Compost
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A community-level composting plant in a rural area in Germany
Compost (/kmpst/ or /kmpost/) is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled
as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At the
simplest level, the process of composting simply requires making a heap of wetted organic
matter known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the materials to break down
into humus after a period of weeks or months. Modern, methodical composting is a multi-step,
closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich
materials. The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and
ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the
material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function (aerobic bacteria) and fungi manage the chemical
process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium. The ammonium
(NH4) is the form of nitrogen used by plants. When available ammonium is not used by plants it
is further converted by bacteria into nitrates (NO3) through the process of nitrification.
Compost is rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, and agriculture. The
compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer,
addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems,
compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as
landfill cover (see compost uses). Organic ingredients intended for composting can alternatively
be used to generate biogas through anaerobic digestion.
Contents
1 Terminology
2 Ingredients
o 2.1 Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water
o 2.2 Animal manure and bedding
o 2.3 Microorganisms
o 2.4 Human waste
3 Uses
4 Composting technologies
o 4.1 Overview
o 4.2 Examples
5 Compost and land-filling
o 5.1 Industrial systems
6 Related technologies
7 History
8 See also
9 References
Terminology
The term "composting" is used worldwide with differing meanings. Some composting textbooks
narrowly define composting as being an aerobic form of decompostion, primarily by microbes.
[citation needed]
For many people, however, composting is used to refer to several different types of
biological process. In North America, "anaerobic composting" is still a common term, but in
much of the rest of the world and in technical publications the more accurate term anaerobic
digestion is used as the microbes used and the processes involved are quite different.
Ingredients
Home compost barrel in the Escuela Barreales, Santa Cruz, Chile.
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water
Materials in a compost pile.
Food scraps compost heap.
Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively:
Carbon for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat, if included at
suggested levels.[1]
o High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.
Nitrogen to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon.
o High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful, such as fruits and
vegetables) and wet.[2]
Oxygen for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.
Water in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.
Certain ratios of these materials will provide beneficial bacteria with the nutrients to work at a
rate that will heat up the pile. In that process much water will be released as vapor ("steam"), and
the oxygen will be quickly depleted, explaining the need to actively manage the pile. The hotter
the pile gets, the more often added air and water is necessary; the air/water balance is critical to
maintaining high temperatures (135-160 Fahrenheit / 50 - 70 Celsius) until the materials are
broken down. At the same time, too much air or water also slows the process, as does too much
carbon (or too little nitrogen).
The most efficient composting occurs with an optimal carbon:nitrogen ratio of about 10:1 to
20:1.[3] Nearly all plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary
widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet, brown/green).[4] Fresh grass clippings have an
average ratio of about 15:1 and dry autumn leaves about 50:1 depending on species. Mixing
equal parts by volume approximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide
the ideal mix of materials at any point. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different
materials[5] as a pile is built over time, can quickly achieve a workable technique for the
individual situation.
Animal manure and bedding
On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are animal manure generated on the farm and
bedding. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Non-traditional bedding materials
are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on
a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather
conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting.
Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed
with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure also must be blended with carbonaceous
materials - those low in nitrogen preferred, such as sawdust or straw.[6]
Microorganisms
With the proper mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, micro-organisms are allowed to
break down organic matter to produce compost.[citation needed] The composting process is dependent
on micro-organisms to break down organic matter into compost. There are many types of
microorganisms found in active compost of which the most common are:[7]
Bacteria- The most numerous of all the microorganisms found in compost. Depending on
the phase of composting, mesophilic or thermophilic bacteria may predominate.
Actinobacteria- Necessary for breaking down paper products such as newspaper, bark,
etc.
Fungi- Molds and yeast help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially lignin
in woody material.
Protozoa- Help consume bacteria, fungi and micro organic particulates.
Rotifers- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria and small protozoans.
In addition, earthworms not only ingest partly composted material, but also continually re-create
aeration and drainage tunnels as they move through the compost.
A lack of a healthy micro-organism community is the main reason why composting processes are
slow in landfills with environmental factors such as lack of oxygen, nutrients or water being the
cause of the depleted biological community.[7]
Phases of composting
Under ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases:[7]
An initial, mesophilic phase, in which the decomposition is carried out under moderate
temperatures by mesophilic microorganisms.
As the temperature rises, a second, thermophilic phase starts, in which in decomposition
is carried out by various thermophilic bacteria under high temperatures.
As the supply of high-energy compounds dwindles, the temperature starts to decrease,
and the mesophiles once again predominate in the maturation phase.
Human waste
Human waste (excreta) can also be added as an input to the composting process, like it is done in
composting toilets, as human waste is a nitrogen-rich organic material.
People excrete far more water-soluble plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in urine
than in feces.[8] Human urine can be used directly as fertilizer or it can be put onto compost.
Adding a healthy person's urine to compost usually will increase temperatures and therefore
increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Urine from a person with no
obvious symptoms of infection is much more sanitary than fresh feces. Unlike feces, urine does
not attract disease-spreading flies (such as house flies or blow flies), and it does not contain the
most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs. Urine usually does not stink for long,
particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on sorbents.[citation needed]
Urine is primarily composed of water and urea. Although metabolites of urea are nitrogen
fertilizers, it is easy to over-fertilize with urine, or to utilize urine containing pharmaceutical (or
other) content, creating too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other
phytotoxicity.[9]
Humanure
"Humanure" is a combination of the words human and manure, designating human excrement
(feces and urine) that is recycled via composting for agricultural or other purposes. The term was
first used in a 1994 book by Joseph Jenkins that advocates the use of this organic soil
amendment.[10] The term humanure is used by compost enthusiasts in the US but not generally
elsewhere. Because the term "humanure" has no authoritative definition it is subject to various
uses; news reporters occasionally fail to correctly distinguish between humanure and sewage
sludge or "biosolids".[11]
Uses
Main article: Uses of compost
Compost is generally recommended as an additive to soil, or other matrices such as coir and peat,
as a tilth improver, supplying humus and nutrients. It provides a rich growing medium, or a
porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and
nutrients in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed
with soil, sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules to produce loam. Compost
can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the
overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even
black with an earthy smell.[12]
Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may
dry and the possible presence of phytotoxins that may inhibit germination,[13][14][15] and the
possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.[5] It is very common to see blends
of 2030% compost used for transplanting seedlings at cotyledon stage or later.
Composting can destroy pathogens or unwanted seeds. Unwanted living plants (or weeds) can be
discouraged by covering with mulch/compost. The "microbial pesticides" in compost may
include thermophiles and mesophiles, however certain composting detritivores such as black
soldier fly larvae and redworms, also reduce many pathogens. Thermophilic (high-temperature)
composting is well known to destroy many seeds and nearly all types of pathogens (exceptions
may include prions). The sanitizing qualities of (thermophilic) composting are desirable where
there is a high likelihood of pathogens, such as with manure.
Composting technologies
A homemade compost tumbler
A modern compost bin constructed from plastics
Overview
In addition to the traditional compost pile, various approaches have been developed to handle
different composting processes, ingredients, locations, and applications for the composted
product.
There is a large number of different composting systems on the market, for example:
At the household level: Composting toilet, container composting, vermicomposting
At the industrial composting (large scale): Aerated Static Pile Composting,
vermicomposting, windrow composting etc.
Examples
Vermicomposting
Rotary screen harvested worm castings
Food waste - after three years
Main article: Vermicomposting
Vermicompost is the product or process of composting through the utilization of various species
of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms, to create a heterogeneous
mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding
materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as worm castings, worm humus or worm
manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of earthworm.[16]
Vermicomposting is widely used in North America for on-site institutional processing of food
waste, such as in hospitals and shopping malls.[citation needed] This type of composting is sometimes
suggested as a feasible indoor home composting method.[citation needed] Vermicomposting has gained
popularity in both these industrial and domestic settings because, as compared with conventional
composting, it provides a way to compost organic materials more quickly (as defined by a higher
rate of carbon-to-nitrogen ratio increase) and to attain products that have lower salinity levels
that are therefore more beneficial to plant mediums.[17]
The earthworm species (or composting worms) most often used are red wigglers (Eisenia fetida
or Eisenia andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis or Dendrobaena veneta)
could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most vermiculture experts, as they have
some of the best appetites and breed very quickly. Users refer to European nightcrawlers by a
variety of other names, including dendrobaenas, dendras, Dutch Nightcrawlers, and Belgian
nightcrawlers.
Containing water-soluble nutrients, vermicompost is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil
conditioner in a form that is relatively easy for plants to absorb.[18] Worm castings are sometimes
used as an organic fertilizer. Because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple
forms, plants need only minimal effort to obtain them. The worms' digestive systems also add
beneficial microbes to help create a "living" soil environment for plants.[citation needed]
Vermicompost tea in conjunction with 10% castings has been shown to cause up to a 1.7 times
growth in plant mass over plants grown without.[19][dubious discuss]
Researchers from the Pondicherry University discovered that worm composts can also be used to
clean up heavy metals. The researchers found substantial reductions in heavy metals when the
worms were released into the garbage and they are effective at removing lead, zinc, cadmium,
copper and manganese.[20]
Hgelkultur (raised garden beds or mounds)
An almost completed Hgelkultur bed (does not have dirt on it yet).
Main article: Hgelkultur
The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called
"Hgelkultur" in German.[21][22] It is in effect creating a Nurse log, however, covered with dirt.
Benefits of hgelkultur garden beds include water retention and warming of soil.[21][23] Buried
wood becomes like a sponge as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by
crops planted on top of the hgelkultur bed.[21][24]
The buried decomposing wood will also give off heat, as all compost does, for several years.
These effects have been used by Sepp Holzer for one to allow fruit trees to survive at otherwise
inhospitable temperatures and altitudes.[22]
Black soldier fly larvae composting
Main article: Hermetia illucens Uses in composting or as food for animals
Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae have been shown to be able to rapidly consume
large amounts of organic waste when kept at 31.8C, the optimum temperature for reproduction.
[25]
Enthusiasts have experimented with a large number of different waste products[26] and some
even sell starter kits to the public.[27]
Cockroach composting
Cockroach composting is another insect-mediated composting method. In this case the adults of
any number of cockroach species (such as the Turkestan cockroach or Blaptica dubia) are used
to quickly convert manure or kitchen waste to nutrient dense compost. Depending on species
used and environmental conditions, excess composting insects can be used as an excellent animal
feed for farm animals and pets.[28]
Bokashi
Inside a recently started bokashi bin. The aerated base is just visible through the food scraps and
bokashi bran.
Bokashi is a method that uses a mix of microorganisms to cover food waste to decrease smell. It
derives from the practice of Japanese farmers centuries ago of covering food waste with rich,
local soil that contained the microorganisms that would ferment the waste. After a few weeks,
they would bury the waste. [29][better source needed]
Most practitioners obtain the microorganisms from the product Effective Microorganisms
(EM1),[29] first sold in the 1980s. EM1 is mixed with a carbon base (e.g. sawdust or bran) that it
sticks to and a sugar for food (e.g. molasses). The mixture is layered with waste in a sealed
container and after a few weeks, removed and buried.[29]
Newspaper fermented in a lactobacillus culture can be substituted for bokashi bran for a
successful bokashi bucket. [30]
Compost tea
Compost teas are defined as water extracts brewed from composted materials and can be derived
from aerobic or anaerobic processes.[31] Compost teas are generally produced from adding one
volume of compost to 4-10 volumes of water, but there has also been debate about the benefits of
aerating the mixture.[31] Field studies have shown the benefits of adding compost teas to crops
due to the adding of organic matter, increased nutrient availability and increased microbial
activity.[31] They have also been shown to have an effect on plant pathogens.[32]
Composting toilets
Main article: Composting toilet
A composting toilet does not require water or electricity, and when properly managed does not
smell. A composting toilet collects human excreta which is then added to a compost heap
together with sawdust and straw or other carbon rich materials, where pathogens are destroyed to
some extent. The amount of pathogen destruction depends on the temperature (mesophilic or
thermophilic conditions) and composting time.[33] A composting toilet tries to process the excreta
in situ although this is often coupled with a secondary external composting step. The resulting
compost product has been given various names, such as humanure and EcoHumus.[33]
A composting toilet can aid in the conservation of fresh water by avoiding the usage of potable
water required by the typical flush toilet. It further prevents the pollution of ground water by
controlling the fecal matter decomposition before entering the system. When properly managed,
there should be no ground contamination from leachate.
Compost and land-filling
As concern about landfill space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by means of
composting is growing, since composting is a process for converting decomposable organic
materials into useful stable products.[34] Composting is one of the only ways to revitalize soil
vitality due to phosphorus depletion in soil.[35] Industrial scale composting in the form of invessel composting, aerated static pile composting, and anaerobic digestion takes place in most
Western countries now, and in many areas is mandated by law. There are process and product
guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and
only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations
within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to
discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly
standards.[citation needed][36] The USA is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludgesource compost from green-composts, and by default in the USA 50% of states expect composts
to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge
products.[37] Compost is regulated in Canada and Australia as well.
Industrial systems
A large compost pile that is steaming with the heat generated by thermophilic microorganisms.
Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste management
alternative to landfills, along with other advanced waste processing systems. Mechanical sorting
of mixed waste streams combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting is called
mechanical biological treatment, and are increasingly being used in developed countries due to
regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating biodegradable
waste before it enters a landfill reduces global warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste
breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a potent
greenhouse gas.
Vermicomposting, also known as vermiculture, is used for medium-scale on-site institutional
composting, such as for food waste from universities and shopping malls: selected either as a
more environmental choice, or to reduce the cost of commercial waste removal.[citation needed]
Large-scale composting systems are used by many urban areas around the world. Co-composting
is a technique that combines solid waste with de-watered biosolids, although difficulties
controlling inert and plastics contamination from municipal solid waste makes this approach less
attractive. The World's largest MSW co-composter is the Edmonton Composting Facility in
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, which turns 220,000 tonnes of residential solid waste and 22,500
dry tonnes of biosolids per year into 80,000 tonnes of compost. The facility is 38,690 meters2
(416,500 ft2), equivalent to 4 Canadian football fields, and the operating structure is the largest
stainless steel building in North America, the size of 14 NHL rinks.[citation needed] In 2006, the State
of Qatar awarded Keppel Seghers Singapore, a subsidiary of Keppel Corporation to begin
construction on a 275,000 tonne/year Anaerobic Digestion and Composting Plant licensed by
Kompogas (de) Switzerland. This plant, with 15 independent anaerobic digestors will be the
world's largest composting facility once fully operational in early 2011 and forms part of the
Qatar Domestic Solid Waste Management Center, the largest integrated waste management
complex in the Middle East.[citation needed]
Another large MSW composter is the Lahore Composting Facility in Lahore, Pakistan, which has
a capacity to convert 1,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day into compost. It also has a
capacity to convert substantial portion of the intake into Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) materials for
further combustion use in several energy consuming industries across Pakistan e.g., in cement
manufacturing companies where it is used to heat up the Cement Kiln systems. This project has
also been approved by the Executive Board of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) for reduction of emission of methane gas into the climate and has
been registered with a capacity of reducing 108,686 metric tonnes CO2 equivalent per annum.[38]
Related technologies
Anaerobic digestion is another possible process for converting organic waste into a useful
produce (biogas). In central Europe, anaerobic digestion is now more common than composting
as a process for treating organic waste.[citation needed] The two processes can also be used in
combination: sewage sludge is often anaerobically digested first, followed by a composting
process before selling or giving away the compost to farmers.
History
Composting as a recognized practice dates to at least the early Roman Empire since Pliny the
Elder (AD 23-79). Traditionally, composting involved piling organic materials until the next
planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in
the soil. The advantage of this method is that little working time or effort is required from the
composter and it fits in naturally with agricultural practices in temperate climates. Disadvantages
(from the modern perspective) are that space is used for a whole year, some nutrients might be
leached due to exposure to rainfall, and disease-producing organisms and insects may not be
adequately controlled.
Composting was somewhat modernized beginning in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for organic
farming.[citation needed] The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials
into compost was set up in Wels, Austria in the year 1921.[39] Early frequent citations for
propounding composting within farming are for the German-speaking world Rudolf Steiner,
founder of a farming method called biodynamics, and Annie Franc-Harrar, who was appointed
on behalf of the government in Mexico and supported the country 19501958 to set up a large
humus organization in the fight against erosion and soil degradation.[citation needed] In the Englishspeaking world it was Sir Albert Howard who worked extensively in India on sustainable
practices and Lady Eve Balfour who was a huge proponent of composting. Composting was
imported to America by various followers of these early European movements by the likes of J.I.
Rodale (founder of Rodale Organic Gardening), E.E. Pfeiffer (who developed scientific practices
in biodynamic farming), Paul Keene (founder of Walnut Acres in Pennsylvania), and Scott and
Helen Nearing (who inspired the back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s). Coincidentally, some
of the above met briefly in India - all were quite influential in the U.S. from the 1960s into the
1980s.
There are many modern proponents of rapid composting that attempt to correct some of the
perceived problems associated with traditional, slow composting. Many advocate that compost
can be made in 2 to 3 weeks.[40] Many such short processes involve a few changes to traditional
methods, including smaller, more homogenized pieces in the compost, controlling carbon-tonitrogen ratio (C:N) at 30 to 1 or less, and monitoring the moisture level more carefully.
However, none of these parameters differ significantly from the early writings of Howard and
Balfour, suggesting that in fact modern composting has not made significant advances over the
traditional methods that take a few months to work. For this reason and others, many modern
scientists who deal with carbon transformations are sceptical that there is a "super-charged" way
to get nature to make compost rapidly.[citation needed]
In fact, both sides are right to some extent. The bacterial activity in rapid high heat methods
breaks down the material to the extent that pathogens and seeds are destroyed, and the original
feedstock is unrecognizable. At this stage, the compost can be used to prepare fields or other
planting areas. However, most professionals recommend that the compost be given time to cure
before using in a nursery for starting seeds or growing young plants. The curing time allows
fungi to continue the decomposition process and eliminating phytotoxic substances.[citation needed]
Many countries such as Wales[41][42] and some individual cities such as Seattle and San Francisco
require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting.[43][44]
Kew Gardens in London has one of the biggest non-commercial compost heaps in Europe.[citation
needed]
