe 1
1 gze b
dt
2
2
i
e
(4.15) p. 174
Energy rate balance.
#
#
V2i
V2e
#
#
0 5 Qcv 2 Wcv 1 a mi ahi 1
1 gzi b 2 a me ahe 1
1 gze b
2
2
i
e
(4.18) p. 175
Energy rate balance at
steady state.
(4.20a) p. 175
Energy rate balance for
one-inlet, one-exit control
volumes at steady state.
1mass rate in2
#
a me
e
1mass rate out2
#
1V 21 2 V 222
#
#
0 5 Qcv 2 Wcv 1 m c 1h1 2 h22 1
1 g1z1 2 z22 d
2
#
#
1V21 2 V222
Wcv
Qcv
0 5 # 2 # 1 1h1 2 h22 1
1 g1z1 2 z22
2
m
m
h2 5 h11p2 , p12
(4.20b) p. 175
(4.22) p. 195
Throttling process. (See
Fig. 4.15.)
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Exercises: Things Engineers Think About
undergoing cycles while interacting with thermal reservoirs. The
irreversibility concept is introduced and the related notions of irreversible, reversible, and internally reversible processes are discussed. The Kelvin temperature scale is defined and used to obtain
expressions for maximum performance measures of power, refrigeration, and heat pump cycles operating between two thermal reservoirs. The Carnot cycle is introduced to provide a specific example
of a reversible cycle operating between two thermal reservoirs.
Finally, the Clausius inequality providing a bridge from Chap. 5 to
Chap. 6 is presented and discussed.
The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter exercises has
been completed you should be able to
267
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margins
c
c
c
c
c
throughout the chapter and understand each of the related
concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below is particularly important in subsequent chapters.
give the KelvinPlanck statement of the second law, correctly
interpreting the less than and equal to signs in Eq. 5.3.
list several important irreversibilities.
apply the corollaries of Secs. 5.6.2 and 5.7.2 together with
Eqs. 5.9, 5.10, and 5.11 to assess the performance of power
cycles and refrigeration and heat pump cycles.
describe the Carnot cycle.
interpret the Clausius inequality.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
internal and external
irreversibilities, p. 243
internally reversible process, p. 246
Carnot corollaries, p. 249
Kelvin scale, p. 253
second law statements, p. 239
thermal reservoir, p. 239
irreversible process, p. 242
reversible process, p. 242
irreversibilities, p. 243
Carnot efficiency, p. 257
Carnot cycle, p. 262
Clausius inequality, p. 265
c KEY EQUATIONS
, 0:Internal irreversibilities present.
Wcycle # 0 e
1single reservoir2
5 0: No internal irreversibilities.
hmax 5 1 2
TC
TH
(5.3) p. 247
Analytical form of the
KelvinPlanck statement.
(5.9) p. 257
Maximum thermal efficiency:
power cycle operating between
two reservoirs.
bmax 5
TC
TH 2 TC
(5.10) p. 259
gmax 5
TH
TH 2 TC
Maximum coefficient of
performance: refrigeration cycle
operating between two
reservoirs.
(5.11) p. 259
Maximum coefficient of
performance: heat pump cycle
operating between two
reservoirs.
(5.13) p. 265
Clausius inequality.
dQ
b 5 2scycle
C T b
a
c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT
1. Extending the discussion of Sec. 5.1.2, how might work be
developed when (a) Ti is less than T0 in Fig. 5.1a, (b) pi is
less than p0 in Fig. 5.1b?
2. Are health risks associated with consuming tomatoes
induced to ripen by an ethylene spray? Explain.
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Chapter 6 Using Entropy
evaluating isentropic efficiencies for turbines, nozzles, compressors, and pumps from Eqs. 6.46, 6.47, and 6.48, respectively,
including for ideal gases the appropriate use of Eqs. 6.416.42
for variable specific heats and Eqs. 6.436.45 for constant
specific heats.
c apply Eq. 6.23 for closed systems and Eqs. 6.49 and 6.51
for one-inlet, one-exit control volumes at steady state,
correctly observing the restriction to internally reversible
processes.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
entropy rate balance, pp. 301, 307
increase in entropy principle, p. 303
isentropic efficiencies, pp. 323, 325, 328
isentropic process, p. 292
entropy transfer, pp. 292, 307
entropy balance, p. 295
entropy production, p. 296
entropy change, p. 282
Ts diagram, p. 285
Mollier diagram, p. 286
T ds equations, p. 287
c KEY EQUATIONS
2
S2 2 S1 5
#aTb
dQ
(6.24) p. 295
Closed system entropy balance.
(6.28) p. 301
Closed system entropy rate balance.
(6.34) p. 307
Control volume entropy rate balance.
Qj
#
#
#
05 a
1 a mi si 2 a me se 1 scv
T
j
j
i
e
(6.36) p. 308
Steady-state control volume entropy rate balance.
#
#
Wcv / m
h1 2 h2
ht 5 #
# 5
h
1Wcv / m2s
1 2 h2s
(6.46) p. 323
Isentropic turbine efficiency.
(6.47) p. 325
Isentropic nozzle efficiency.
(6.48) p. 328
Isentropic compressor (and pump) efficiency.
1s
b
Qj
dS
#
1s
5 a
T
dt
j
j
?
Qj
dScv
#
#
#
5 a
1 a misi 2 a me se 1 scv
dt
T
j
j
i
e
?
hnozzle 5
V22 y2
1V22 y22s
#
#
12Wcv ym2s
h2s 2 h1
#
hc 5
# 5
h2 2 h1
12Wcv ym2
Ideal Gas Model Relations
s1T2, y22 2 s1T1, y12 5
T2
cy1T2
T1
s1T2, y22 2 s1T1, y12 5 cy ln
s1T2, p22 2 s1T1, p12 5
T2
y2
1 R ln
y1
T1
T2
cp1T2
T1
y2
dT
1 R ln
y1
T
p2
dT
2 R ln
p1
T
s1T2, p22 2 s1T1, p12 5 s81T22 2 s81T12 2 R ln
s1T2, p22 2 s1T1, p12 5 cp ln
p2
T2
2 R ln
p1
T1
p2
p1
(6.17) p. 289
Change in specific entropy; general form for T
and y as independent properties.
(6.21) p. 291
Constant specific heat, cy.
(6.18) p. 289
Change in specific entropy; general form for T
and p as independent properties.
(6.20a) p. 290
s8 for air from Table A-22. (s 8 for other gases
from Table A-23).
(6.22) p. 291
Constant specific heat, cp.
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Problems: Developing Engineering Skills
p2
pr2
5
p1
pr1
(6.41) p. 317
y2
yr2
5
y1
yr1
(6.42) p. 318
p2 1k212/k
T2
5a b
p1
T1
(6.43) p. 318
T2
y1 k21
5a b
y2
T1
(6.44) p. 318
p2
y1 k
5a b
p1
y2
(6.45) p. 318
335
s1 5 s2 (air only), pr and yr from Table A-22.
s1 5 s2, constant specific heat ratio k.
c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT
1. Is it possible for entropy change to be negative? For entropy
production to be negative?
6. Can adiabatic mixing of two substances result in decreased
entropy? Explain.
2. By what means can entropy be transferred across the boundary
of a closed system? Across the boundary of a control volume?
7. Is entropy produced within a system undergoing a Carnot
cycle? Explain.
3. Is it possible for the entropy of both a closed system and its
surroundings to decrease during a process? Both to increase
during a process?
8. When a mixture of olive oil and vinegar spontaneously
separates into two liquid phases, is the second law violated?
Explain.
4. What happens to the entropy produced within an insulated,
one-inlet, one-exit control volume operating at steady state?
9. A magician claims that simply with a wave of her magic
wand a cup of water, initially at room temperature, will be
raised in temperature several degrees by quickly picking up
energy from its surroundings. Is this possible? Explain.
5. The two power cycles shown to the same scale in the figure
are composed of internally reversible processes of a closed
system. Compare the net work developed by these cycles.
Which cycle has the greater thermal efficiency? Explain.
T
10. How does the Bernoulli equation reduce to give the form used
in the bat BIOCONNECTIONS discussion of Sec. 6.13.2?
11. Is Eq. 6.51a restricted to adiabatic processes and thus to
isentropic processes? Explain.
12. Using Eq. 6.51c, what data are required to determine the
actual power input of a basement sump pump?
13. What is the ENERGY STAR program?
1
1
S
c PROBLEMS: DEVELOPING ENGINEERING SKILLS
Using Entropy Data and Concepts
6.1 Using the tables for water, determine the specific entropy
at the indicated states, in kJ/kg ? K. In each case, locate the
state by hand on a sketch of the Ts diagram.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
p
p
p
p
5
5
5
5
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
MPa, T 5 4008C.
MPa, T 5 1008C.
MPa, u 5 1872.5 kJ/kg.
MPa, saturated vapor.
6.2 Using the tables for water, determine the specific entropy
at the indicated states, in Btu/lb ? 8R In each case, locate the
state by hand on a sketch of the Ts diagram.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
p
p
p
p
5
5
5
5
1000
1000
1000
1000
lbf/in.2, T 5 7508F.
lbf/in.2, T 5 3008F.
lbf/in.2, h 5 932.4 Btu/lb.
lbf/in.2, saturated vapor.
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475
c CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE
This chapter begins with an introduction to power generation
that surveys current U.S. power generation by source and looks
ahead to power generation needs in decades to come. These
discussions provide context for the study of vapor power plants
in this chapter and gas power plants in Chap. 9.
In Chap. 8 we have considered practical arrangements for
vapor power plants, illustrated how vapor power plants are modeled thermodynamically, and considered the principal irreversibilities and losses associated with such plants. The main components of simple vapor power plants are modeled by the Rankine
cycle.
In this chapter, we also have introduced modifications to the
simple vapor power cycle aimed at improving overall performance. These include superheat, reheat, regeneration, supercritical operation, cogeneration, and binary cycles. We have also
included a case study to illustrate the application of exergy analysis to vapor power plants.
The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter exercises has
been completed you should be able to
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margin
c
c
throughout the chapter and understand each of the related
concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below is particularly important.
sketch schematic diagrams and accompanying Ts diagrams
of Rankine, reheat, and regenerative vapor power cycles.
apply conservation of mass and energy, the second law, and
property data to determine power cycle performance, including
thermal efficiency, net power output, and mass flow rates.
discuss the effects on Rankine cycle performance of varying
steam generator pressure, condenser pressure, and turbine
inlet temperature.
discuss the principal sources of exergy destruction and loss
in vapor power plants.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
Rankine cycle, p. 433
thermal efficiency, p. 435
back work ratio, p. 435
ideal Rankine cycle, p. 437
superheat, p. 447
reheat, p. 447
supercritical, p. 448
regeneration, p. 453
open feedwater heater, p. 453
closed feedwater heater, p. 458
organic cycle, p. 464
binary vapor cycle, p. 464
cogeneration, p. 465
district heating, p. 465
exergy accounting, p. 468
c KEY EQUATIONS
# #
# #
Wt / m 2 Wp / m
1h1 2 h22 2 1h4 2 h32
# #
5
h5
h1 2 h4
Qin / m
(8.5a) p. 435
Thermal efficiency for the Rankine cycle of Fig. 8.2
# #
Wp / m
1h4 2 h32
bwr 5 # # 5
1h1 2 h22
Wt / m
(8.6) p. 435
Back work ratio for the Rankine cycle of Fig. 8.2
#
Wp
a # b < y31p4 2 p32
m s
(8.7b) p. 437
Approximation for the pump work of the ideal
Rankine cycle of Fig. 8.3
c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT
1. Many utility companies offer special rates for green power.
What does that mean?
2. Brainstorm some ways to use the cooling water exiting the
condenser of a large power plant.
3. What effects on a rivers ecology might result from a power
plants use of river water for condenser cooling?
4. Referring to Fig. 8.1a, what environmental impacts might
result from the two plumes shown on the figure?
5. What is a baseload power plant?
6. If Iceland completes its planned transition to using only renewable energy throughout its society by mid-century, what significant changes in lifestyle will Icelanders have to tolerate?
7. What type of power plant produces the electricity used in
your residence?
8. What is the relationship between global climate change
and the hole in Earths ozone layer?
9. Why is it important for power plant operators to keep pipes
circulating water through plant components free from fouling?
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Chapter 9 Gas Power Systems
570
c sketch schematic diagrams and accompanying Ts diagrams of
the Brayton cycle and modifications involving regeneration,
reheat, and compression with intercooling. In each case, be
able to apply mass and energy balances, the second law, and
property data to determine gas turbine power cycle performance, including thermal efficiency, back work ratio, net power
output, and the effects of varying compressor pressure ratio.
c analyze the performance of gas turbinerelated applications
involving combined gas turbinevapor power plants, IGCC
power plants, and aircraft propulsion. You also should be able
to apply the principles of this chapter to Ericsson and Stirling
cycles.
c discuss for nozzles and diffusers the effects of area change in
subsonic and supersonic flows, the effects of back pressure
on mass flow rate, and the appearance and consequences of
choking and normal shocks.
c analyze the flow in nozzles and diffusers of ideal gases with
constant specific heats, as in Examples 9.14 and 9.15.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
mean effective pressure, p. 495
air-standard analysis, p. 495
Otto cycle, p. 497
Diesel cycle, p. 502
dual cycle, p. 506
Brayton cycle, p. 511
regenerator, p. 521
regenerator effectiveness, p. 523
reheat, p. 526
intercooler, p. 528
combined cycle, pp. 537, 544
turbojet engine, p. 546
compressible flow, p. 550
momentum equation, p. 552
velocity of sound, p. 553
Mach number, p. 554
subsonic and supersonic flow, p. 554
stagnation state, p. 555
choked flow, p. 559
normal shock, p. 559
c KEY EQUATIONS
mep 5
net work for one cycle
displacement volume
(9.1) p. 495
Mean effective pressure for reciprocating
piston engines
Otto Cycle
h5
1u3 2 u22 2 1u4 2 u12
u4 2 u1
512
u3 2 u2
u3 2 u2
1
h 5 1 2 k21
r
(9.3) p. 498
Thermal efficiency (Figure 9.3)
(9.8) p. 499
Thermal efficiency (cold-air standard basis)
Diesel Cycle
h5
Wcycle / m
Q41/ m
u4 2 u1
512
Q23 / m
Q23 / m
h3 2 h2
k
rc 2 1
1
h 5 1 2 k21 c
d
k1rc 2 12
r
512
(9.11) p. 503
Thermal efficiency (Figure 9.5)
(9.13) p. 503
Thermal efficiency (cold-air standard basis)
Brayton Cycle
# #
# #
1h3 2 h42 2 1h2 2 h12
Wt / m 2 Wc / m
# #
5
h5
h3 2 h2
Qin/ m
# #
Wc / m
h2 2 h1
bwr 5 # # 5
h3 2 h4
Wt / m
1
h512
1p2 / p121k212/k
hx 2 h2
hreg 5
h4 2 h2
(9.19) p. 512
Thermal efficiency (Figure 9.9)
(9.20) p. 512
Back work ratio (Figure 9.9)
(9.25) p. 516
Thermal efficiency (cold-air standard basis)
(9.27) p. 523
Regenerator effectiveness for the regenerative
gas turbine cycle (Figure 9.14)
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571
Compressible Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers
#
F 5 m 1V2 2 V12
(9.31) p. 552
Momentum equation for steady-state
one-dimensional flow
c 5 2kRT
M 5 V/ c
ho 5 h 1 V 2/ 2
To
k21 2
511
M
T
2
(9.37) p. 554
(9.38) p. 554
(9.39) p. 555
Ideal gas velocity of sound
(9.50) p. 562
Isentropic flow function relating temperature
and stagnation temperature (constant k)
po
To k/1k212
k 2 1 2 k/1k212
5a b
5 a1 1
M b
p
T
2
(9.51) p. 562
Isentropic flow function relating pressure and
stagnation pressure (constant k)
Mach number
Stagnation enthalpy
c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT
1. Diesel engines are said to produce higher torque than
gasoline engines. What does that mean?
2. Formula One race cars have 2.4 liter engines. What does
that signify? How is your cars engine sized in liters?
3. The ideal Brayton and Rankine cycles are composed of the
same four processes, yet look different when represented on
a Ts diagram. Explain.
4. The term regeneration is used to describe the use of
regenerative feedwater heaters in vapor power plants and
regenerative heat exchangers in gas turbines. In what ways are
the purposes of these devices similar? How do they differ?
5. You jump off a raft into the water in the middle of a lake.
What direction does the raft move? Explain.
6. What is the purpose of a rear diffuser on a race car?
7. What is the meaning of the octane rating that you see posted
on gas pumps? Why is it important to consumers?
8. Why arent jet engines of airliners fitted with screens to
avoid birds being pulled into the intake?
9. When did the main power plant providing electricity to your
residence begin generating power? How long is it expected
to continue operating?
11. A nine-year-old camper is suddenly awakened by a
metallic click coming from the direction of a railroad track
passing close to her camping area; soon afterward, she
hears the deep growling of a diesel locomotive pulling an
approaching train. How would you interpret these different
sounds to her?
12. Automakers have developed prototype gas turbine
powered vehicles, but the vehicles have not been generally
marketed to consumers. Why?
13. In making a quick stop at a friends home, is it better to
let your cars engine idle or turn it off and restart when you
leave?
14. How do todays more effective diesel engine exhaust
treatment systems work?
15. What is the range of fuel efficiencies, in miles per gallon,
you get with you car? At what speeds, in miles per hour, is
the peak achieved?
16. Where is Marcellus shale and why is it significant?
17. Does your state regulate the practice of venting highpressure natural gas to clean debris from pipelines leading
to power plant gas turbines? What hazards are associated
with this practice?
10. What is the purpose of the gas turbinepowered auxiliary
power units commonly seen at airports near commercial
aircraft?
c PROBLEMS: DEVELOPING ENGINEERING SKILLS
Otto, Diesel, and Dual Cycles
9.1 An air-standard Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 9. At
the beginning of compression, p1 5 100 kPa and T1 5 300 K.
The heat addition per unit mass of air is 1350 kJ/kg.
Determine
(a) the net work, in kJ per kg of air.
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
(c) the mean effective pressure, in kPa.
(d) the maximum temperature in the cycle, in K.
(e) To investigate the effects of varying compression ratio,
plot each of the quantities calculated in parts (a) through
(d) for compression ratios ranging from 1 to 12.
9.2 Solve Problem 9.1 on a cold air-standard basis with specific
heats evaluated at 300 K.
9.3 At the beginning of the compression process of an airstandard Otto cycle, p1 5 1 bar, T1 5 290 K, V1 5 400 cm3.
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c CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE
In this chapter we have considered refrigeration and heat pump
systems, including vapor systems where the refrigerant is alternately vaporized and condensed, and gas systems where the
refrigerant remains a gas. The three principal types of systems
discussed are the vapor-compression, absorption, and reversed
Brayton cycles.
The performance of simple vapor refrigeration systems is
described in terms of the vapor-compression cycle. For this cycle,
we have evaluated the principal work and heat transfers along
with two important performance parameters: the coefficient of
performance and the refrigeration capacity. We have considered
the effect on performance of irreversibilities during the compression process and in the expansion across the valve, as well as
the effect of irreversible heat transfer between the refrigerant
and the warm and cold regions. Variations of the basic vaporcompression refrigeration cycle also have been considered,
including cold storage, cascade cycles, and multistage compression with intercooling. A discussion of vapor-compression heat
pump systems is also provided.
Qualitative discussions are presented of refrigerant properties and of considerations in selecting refrigerants. Absorption
refrigeration and heat pump systems are also discussed qualitatively. The chapter concludes with a study of gas refrigeration
systems.
The following list provides a study guide for this chapter.
When your study of the text and end-of-chapter exercises has
been completed, you should be able to
c write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margin
throughout the chapter and understand each of the related
concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below is particularly important.
sketch the Ts diagrams of vapor-compression refrigeration
and heat pump cycles and of Brayton refrigeration cycles, correctly showing the relationship of the refrigerant temperature
to the temperatures of the warm and cold regions.
apply the first and second laws along with property data to
determine the performance of vapor-compression refrigeration and heat pump cycles and of Brayton refrigeration cycles,
including evaluation of the power required, the coefficient of
performance, and the capacity.
sketch schematic diagrams of vapor-compression cycle modifications, including cascade cycles and multistage compression with intercooling between the stages. In each case be
able to apply mass and energy balances, the second law, and
property data to determine performance.
explain the operation of absorption refrigeration systems.
c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
vapor-compression refrigeration, p. 592 ton of refrigeration, p. 592
refrigeration capacity, p. 592
absorption refrigeration, p. 606
vapor-compression heat pump, p. 609
Brayton refrigeration cycle, p. 612
c KEY EQUATIONS
TC
TH 2 TC
(10.1) p. 591
Coefficient of performance of the Carnot refrigeration cycle (Fig. 10.1)
(10.7) p. 593
Coefficient of performance of the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle (Fig. 10.3)
(10.9) p. 608
Coefficient of performance of the Carnot heat pump
cycle (Fig. 10.1)
#
#
h2 2 h3
Qout/ m
g5 # # 5
h2 2 h1
Wc / m
(10.10) p. 609
Coefficient of performance of the vapor-compression
heat pump cycle (Fig. 10.13)
# #
1h1 2 h42
Qin/ m
#
# # 5
b5
#
2
h
1h
Wc/ m 2 Wt/ m
2
12 2 1h3 2 h42
(10.11) p. 613
Coefficient of performance of the Brayton refrigeration cycle (Fig. 10.15)
bmax 5
# #
Qin / m
h1 2 h4
b5 # # 5
h
Wc / m
2 2 h1
gmax 5
TH
TH 2 TC
